1AC Kings Version

8/11/2019 1AC Kings Version

1/33

1ACTransportation SegregationGrengs 05 Associate Professor of Urban and Regional Planning at the University of Michigan ( Joe, CITY,!"# $, %!# &, APRI", 'The abandoned social goals of )blic transit in the neoliberal city of the U*A+,htt--co..)nitylearningartnershi#org-share-docs-/rengs#Abandoned0*ocial0/oals0of0P)blic0Transit#df--JC1

Imagine a bus stop in a typical working class neighbourhood oinner!city "os Angeles# a city with an e$traordinary array o peoplesand cultures% The bus pulls up with standing room only# &lled with a'ariety o people( )e$ican# Sal'adoran# *orean# +ilipino and AricanAmerican, men and women going to -obs # some o them -anitors#some street 'endors% .eople on the bus include women clutchingchildren and grocery bags# kids going to school# elderly olks o/ tothe Senior Centre% The ride is like always( hot# noisy and

desperately crowded% The riders come rom decidedly di/erentbackgrounds# yet share the same e$perience daily-ostled againstone another# staring blankly out cracked windows# minding theirown business# intent on getting where they need to go% And gettingit o'er with as uickly as possible% In another part o town# peopleo a di/erent income class are riding in a new train % They come romthe suburbs# clacking away at laptops and sipping cappuccino ontheir way to downtown -obs % These are people taking ad'antage owhat )ike 2a'is 31445# p% 607 calls 8the biggest public workspro-ect in &n de siecle America9# an ambitious series o commuterrail lines that were budgeted at :1;< billion o'er


2/33

The Hnited States ederal go'ernment shouldsubstantially increase its necessary transportationinrastructure in'estment or the ob Access ande'erse Commute program in the Hnited States @F

Contention Jne( Inherency

+unding has been slashed or AC and the program is stalled

Dogan 1J2 3ogan 4rites for the Ta.a 2ay Ti.es and 4as na.ed %e4s 3riter of theYear by the 3ashington %e4saer P)blishers Association, 'Progra. is eli.inated, b)tro5ects6 f)t)re less clear,+ 7-89, htt--444#olitifact#co.-tr)th:o:.eter-ro.ises-oba.eter-ro.ise-;978 .illion, and 5ob access and reverse co..)te ro5ectsare eligible to receive so.e of that .oney# 3e 4eren6t s)re 4hat that really .eant for the core )rose of the

original rogra.# Dould ederal money still pay or transporting low!incomepeople to -obs elsewhere= 3e called aro)nd to transortation lobbying gro)s 4ho follo4 the iss)eclosely# They said it would be diNcult to know# now that there isnKt an e$plicitLset!aside9 program or tracking money going to that purpose# 3e also contacted"araine ance, the lanning division .anager for Cobb Co)nty Transortation ?eart.ent near Atlanta, /a# CobbCo)nty received >@, in 8&8 for a b)s ro)te thro)gh the Job Access and Reverse Co..)te rogra.# ance

4as 5)st as in the darB abo)t the long:ter. i.lications as everyone else 4e intervie4ed# LDe donKt knowat this point how it would ?ow down to the recipients,+ ance said# All we knowor sure is that the program itsel is gone and the pro-ects it unded ha'ebecome eligible recipients or an e'en larger pot o ederal money# with noguarantee on how much they will actually get% ThatKs a ar cry romdoubling an e$isting ederal program %De rate this a .romise =roken%
http://www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/promises/obameter/promise/482/double-federal-program-to-help-reverse-commuters/http://www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/promises/obameter/promise/482/double-federal-program-to-help-reverse-commuters/http://www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/promises/obameter/promise/482/double-federal-program-to-help-reverse-commuters/http://www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/promises/obameter/promise/482/double-federal-program-to-help-reverse-commuters/


3/33

JARC works but Federal oversight is needed

=lumenberg O SchweitBer MMarch 8@, velyn 2l).enberg Prof of UrbanPlanning, Ph? in Urban Planning, UC"A A%? "isa *ch4eitDer Associate Prof of P)blicPolicy at U*C, Ph? in Urban Planning, UC"A, '?evol)tion and Transort Policy for the

3orBing Poor The Case of the U* Job Access and Reverse Co..)te Progra.,+Planning Theory E Practice, ol# 7, %o# &, 78F, df,

Transportation is one of these policy areas. For more than a decade US transport policy has increasingly

shifted, or devolved, responsibility for transportation decisions away from the federalgovernment toward lower jurisdictions, particularly states and metropolitan areas. This trendbegan with the passage of the ntermodal Surface Transportation !ct, or ST"!, in #$$% and wascontinued in the subse&uent surface transportation act, the #$$' Transportation "&uity !ct for the%#st (entury )T"!*%#+ )osch-en, #$$' "dner / 0c1owell, %22% 3age / 0c1owell, #$$45ewis / Sprague, #$$6+. 1ebate over the devolution of transportation decision ma-ing in the UShas persisted in the conte7t of the reauthori8ation of T"!*%#. Many policy makers and transitadvocates have argued that previous legislation has not gone far enough greatermetropolitan authority in the design and implementation of transportation policy is needed

as 9metropolitan areas, the engines of the !merican economy, re&uire greater control over thetransportation spending so crucial to their dynamism: );uentes / ailey, %22


4/33

on public transit has spawned additional fi7ed*route and demand*responsive services as well asprograms to ensure that lowincome riders -now about and feel comfortable using the e7istingpublic transit networ-. $hile these accomplishments are important in and of themselves, theevidence suggests some significant shortcomings in the JARC program that re%uire

safeguards to ensure that the program maintains its intended focus&providing innovative

and effective local transportation services for the working poo r.

"acB of f)nding doo.s 7, ann)ally to the har.s of airoll)tion ====

=ullard 11Robert ?# 2)llard is ?ean of the 2arbara Jordan:MicBey "eland *chool ofP)blic AGairs at TeHas *o)thern University in o)ston and 3are Professor of *ociology and?irector of the nviron.ental J)stice Reso)rce Center at ClarB Atlanta University, &8-


5/33

aartheidthat laces African A.ericans and other eole of color at secial health and environ.ental risB#Transportation Apartheid Transportation consumes more than M5 percento the petroleum used in the Hnited States# and motor 'ehicles account or;P percent o that consumption %Americans tend to dri'e less!eNcient'ehicles# and tend to dri'e more miles% TraNc congestion in Americancities wastes:6; billionand %4 billion gallons o uel annually# eui'alent

to 5; ully!loaded supertankers% Jn a'erage# Americans spend 14 centsout o e'ery dollar earned on transportation e$penses%Transortation costs rangefro. &7#& ercent in the %ortheast to 8#< ercent in the *o)th :: 4here FF ercentof African A.erican no4reside# A.ericans no4 send .ore on transortation than they do on food, ed)cation, and health care # Carownership is almost uni'ersal in the Hnited States with 41%6 percentoAmerican households owning at least one motor 'ehicle% %ationally, 7 ercent of4hite ho)seholds o4n no car, co.ared 4ith 8; ercent of blacB ho)seholds, &7 ercent of "atino ho)seholds, and&9 ercent of Asian:A.erican ho)seholds# 2lacBs 4ith no car Pittsb)rgh (;


6/33

ine)ality# The second art of this aer ositions .y st)dy in the literat)re on entrerene)rial )rban govern.ents,neoliberal )blic transortation ro5ects, and e.erging sociosatial relations of incl)sion and eHcl)sion in the globalcity# The third art eHa.ines )blic transortation lanning and ne4 constr)ction ro5ects taBing lace in the city ofChicago in order to ill)strate the i.act of neoliberaliDation on the geograhy of )neven )blic transortationdevelo.ent# The narrative 4as asse.bled thro)gh a co.bination of doc).ents rod)ced by govern.ent, transitand lanning agencies, secondary so)rces (.ostly 5o)rnalistic .aterials and doc).ents rod)ced by nonrotgro)s1, intervie4s, and nonarticiant observation of co..)nity .eetings# My investigation of Chicago6s )blictransortation olicy reveals that the city is sinBing scarce transit f)nds into ro5ects that transfor. the do4nto4n

Central Area into the i.age of a global city# These global city )blic transit ro5ects are rioritiDed over eHandingaccess to transit for 4orBing:class and .inority residents living in transit:oor areas of the city# Additionally#the neoliberalsueeBe o the public sector has resulted in decliningser'ice le'els and the neglect o basic maintenance across the system#contributing to unreliable and poor public transportation ser'ice%These trendsin )blic transortation olicy )rs)ed by the city of Chicago reveal the nat)re of )neven geograhic develo.enttaBing shae 4ithin this neoliberaliDing city, 4here the global city gro4th .achine favors b)siness elites overeveryday )sers by eHcl)ding )blic transit invest.ent in areas o)tside of Chicago6s global city do4nto4n sho4case

Done# I concl)de 4ith a disc)ssion on ho4 neoliberal public transportation planninginterlocBs 4ith neoliberal ho)singpoliciesenacted in the city of Chicago to create new patternso racial segregation and e$clusion% 8 Uneven develo.ent and )blic transortationneoliberalis. *ince the rod)ction of sace is inherently a social heno.enon, a theory of )neven geograhicdevelo.ent sho)ld be att)ned to the artic)lar artic)lation of str)ct)ral forces and social relations in caitalistsociety# Uneven geograhic develo.ent is rod)ced by a constellation of factors consisting of (&1 the e.bedding

of caital acc).)lation rocesses in saceL (81 historical class, social, and olitical relations contingent to ageograhy that rivileges so.e laces, social gro)s, or activities over othersL (91 the reeHisting b)iltenviron.entL (;1 instit)tional and olitical olicies i.le.ented in localitiesL and (F1 cons).tion references(arvey, 8@, age 7


7/33

retreat rom social redistribution and integrated social welare policies in a'or obolstering business acti'ity(2renner and Theodore, 88L PecB and TicBell, 88L *4yngedo)4 etal, 881# As a conse)ence, entrerene)rial .ayors e.erged in the &$


8/33

unction o public transportation# In the Kordist era, )blic transortation involved a .odic). ofcentraliDed lanning ai.ed at ind)strial devel: o.ent, .itigating labor costs and alleviating theeGects of )neven develo.ent rod)ced by the highly s)bsidiDed high4ay syste. (/rengs, 8;L3einer, &$$$1# eo! liberal statecrat abandons the Kordist strategy of territorial redistrib)tionmobiliBing public transportation to enhance economically disad'antaged groupsK access tothe city# In its place# socially regressi'e neoliberal practices a'or market!oriented growthand elite consumption patterns(2oschBen, 88L /rengs, 8;L Yo)ng and Oeil, 8&1# Th)s,

)blic transortation service has beco.e a battlegro)nd in the global city gro4th .achine6s revanchistclai.s to the city (*.ith, &$$@1# As .)nicialities sinB their .eager nancial reso)rces into l).yglobal city )blic transortation infrastr)ct)re, residents o)tside the .yoic global city vision arending it increasingly diQc)lt to obtain develo.ent dollars for their co..)nities (J)dd, 891# In thisregard# entrepreneurial public transportation policies are reshaping the contours o race!based social e$clusion% As real estate de'elopers and creati'e class workers mobiliBe theirpolitical and &nancial power to outcompete lower income groups or rights to the 3central7city# they are pushing working!class and minority residents to the margins o the city andinto the de'aloriBed inner!suburban ring where a/ordable housing can be ound but publictransit ser'ice is meager(?reier et al, 8;1#These deeening atterns of eHcl)sion are alsoreinforced by olicies dis.antling and disb)rsing )blic ho)sing o)t of the central area and a4ay fro.)blic transit# And yet# poor urban Arican!Americans are more structurally dependent onpublic transportation to access -obs# ser'ices# and cultural amenities(2)llard and Johnson,&$$7L Oasarda, &$&


9/33

euity playing central roles# These emerging con?icts re'eal that the 'erypurpose o mass transit in the sprawling metropolis is undecided% Aso)lations contin)e to diserse, as overty concentrates at the core, and as costs o)tace reven)es, transitlanners are facing a gro4ing dile..a sho)ld transit serve eole 4ho have fe4 transortation choices, or sho)ld

transit oGer drivers an alternative to their cars= The neoliberal city o the HSA is one thatmust struggle to compete and remain 'iable in the network o globaliBing

cities by cutting costs# reducing social welare# deregulating businessacti'ity# pri'atiBing pre'iously public spaces and acti'ities# and engagingin new orms o social control 3Marc)se and van Oe.en, 8L 2renner and Theodore, 88L/oone4ardena, 891# This essay eHa.ines ho4the contradictions o the neoliberal cityin?uence mass transit policy in the HSA# creating a worsening di'idebetween disparate transit constituencies and undermining longstandingsocial euity goals# Mass transit is a ne4 sace of e.erging social conSict over ho4 the contradictions ofneoliberalis. 4ill be resolved in cities of the U*A (Rodrig)eD, &$$$L /rengs, 881# This ne4 sace of conSict holds

secial relevance for lanners, beca)se the neoliberal agenda in'ol'es central uestionsabout public ser'ices in an increasingly pri'atiBed polity# the agenda contrib)tesdirectly to changing )rban satial atterns, and the emerging spatial patterns raise newuestions or planning theory about the role o social -ustice in citieswhere racial and economic segregation are worsening% Contradictions 4ithinneoliberal )rbaniDation highlight an obsc)re b)t cr)cial redica.ent faced by transit lanners# Are c)rrent transitolicies h)rting social e)ity= *ho)ld )blic transit serve an even higher )rose, as an instr).ent for advancing

social 5)stice= Transit once held promise as a means or ad'ancing larger socialgoals% Congress embraced transit as a legitimate means o redistributingwealth# as an acceptable counterbalance to the damages imposed by atransportation system skewed toward the automobile(Kitch, &$@;L *.erB, &$$&L3einer, &$$$1# ?esite a co..it.ent to social goals over several decades ai.ed at roviding .obility for eole

4ho cannot drive, other goals have taBen over in ro.inence#2)ttransit policy is slowly# almostimperceptibly# shiting away rom its broader social purposes% This shitaway rom meeting social goals toward the more narrow purpose orelie'ing traNc congestion# fro. achieving e)ity to4ard .erely eQciency,is nowin?uenced by a neoliberal political agenda that separates the social rom

the economic# causing planners to lose sight o the public purpose o masstransit% In an emerging world order where capitalism spreads Americanstyle to all corners o the globe# three ma-or problems are widelyrecogniBed by critics rom let to right( a continuous threat o war,persistent economic ineuality that threatens to disrupt the social order,and a loss o political community that undermines our ability to addressdaytoday problems and decisions(/oone4ardena, 891# =y way o analysingtransportation policy# I will set aside the uestion o war e'enthough we grow e'er more dependent on oil to eed our bigger andaster cars% The recent headlines about surging gasoline prices andthe ongoing wars in the )iddle ast add up to a compelling casethat our highwaydependent liestyles ha'e as much to do with thethreat o war as perhaps any other e$planation# 2)t here I foc)s on the t4oroble.s of social ine)ality and the loss of olitical co..)nity beca)se they both bear on f)t)re o)tco.es of.ass transit olicy# The arg).ent roceeds in three stes# Kirst, govern.ent s)ort for .ass transit has longcarried 4ith it eHlicit social goals# The U* federal govern.ent tooB decisive stes starting in the &$@s to advance.ass transit# These congressional actions strengthened transit as a co)nterbalance to revio)s federal rogra..esthat had over4hel.ingly s)orted high4ay constr)ction as the rincial thr)st of transort olicy, and hadinadvertently contrib)ted to )rban satial atterns that )t so.e eole 4itho)t access to a car at a serio)sdisadvantage# *econd, the social )rose of )blic transit is beco.ing s)lanted by the econo.ic i.erative of

eQciency and co.etitiveness# Gains in shiting commuters rom cars to transit mayactually undermine the goal o pro'iding transit or those without cars# so


10/33

that the social goal o pro'iding mobility becomes displaced by theeconomic goal o reducing congestion% The third art of the arg).ent eHlains ho4 recentchanges in transortation olicy are inS)enced by a neoliberal olitical agenda, heightening the conSict bet4een

transitXs co.eting goals in 4ays that are not readily evident# To the casual obser'er# supportor transit is growing% =ut national policy has at the same timeencouraged a shit in emphasis within the transit programme# a shit that

is likely to harm those who depend most on good transit#

****Find Impx

T nd ITA" "I* IS UC"HSIJ!!!

"ow!income minorities are e$cluded!!!lack o access toadeuate transportation options in the SV

+an 1Yingling Kan is an assistant rofessor at ).hrey *chool of P)blic AGairs in theregional lanning and olicy area 4ho 4orBs interdiscilinarily in the elds of land )se,

transortation, social e)ity, and )blic health# *he holds a Ph#?# in City and RegionalPlanning fro. the University of %orth Carolina at Chael ill and a bachelorXs degree in

Transortation ngineering fro. *o)theast University, %an5ing, China, 8-


11/33

diNculties include geographic remoteness between -obs and residences aswell as the lack o transportation means (2l).enberg, !ng, and Mondschein88L Mc"aGerty and Preston &$$@aL Preston, Mc"aGerty, and "i) &$$


12/33

choice% vidence s)ggests lo4:inco.e ho)seholds have .ore co.leH travel needsthan average .iddle:class ho)seholds (Clifton 8;1# +irst# there is adocumented shortage o retail and ser'ice establishments in low!incomeurban communities# so low!income households oten need to tra'el artherto access their daily destinations(Al4itt and ?onley &$$@L Po4ell et al# 871#Second# lowincome people are more likely to work nonstandard hours and

thereby more likely to commute during e'enings# nights# and weekendswhen con'entional transit ser'ices in many communities are eitherreduced or none$istent (2l).enberg and aas 88L "ane et al# 8&L Presserand CoH &$$7L *ancheD, *hen, and Peng 8;1# Third# many low!incomepopulation groups (e#g#, single arents, i..igrants, and 4orBing:class fa.ilies1oten ace long working hours# additional amily caregi'ing obligations#and other conditions that demand ast and reliable transportation(i#e#,rivate transortation in the case of .ost U* cities and regionsL Jarrett and 2)rton&$$$L Roy, T)bbs, and 2)rton 8;1#

Current approach is ine/ecti'e and en'ironmentally harmul%

SV policies harm the most 'ulnerable populations anddamages the en'ironment

oang 5Aril 8F, )ong oang Urban and nviron.ental Policy !ccidental College*enior Co.rehensive Pro5ect, 'The Ro)te to Transortation )ity A Critical val)ation ofthe Job Access and Reverse Co..)te Progra. and *trategies to I.le.ent Kirst:ClassP)blic Transortation *yste.s,+ df, AJ

*oon eno)gh, I began to )nderstand that the MTA oerates a racially discri.inatory, searate and )ne)al, t4o:tier.ass transit syste. in "os Angeles Co)nty# "os Angeles Co)ntyXs transit:deendent are the F, .onthly b)sriders#F:>8F each 4hile b)s riders are each s)bsidiDedat >#99 to >&7# F The destr)ction of the b)s syste. is the rice that .)st be aid to f)nd the enor.o)sly and

endlessly eHensive rail syste.% =us riders are conronted with are increases# ser'icecuts# reduction and deterioration o the bus ?eet# o'ercrowding anddeterioration o ser'ice and inreuent e'ening and weekend ser'ice# @The

racially discriminatory# separate and uneual# two!tier conditions o thismass transit system are made clear when one considers the racial andclass makeup o rail ridership# which is ar more hea'ily white and middleclass than that o buses#7 3hile it is easy for .e to ro.anticiDe abo)t the accessibility of )blictransortation syste. in 2oston, I Bno4 that the M2TA also oerates an ine)itable, t4o:tier .ass transit syste.# ich #$$6+. This

lac- of reliable mobility choices hurts people who are trying to balance job demands with familyresponsibilities. For adult welfare recipients, this means juggling day care, education, training, wor-)often shift wor-+, and other duties, all of which re&uire individuals to be assiduously prompt. This isespecially difficult for welfare recipients in rural areas, where transit services run less fre&uently and aresubsidi8ed more heavily. !nother dimension to the challenge of providing transit services to the wor-ingpoor is the tendency for suburban transit services to be better supported and funded than those for urbanlow*income areas. This problem is partly the result of agencies efforts to increase ridership amongsuburban commutersGmeasures that are designed more to ad*dress traffic congestion and boost agencyrevenues.% So what needs to happen to generate more e&uitable accessI hile more funding can certainlyhelp in the short term, a more promising alternative would be to develop a comprehensive approach thatintegrates transportation, land use, and access to opportunity. n particular, we should focus e&ually onbringing opportunities into low*income communities, not just on ensuring that low*wage wor-ers can

gain access to far away jobs. !ll this may be changing, however. !mericans appear to be ma-ing amorevaried set of demands on our transportation system that have transportation professionals loo-ing beyondtheir own agencies for answers. For e7ample, in public opinion polls, growing numbers of people appearto be rejecting the notion that we can simply ta7 and build our way out of traffic congestion, and recentsurveys indicate severe concern about traffic and runaway sprawl as intertwined issues. ! %222 poll aboutlocal problems conducted by the ;ew (enter for (ivic =ournalism found that !mericans ran-ed sprawland traffic as their top concernsGmore than crime, education, or jobs. Subse&uent polls have alsoidentified growing support for tighter coordination between transportation and land use, more multimodalfunding, and more infrastructure maintenance in e7isting communities. >oad construction appears to belosing public support in nearly every region in the country. ! recent poll by Smart 3rowth !merica foundthat E2 per*cent of respondents indicated support for the following statementKL1o you favor havingMyour state government use more of its transportation budget for improvements to public transportation,

such as trains, buses and light rail, even if this means less money to build new highwaysI !lso, surveyfindings have been consistent despite the diversity of sponsoring organi8ations, which include the F?!,the National !ssociation of >ealtors, and the !tlanta >egional (ommission. hats also e7citing is thegrowing body of research indicating that the lin-s between transit and land use can generate substantialbenefits for low*income families. >econnecting !mericas )%22D+ recent report ?idden in ;lain Sight, fore7ample, analy8ed every rail transit station site in the United States and found a tremendous amount ofhousing demand at these locations. t contends that the opportunity to build affordable housing at thesestations will deliver mobility benefits to transit*dependent riders as well as higher ridership levels fortransit agencies. There is much promise in (ashins proposal. oth the smart growth and environmental


18/33

justice movements were originally grounded in environmental issues, and have increasingly begun to ta-eon community development, housing, and other issues. ut the paths to the present have been &uitedifferent. 0any environmental justice groups have successfully beaten bac- landfills, incinerators, wastetransfer stations, and many other types of 5U5Us and health ha8ards. "nvironmental justice groups thatmanaged to protect their communities from the most egregious to7ic threats have since e7panded theirfocus to address a wider array of health and economic challenges. ! tour of some of the nations best*

-nown environmental justice groups reveals initiatives to boost transit service in communities of color,reclaim abandoned buildings, create urban par-s, build affordable housing, plan for transit*orienteddevelopment, and pursue many other community and regional planning objectives. < These efforts soundli-e smart growth objectives, which have been developed as an alternative approach to land developmentthat is more responsible than sprawl development. !ccording to (lar- !tlanta University sociologist>obert ullard )one of the founders of the environ*mental justice movement+, hapha8ard sprawldevelopment is the leading threat to communities of color, low*income families, and the environ*mentaljustice movement as a whole )ullard, =ohnson, and Torres%222b+. !s cofounders of Smart 3rowth!merica, ullard, (arl !nthony, and other environmental justice leaders have strongly encouraged smartgrowth advocates to help support the goals of environmental justice. Bne of the strongest commonthreads is the need for multiple transportation choices. Therefore, such efforts prioriti8e the creation ofconvenient, wal-able neighborhoods that are well served by public transit. Some are being called transit*

oriented development or transit towns, which are high*density areas that offer a full array of services,such as affordable housing, day care centers, dry cleaning, restaurants, hair salons, and other usefuldestinations, within close pro7imity to good public transit service )1ittmar and Bhland %22


19/33

Thats necessary or en'ironmental -ustice!!!thealternati'e is collapse o ci'iliBation

Collin O Collin 5Robert 3# Collin and Robin Morris Collin 8F (nviron.ental

Rearations in T ZU*T K!R %IR!%M%TA" JU*TIC UMA% RI/T* A%? TP!"ITIC* !K P!""UTI!%, Robert ?# 2)llard, ed#, *ierra Cl)b 2ooBs, 8F1

Antiurban attitudes# co'ert and institutionaliBed or normaliBed racism# andconscious ignorance can undo e/orts to resol'e nearly any contemporaryen'ironmental problem# Cities are 4here 4aste strea.s .eet and acc).)late# Cities are alsobeco.ing increasingly bro4n and blacB in their de.ograhic co.osition# And cities are 4here the voters

necessary for changing govern.ental olicies are located# The prooundly antiurban messageso many H%S% en'ironmentalists and their grounding in racist ideology,parochial land use practices, and the resistance o scienti&c elites toconronting the phenomenon o multiple# chronic# cumulati'e# andbioaccumulati'e to$ins in the risk decisions they make# all threaten human

health and li'ing systems on which we depend%"argely 4itho)t s)ort fro. the.ainstrea. environ.ental gro)s and scientic elites, environ.ental 5)stice co..)nities are str)ggling againstthese barriers to b)ild the fra.e4orB for a rearative, restorative environ.ental olicy based on 5)stice rst, then

s)stainability# Antiurban and racist 'alues ha'e let critical gaps in ourapproaches to en'ironmental -ustice# protection# and sustainability%Thisanti)rban attit)de 4ithin .ainstrea. environ.entalis. .asBs an )nconscio)s racis. that threatens to relicateracist o)tco.es even 4itho)t conscio)s intent# All environ.ental roble.s are local in so.e sense# They can belocal in ter.s of the ca)se, so)rce, or i.act of the 4aste strea., incl)ding all e.issions, discharges, and oll)tion#As 4aste strea.s increase and acc).)late, environ.ental roble.s have beg)n to aGect areas o)tside of thei..ediate locations 4here 4aste strea.s are created# This is artic)larly tr)e of )rban environ.ents# Urbanenviron.ents are co.leH# They beca.e the sites of ind)strialis. years before any govern.ental reg)lation, andthe .ain sites for h).an habitat years before Bno4ledge abo)t the h).an health risBs of ind)strialis.# They arealso i.ortant asects of ecosyste.s and bioregions# As 4astes, e.issions, discharges, and oll)tion haveacc).)lated in o)r cities, they have beg)n to aGect air sheds and 4atersheds of ecosyste.s near and far fro. theso)rces of the oll)tion# As both 4astes and h).an o)lation increase, they are bro)ght closer together,

increasing conSict over environ.ental decisions# This conSict can taBe .any diGerent for.s, s)ch as land )sedis)tes, ind)strial er.itting decisions, co)rt cases, or conSicts over )blic .ass transit ro5ects# In addition,)rban d4ellers increasingly are eole of color 4ho dene environ.ent and environ.ental concern .)ch .oreholistically than the general o)lation does# This broader aroach to environ.entalis. is at odds 4ith thearoaches of .ainstrea. environ.ental gro)s, 4hich evolved o)t of a 4ilderness:conservation olitical agenda#& The U#*# environ.ental .ove.ent has oerated to eHcl)de the concerns of )rban d4ellers and eole of colorfro. the environ.ental .ove.ent and to eHcl)de )rban d4ellers and eole of color fro. the traditional osts4ithin govern.ent devoted to environ.ental concerns#8 The eHcl)sion of eole of color is reeated over and overagain, as govern.ent and environ.entali#sts react to social concerns abo)t the deteriorating environ.ent# Urbanenviron.ents in artic)lar have been ignored in the U#*# environ.ental .ove.ent and in govern.ental oliciesdeveloed to address the environ.ent#9 Traditionally, .ainstrea. environ.ental activists, )blic olicy oQcials,and researchers have narro4ly concet)aliDed environ.ental concerns# Their vision tends to be li.ited to the.edia of oll)tion:air, 4ater, and land:and it ignores )blic health indicators# This vision shaed the for. of c)rrentenviron.ental rotection agencies, creating articial barriers to rotection 4ith racist and anti)rban conse)ences#According to Robert 2)llard, \3hen 4e restrict the bo)ndary conditions of 6environ.ental concern6 to incl)de onlyenviron.ental i.acts related to air, 4ater, land, ### 4e tend to ignore critical i.acts to socioc)lt)ral and c)lt)ral

syste.s# \; K)rther, assigning public health and the 'arious en'ironmentalindicators to di/erent ederal# state# and local agencies decreases ourability to look at the picture o en'ironmental and community healthindicators together% It introduces tur battles between agencies into thebasic acti'ities o gathering data and making risk management decisionsregarding this ragmented data% This disconnection between public healthand en'ironmental indicators is repeated at all le'els o go'ernment%nviron.entalists the.selves have not serio)sly eHa.ined their o4n negative attit)des to4ard cities generally andto4ard African A.ericans secically# Kro. the very beginning of o)r history in the United *tates, o)r oliticalleaders tho)ght of cities as having negative eGects on eole and as having a corr)ting force on de.ocracy#


20/33

Tho.as JeGerson tho)ght of cities as \estilential to the .orals, the health and the liberties of .an#\F e 4ent onto 4rite, The .obs of great cities add 5)st so .)ch to the s)ort of )re govern.ent, as sores do to the strengthof the h).an body# It is the .anner and sirit of a eole 4hich reserve a re)blic in vigor# A degeneracy in these]cities^ is a canBer 4hich so eats to the heart of its la4s and constit)tion#@ In the early &$os, eole began to referto cities as \5)ngles\ and \4ilderness#\ "ater, 4hites 4ere called \)rban ioneers\ 4hen they .oved bacB into thecities they had abandoned for s)b)rbs# This otent .etahor of the city as frontier or 5)ngle reveals a certainattit)de to4ard African A.ericans# It i.lies that cities can beco.e civiliDed only 4hen 4hites are the .a5ority

o)lation# This attitude per'ades the contemporary en'ironmental mo'ementin countless une$amined ways% 3aste sites called \bro4nelds\ are the do.ain of bro4n and blacBcity d4ellers, 4hile \greenelds\ re.ain redo.inantly 4hite, s)b)rban, nonind)strialiDed saces# _ero o)lationactivists and anti:i..igration environ.ental olicies contin)e to ro.ote a vision of land do.inated by 4hite

c)lt)re as the standard and as 4orthy of having environ.ental rotection% In their discourses# mostad'ocates o sustainability segregate communities o color and ignorethem, .aBing eHcetions only for toBen references to %ative A.ericans as the only eole of color ossessing ana)thentic environ.ental ethic% Sustainable policies must be the &rst e$ception to thenormati'e rule o e$clusionary en'ironmental decision making%

3e have an obligation to end this eHcl)sion:::it ca)ses the 4orst for.sof state:based violence

2uarte 5 Professor of Philosohy ` Universidade Kederal do Paran, C)ritiba, 2raDil#8F ]Andr ?)arte, '2ioolitics and the disse.ination of violence the Arendtian criti)e ofthe resent,+ Kinal version : 87 Aril 8F,g# htt--hannaharendt#net-research-bioolitics#ht.l

Moreover, to consider totalitarianis. as a disr)tive event in 3estern history is by no .eans to deny the ossibilityof )nderstanding it as a historical heno.enon in ArendtXs ter.s, as the crystalliDation of diGerent historicalele.ents that have beco.e constit)tive of late .odern olitics and, therefore, also have so.ething to do 4ithliberal de.ocracies# In other 4ords, altho)gh totalitarian regi.es sho)ld not be considered as the necessaryc)l.ination of .odernity, neither are they .ere accidents# To recall _yg.)nt 2a).anXs Arendt:insired analysis,totalitarianis. has to be )nderstood in a historical conteHt involving the con5)nction of .odern science andtechnology, b)rea)cratic ad.inistration and .ass .)rder, all of 4hich .ay be )nited by the desire to )rify ande.bellish the so:called 'garden of olitics#+


21/33

contention is that the distinguishing mark o the political rom the turn o thenineteen century to the present day is the ollowing parado$( theele'ation o lie to the status o the supreme good combined with themultiplication o instances in which lie is degraded to the utmost# I believe,therefore, that the constit)tive ele.ent of the olitical in the resent is the red)ction of citiDenshi to the level of'bare life+, as Aga.ben )nderstands it# ).an life is th)s oliticised, divided bet4een life incl)ded and rotectedby the olitical and econo.ic co..)nity and life eHcl)ded and )nrotected, eHosed to degradation and death &1As to the second )estion ho4 the notion of bioolitics .ay t into ArendtXs 4orB 4e nd an ans4er encas)latedin ArendtXs thesis regarding the ')nnat)ral gro4th of the nat)ral,+ a ec)liar for.)la .eant to cat)re the .ainhistorical transfor.ations of the .odern age# This notion co.rehends a range of diGerent historical heno.enaste..ing fro. the Ind)strial Revol)tion, s)ch as the sread of the caitalist for. of rod)ctionL the 4idening ofthe real. of h).an [life rocessesX (that is, labo)ring and cons).ing1, to the oint that life itself beco.es thes)re.e good and the f)rtherance of these rocesses (4hich centre on the rivate interests of ani.al laborans1 the.ost i.ortant ob5ect of oliticsL the re)ire.ent of the contin)o)s rod)ction and cons).tion of goods in everincreasing ab)ndance, so that nat)re is red)ced to a stocB of nat)ral reso)rces a stocB ab)sed to the oint 4hereits self:rerod)cing character is endangeredL the ro.otion of labo)ring activity to the stat)s of the .ost i.ortanth).an activity and the conco.itant )nderstanding of h).an beings ri.arily as ani.al laborans, a living being4hose needs are satised by the cycle of labo)ring and cons).ing# In this rocess the )blic shere is transfor.edinto a social one, that is, a .arBet for econo.ic eHchanges based on a cycle of ceaseless rod)ction and

cons).tion# Kro. the nineteenth cent)ry on4ards, then# the political realm has beeno'errun by indi'idual# social and economic interests # which today we seemassed in the orm o international corporations# coerci'e international

trade regimes# &nancial globalisation and ree!market ideologies% Thisresults rom politics becoming the acti'ity o managing the production andreproduction o animal laborans lie and hainess# To )t it in Antonio %egri and MichaelardtXs ter.s, the ind)strial and nancial o4ers of the resent rod)ce not only co..odities, b)t alsos)b5ectivities, needs, social relations, bodies and .inds, since they act)ally rod)ce the rod)cers# Politically,erhas the .ost salient conse)ence of this historical rocess is that 4e do not Bno4 if there is even any saceleft for the establish.ent of ne4 and radical olitical alternatives, since all state olicies above all in)nderdeveloed co)ntries are al4ays s)b5ect to the decidedly )nstable So4s of international nancialinvest.ents, stocB:eHchange S)ct)ations and global nancial instit)tions s)ch as the 3orld 2anB# The changesassociated 4ith the develo.ent of global caitalis. i.ly .any losses, if 4e follo4 Arendt the loss of the oliticalas a sace of freedo., relaced by re)ire.ents of econo.ic necessityL free and sontaneo)s action relaced byredictable, confor.ist behavio)rL&&1he s)bordination of )blic and shared interests to those of rivate lobbies andother hidden ress)re gro)s, freed fro. )blic vigilance by the 4ithering of the )blic real.L the s)b.ission of allolitical oinion to the s)osedly ineHorable la4s of .arBet econo.icsL the s)bstit)tion of violence for the o4er4on thro)gh ers)asionL the 4eaBening of the citiDenXs ability to consent and to dissent, o)r ability to act in concert

relaced at best by the solitary eHerience of votingL the red)ction of the olitical arena to dis)tes a.ongb)rea)cratic and oligarchic arty .achinesL 4ith a co.liant .edia deicting those 4ho do not accet their ga.e:r)les as [anarchists,X [rioters,X even [terrorists#X The [citiDenX cons).es in the de.ocratic:s)er.arBet choose fro.a strictly li.ited variety of olitical brands, 4ith no otion to )estion the olitical otions on oGer# (And 4hat 4o)ldthe )estion be 4hen all olitical arties declare that their ai. is to rotect citiDensX interests and )ality of life=1 AsAga.ben arg)es, to )estion the li.itations of o)r olitical syste. has beco.e .ore and .ore diQc)lt sinceolitics has been declared as the tasB of caring for and ad.inistering bare life# In this sit)ation, traditional oliticaldistinctions (right:left, liberalis.:totalitarianis., rivate:)blic1 have lost their intelligibility, since all oliticalcategories are s)bordinated to the de.ands of bare life# *ince 'caitalis. has beco.e one 4ith reality,+ 4e areconde.ned, in Marina /arcsXs 4ords, [to .aBe choices in an elective sace in 4hich there are no otions#verything is ossible, b)t 4e can do nothing#X&81# ven the ractices and disco)rses of the so:called anti:globalisation .ove.ents 'another globalisation is ossible+ and the liBe are largely )nable to create real

alternatives to the econo.ic realities they are intent on confronting# These historictransormations ha'e not only brought more 'iolence to the core o thepolitical but ha'e also rede&ned its character by gi'ing rise to biopolitical

'iolence % As stated# what characteriBes biopolitics is a dynamic o bothprotecting and abandoning lie through its inclusion and e$clusion romthe political and economic community%In Arendtian ter.s, the bioolitical danger is bestdescribed as the risB of converting ani.al laborans into Aga.benXs ho.o sacer, the h).an being 4ho can be )tto death by anyone and 4hose Billing does not i.ly any cri.e 4hatsoever &91# 3hen olitics is conceived of asbioolitics, as the tasB of increasing the life and hainess of the national ani.al laborans, the nation:statebeco.es ever .ore violent and .)rdero)s# If 4e linB ArendtXs thesis fro. The ).an Condition to those of The!rigins of Totalitarianis., 4e can see the %aDi and *talinist eHter.ination ca.s as the .ost rened eHeri.ents inannihilating the 'bare life+ of ani.al laborans (altho)gh these are by no .eans the only instances in 4hich the.odern state has devoted itself to h).an sla)ghter1# Arendt is not concerned only 4ith the rocess of theeHter.ination itself, b)t also the historical sit)ation in 4hich large:scale eHter.inations 4ere .ade ossible


22/33

above all, the e.ergence of [)rootedX and [s)erS)o)sX .odern .asses, 4hat 4e .ight describe as ani.allaborans balanced on the Bnife:edge of [bare life#X Co.are her 4ords in [Ideology and TerrorX (&$F91, 4hich beca.ethe concl)sion of later editions of The !rigins of Totalitarianis. Isolation is that i.asse into 4hich .en are driven4hen the olitical shere of their livesW is destroyedW Isolated .an 4ho lost his lace in the olitical real. ofaction is deserted by the 4orld of things as 4ell, if he is no longer recogniDed as ho.o faber b)t treated as anani.al laborans 4hose necessary [.etabolis. 4ith nat)reX is of concern to no one# Isolation then beco.elonelinessW "oneliness, the co..on gro)nd for terror, the essence of totalitarian govern.ent, and for ideology orlogicality, the rearation of its eHec)tioners and victi.s, is closely connected 4ith )rootedness and

s)erS)o)sness 4hich have been the c)rse of .odern .asses since the beginning of the ind)strial revol)tion andhave beco.e ac)te 4ith the rise of i.erialis. at the end of the last cent)ry and the breaB:do4n of oliticalinstit)tions and social traditions in o)r o4n ti.e# To be )rooted .eans to have no lace in the 4orld, recogniDedand g)aranteed by othersL to be s)erS)o)s .eans not to belong to the 4orld at all &;1# The conversion of ho.ofaber, the h).an being as creator of d)rable ob5ects and instit)tions, into ani.al laborans and, later on, into ho.osacer, can be traced in ArendtXs acco)nt of nineteenth cent)ry i.erialis.# As arg)ed in the second vol).e of The!rigins of Totalitarianis., )roean colonialis. co.bined racis. and b)rea)cracy to eretrate the '.ost terrible.assacres in recent history, the 2oersX eHter.ination of ottentot tribes, the 4ild .)rdering by Carl Peters in/er.an *o)theast Africa, the deci.ation of the eacef)l Congo o)lation fro. 8 to ; .illion red)ced to everse (ommute program promotes andinstitutionali8es one -ey aspect of transportation e&uity, but not all. The =!>( program directly respondsto the social and economic benefits issue of spatial mismatch between job growth centers and low*incomeresidential communities. ?owever, =!>( does not institutionali8e in its program two other -ey aspects oftransportationK meaningful community involvement and minimi8ation of public health and environmentaleffects. ?owever, there are ways in which these elements of transportation e&uity could be strengthened

and further promoted by the =!>( program. Third, the =!>( program should reward projects thatunderta-e initiatives and efforts to minimi8e and mitigate potential public health and environmentalpollution that stem from additional transportation services. 1iesel alternatives and many otherenvironmentally*sustainable options are often more e7pensive. The =!>( program must be committed tofunding these types of projects and not reject or penali8e proposals that incorporate environmentally*sustainable alternatives on the basis that they are more e7pensive. Bverall funding for the =ob !ccess and>everse (ommute program must be increased in order to ade&uately fund environmentally*sustainableefforts. Une&uivocally, this report argues for the continuation of the =!>( program. Studies andevaluations have shown that the program has been successful in meeting the needs of welfare recipientsand those who are low*income andOor transit*dependent. #he JARC program reaks the mold oftraditional transportation policies y addressing and responding to the needs of those

conventionally neglected y transportation policymakers. Furthermore, there are ways to strengthen

and incorporate elements of transportation e&uity into the =!>( program. The =ob !ccess and >everse(ommute program is a worthy program that enables local sta-eholders and players to meet the needs ofthe transit*dependent. undertoo- this study of transportation e&uity because personally understand theconnection between public transportation and the &uality of life of both individuals and communities. Formany people, public transportation is their literal and physical connection to resources and people vital totheir well*being and happinessjobs, education, healthcare, friends and family. Ultimately,environmentally*sustainable and high*&uality public transportation should be a right afforded to all, andespecially the transit*dependent. This e7amination of transportation e&uity will better inform us about thesignificance and implications of a transportation program such as the =ob !ccess and >everse (ommuteprogram. t is most apparent that the program directly addresses an ine&uity created by unjusttransportation policies. Therefore, =!>( attempts to 9right: a wrong. ?owever, hope to show in thisreport that creating e&uitable public transportation systems is not limited to reversing transportation

ine&uities. t is possible for programs li-e =!>( to build these systems by laying principles of justice,e&uity and fairness at their foundations. The language of the !ct identifies the establishment of the =!>(program based on nine findingsK #+ two*thirds of all new jobs were located in the suburbs, whilethree&uarters of all welfare recipients lived in rural or central cities %+ even in metropolitan areas withe7cellent public transit systems, less than half of the jobs were accessible by transit


27/33

provides a more accessible policy lever.PE' ;olitically, transportation fi7es are more easily achievablethan, for e7ample, eliminating housing discrimination, and practically, there are resources available toma-e policy changes in transportation and develop programs that could yield positive results.E$ hile itis clear that the =!>( program was created to address the perceived spatial mismatch between job growthcenters in the suburbs and the residential locations of welfare recipients and low*income wor-ers, it maynot be obvious that the program promotes certain aspects of transportation e&uity and environmental

justice. The previous chapters discussion lin-s transportation e&uity and environmental justice to socialand economic benefits made accessible by transportation, such as access to jobs, education, job trainingand other services. n focusing on connecting low*income people to jobs and activities related to theiremployment, the JARC program is facilitating the availaility of social and economic enefits ycommunities and populations previously denied these opportunities. This study of the =ob !ccess and>everse (ommute program is an e7tension of the three studies highlighted above that e7amined whetherthe e7isting public transportation systems effectively lin-ed inner*city wor-ers with job opportunities intheir respective regions. hile the ne7t chapter discusses what the =!>( program has accomplished thusfar, chapter four attempts to determine whether public transit systems that have received =!>( funding tospecifically address the mobility problem of welfare participants and low*income wor-ers succeed inconnecting low*income wor-ers to employment locations. agree with the studies and reports thatcontend that the =!>( is successfully connecting low*income wor-ers to job centers through

transportation. n doing so, =!>( promotes and institutionali8es the transportation e&uity component ofconnecting low*income people and people of color with social and economic benefits. There are twoprogram objectives for the =ob !ccess and >everse (ommute programK #+ to provide transportationservices in urban, suburban and rural areas to assist the ability of welfare recipients and low*incomeindividuals to access employment opportunities and %+ to increase collaboration among the transportationproviders, human service agencies, employers, metropolitan planning organi8ations )0;Bs+, states, andaffected communities and individuals. The program also establishes a regional transportation planningapproach to job access challenges, since only access to jobs and reverse commute projects derived from a>egional =ob !ccess and >everse (ommute Transportation ;lan are eligible. n see-ing to forgesuccessful collaborations at the regional level among a variety of -ey players and sta-eholders, the =!>(grant program does not ta-e the traditional one*si8e*fits*all transportation planning approach. The =!>(program institutionali8es this approach in three ways. First, in order for access to jobs and reverse

commute projects to be eligible for =!>( funding, they must be derived from an established >egional =ob!ccess and >everse (ommute Transportation ;lan. The planning process must be collaborated amonge7isting transportation service providers, state or local agencies that administer T!NF and elfare*to*or- programs, public housing agencies, the community to be served and other area sta-eholders.Second, although local agencies and authorities, non*profit organi8ations, state entities, and regionaltransit authorities are eligible applicants, 0etropolitan ;lanning Brgani8ations )0;Bs+ and chiefe7ecutive officers of states are granted the power to select the applicants. n urbani8ed areas with apopulation of %22,222 or more, 0;Bs select the applicants while in small urbani8ed areas under apopulation of %22,222 and non*urbani8ed rural areas, the states select the applicants. Finally, a 42 percentnon*1epartment of Transportation match is re&uired for all projects. !lthough other federal funds eligiblefor transportation programs can be used as part of the match, this provides an opportunity for theapplicants to coordinate with other agencies and authorities to secure funding for the program. n fact, this

aspect of securing financial commitments by other agencies and authorities is e7plicated in =!>(s awardcriteria and therefore considered by the Federal Transit !uthority in determining the merit of eachapplication. The e7tent to which an applicant demonstrates a collaborative planning process is alsoincluded in the programs award criteria. n a 1ecember %22# report to (ongress, the 3eneral !ccountingBffice argued that there were detrimental effects to the noncompetitive selection of =!>( grantees. The3!B pointed out that the administration of =!>( funding to (ongressional designations were not legallyfound. !ccording to the 3!B report, the conference reports that accompanied the appropriations acts 9didnot impose legally binding re&uirements and did not provide FT! with a legal basis to deviate from there&uirements of selection of =ob !ccess grantees in fiscal years %222 and %22#.:6$ 3!B asserted that


28/33

since only C42 million of the available C#64 million were available for competitive grants, FT!s capacityto Pto fund projects that might have emerged from this process as the most promising in meeting theprogramQs objectivesP was compromised.'2 Furthermore, according to FT! program officials andgrantees, the decrease in funding for competitively selected projects during fiscal years %222 and %22#meant that about onefifth of the F@ #$$$ =ob !ccess projects did not receive continued funding.'# Thesurvey found that =!>( services are improving the wor- opportunities of individuals by connecting them

to jobs via transportation, particularly those who are lowincome, the target population of the =!>(program. Si7ty*four percent of the survey respondents indicated that they either started or would end theirtrip at wor-. Bf these, #% percent used the =!>( service to connect from one job to another. Therefore,=!>( services are also being used for wor-*to*wor- trips. The survey also found that %6 percent of therespondents did not wor- before using the service. !n additional (*funded services are perceived as very important by the riders. ! majority ofrespondents$< percentfound the service was either 9very important: or 9important.P Si7ty*si7 percent saidthey would not be able to access their destination without the provided service. !dditionally, the =!>(services are viewed as cost or time efficient. Seventy*two percent of riders who used to travel to theirdestination via another mode of transportation found that they either saved time or incurred about thesame travel time using the =!>(*funded service to travel to the same destination. "ven in rural areas,where providing rural transit has its particular challenges and difficulties )such as long distances and lightpopulation densities that present temporal, spatial and financial challenges+, =!>( projects have alsobeen able to connect low income people to jobs. The FT! also issued a report in 1ecember of %22% thatdocumented eight =ob !ccess and >everse (ommute projects in rural areas that received funding in F@

#$$$.$6 The report found that =!>( wor-ed well for their clients, allowing participants to access betteron*the*job training, leading to higher employment rates and higher*paying jobs. Several grantees evencited reduced welfare rolls. !ccording to the FT!, the -ey to successful =!>( projects is 9collaborationamong multiple public and private partners.:$' Furthermore, as Nancy =a-owitsch, a former SurfaceTransportation ;olicy ;roject staff member, and 0ichelle "rnst assert, 9Transportation justice alsodepends on collaborative decision*ma-ing between local elected officials, transportation beauracracies,related agencies, community sta-eholders, and the private sector.:$$ ncreased collaboration amongtransportation providers, human service agencies, employers, metropolitan planning organi8ations, statesand affected communities and individuals is one of the two major goals of the =!>( program. The =!>(grant program rewards collaboration at the local level in any of the planning, financing and operation ofservice stages. The 3eneral !ccounting Bffice asserts that the =ob !ccess and >everse (ommute programsuccessfully met its goal of encouraging collaboration among transportation, human service, and other

community*based agencies in =ob !ccess service design, implementation, and financing.#22 ased on asurvey of all applicants for the #$D projects selected for the =ob !ccess and >everse (ommute program infiscal year #$$$ of which '$ percent of the grantees responded, %< percent of the respondents agreed thatthe =!>( program improved coordination among different organi8ations involved in getting people towor-.#2# !ccording to the 3!B survey of grantees selected in fiscal years #$$$ and %222, almost '2percent of the #4% grantees that responded indicated that the =!>( program increased cooperation withother transit agencies, and '' percent indicated that the program increased cooperation with humanservice agencies. !dditionally, out of the nine transportation and welfare reform e7perts the 3!Bconsulted, eight of them stated that this significant increase in collaboration at the grantee level was the


29/33

most successful result of the =!>( program.#2% ;articularly in rural area grantees, where it is relativelyeasy for them to collaborate since virtually all of the grantees and their partners indicated they had alreadywor-ed together on previous projects, grantees reported that =!>( created even more communicationamong partners about what more could be done to successfully place people into jobs.#2< n successfullyconnecting welfare participants and low*income individuals to job opportunities, the =ob !ccess and>everse (ommute program promotes and institutionali8es one -ey aspect of transportation e&uity, but not

all. The =!>( program is a transportation e&uity program in that it directly responds to the social andeconomic benefits issue of spatial mismatch between job growth centers and low*income residentialcommunities. ?owever, =!>( does not institutionali8e in its program two other -ey aspects oftransportation e&uity discussed in chapter oneK meaningful community involvement and minimi8ation ofpublic health and environmental effects. hile =!>( does not entirely ignore these importantcomponents of transportation e&uity )as this chapter will illustrate+, in the ne7t chapter, will argue theways in which these elements could be strengthened and further promoted by the program. This chapterincludes profiles of organi8ations and agencies that considered and incorporated either meaningfulcommunity involvement or public health and environmental impact analysis into their transportationprojects. These organi8ations offer testimony to the possible ways in which the =!>( program coulddevelop more just and e&uitable transportation options for the transit*dependent. !lready people of colorand low*income people are disproportionately e7posed to high levels of emissions from diesel buses.

!dding new transportation options may e7acerbate those conditions. !n e&uitable transportation systemand an environmentally sound and sustainable system are not mutually e7clusive. Transportation e&uityadvocates do not necessarily need to choose either service or public health. The organi8ing wor- andvictories of the us >iders Union of 5os !ngeles illustrate the falsity of that choice. n see-ing topromote greater transportation e&uity, the =ob !ccess and >everse (ommute program successfully meetsits two goals of connecting welfare recipients and low*income people to job opportunities and forgingcollaboration among a variety of agencies and organi8ations. n effectively connecting people to jobs anddirectly addressing spatial mismatch between job growth centers and low*income residentialcommunities, the =ob !ccess and >everse (ommute program promotes and institutionali8es one -eyaspect of transportation e&uitythat is, preventing the denial of social and economic benefits for people ofcolor or low*income populations. ?owever, the =!>( program does not institutionali8e two other -eyaspects of transportation e&uity discussed in chapter oneK meaningful community involvement and

minimi8ation of public health and environmental effects. !s studies have shown, =!>( projects areespecially successful in meeting its eligibility re&uirements )see chapter four+. propose that meaningfulcommunity involvement should be made an eligibility criterion for =!>( projects. t cannot be stressedenough that it is important for the communities that are most impacted by transportation policies to havedecision*ma-ing power in determining what those policies should be. The danger of NBT incorporatingmeaningful community involvement into transportation planning and policies is evident in our une&ualpublic transportation systems. Bn the other hand, there are many benefits that are associated with andresult from a strong commitment to community involvement, as illustrated in this study. n matching theirtransportation planning to the realities of the 9real world,: both (!>T! and (!>" were able tosuccessfully provide efficient and affordable service for their low*income and transit*dependentconstituents. !lthough the us >iders Union and " !(T establish for us the importance of anti*dieselwor-, do not to recommend institutionali8ing an anti*diesel component as an eligibility criterion for the

=!>( program. do recommend rewarding projects that underta-e initiatives and efforts to minimi8e andmitigate potential public health and environmental pollution that stem from additional transportationservices. The =!>( program must also understand that diesel alternatives and many otherenvironmentally sustainable options are often more e7pensive. Therefore, the =!>( program must becommitted to funding these types of projects and not reject or penali8e proposals that incorporateenvironmentally*sustainable alternatives on the basis that they are more e7pensive. ndeed, overallfunding for the =ob !ccess and >everse (ommute program must be increased in order to ade&uately fundenvironmentally*sustainable efforts. (urrently, as T"!*%# is up for reauthori8ation in (ongress, theTransportation "&uity Networ- is actively advocating for an increase in funding for public transportation


30/33

to e&uitably address the needs of all people, particularly the transit*dependent. The current ?ouse bill,?.>. ( program at more than C# billion over si7 years, an increase of more thanC%44 million.#redictions and policies to promote economicgrowth and are ound up with one another .Friedman )%224+ argues that moral conse&uences from thelac- of economic growth are dire and undermine social cohesion and trust. t is fair to say that he did notsettle the argument even with multiple causation the principal direction of causality probably runs theother way than Friedman proposesK undermining of social cohesion and trust causes poor economicgrowth and has moral conse%uenc es. >rediction failures of the past, conflicting predictions and

%uestionale transport investments are creating distrust of conditional forecasts . nstead, a broaderview of a non*ergodic world )North, %224+, where the predicted world does not happen, has become theaccepted model. Self*fulfilling prophecies based on trust are gone, possibly with concomitant effects onsocial cohesion and goodwill to wor- and sociali8e together. ut change is occurring. "&ual rights andliberties, benefits to the least*advantaged and e&uality of opportunity are increasingly mentioned inrefereed planning journals and boo-s. #here are voices aout social e!clusion and policy proposals toalleviate and even rectify them)lumenberg, %22' 5ucas, %2#2 Stanley, %2#2+. 5ew uranism andother planning tendencies )(ampbell and Fainstein, %222 3under and ?illier, %22$+, and work torestructure the planning processes, are much less ound with predictions, conditional forecasts or

prophecies than the traditional approach .n fact, some of that wor- is in direct opposition to theforecasts made. t is fair to conclude that while some of the fascination and mystery of prediction modelshas lost its luster their patina remains. t used to be the case that there was a greater agreement on thepredicted future than of the e7perienced past. Now the predicted future has become a source of
http://plt.sagepub.com/content/11/3/257http://plt.sagepub.com/content/11/3/257


31/33

disagreement, too. ;redictions and prophecies as creators of trust are replaced by ideologies. Theplanners world is both real and unreal and both are being challenged.

+ederal go'ernment key!!!multiple -urisdictions and uniormity

*lesh 1Oevin J#J#?#, /eorge 3ashington University "a4 *chool, 8&, Chair ofA.erican 2ar Association nviron.ental ?isclos)re Co..ittee, Me.ber,nviron.ental "a4 Co..ittee, %YC 2ar, 'UR2A% *PRA3" CA% T\TRA%*P!RTATI!% ZUITY\ M!M%T A%? K?RA" TRA%*P!RTATI!% P!"ICY"P 2RAO ?!3% 2ARRIR* T! R/I!%A" *!"UTI!%*=+, 7 nvtl# "a4 @;$ (8:8&1, ein!nline, ?!A Os nationwide to ensure that transportation planning decisions provide for

e%uitale and accessile transit services and advance regional growth control initiatives.The 0;B*based approach also should be used as a model for other federal agencies to become more closelyinvolved in promoting smart growth measures. Such proactive policy measures will help brea- downjurisdictional and racial barriers, supplement grassroots*based efforts, and provide a meaningful andpolitically feasible role for the federal government to combat urban sprawl. n this manner, it will beensured that environmental and e&uity concerns will remain balanced partners in the search for a solutionto urban sprawl and for the overall national goal of attaining a PSustainable !merica.P

=ye =ye

Transortation bill st)nts JARC invest.ent

A.TA 1A.erican P)blic Transortation Association,@-8$, htt--444#ata#co.-ga-leg)datealert-8&8-?oc).ents-8&8J)ne8$#df,'o)seand *enate ote to Pass *)rface Transortation Conference Reort,+

The &nal conerence agreement pro'ides or a limited increase or +ederalTransit .rograms# pro'iding a total o :10%56; billion in authoriBed undingin +E 01< and >@$F billion in KY 8&;# K)nding a)thoriDed fro. the Mass Transit Acco)nt of the igh4ayTr)st K)nd a.o)nts to >8#& billion a)thoriDed fro. the

/eneral K)nd in each scal year# The bill also searately eHtends the a)thoriDations for KY 8&8 based on c)rrentla4# ClicB here for a table of all rogra.atic f)nding levels# +ormula Grant .rograms HrbaniBedArea Grants(*ec# F97, F99@1 continue to be the largest program or ederalin'estment in public transportation% The conerence report allocates:P%;#FF8 billion in KY 8&8# The ob Access ande'erse Commute 3AC7 program acti'ities will now be unded under theSec% 5


32/33

o disads!!!unding now# but -ust not enough

The impact is militarismand degraded uality o lie

ar'ey 10?avid arvey, Professor of Anthroologyat the /rad)ate Center of the CityUniversity of %e4 YorB,8& (The nig.a of Caital, and the crises of caitalis. 88;:88@ trillion in 8&, rising to closer to >9 trillion by 89# Thiscontrasts 4ith the >#JF trillion ne4 invest.ent needed in &$F and the >;8 trillion needed in $79 (the dollarg)res are inSation ad5)sted1# Real roble.s of nding ade)ate o)tlets for s)rl)s caital began to e.erge after&$


33/33

distributions are likely to be proound% ven s)osing : 4hich is )nliBely : that no serio)sactive oositions to contin)o)s caital acc).)lation and f)rther consolidation of class o4er .aterialise# 3hatsaces are left in the global econo.y for ne4 satial Hes for caital s)rl)s absortion= China and the eH:*ovietbIoc have already been integrated# *o)th and so)th:east Asia are ling ) fast Africa is not yet f)lly integrated, b)tthere is no4here else 4ith the caacity to absorb all the is s)rl)s caital# 3hat ne4 lines of rod)ction can be

oened ) to absorb gro4th= There may be no e/ecti'e long!term capitalistsolutions 3apart rom re'ersion to &ctitious capital manipulations7 to this

crisis o capitalism# At so.e oint )antitative changes lead to )alitative shifts and 4e need to taBeserio)sly the idea that 4e .ay be at eHactly s)ch all inSeHion oint in the history of caitalis.# Vuestioningthe uture o capitalism itsel as an adeuate social system ought#thereore to be in the oreront o current debate# Yet there aears to be little aetitefor s)ch disc)ssion, even as conventional .antras regarding the erfectibility of h).anity 4ith the hel of free.arBets and free trade, rivate roerly and ersonal resonsibility and lo4 taHes and .ini.alist state involve.ent

in social rovision so)nd increasingly hollo4# A crisis o legitimacy looms% 2)t legiti.ation crisestyically )nfold at a diGerent ace and rhyth. to stocB .arBet crises%It tooB# for eHa.le, three:e or fo)r Years forthe stocB .arBet crash !f &$8$ to rod)ce the .assive social .ove.ents (both rogressive and fascistic1 thate.erged after &$98 or so# The intensity of the c)rrent )rs)it by olitical o4er of 4ays to eHit the resent crisis

.eas)res the olitical fear of loo.ing illegiti.acy# The e$istence o cracks in the ideologicaledi&ce does not mean it is utterly broken# or does it ollow that becausesomething is clearly hollow people will immediately recognise it as such%

As o now# aith in the underlying presumptions o ree market ideologyha'e not eroded too much%There is no indication that eole in the advanced caitalist co)ntries(aart fro. the )s)al .alcontents1 are looBing for radical changes of lifestyle, altho)gh .any recognise that they.ay have to econo.ise here or save .oney there# Those foreclosed )on in the United *tates (so reli.inarys)rveys tell )s1 tyically bla.e the.selves for their fail)re so.eti.es thro)gh bad l)cB1 to live ) to the ersonalresonsibilities of ho.eo4nershi# 3here there is anger at banBersX d)licity and o)list o)trage over theirbon)ses#, there see.s to be no .ove.ent in %orth A.erica or )roe to e.brace radical and far:reachingchanges# In the global so)th, "atin A.erica in artic)lar, the story is rather diGerent o4 the olitics 4ill lay o)t inChina and the rest of Asia, 4here gro4th contin)es and olitics t)rns on diGerent aHes, is )ncertain# The roble.there is that gro4th is contin)ing, tho)gh at a lo4er rate# The idea that the crisis had syste.ic origin is scarcely.ooted in the .ainstrea. .edia#Most of the govern.ental .oves so far in %orth A.erica and )roe a.o)nt tothe eret)ation of b)siness as )s)al, 4hich translates into s)ort for the caitalist class# The .oral haDard6 that4as the i..ediate trigger for the nancial fail)res is being taBen to ne4 heights in the banB bail:o)ts# The act)alractices of neoliberalis. (as oosed to its )toian theory1 al4ays entailed blatant s)ort for nance caital andcaitalist elites ()s)ally on the gro)nds that nancial instit)tions .)st be rotected at all costs and that it is thed)ty of state o4er to create a good b)siness cli.ate for solid roteering1# This has not f)nda.entally changed#*)ch ractices are 5)stied by aeal to the d)bio)s roosition that a 6rising tide6 of caitalist endeavo)r 4ill 6liftall boats or that the benets of co.o)nd gro4th# 4ill .agically [tricBle do4n6 (4hich it never does# eHcet in the

for. of a fe4 cr).bs fro. the rich folBs6 table1#Throughout much o the capitalist world#we ha'e li'ed through an astonishing period in which politics has beendepoliticised and commodi&ed% Jnly now# all the state steps in to bail outthe &nanciers# has it become dear to all that state and capital are moretightly intertwined than e'er both institutionally and personally# The r)lingclass, rather than the olitical class that a. as its s)rrogate# is no4 act)ally seen to r)le#

Documents

1AC Kings Version