Reconstruction 533

11

MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW

Rebuilding the Union TERMS & NAMESRadical

Republicans

Reconstruction

Freedmen’s Bureau

Andrew Johnson

black codes

civil rights

FourteenthAmendment

Reconstruction BeginsAfter the Civil War ended in 1865, the South faced the challenge ofbuilding a new society not based on slavery. The process the federal gov-ernment used to readmit the Confederate states to the Union is knownas Reconstruction. Reconstruction lasted from 1865 to 1877.

In his Second Inaugural Address, in March 1865, Lincoln promisedto reunify the nation “with malice [harm] toward none, with charity forall.” Lincoln’s plan included pardoning Confederate officials. It alsocalled for allowing the Confederate states to quickly form new govern-ments and send representatives to Congress.

To assist former slaves, the president established the Freedmen’s Bureau.This federal agency set up schools and hospitals for African Americans anddistributed clothes, food, and fuel throughout the South.

When Lincoln was killed in April 1865, Vice-President AndrewJohnson became president. Johnson was a Democrat. The Republicans

ONE AMERICAN’S STORYAfter the Civil War, Pennsylvania congressman

Thaddeus Stevens became a leader of the Radical

Republicans. This group of congressmen favored

using federal power to create a new order in the

South and to promote full citizenship for freed

African Americans.

A VOICE FROM THE PAST

The whole fabric of southern society must be changed. . . . If the South is ever to be made a safeRepublic let her lands be cultivated by the toil of the owners, or the free labor of intelligent citizens.

Thaddeus Stevens, quoted in The Era ofReconstruction by Kenneth Stampp

In this section, you will learn how political

leaders battled over how to bring the Southern

states back into the Union. Thaddeus Stevensaddresses Congress.

Rebuilding the Union

During Reconstruction, the presidentand Congress fought over how torebuild the South.

Reconstruction was an importantstep in the African-American strugglefor civil rights.

had put him on the ticket in 1864 to help win support inthe nation’s border states. Johnson was a former slave-holder and, unlike Lincoln, a stubborn, unyielding man.

Johnson believed that Reconstruction was the job ofthe president, not Congress. His policies were based onLincoln’s goals. He insisted that the new state govern-ments ratify the Thirteenth Amendment, which pro-hibited slavery. He also insisted that they accept thesupreme power of the federal government.

Johnson offered amnesty, or official pardon, to mostwhite Southerners. He promised to return their prop-erty. In return, they had to pledge loyalty to the UnitedStates. At first, the large plantation owners, top militaryofficers, and ex-Confederate leaders were not includedin this offer. But they, too, eventually won amnesty.

Rebuilding Brings ConflictAs the Southern states rebuilt, they set up new stategovernments that seemed very much like the old ones.Some states flatly refused to ratify the ThirteenthAmendment. “This is a white man’s government,” saidthe governor of South Carolina, “and intended for whitemen only.”

The Southern states passed laws, known as blackcodes, which limited the freedom of former slaves. InMississippi, for instance, one law said that AfricanAmericans had to have written proof of employment.Anyone without such proof could be put to work on aplantation. African Americans were forbidden to meetin unsupervised groups or carry guns. Because of such

laws, many people in the North suspected that white Southerners weretrying to bring back the “old South.”

When Congress met in December 1865, its members refused to seatrepresentatives from the South. Many of these Southern representativeshad been Confederate leaders only months before.

Under the Constitution, Congress has the right to decide whether itsmembers are qualified to hold office. So instead of admitting theSoutherners, Congress set up a committee to study conditions in theSouth and decide whether the Southern states should be represented. Bytaking such action, Congress let the president know that it planned toplay a role in Reconstruction.

Republicans outnumbered Democrats in both houses of Congress.Most Republicans were moderates who believed that the federal gov-ernment should stay out of the affairs of individuals and the states.

The Radical Republicans, however, wanted the federal government toplay an active role in remaking Southern politics and society. Led byThaddeus Stevens and Massachusetts senator Charles Sumner, the

534 CHAPTER 18

BackgroundNot all Confed-erate leaderswere pardoned.Former Confed-erate presidentJefferson Davis,for example, was imprisonedfor two yearsawaiting trial fortreason. But hewas never tried.

ANDREW JOHNSON

1808–1875

Andrew Johnson was a self-educated man whose strong willled to trouble with Congress.

As a former slaveholder fromTennessee, Johnson called for a mild program for bringing the South back into the Union. In particular, he let states decidewhether to give voting rights to freed African Americans.

Johnson’s policies led to abreak with the RadicalRepublicans in Congress and,finally, to his impeachment trial(see page 537).

Why might Johnson havechosen not to punish the South? A. Analyzing

Causes Whatwas the mainreason Southernstates passedblack codes?A. Answer Theywanted to returnformer slaves totheir low positionin society.

Vocabularymoderates: peo-ple opposed toextreme views

group also demanded full and equal citizenship for African Americans.Their aim was to destroy the South’s old ruling class and turn the regioninto a place of small farms, free schools, respect for labor, and politicalequality for all citizens.

The Civil Rights ActUrged on by the Radicals, Congress passed a bill promoting civilrights—those rights granted to all citizens. The Civil Rights Act of1866 declared that all persons born in the United States (except NativeAmericans) were citizens. It also stated that all citizens were entitled toequal rights regardless of their race.

Republicans were shocked when President Johnson vetoed the bill.Johnson argued that federal protection of civil rights would lead“towards centralization” of the national government. He also insistedthat making African Americans full citizens would “operate against thewhite race.” Congress voted to override Johnson’s veto. That is, two-thirds of the House and two-thirds of the Senate voted for the bill afterthe president’s veto, and the bill became law.

The Fourteenth AmendmentRepublicans were not satisfied with passing laws that ensured equalrights. They wanted equality to be protected by the Constitution itself.To achieve this goal, Congress proposed the Fourteenth Amendment in1866. It stated that all people born in the United States were citizens andhad the same rights. All citizens were to be granted “equal protection ofthe laws.” However, the amendment did not establish black suffrage.Instead, it declared that any state that kept African Americans from vot-ing would lose representatives in Congress. This meant that the Southernstates would have less power if they did not grant black men the vote.

Johnson refused to support the amendment. So did every formerConfederate state except Tennessee. This rejection outraged both mod-erate and Radical Republicans. As a result, the two groups agreed to joinforces and passed the Reconstruction Acts of 1867. The passage of these

Reconstruction 535

Radical Republicanspose for a formalportrait. Standing(left to right): James F. Wilson,George S. Boutwell,and John A. Logan.Seated: Benjamin F.Butler, ThaddeusStevens, ThomasWilliams, and JohnA. Bingham.

B. MakingInferences Howdid theFourteenthAmendmentencourage statesto give AfricanAmericans thevote?B. Answer It gavethe states fewerrepresentatives in Congress ifthey kept AfricanAmericans fromvoting.

acts began a period known as Radical Reconstruction. From this pointon, Congress controlled Reconstruction.

One of the Reconstruction Acts of 1867 divided the South into fivemilitary districts, each run by an army commander. Members of the rul-ing class before the war lost their voting rights. The law also stated thatbefore the Southern states could reenter the Union, they would have todo two things:

1. They must approve new state constitutions that gave the vote toall adult men, including African Americans.

2. They must ratify the Fourteenth Amendment.

The New Southern GovernmentsIn 1867, Southern voters chose delegates to draft their new state consti-tutions. About three-fourths of the delegates were Republicans. Abouthalf of the Republicans were poor white farmers. Angry at planters forstarting what they called the “rich man’s war,” these delegates were calledscalawags (scoundrels) for going along with Radical Reconstruction.

Another one-fourth of the Republican delegateswere known as carpetbaggers—white Northernerswho had rushed to the South after the war. ManySoutherners accused them, often unfairly, of seekingonly to get rich or gain political power.

African Americans made up the rest of the Republicandelegates. Of these, half had been free before the war.Most were ministers, teachers, or skilled workers. About80 percent of them could read.

The new constitutions written bythese delegates set up public schoolsand gave the vote to all adult males.By 1870, voters in all the Southernstates had approved their new consti-tutions. As a result, the formerConfederate states were let back intothe Union and allowed to send repre-sentatives to Congress.

During Reconstruction, more than600 African Americans served in statelegislatures throughout the South, and14 of the new U.S. congressmen fromthe South were African Americans.Two African Americans served asU.S. senators during this time. Onewas Hiram Revels of Mississippi, aminister in the African MethodistEpiscopal Church. He had recruitedAfrican Americans to fight for theUnion during the Civil War.

BackgroundCarpetbaggerswere said to haveheaded south carrying only acheap suitcase,known as a carpetbag.

C. Answer SeveralAfrican Americanswere elected toCongress, whilehundreds gainedseats in state legislatures.

C. Finding MainIdeas What political gains did AfricanAmericansmake duringReconstruction?

BackgroundAttempts tosecure votingrights for AfricanAmericans appliedonly to men.Women were notallowed to voteuntil 1919.

His First Vote, an 1868 oil paint-ing by Thomas WatermanWood, shows a new African-American voter.

How do you think the manfelt about voting?

536

Johnson Is ImpeachedPresident Johnson fought against many ofCongress’s reform efforts during RadicalReconstruction. For instance, he chosepeople friendly to ex-Confederates toserve as military commanders in theSouth. The conflict between Johnson andCongress soon brought a showdown.

In 1867, Congress passed the Tenureof Office Act, which prohibited the president from firing governmentofficials without the Senate’s approval. In February 1868, Johnson firedhis secretary of war, Edwin Stanton, over disagreements aboutReconstruction. Three days later, the House of Representatives voted toimpeach the president. This means that the House formally accused himof improper conduct while in office. By removing Johnson from office,they hoped to strengthen Congress’s role in Reconstruction.

The case moved to the Senate for a trial. After several weeks of testi-mony, the senators prepared to vote. George Julian, a 20-year congressmanfrom Indiana, recalled the tension in the air.

A VOICE FROM THE PAST

The galleries were packed, and an indescribable anxiety was written onevery face. Some of the members of the House near me grew pale and sickunder the burden of suspense. Such stillness prevailed that the breathing inthe galleries could be heard at the announcement of each Senator’s voice.

George Julian, quoted in Grand Inquests

In the end, President Johnson was acquitted by a single vote. But muchwork remained to be done in rebuilding the South. In the next section, youwill learn how African Americans in the South worked to improve their lives.

Reconstruction 537

2. Taking NotesUse a diagram to review theevents that led to Johnson’simpeachment.

Which event seems mostimportant and why?

3. Main Ideasa. What was Lincoln’sReconstruction plan?

b. How did whiteSoutherners plan to restorethe “old South”?

c. What impact did theReconstruction Acts of 1867have on the South?

4. Critical ThinkingEvaluating Do you thinkthe House was justified inimpeaching PresidentJohnson? Why or why not?

THINK ABOUT• the clash over

Reconstruction policies• Congress’s motives for

impeaching Johnson

1. Terms & NamesExplain the

significance of:• Radical Republicans• Reconstruction• Freedmen’s Bureau• Andrew Johnson• black codes• civil rights• Fourteenth

Amendment

Section Assessment

ACTIVITY OPTIONS

TECHNOLOGYSPEECH

Research an African American who served in Congress during Reconstruction.Design his Internet home page, or make a speech about his accomplishments.

1

This is a ticket to the 1868impeachment trial of PresidentJohnson.

D. DrawingConclusions Whydid Congressdecide to impeachPresidentJohnson? D. AnswerCongress believedthat Johnson stoodin the way of itsReconstructionplans.

Vocabularyacquitted: clearedof a charge

Event 3 Event 4

Event 2Event 1

CLASSZONE .COMINTERNET ACTIVITY

540 CHAPTER 18

22 Reconstruction andDaily LifeReconstruction andDaily Life

TERMS & NAMESfreedmen’s school

sharecropping

Ku Klux Klan

lynch

ONE AMERICAN’S STORYOne day, as the Civil War came to a close, two enslaved

women named Mill and Jule saw a fleet of Union gunboats

coming up the Mississippi River. Yankee soldiers came

ashore and offered them and other slaves passage aboard

their boats. On that day, Mill and Jule left the plantation

where they had toiled for so long.

A VOICE FROM THE PAST

An’ we all got on the boat in a hurry . . . we all give threetimes three cheers for the gunboat boys, and three timesthree cheers for big Yankee [soldiers], an’ three times threecheers for gov’ment; an’ I tell you every one of us, big andlittle, cheered loud and long and strong, an’ made the oldriver just ring ag’in.

Mill and Jule, quoted in We Are Your Sisters

The Union’s victory in the Civil War spelled the end of slavery in

America and a new beginning for the nation’s millions of newly freed

African Americans. In this section, you will learn about the gains and

setbacks of former slaves during Reconstruction.

Responding to FreedomAfrican Americans’ first reaction to freedom was to leave the plantations.No longer needing passes to travel, they journeyed throughout theregion. “Right off colored folks started on the move,” recalled one freed-man. “They seemed to want to get closer to freedom, so they’d knowwhat it was—like it was a place or a city.” Some former slaves returnedto the places where they were born. Others went looking for more eco-nomic opportunity. Still others traveled just because they could.

African Americans also traveled in search of family members sepa-rated from them during slavery. One man walked 600 miles fromGeorgia to North Carolina to find his family. To locate relatives, peopleplaced advertisements in newspapers. The Freedmen’s Bureau helpedmany families reunite. A Union officer wrote in 1865, “Men are taking

As the South rebuilt, millions ofnewly freed African Americansworked to improve their lives.

Many important African-Americaninstitutions, including colleges,began during Reconstruction.

MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW

Freed people and afederal soldier poseon a South Carolinaplantation.

their wives and children, families which had been for a long time brokenup are united and oh! such happiness.”

Freedom allowed African Americans to strengthen their family ties.Former slaves could marry legally. They could raise families withoutfearing that their children might be sold. Many families adopted chil-dren of dead relatives and friends to keep family ties strong.

Starting SchoolsWith freedom, African Americans no longer had to work for an owner’sbenefit. They could now work to provide for their families. To reachtheir goal of economic independence, however, most had to learn to readand write. As a result, children and adults flocked to freedmen’s schoolsset up to educate newly freed African Americans. Such schools werestarted by the Freedmen’s Bureau, Northern missionary groups, andAfrican-American organizations. Freed people in cities held classes inwarehouses, billiard rooms, and former slave markets. In rural areas,classes were held in churches and houses. Children who went to schooloften taught their parents to read at home.

In the years after the war, African-American groups raised more than $1 million for education. However, the federal government and privategroups in the North paid most of the cost of building schools and hir-ing teachers. Between 1865 and 1870, the Freedmen’sBureau spent $5 million for this purpose.

More than 150,000 African-American students wereattending 3,000 schools by 1869. About 10 percent of theSouth’s African-American adults could read. A number ofthem became teachers. Northern teachers, black and white,also went South to teach freed people. Many whiteSoutherners, however, worked against these teachers’ efforts.White racists even killed teachers and burned freedmen’sschools in some parts of the South. Despite these setbacks,African Americans kept working toward an education.

A. AnalyzingCauses For whatreasons did for-mer slaves move?A. Answer Theymoved to findeconomic opportunity, tolocate familymembers, andmerely to experi-ence the freedomof traveling.

BackgroundMost AfricanAmericans wereilliterate becauseteaching slaves toread and writehad been illegal.

BLACK COLLEGES

Some of today’s African-American colleges and universi-ties date back to Reconstruction.The Freedmen’s Bureau andother societies raised funds tobuild many of the schools.Howard University, shown inthis photograph, opened in1867. It was named for GeneralOliver Otis Howard, head of theFreedmen’s Bureau. DuringReconstruction, these collegesoffered courses ranging frombasic reading and writing tomedicine and law. They alsotrained much-needed teachers.

B. Finding MainIdeas Why didfreed peopledesire an education?B. Answer Theysaw it as a key to economic independence.

541

542 CHAPTER 18

BackgroundCivil War deathsand the departureof slaves fromplantations created a laborshortage in theSouth.

40 Acres and a MuleMore than anything else, freed people wanted to ownland. As one freedman said, “Give us our own landand we take care of ourselves, but without land, theold masters can hire us or starve us, as they please.”

As the Civil War ended, General William T.Sherman suggested that abandoned land in coastalSouth Carolina be split into 40-acre parcels and

given to freedmen. The rumor then spread that all freedmen would get 40acres and a mule. Most African Americans thought they deserved at leastthat much. In the end, however, most freedmen never received land. Thosewho did often had to return it to its former owners after the owners werepardoned by President Johnson. One freedman, Bayley Wyat, protested.

A VOICE FROM THE PAST

Our wives, our children, our husbands, [have] been sold over and over againto purchase the lands we now [locate] upon; for that reason we have a divineright to the land. . . . And then didn’t we clear the land, and raise the cropsof corn, of cotton, of tobacco, of rice, of sugar, of everything.

Bayley Wyat, quoted in Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution

Radical Republican leaders Thaddeus Stevens and Charles Sumnerpushed to make land reform part of the Reconstruction Acts of 1867.Stevens proposed a plan to Congress that would have taken land fromplantation owners and given it to freed people.

Many moderate Republicans and even some Radicals were against theplan. They believed that new civil and voting rights were enough to giveAfrican Americans a better life.

Supporters of the plan argued that civil rights meant little withouteconomic independence. Land could provide that independence, theyclaimed. However, Congress did not pass the land-reform plan.

The Contract SystemWithout their own property, many African Americans returned to workon plantations. They returned not as slaves but as wage earners. Theyand the planters both had trouble getting used to this new relationship.“It seems humiliating to be compelled to bargain and haggle with ourown servants about wages,” wrote the daughter of a Georgia plantationowner. For their part, many freed workers assumed that wages wereextra. They thought that the planters still had to house and feed them.

After the Civil War, planters desperately needed workers to raise cot-ton, still the South’s main cash crop. African Americans reacted to thisdemand for labor by choosing the best contract offers. The contract sys-tem was far better than slavery. African Americans could decide whomto work for, and planters could not abuse them or split up families.

The contract system still had drawbacks, however. Even the best con-tracts paid very low wages. Workers often could not leave the plantations

C. PossibleResponses Landwould keep themfrom dependingon their formerowners; theydeserved the landfor having workedon it for so longwithout pay.

C. AnalyzingPoints of ViewWhat were somearguments infavor of givingland to freedpeople?

African–Americanfamilies hoped toown land but wereoften disappointed.

without permission. Many owners cheated workers out of wages andother benefits. Worse yet, laws punished workers for breaking their con-tracts, even if the plantation owners were abusing or cheating them.These drawbacks made many African Americans turn to sharecropping.

Sharecropping and DebtUnder the sharecropping system, a worker rented a plot of land to farm.The landowner provided the tools, seed, and housing. When harvest timecame, the sharecropper gave the landowner a share of the crop. This systemgave families without land a place to farm and gave landowners cheap labor.

But problems soon arose with the sharecropping system. One cause ofthese problems was that farmers and landowners had opposite goals.Farmers wanted to grow food to feed their families, but landowners forcedthem to grow cash crops, such as cotton. As a result, farmers had to buyfood from the local store—which was usually owned by the landlord.Most farmers did not have the money to pay for goods. As a result, manywere caught in a cycle of debt, as shown in the diagram above. Oftenfarmers had to use one year’s harvest to pay the previous year’s bills.

White farmers also became sharecroppers. Many had lost their landin the war. Others had lost it to taxes. By 1880, one-third of the whitefarmers in the Deep South worked someone else’s land.

No matter who worked the plantations, much of what they grew wascotton. After the war, the value of cotton dropped. Southern plantersresponded by trying to produce more of the cash crop—a move that

Reconstruction 543

caption

Sharecropper buys foodand clothing on creditfrom landowner’s store.

Sharecropper gives landowner crop to sell.Sharecropper will get half the earnings,minus the cost of his purchases for the year.

When settling up, landownersays that sharecropper owesmore than he has earned.

To pay debt, sharecroppermust promise landownera greater share of nextyear’s crop.

Sharecropperplants andharvests crop.

Sharecropper is provided land andseed. In exchange, he promiseslandowner half the crop.

By the time sharecroppers had shared their cropsand paid their debts, they rarely had any moneyleft. Often they were uneducated and could notargue with landowners or merchants whocheated them. A sharecropper frequently becametied to one plantation, having no choice but towork until his debts were paid.

D. RecognizingEffects Whatwere some prob-lems with thesharecroppingsystem? D. PossibleResponsesFarmers could notfeed themselvesunder it and werecaught in a cycleof debt.

The Sharecropper Cycle of Poverty

6

1

2

3

4

5

drove down prices even further. Growing cotton exhausted the soil andreduced the amount of land available for food crops. As a result, theSouth had to import half its food. Relying on cotton was one reason theDeep South experienced years of rural poverty.

The Ku Klux KlanAfrican Americans in the South faced other problems besides poverty.They also faced violent racism. Many planters and former Confederatesoldiers did not want African Americans to have more rights. In 1866,

such feelings spurred the rise of a secret group called the KuKlux Klan. The Klan’s goals were to restore Democraticcontrol of the South and keep former slaves powerless.

The Klan attacked African Americans. Often it tar-geted those who owned land or had become prosperous.Klansmen rode on horseback and dressed in white robesand hoods. They beat people and burned homes. Theyeven lynched some victims, killing them on the spot with-out a trial as punishment for a supposed crime. The Klanalso attacked white Republicans.

Klan victims had little protection. Military authoritiesin the South often ignored the violence. President Johnsonhad appointed most of these authorities, and they wereagainst Reconstruction.

The Klan’s terrorism served the Democratic Party. Asgun-toting Klansmen kept Republicans away from thepolls, the Democrats increased their power.

In the next section you will see how planters took backcontrol of the South. You also will learn how they blockedAfrican Americans’ attempts to win more rights.

544 CHAPTER 18

2. Taking NotesUse a cluster diagram like theone below to review detailsabout sharecropping.

For farmers, what were theadvantages and disadvan-tages of sharecropping?

3. Main Ideasa. How did freedom helpstrengthen African-Americanfamilies?

b. How were AfricanAmericans educated duringReconstruction?

c. What were the main rea-sons African Americanswanted their own land?

4. Critical ThinkingAnalyzing CausesDespite greater civil rights,why did African Americansstill face difficulty in improv-ing their lives?

THINK ABOUT• the defeat of the land-

reform bill• the Ku Klux Klan’s rise• the attitude of military

authorities in the South

1. Terms & NamesExplain the

significance of:• freedmen’s school• sharecropping• Ku Klux Klan• lynch

Section Assessment2

ACTIVITY OPTIONS

SPEECHART

Make a speech to President Johnson or design a mural explaining why land shouldbe given to newly freed African Americans.

E. Finding MainIdeas What werethe goals of theKu Klux Klan?E. Answer Itsgoals were torestore Democraticcontrol in theSouth and keepAfrican Americansfrom gainingpower.

These Ku Klux Klan memberswere arrested after an 1868riot in Alabama.

Sharecropping

Reconstruction 545

33

MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW

End of ReconstructionEnd of Reconstruction TERMS & NAMESFifteenth

Amendment

Panic of 1873

Compromise of 1877

The Election of GrantThe Republican Party seemed stronger than ever in 1868. That year, itscandidate, General Ulysses S. Grant, won the presidency. During thecampaign, the Democrats attacked the Republicans’ Reconstruction poli-cies. They blamed the party for granting rights to African Americans.

On Election Day, however, the Republicans won. Grant received 214electoral votes. His Democratic opponent received only 80. The popularcount was much closer. Grant had a majority of only 306,000 votes.

Grant would not have had such a majority without the freedmen’svote. Despite attacks by the Ku Klux Klan, about 500,000 AfricanAmericans voted in the South. Most cast their ballots for Grant.

Robert B. Elliott lost hispolitical office whenReconstruction ended.

ONE AMERICAN’S STORYRobert B. Elliott was a U.S. congressman from South Carolina

during Reconstruction. In 1874, he made a stirring speech

supporting a civil rights bill that would outlaw racial

discrimination in public services. (See Interact with History,

page 531.)

A VOICE FROM THE PAST

The passage of this bill will determine the civil status, not onlyof the negro but of any other class of citizens who may feelthemselves discriminated against. It will form the capstone ofthat temple of liberty begun on this continent.

Robert B. Elliott, quoted in The Glorious Failure

Elliott was elected South Carolina’s attorney general in

1876. He began his term in 1877, just as Reconstruction was

ending. That year, federal troops left the South. White Southerners

took back control of the region. Quickly, they forced African Americans,

including Elliott, out of office.

In this section, you will learn about the events that ended

Reconstruction. You will also see how Reconstruction’s end meant

setbacks in the fight for civil rights and equality.

As white Southerners regainedpower, Reconstruction ended, as didblack advances toward equality.

Reforms made during Reconstructionmade later civil rights gains possible.

The Fifteenth AmendmentAfter Grant’s victory, Radical Republicans worried thatthe Southern states might try to keep African Americansfrom voting in future elections. To prevent this, Radicalleaders proposed a new constitutional amendment.

The Fifteenth Amendment stated that citizenscould not be stopped from voting “on account of race,color, or previous condition of servitude.” (This amend-ment, like the Fourteenth Amendment, did not apply toNative Americans on tribal lands.) The amendment wasratified in 1870.

The Fifteenth Amendment was not aimed only at theSouth. African-American men could not vote in 16states. “We have no moral right to impose an obligationon one part of the land which the rest will not accept,”one Radical wrote. With the Fifteenth Amendment, thenation again turned toward democracy.

The Fifteenth Amendment did not apply to women.This made many white women angry. Why couldn’t theyvote when black men—former slaves—could? SuffragistElizabeth Cady Stanton protested the idea of uneducated

immigrants and freedmen “who never read theDeclaration of Independence” making laws for educated white women. Most African-American women were not as angry. To FrancesE. W. Harper, a black suffragist and writer, it wasimportant for African Americans to gain votingrights, even if that meant only men at first.

Grant Fights the KlanDespite gaining the vote, African Americans in the South continued tobe terrorized by the Ku Klux Klan. In 1871, to stop the terror, PresidentGrant asked Congress to pass a tough law against the Klan. JosephRainey, a black congressman from South Carolina, had received deaththreats from the Klan. He urged his fellow lawmakers to support the bill.

A VOICE FROM THE PAST

When myself and colleagues shall leave these Halls and turn our footstepstoward our southern home we know not but that the assassin may await our coming. Be it as it may we have resolved to be loyal and firm, and if we perish, we perish! I earnestly hope the bill will pass.

Joseph Rainey, quoted in The Trouble They Seen

Congress approved the anti-Klan bill. Federal marshals then arrestedthousands of Klansmen. Klan attacks on African-American votersdeclined. As a result, the 1872 presidential election was both fair andpeaceful in the South. Grant won a second term.

A. ComparingHow was theFifteenthAmendment astep beyond theFourteenthAmendment?A. Answer Whilethe FourteenthAmendmentbroadly grantedequal rights, the FifteenthAmendment guaranteed voting rights.

Vocabularysuffragist: some-one who favorsequal votingrights, especiallyfor women

546 CHAPTER 18

AFRICAN AMERICANS IN CONGRESS

Between 1870 and 1877, 16African Americans served inCongress. Seven are shown inthe picture below. Two weresenators: Hiram R. Revels andBlanche K. Bruce, both of whomwere from Mississippi.

In 1999, there were 38African Americans in Congress.The longest-serving memberwas John Conyers, a representa-tive from Michigan elected in 1964. Only two African-American senators were electedin the 20th century. Massachu-setts senator Edward W. Brookeserved from 1967 to 1979.Illinois senator Carol Moseley-Braun served from 1993 to 1999.

Scandal and Panic Weaken RepublicansUnder the Grant administration, support for the Republicans andReconstruction weakened. Scandals hurt the administration and causeddivisions in the Republican Party. A financial panic further hurt theRepublicans and turned the country’s attention away from Reconstruction.

President Grant did not choose his advisers well. He put his formerarmy friends and his wife’s relatives in government positions. Many ofthese people were unqualified. Some Grant appointees took bribes.Grant’s private secretary, for instance, took money from whiskey distillerswho wanted to avoid paying taxes. Grant’s secretary of war, GeneralWilliam Belknap, left office afterpeople accused him of taking bribes.

Such scandals deeply outraged manyRepublicans. In 1872, some Republi-can officials broke away and formedthe new Liberal Republican Party.The Republicans, no longer unified,became less willing to impose toughReconstruction policies on the South.

In 1873, political corruption andRepublican quarreling gave way to amore serious problem. When severalpowerful Eastern banks ran out ofmoney after making bad loans, afinancial panic swept the country. Inthe Panic of 1873, banks across theland closed. The stock market tem-porarily collapsed. The panic causedan economic depression, a time of lowbusiness activity and high unemploy-ment. The railroad industry, whichrelied on banks for loans, suffered.Within a year, 89 of the country’s 364railroads went broke. Railroad fail-ures left Midwestern farmers with noway to move their crops, and manyfarmers were ruined.

The depression, which lasted aboutfive years, touched nearly all parts ofthe economy. By 1875, more than18,000 companies had folded. Hundreds of workers had lost their jobs.Many Americans blamed the crisis on the Republicans—the party inpower. As a result, Democrats won victories in the 1874 congressionaland state elections. In the middle of the depression, Americans grewtired of hearing about the South’s problems. The nation was losing interestin Reconstruction.

This cartoon fromPuck magazineshows PresidentGrant weigheddown bycorruption in hisadministration.

Reconstruction 547

B. MakingInferences Howdid Republicanscandals hurtReconstruction?B. PossibleResponses Theymade the partyand its policiesseem less moral;they distractedRepublican politi-cians fromReconstructiongoals.

C. Answereconomic depres-sion, bankruptrailroads, ruinedfarmers, foldedcompanies, lostjobs, and lessinterest inReconstruction

C. RecognizingEffects Whatresulted from thePanic of 1873?

Supreme Court ReversalsTo make matters worse for the Republicans, the Supreme Court beganto undo some of the changes that had been made in the South. In an1876 case, U.S. v. Cruikshank, the Court ruled that the federal govern-ment could not punish individuals who violated the civil rights ofAfrican Americans. Only the states had that power, the Court declared.Southern state officials often would not punish those who attackedAfrican Americans. As a result, violence against them increased.

In the 1876 case U.S. v. Reese, the Court ruled in favor of whiteSoutherners who barred African Americans from voting. The Courtstated that the Fifteenth Amendment did not give everyone the right tovote—it merely listed the grounds on which states could not deny thevote. In other words, states could prevent African Americans from vot-ing for other reasons. States later imposed poll taxes and literacy tests torestrict the vote. These Court decisions weakened Reconstruction andblocked African-American efforts to gain full equality.

Reconstruction EndsThe final blow to Reconstruction came with the 1876 presidential elec-tion. The Democrats nominated Samuel J. Tilden, governor of NewYork. The Republicans chose Rutherford B. Hayes, governor of Ohio.The race was very close. Victory depended on the electoral votes of SouthCarolina, Louisiana, and Florida. The votes in those states were so close

that both the Democrats and the Republicansclaimed victory. A special commission of eightRepublicans and seven Democrats made a deal.Under the Compromise of 1877, Hayes becamepresident. In return, the Republicans compromisedwith the Southern Democrats on several issues.

1. The government would remove federal troopsfrom the South.

2. The government would provide land grantsand loans for the construction of railroadslinking the South to the West Coast.

3. Southern officials would receive federal fundsfor construction and improvement projects.

4. Hayes would appoint a Democrat to his cabinet.5. The Democrats promised to respect African

Americans’ civil and political rights.Abolitionist Wendell Phillips was against the compromise. He doubted

that the South would respect black rights. “The whole soil of the South ishidden by successive layers of broken promises,” he said. “To trust aSouthern promise would be fair evidence of insanity.”

After the 1876 presidential election, the Reconstruction governmentsin the South collapsed. The Democrats returned to power, believing thatthey were the redeemers, or rescuers, of the South.

This cartoon fromHarper’s Weeklyshows a federalsoldier as thefreedman’s onlydefense againstwhite Southerners.

D. RecognizingEffectsHow did theReese andCruikshank rulings affectAfricanAmericans’efforts to gaincivil rights?D. Answer Oneruling made iteasier for attacksagainst AfricanAmericans to gounpunished. Theother made it eas-ier to keep themfrom voting.

E. Answer scan-dals that split theRepublican Party,the Panic of 1873,the Reese andCruikshankSupreme Courtrulings, and theCompromise of1877

E. SummarizingWhat events ledto a weakeningof support forReconstruction?

548 CHAPTER 18

Reconstruction 549

SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Charts1. Which amendment and law are most similar?2. Which amendment specifically protects voting rights?

Reconstruction: Civil Rights Amendments and LawsCivil Rights Act of 1866

Fourteenth Amendment (1868)

Fifteenth Amendment (1870)

Civil Rights Act of 1875

• Granted citizenship and equal rights to all persons born in the United States (except Native Americans)

• Granted citizenship and equal protection of the laws to allpersons born in the United States (except Native Americans)

• Protected the voting rights of African Americans

• Outlawed racial segregation in public services

• Ensured the right of African Americans to serve as jurors

The Legacy of ReconstructionHistorians still argue about the success of Reconstruction. The nationdid rebuild and reunite. However, Reconstruction did not achieveequality for African Americans.

After Reconstruction, most African Americans still lived in poverty.Legally, they could vote and hold public office. But few took part in pol-itics. They continued to face widespread violence and prejudice.

During this period, however, African Americans did make lastinggains. Protection of civil rights became part of the U.S. Constitution.The Fourteenth and Fifteenth amendments would provide a legal basisfor civil rights laws of the 20th century. Black schools and churchesbegun during Reconstruction also endured. Reconstruction changedsociety, putting African Americans on the path toward full equality. Inthe next unit, you will learn about other changes in American societyafter the Civil War.

2. Taking NotesReview the chapter and findfive significant individualsand events to place on a timeline as shown.

Which event or person wasmost important and why?

3. Main Ideasa. What did the FifteenthAmendment declare?

b. What effect did scandalsin the Grant administrationhave on the RepublicanParty?

c. What demands didSouthern Democrats make in the Compromise of 1877?

4. Critical ThinkingDrawing ConclusionsWhy do you think theRepublicans were willing toagree to the Compromise of1877 and end Reconstruction?

THINK ABOUT• the election of 1876• the Panic of 1873• the Supreme Court rulings

1. Terms & NamesExplain the

significance of:• Fifteenth

Amendment• Panic of 1873• Compromise of

1877

Section Assessment

ACTIVITY OPTIONS

LANGUAGE ARTSCIVICS

Research Ku Klux Klan activities barring African Americans from voting. Thenwrite a protest letter to the editor or propose a law to protect voting rights.

3

18771865

event

event event

event event

SkillbuilderAnswers1. Civil Rights Act of 1866;FourteenthAmendment2. FifteenthAmendment