© 2020 Moses Mike

DISASTER MANAGEMENT, COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES, AND CHALLENGES TO

RESILIENCE DURING TROPICAL STORM KAREN: THE STORY OF TRINIDAD

EXTENSION

By

MOSES MIKE

A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL

OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT

OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA

2020

© 2020 Moses Mike

Dedicated to anyone who needs a reminder to be resilient. One step at a time, one day at a time,

one line at a time, one smile at a time.

4

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

As this chapter of my life closes, it provides the opportunity to write new chapters in

various ways. However, I must recognize those who contributed to my life’s path to this point,

even though they may not know how. Firstly, I would like to thank my grandfather for

interpreting my inquisitions during my developmental years as sparks of greatness. To my uncle

Curtis, for reminding me that there is no substitute for hard work, experience, and practical

application, your support is always appreciated. I’ve had three mothers in my life, each at a

different stage, each with different lessons. To my biological mother, thanks for the life lessons

and the cooking skills. They came in really handy. To Joanne Mike-Ventour, thank you for the

investments during my early tertiary education career, they were not squandered. To my aunt

Charmaine, considering me your son from another mother was always stated with the actions to

support the claim. Our bond has grown considerably and will continue to grow in love. To my

wonderful wife Afiya… Hi! You’re next! Thank you for your understanding, patience,

appreciation, and puffs. You’re appreciated much more than you know. To Sonja Pollonias for

helping me recognize my greatness, even when it was just kindness. I would like to recognize

Professor Mattias Boman for a friendship that impressed me beyond words. Your thoughtfulness

and approachable personality will always be remembered and appreciated. To all the other

family members and in-laws who contributed in their own way, through lessons,

acknowledgements, accommodations, room and board, food, life references, the music, the

movies, or otherwise, I think you all understand that I appreciate the assistance.

Beyond my inner circle, acknowledgements must be paid to those who recognized my

ability to excel at an internationally acclaimed institution. To the faculty at the UWI: Professor

Carlisle Pemberton, Dr. Selby Nichols, and Dr. Hazel Patterson-Andrews, thank you for

believing in my abilities. The Trinidad seven: Professors Amy Harder, Grady Roberts, Nicole

5

Stedman, Robert Strong, James Lindner, Kim Dooley, and Dr. M’randa Sandlin, thank you for

allowing me to work with you all during your study abroad trips to my country, for the cultural

immersion experiences, and allowing me to share the wonderful sides of my country with you

and your students. To Dr. Katie Stofer, the kindness you extended to me when I arrived in

Gainesville will never be forgotten. To Dr. Glen Israel, please share more bird photos with me.

You were an unlikely bond that I am grateful to have formed. To Cathy Perkins for helping me

when I had no clue what was going on. To Catherine Clarke for always helping me in a motherly

way when I made mistakes. I thank you for making this experience wonderful.

Without reservation, I would like to thank my committee. Each member contributed

greatly to my study in their own way: Dr. Harder with knowledge on Trinidad Extension, Dr.

Lindsey with disaster management, Dr. Loizzo with new methodological approaches, and Dr.

Rampold with proper referencing. However, if it wasn’t for the mentorship and excellent desk-

side manners of Professor Ricky Telg, my committee chair, I may have enjoyed learning proper

the research process, proper writing, and my research focus much less. The green pen is not a

myth. To my long-time friend, Wilhelmina Kissonsingh, I appreciate the assistance with my

research. To Avril Charles for going above and beyond to help recruit participants and to Tracy

James for being my intermediary with the research participants, thank you.

To my friends that made the graduate student experience easier: Dr. Austin Council for

your lessons in humility, office conversation, and playing Warzone with me, Drs. Levy and

Tiffany Randolph for helping me expand my knowledge in agricultural communications, Dr.

Taylor Ruth for your guidance at conferences, Katrina Alford for letting me pet your dog when I

was stressed, Matthew Albritton for the talks: thank you all for the experiences. To the members

of the AEC GSA and that guided me when I needed it most, especially Natalie Ferrand for being

6

a level-headed debater, thank you. To the deeper friendships that I’ve made outside of the

academic system while in Gainesville: Stephanie, Bernadette, Tamsen, and Maggie, thank you

for the long talks, the long drives, the food runs, the photo sessions, the advice, self-reflection,

and the hugs when I absolutely needed them. To Meg for guiding my personal growth through

difficult lessons and vulnerability, you have helped me develop tremendously.

Lastly, I would like to recognize major influences in my early academic life that I often

don’t speak about but will always remember: To Ms. Gittins of Marabella Junior Secondary, I

remember your contributions more so now than ever. I am trying my hardest to reconnect with

you to show my appreciation. Mr. Samuels for the free math lessons because you recognized my

desire to try. To my physics teacher for kicking me out of class permanently, thank you for

teaching me discipline.

I know I’m forgetting many individuals that have helped shaped my life. However, the

story is not complete. See you in the next chapter.

7

TABLE OF CONTENTS

page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...............................................................................................................4

LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................................12

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................................13

ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................................14

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................16

Overview .................................................................................................................................16 Extension During Disaster ......................................................................................................16

Trinidad and Tobago ...............................................................................................................19 Extension in Trinidad .............................................................................................................24 Professional Resilience and Extension ...................................................................................29

Tropical Storm Karen: A Case Study .....................................................................................30 Problem Statement ..................................................................................................................34

Purpose and Objectives ...........................................................................................................35

Significance of Study ..............................................................................................................35

Definition of Terms ................................................................................................................36 Limitations ..............................................................................................................................37

Assumptions ...........................................................................................................................38 Chapter Summary ...................................................................................................................38

2 LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................................40

Overview .................................................................................................................................40 Disaster Management .............................................................................................................40

Planning and Disaster Management ................................................................................40

Training and Disaster Management .................................................................................44 Communication and Disaster Management .....................................................................47

Communication methods in extension .....................................................................48 Uses and gratifications theory in disaster management ...........................................51

The Role of Extension During Disasters ................................................................................53 The Caribbean Context ...........................................................................................................54

Disaster Vulnerability ......................................................................................................54

Extension in the Caribbean ..............................................................................................59 Disasters and Effects ...............................................................................................................64 Professional Resilience ...........................................................................................................65

The Professional Resilience Paradigm ............................................................................66 Professional Resilience in Research ................................................................................68

8

Resilience in Extension ...................................................................................................70 Resilience and Weather-related Disasters .......................................................................71

The Issues and Crisis Management Relational Model ...........................................................73 Cluster 1 - Crisis Preparedness ........................................................................................74 Cluster 2 - Crisis Prevention ............................................................................................75 Cluster 3 - Crisis Incident Management ..........................................................................76 Cluster 4 - Post Crisis Management ................................................................................77

Conceptual Model ...................................................................................................................78 Summary .................................................................................................................................82

3 METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................................83

Qualitative Methodology ........................................................................................................83

The Phenomenological Case Study Approach .......................................................................85 Data Collection .......................................................................................................................87 Instrument ...............................................................................................................................91

Data Analysis ..........................................................................................................................95 Concept Mapping ....................................................................................................................99

Drawings in Qualitative Research ........................................................................................102 Sample Selection and Inclusion Criteria ...............................................................................105 Trustworthiness .....................................................................................................................107

Subjectivity Statement ..........................................................................................................108 Summary ...............................................................................................................................110

4 RESULTS .............................................................................................................................111

Introduction ...........................................................................................................................111

The Research Participants .....................................................................................................112 Interview Results ..................................................................................................................113

Disaster Preparedness (RQ1) .........................................................................................113 Data collection ........................................................................................................114 Advice ....................................................................................................................115

Other categories ......................................................................................................116 Preparedness planning ............................................................................................116 Training ..................................................................................................................117

Disaster Response (RQ2) ..............................................................................................118 Field work ..............................................................................................................119

Challenges in response ...........................................................................................120 Communication During Tropical Storm Karen (RQ3) ..................................................122

The communication strategy ..................................................................................122 Requirements of the job .........................................................................................123 Challenges in communication ................................................................................125

Professional Resilience (RQ4) ......................................................................................126 Emotional stress .....................................................................................................127 Workload stress ......................................................................................................129 Physical stress ........................................................................................................130 Environmental stress ..............................................................................................131

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Concept Map Analysis ..........................................................................................................132 D1L1 ..............................................................................................................................132

O1L4 ..............................................................................................................................134 O2L4 ..............................................................................................................................136 O5L4 ..............................................................................................................................138 O7L4 ..............................................................................................................................139 A1L6 ..............................................................................................................................140

Drawing Analysis .................................................................................................................142 D1L1 ..............................................................................................................................143 O1L4 ..............................................................................................................................145 O2L4 ..............................................................................................................................146 O5L4 ..............................................................................................................................148

O7L4 ..............................................................................................................................150 A1L6 ..............................................................................................................................151

Summary ...............................................................................................................................152

5 CONCLUSION.....................................................................................................................154

Introduction ...........................................................................................................................154 Overview ...............................................................................................................................155

Disaster Preparedness ....................................................................................................155

Disaster Response ..........................................................................................................157 Communication Strategies .............................................................................................159

Challenges to Resilience ................................................................................................161 Other Findings ......................................................................................................................162

The relational and conceptual models ...........................................................................162 Drawings to Collect Data in Extension .........................................................................164

Implications and Recommendations for Practice .................................................................164 Implications/Recommendations Summary ....................................................................165 Disaster Management ....................................................................................................166

Technology for reliable data ..................................................................................167 Professional resilience support ...............................................................................168 Communication ......................................................................................................169

An Updated Conceptual Model .....................................................................................171 Other Implications and Recommendations ...................................................................173

Trinidad and Caribbean extension ..........................................................................173 Drawings as data ....................................................................................................174

Recommendations for Future Research ................................................................................175 Overall ...........................................................................................................................175 Disaster Preparedness ....................................................................................................176

Disaster Response ..........................................................................................................177 Disaster Communication ...............................................................................................178 Professional Resilience ..................................................................................................179

Limitations ............................................................................................................................180 Summary ...............................................................................................................................180

APPENDIX

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A EMAIL/TEXT MESSAGE SENT TO PARTICIPANTS ....................................................182

B INTERVIEW GUIDE: EXTENSION DIRECTORS ...........................................................183

C INTERVIEW GUIDE: EXTENSION OFFICERS ..............................................................187

LIST OF REFERENCES .............................................................................................................191

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH .......................................................................................................220

11

LIST OF TABLES

Table page

3-1 Sample coding used for each research question. ...............................................................97

12

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure page

1-1 Areas most susceptible to flooding in Trinidad ................................................................20

1-2 Population density in Trinidad ..........................................................................................21

1-3 Agricultural areas under production in Trinidad. Adapted from ......................................21

1-5 The organizational chart of the Ministry of Agriculture, Land, and Fisheries. .................26

2-1 Conceptual model of effective disaster management for Extension officers in

Trinidad. .............................................................................................................................79

3-1 Sample concept map analysis. .........................................................................................102

3-2 Participant rendered drawing analysis. ............................................................................105

4-1 Recreated concept map of participant D1L1. ..................................................................134

4-2 Concept map of participant O1L4....................................................................................136

4-3 Concept map of participant D2L4....................................................................................137



4-6 Concept map of participant A1L6....................................................................................142

4-7 Participant rendered drawing of participant D1L1 ..........................................................145

4-8 Participant rendered drawing of participant O1L4 ..........................................................146





5-1 An updated conceptual model for future consideration. ..................................................172

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CCRIF Caribbean Catastrophe Risk Insurance Facility

CDEMA Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency

DANA Damage Assessments and Needs Analyses

EDEN Extension Disaster Education Network

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

FDEM Florida Division of Emergency Management

GIS Geographic Information Systems

ICT Information and Communication Technologies

MALF Ministry of Agriculture, Land, and Fisheries

MFPLMA Ministry of Food Production, Land and Marine Affairs

NDA Non-disclosure Agreement

NDMN Caribbean National Disaster Management Network

ODPM Organization of Disaster Preparedness and Management

SIDS Small Island Developing States

TM Transcendental Meditation

U&G Uses and Gratifications Theory

U.S. United States

UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

UF/IFAS University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences

UN United Nations

USD United States Dollars

14

Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate School

of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

DISASTER MANAGEMENT, COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES, AND CHALLENGES TO

RESILIENCE DURING TROPICAL STORM KAREN: THE STORY OF TRINIDAD

EXTENSION

By

Moses Mike

August 2020

Chair: Ricky W. Telg

Major: Agricultural Education and Communication

Tropical Storm Karen was a weather-related disaster event that affected the agricultural

sector of Trinidad in 2019. The role of Extension professionals in disaster response is to assist

farmers in making flood incentive claims after a disaster, as well as serve their regular Extension

duties. The purpose of this study was to identify disaster management strategies, communication

strategies, challenges to professional resilience of Extension professionals during Tropical Storm

Karen. Tropical Storm Karen was used as a case study, and a qualitative approach using

interviews, concept maps, and drawings served as the data collection method. The constant

comparative technique was used to analyze the interview data across participants, while the

concept maps and drawings were compared with individual interview data for triangulation.

Concerning Research Question 1, the theme that emerged from the analysis was “disaster

preparedness was strategized through field activities.” The strategy of conducting field work, like

reconnaissance work and data collection, allowed the respondents to determine areas under

production, as well as vulnerable farmers. Preparedness planning and training were identified as

gaps in the preparedness strategy. In disaster response, major themes included field work and

challenges to response. Field work like reconnaissance work and data collection allowed the

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respondents to identify farmers and crops that were affected, and to begin the reporting process.

Challenges to response were identified as resource gaps and lack of field access. Communication

was strategized through considering the requirements of the position, as well as the compatibility

of technologies between Extension professionals and farmers. Concerning challenges to

resilience, the theme that emerged from the analysis was "Extension professionals in Trinidad

experienced various stresses in managing Tropical Storm Karen.” Categories concerning this

theme included emotional stresses, environmental stress, workload stresses, and physical

stresses. This study can enhance Caribbean-wide disaster management, as well as influence the

support provided to Extension professionals in the region.

The { TC ABSTRACT } in the first paragraph is a Table of Contents field that allows us

to bring the word “Abstract” into the TOC without assigning it a specific style. It can only be

seen if the show/hide toggle is set to “show.” Removing this will cause your Table of Contents to

be improperly formatted.

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Overview

The frequency and intensity of weather-related disasters have been found to be increasing

in recent years (Field, 2018; Woodward & Samet, 2018). Weather-related disaster events are

even more impactful on small island developing states because of their landmass and the

proximity to the shoreline. Tropical Storm Karen occurred in 2019 and affected many countries,

one of which was Trinidad. In response to weather-related disaster events like Tropical Storm

Karen, the Ministry of Agriculture, Land, and Fisheries (MALF) use Extension professionals to

assist farmers throughout the event. This chapter highlights the role of Extension professionals in

disaster management as found in the literature. Additionally, communication in disaster

management and resilience after disasters are also covered here. An examination of Trinidad,

Trinidad Extension, and the role of Trinidad Extension professionals is also presented in this

chapter. The research problem, purpose, objectives, limitations, and assumptions of the study

highlight the direction of the research, and the chapter ends with a summary.

Extension During Disaster

Globally, agricultural Extension services have played a vital role in moving information

to the clients they serve during floods, hurricanes, typhoons, and other disasters (Downey et al.,

2018; Kerr et al., 2018; Khan et al., 2019). In the United States (U.S.) context, more than a

century of experience in providing unique services has allowed Extension to bridge the gap

between science and clients by way of progressive problem-solving, and empowering

communities to improve lives and employ knowledge (Meek, 2019; Rumble et al., 2018).

Several authors have highlighted the role of Extension beyond the realm of commercial

agricultural education. Extension agents have a role in the formal education system, food waste

17

management, research, policy development, community development, and emergency response,

among other areas (Infante-Casella et al., 2018; Mccoy, 2019; Schroeder et al., 2018). As a result

of the Extension service’s position in communities, Extension agents have developed trusted

relationships with businesses, families, and local government, which can be critical in a variety

of ways (Angima & Stokes, 2019; Kerr et al., 2018).

Emergency response has been spearheaded by a combination of local, state, and federal

emergency response, depending on the magnitude of the disaster (Kerr et al., 2018). In this

regard, Extension has been assisting in emergency response from as early as 1927, during the

Great Flood of Mississippi (Downey et al., 2018). Since then, emergency training has been added

to the cadre of skills taught to Extension agents to assist in times of disaster (Roka et al., 2017).

Further, the Extension Disaster Education Network (EDEN), a country-wide Extension-based

emergency response operation, has assisted the public and Extension agents with managing

disasters through education and training (Kerr et al., 2018). As a result of the training and

education available, agents are better equipped to assist with addressing financial issues, food

safety issues, water safety issues and clean-up after a disaster (Kerr et al., 2018). Specifically,

Extension’s position has allowed agents to (a) evaluate disaster situations, (b) provide plans for

developing issues, (c) support those affected by disaster more directly, (d) evaluate the damages

caused to food and fiber sectors, (e) assist with recovery through clean-up and supply

coordination, (f) plan for the immediate future, and (g) prepare homes and businesses before and

after an event (Boteler, 2007; Edgar et al., 2012; Eighmy & Hall, 2012; Fanning & Guidry, 2010;

Long et al., 2015; Lutz & Lindell, 2008; Schattenberg, 2018). Additionally, volunteer and other

human resource management skills have become very important when assisting with disasters,

18

and some agents have been trained in this area (Downey et al., 2018; Kerr et al., 2018). In this

regard, Extension has positioned itself effectively to assist in managing an emergency response.

Apart from the Great Flood of 1927, Extension has also assisted in other major disaster

efforts, including the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, where four Sea Grant programs placed great

emphasis in including Extension communicators as liaisons for the communities and officials

during the cleanup (Sempier et al., 2018). Further, the response to the mudslide on Interstate 530,

Arkansas, that claimed lives and damaged infrastructure was also assisted by the Extension

service through the development of a 15-agent team, where the pooling of intellectual and

physical resources aided in the disaster relief efforts (Kerr et al., 2018). There have been seasonal

weather occurrences that may induce disaster situations across the United States. For example,

Extension agents must respond to the frequent occurrence of hurricanes in Florida, especially

during the hurricane season (Rumble et al., 2018).

Through the lens of climate change, weather-related disasters have become a point of

scientific discussion due to the increased intensity and frequency of weather events (Field, 2018;

Woodward & Samet, 2018). During the 2017 hurricane season, the record-breaking hurricane

activity in the Atlantic was characterized by 17 named storms and 10 hurricanes, with six of

those hurricanes being labeled as major (Trenberth et al., 2018; Wint, 2019). For reference, the

average activity during the Atlantic hurricane season includes 12 storms and six hurricanes

(Trenberth et al., 2018).

Disaster events like Hurricane Katrina have provided the unique opportunity to

intelligently rebuild healthier communities in response to the event, and the Extension service

can play a role in these efforts (Woodward & Samet, 2018). As Field (2018) writes:

Planning for possible future disasters is one of the most challenging

responsibilities of any society. Everyone expects their interests to be considered

19

when disaster strikes, but nobody wants to pay more than their fair share for

disaster preparation, response, and recovery. Because the damages from a disaster

typically increase almost exponentially with the magnitude of a heat wave, storm,

drought, or wildfire, it is important to plan for the biggest events – but these are

also the most infrequent (p. 73).

Trinidad and Tobago

The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago consist of two islands in the Caribbean with

distinctive traditions and with a total land mass of 5,130 square kilometers. Agricultural activity

on the dual-island nation has, historically, contributed to less than 1% of gross domestic product

(GPD) to a largely oil-based economy (Seepersad & Douglas, 2002; Shik et al., 2018). The

agricultural sector in Trinidad and Tobago remains vital to the social, cultural, and economic

livelihood of the people, as well as remains a point of food security for the government

(Ragoobir, 2018). The farming population in Trinidad consisted of small-scale farmers on small

parcels of land of less than five acres based on the former plantation system of the 19th century

(Ganpat, 2013). As a response to ensuring the longevity of the agricultural sector in Trinidad and

Tobago, several national, regional, and international initiatives have presented strategies to

manage the vulnerabilities of agriculture in the region (Narine et al., 2019; Renwick, 2010;

Roberts et al., 2016; Seepersad & Douglas, 2002). Trinidad and Tobago has been considered a

net importer of food, which makes preserving any agricultural production paramount to

surviving market shocks to trade, or changes in the global food economy (Narine et al., 2019;

Shik et al., 2018).

As a small and vulnerable island state, both islands have been highly susceptible to the

effects of adverse weather conditions that have historically impacted the agricultural sector in the

country (Roopnarine et al., 2018; Shik et al., 2018). The islands experience two distinct weather

seasons: a dry season lasting from January to May, and a rainy season lasting from June to

December (Mc Shine et al., 2019). Additionally, a hurricane season for the islands lasts from

20

August to November (Mc Shine et al., 2019). Flooding is of specific concern to the island of

Trinidad, where close to 50% of the island has been troubled by perennial flooding (Roberts,

2013; Roopnarine et al., 2018). Roopnarine et al. (2018) spoke of the history of flooding in

Trinidad, stating that the increased intensity of rainfall on the island adds to the burden of

perennial flooding. The historical sentiments of flooding were recently highlighted by Thongs

(2018), where her research indicated that flooding in Trinidad is frequent and devastating. Figure

1-1 shows the areas of the island that are most susceptible to flooding as reported by Roopnarine

et al. (2018).

Figure 1-1. Areas most susceptible to flooding in Trinidad. Adapted from “GIS-based flood

susceptibility and risk mapping Trinidad using weight factor modeling”, by

Roopnarine, R., Opadeyi, J., Eudoxie, G., Thongs, G. and Edwards, E., 2016,

Caribbean Journal of Earth Science, 49 (1), p.7. Copyright 2018 by the Geological

Society of Jamaica

In mapping flood susceptibility and flood risk in Trinidad, Roopnarine et al. (2018)

highlighted the population risk map of flooding, where it was found that close to 25% of the

population were either at high or very high risk of flooding (Roopnarine et al., 2018). The flood

susceptible areas overlaps with many of the densely populated areas for Trinidad (See Figure 1-

21

2) (Roopnarine et al., 2018). These areas remain attractive for many socio-economic reasons,

including agriculture and farming (Roopnarine et al., 2018). See Figure 1-3 for the agricultural

areas under production in Trinidad (FAO.org, 2020).

Figure 1-2. Population density in Trinidad. Adapted from “GIS-based flood susceptibility and

risk mapping Trinidad using weight factor modeling”, by Roopnarine, R., Opadeyi, J.,

Eudoxie, G., Thongs, G. and Edwards, E., 2016, Caribbean Journal of Earth Science,

49 (1), p.7. Copyright 2018 by the Geological Society of Jamaica

Figure 1-3. Agricultural areas under production in Trinidad. Adapted from “Country report on

the state of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture: Trinidad and Tobago”, by

FAO.org, 2020 (http://www.fao.org/3/i1500e/Trinidad and Tobago.pdf).

22

A 2013 Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) report on disaster risk management

for the Caribbean highlighted the various weather-related vulnerabilities of the region. In this

report, while other disasters were highlighted, Trinidad and Tobago’s primary disaster issue was

flooding (Roberts, 2013). In 2011, Trinidad and Tobago was reported to have the lowest score of

a Risk Management Index among all 15 Caribbean countries, where higher scores mean better

performance on natural disaster risk management (Sarmiento & Hoberman, 2011).

A major institution for disaster management in Trinidad is the Office of Disaster

Preparedness and Management (ODPM). Established in 2005, the ODPM is a national disaster

response sub-section of the Ministry of National Security that has been mandated to assist the

government in disaster management through a multi-hazard approach, which includes the

development of policies and plans (Griffith, 2019; Kanhai et al., 2016). Several authors have

highlighted the activities of the ODPM, which include data collection, damage assessment,

media releases, and disaster information (Griffith, 2019; Kanhai et al., 2016; Middelbeek et al.,

2014; Sarmiento & Hoberman, 2011). Sarmiento and Hoberman (2011) identified standout

responsibilities of the organization as first responder coordination, infrastructural protection,

reduction of disaster risk through preparedness and mitigation activities, and community

outreach. The office’s mission highlights the goal of building a disaster-resilient nation through

coordinated efforts in disaster response and recovery (Griffith, 2019). The ODPM has also

conducted drills in selected communities and partnered with other organizations to increase their

disaster management efficiency (Kanhai et al., 2016). Like many other organizations that

participate in disaster management, the ODMP identifies common phases of management as

preparedness, mitigation, response, recovery, and rehabilitation. The weather-related hazards

23

identified on the website include tsunamis, landslides, hurricanes, tropical storms, and flooding

(Griffith, 2019; Holmes, 2017).

Regarding Extension, the ODPM identified Extension officers as key personnel in

conducting Damage Assessments and Needs Analyses (DANA), which were reported to be

initiated 48 hours after a disaster has occurred, and which may last several weeks. Additionally,

media advisories, issued by the ODPM through social media and mass media, identify some

responsibilities of Extension professionals, which primarily involves conducting damage

assessments, need assessments, and compensation assessments.

In 2018, Trinidad and Tobago experienced flooding that some reports indicate was the

worst in over 50 years (Wilkinson, 2018). Around mid-October in 2018, consistent heavy rains

and gusty winds gave way to widespread flooding, landslides, damaged property, and

agricultural loss (CARICOM Today, 2018). Reports from local news sources suggested that

more than 3,500 homes and 120,000 individuals were directly affected by the flooding, with

ripple effects being felt by commuters, businesses, and transportation services (Achong, 2018;

Dixon, 2018; Ragoobir, 2018). While many agencies speculate the reason for the flooding, it has

been cited that improper planning and infrastructural development was largely to blame

(Wilkinson, 2018). As it relates to the food sector, key agricultural areas were severely affected

by the floods, with reports of losses in machinery, property, crops, and livestock, up to $500,000

Unites States Dollars (USD) (estimated) per farm in some cases (Dixon, 2018; Ragoobir, 2018).

Farmers suggested that the maximum reimbursement of $2,900 USD (estimated) in

compensation provided by the Trinidad and Tobago government per eligible farmer was

insufficient to cover losses (Dixon, 2018).

24

However, after the weather-related disaster of 2018, local, regional, and international

initiatives were established to assist Trinidad with managing disasters. At the international level,

the Pacific Disaster Center, located in Hawaii, partnered with the Trinidad and Tobago

government to conduct a National Disaster Preparedness Baseline Assessment (PDC Global,

2019). This initiative aimed to strengthen national disaster resilience and disaster management,

while reducing economic impacts and human loss during natural disasters (PDC Global, 2019).

Regionally, the Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency (CDEMA) conducted a

workshop to strengthen communication and disaster response ahead of the 2019 hurricane season

in Trinidad (CDEMA, 2019). Both initiatives collaborated with the Ministry of National Security

in Trinidad through the ODPM. Locally, the Ministry of National Security, along with other

government ministries, which include MALF, have redefined disaster management strategies for

the country (Weekes & Bello, 2019).

Extension in Trinidad

According to Ganpat (2013), the assignment of two agricultural instructors in 1901 was

the commencement of agricultural Extension in Trinidad and Tobago. Since then, the Extension

service has grown to appoint agricultural assistants, technical officers, and Extension officers, all

supervised by Extension directors, to serve the agricultural sector in Trinidad and Tobago in

various ways (Ganpat, 2013). Because Trinidad and Tobago was a British colony, the

government of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago was patterned after the British system of

governance, where a collection of government ministries oversee various segments of the

country’s affairs (Saravanan, 2010; Sarmiento & Hoberman, 2011). MALF forms the branch of

the government that oversees the country’s agricultural agendas, including the public Extension

service (Narine, 2018).

25

As represented by the organizational chart of the MALF (Figure 1-5), four main levels of

the organizational structure can be described: the leadership (Minister, Permanent Secretary,

Deputy Permanent Secretary, and Chief Technical Officer), administrative units, specialized

units, and regional units. Frontline Extension officers usually operate from the regional,

decentralized units, and serve clients in the regions to which they were assigned, but Extension

officers may serve in the specialized units as well (Ganpat, 2013; Saravanan, 2010; Seepersad &

Douglas, 2002). Within this structure, the three equal-in-power divisions of Extension include

the Extension, Training, and Information Services Division (ETIS), the Regional Administration

North (RAN), and the Regional Administration South (RAS) (Parker, 2016). ETIS was tasked

with the responsibility of communicating agricultural information to the public through fact

sheets, live demonstrations, and other information channels (Narine, 2018). However, the

Extension officers at ETIS were not responsible for farm visits (Narine, 2018; Parker, 2016;

Seepersad & Ganpat, 2008).

The regional administration units of MALF are responsible for frontline Extension with

farmers, which include farm visits (Narine, 2018; Seepersad & Ganpat, 2008). The RAN office

oversees the Extension services in the northern counties of Trinidad, including Caroni, St.

George, St. David, and St. Andrew, (Narine, 2018; Parker, 2016). The RAS office manages the

Extension service of the southern counties, including Nariva, Mayaro, Victoria, and St. Patrick

(Narine, 2018; Parker, 2016). Each county has its own Extension office (Parker, 2016). The

county Extension offices provide administrative services, accommodate farm visits, and arrange

training for farmers, among other crop and livestock services (Narine, 2018; Seepersad &

Ganpat, 2008). The RAN and RAS are headed by a director to oversee their region’s Extension

work, which include the county offices and the services they provide (Seepersad & Ganpat,

26

2008). ETIS was also managed by a director (Seepersad & Ganpat, 2008). While many

characteristics of Extension officers outlined here were similar on both islands (Trinidad and

Tobago), it is important to note that the Extension service in Tobago is managed under the

Tobago House of Assembly, which operates politically different where Extension is concerned

(Ganpat, 2013; Narine, 2018; Parker, 2016; Ramdwar & Stoute, 2015).

Figure 1-5. The organizational chart of the Ministry of Agriculture, Land, and Fisheries.

Adapted from: agriculture.gov.tt

In terms of demographic characteristics, numerous articles have noted that the average

public sector Extension officer is in their late 30s, with more than 10 years of experience in the

field of Extension (Ramdwar & Stoute, 2015; Ramdwar, Stoute, & Ganpat, 2015; Roberts et al.,

2016). Research has also indicated that more than 70% of Extension officers were male, and

most have obtained, at least, a diploma-level education (Ramdwar & Stoute, 2015; Ramdwar et

al., 2015; Roberts et al., 2016; Saravanan, 2010). Regional Extension officers have been reported

to share some of these characteristics as well (Strong et al., 2014). Generally, Extension officers

27

in Trinidad relied heavily on traditional (face-to-face) information techniques to communicate

with their clients (Bekele & Ganpat, 2016; Narine et al., 2019; Ramdwar et al., 2015; Renwick,

2010; Roberts et al., 2016; Strong et al., 2014). This speaks positively to disaster management as

Extension officers in Trinidad were positioned well to identify preparedness and response needs

of their clients per geographic area, as well as the needs with regards to their Extension duties.

Conversely, several authors have also described the number of Extension officers

compared to the clients they serve as disproportional. There were close to 600 farmers for every

one of the 90 Extension officers in Trinidad (Ramdwar & Stoute, 2015; Ramjattan et al., 2017;

Roberts et al., 2016; Strong et al., 2014). Ramdwar et al. (2015) suggested that the disparity in

the numbers of Extension officers to farmers means that the face-to-face method of Extension

detracts from farmers having regular Extension visits, as face-to-face visits were time

consuming. Strong et al. (2014) also noted this disparity. Narine et al. (2018) stated that,

culturally, Extension officers in Trinidad have preferred face-to-face communication, as it allows

for days outside the office to escape administrative duties and directly serve clients.

Programming is generally geared towards small farmers, with a focus on increasing agricultural

productivity (Saravanan, 2010). However, it was reported that Extension officers still engage in

numerous administrative duties, which increases the inefficiencies in serving clients regularly

(Ramjattan et al., 2017).

Various authors described the traditional client-related responsibilities of Extension

officers as information transfer (Bekele & Ganpat, 2016; Narine, 2018; Ramdwar et al., 2015;

Roberts et al., 2016). Bekele and Ganpat (2016) viewed the historical role of Extension as the

extension of knowledge and transfer of information from knowledge centers to clients. However,

instead of knowledge extension and information transfer, Ramdwar, et. al. (2015) suggested that

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there was a gradual move towards a knowledge-share concept of Extension, where the Extension

officers and farmers learn from each other. Additionally, the Extension system is suggested to be

evolving towards adult education and experiential learning techniques to enable clients in various

agricultural situations (Ramjattan et al., 2017). Jeet et al. (2017) has also stated that Extension in

Trinidad is moving towards involving other entities in the service, where various service

providers, stakeholders, farmers, and teaching methods were used in the sharing of knowledge.

Strategizing disaster management with clients can be easily facilitated in this process, as officers

can understand client needs in knowledge exchange, as well as involve key disaster management

organizations to prepare Extension clients.

Regarding frontline Extension officers’ duties, these individuals were considered

generalists since they address a wide range of agricultural-related problems, from new

technology transfer to data collection on farm issues (Saravanan, 2010). As needs arise,

Extension officers are often asked to perform duties outside their job specifications, which may

include relationship management, community development, disaster damage assessment, and

administration of subsidies (Ramjattan et al., 2017; Saravanan, 2010). Ramjattan et al. (2017)

stated that “the service personnel in the public extension system are stated to be without clear

mandates and policies. They possess low competencies, lack motivation and have undefined

roles” (p. 156). While an official Extension officer job specification sheet was not available on

the Ministry’s website as of May 8, 2020, the website highlighted that officers are able to

provide advisory services on plant pest and diseases, production of agricultural commodities

(including livestock), record keeping, and water management, among others. Notably, no direct

reference to disaster management, except for resources on how to apply for flood relief, was

provided. The Ministry has provided a strategic plan that was scheduled to be fulfilled between

29

2011 to 2015 under, what was then, the Ministry of Food Production, Land and Marine Affairs

(MFPLMA). However, flooding was the only weather-related disaster covered by the plan, and it

was only highlighted once in the document through flood water management (MFPLMA, 2011).

According to Ramjattan et. al. (2017), if Extension officers can directly identify what

they were supposed to do and what they actually do, it can lead to increased efficiencies for the

individual and the organization. After a flooding event, Extension officers were expected to

assist the government and clients by assessing the financial damage to farms, which is necessary

for farmers to claim reimbursement, but was not highlighted as a clear part of their job

description (“Barrackpore farmers report,” 2017).

Professional Resilience and Extension

Although the national community may focus on the physical impact associated with

weather-related disasters, individual impacts, like psychological and emotional effects, also

occur (Warbington et al., 2019). Previous research in the field of Extension provide context that

other Extension professionals faced these impacts associated with disasters (Ali, 2019; Ricard et

al., 2017; Telg et al., 2008). In this light, professional resilience concerns are at play for

Extension officers. Professional resilience can be defined as the maintenance of one’s

occupational performance and health in spite of a stressful circumstance (Fink-Samnick, 2007).

However, professional resilience, which is learned over time, can also be defined as the balance

between work stress and life challenges, while maintaining professional values (Lambert &

Lawson, 2013). Graham (2019) wrote that resilience can be strengthened or diminished through

experience. Additionally, the management of past stresses can influence the resilience of present

and future challenges (Lambert & Lawson, 2013). Since Extension professionals respond to

several weather-related disasters over time, the professional resilience of Extension officers in

Trinidad may have changed through Tropical Storm Karen. Recent research highlighted that

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some general barriers to resilience include stress, performance deficits, lack of motivation, and

courage (Ali, 2019; Fink-Samnick, 2009; Hoopes, 2012; Maddi, 2005).

Several methods of estimating resilience in individuals exist, including self-enhancement,

repressive coping, and positive emotion (Maddi, 2005). However, Fink-Samnick's (2009)

professional resilience paradigm forms the basis for the resilience elements of the conceptual

model in the current study presented in Chapter 2. Fink-Samnick (2009) highlighted that major

events can cut through the personal-professional spectrum. Using the global economic crisis of

2008, Fink-Samnick (2009) proposed that professional resilience be operationalized for industry

practice. The subsequent Professional Resilience Paradigm was developed to give professionals

the controls over their workplace stresses (Fink-Samnick, 2017). The six building blocks of

professional resilience as presented by Fink-Samnick (2009) include promoting physical and

psychological self-care, maintaining inner strength, defining personal and professional value,

being motivated to achieve personal and professional goals, advocating for self, and knowing

that these concepts enhance career longevity. The Professional Resilience Paradigm will be used

to gauge the professional resilience in Extension officers in Trinidad and is discussed further in

Chapter 2.

Tropical Storm Karen: A Case Study

According to the Caribbean Catastrophic Risk Insurance Facility (CCRIF) (2019), a

tropical cyclone off the northeast of Trinidad developed into a tropical storm named Karen.

Trinidad and Tobago was placed on a red alert by the ODPM and the Ministry of National

Security on September 22, 2019, after local weather was forecasted to worsen in terms of rainfall

and wind (Golembo et al., 2019; Moreno, 2019; Phillip, 2019). Maximum sustained winds were

estimated to be 65 kilometers per hour, and tropical storm-force winds were extending from the

center at about 205 kilometers per hour (CCRIF, 2019). During the developmental stages of

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Tropical Storm Karen, rainfall was forecast by experts as between two to four inches of rain, but

isolated areas had a possibility of accumulating up to eight inches of rain (Mansoor, 2019).

However, FloodlistNews (2019) forecasted rainfall highs of up to approximately six inches of

rain.

In reporting on the effects of Tropical Storm Karen, the Caribbean Catastrophe Risk

Insurance Facility (CCRIF) (2019) stated that during the main days of the event (September 20-

September 24, 2019), the Global Surface Summary of the Day (GSOD) recorded approximately

3.5 inches of rainfall at its main rain gauges at Piarco, a central area in Trinidad. However,

satellite-derived estimates aligned the total rainfall figures closer to those reported by

FloodlistNews (2019): close to six inches of rain. For reference, rainfall for the entire month of

September averages approximately seven inches in Trinidad (Vega-Corredor & Opadeyi, 2014).

In terms of the impact of Tropical Storm Karen, Phillip (2019) highlighted flooding in

many areas of North and Central Trinidad, aligning with flood risk maps highlighted by

Roopnarine et al. (2018). Flood waters rose to four feet in some homes, forcing evacuations in

many instances (Phillip, 2019). Connelly (2019) reported that over 300 calls were placed to the

Emergency Management Agency when the storm began subsiding. In another newspaper report,

Connelly (2019a) reported that Tropical Storm Karen wreaked havoc in the country, leading to

widespread flooding and other damages to residential and commercial properties. Reports of cars

being swept away by the floods, damaged roofs, flooded homes, destroyed properties, and

important personal losses were recorded by news media outlets (CCRIF, 2019; Connelly, 2019b,

2019a; Floodlist, 2019; Rampersad, 2019; Sambrano, 2019; Watson, 2019). Broken river banks,

landslides, and fallen trees were some of the effects (Connelly, 2019). Besides the damages to

homes and other commercial property, the agriculture industry faced damages to agricultural

32

lands, crops, and the fisheries sector by way of sunken fishing boats (Brackett, 2019). Reports of

seven sunken boats, boats that went adrift, and a destroyed jetty can also be counted as part of

the damages to the agricultural sector through fisheries (Connelly, 2019a). The government also

mobilized resources in the health sector by way of preparing supply redundancies, improving

communication protocols, stocking pharmaceutical supplies, and preparing medical locations, in

response to Tropical Storm Karen (Superville, 2019).

In terms of overall cost, one newspaper reported that Trinidad and Tobago incurred

upwards of $6 million USD (estimated) in damages due to Tropical Storm Karen (Nicholas,

2019). In addition to the direct loss due to the storm, the Government of Trinidad and Tobago

also issued grants that totalled $100,000 USD (estimated) to citizens who were displaced by the

event. CCRIF (2019) estimated government losses due to Tropical Storm Karen warrants flood

reimbursements of US$362,982.

A news release from the government of Trinidad and Tobago indicated that the MALF

staff assisted various state agencies in their response to the effects of Tropical Storm Karen. The

assistance rendered included clearing of trees and impediments that can affect commuters, as

well as monitoring key food production areas. Major agricultural gene banks were also secured

ahead of what could have been a catastrophic hit to food security for the country. Additionally,

zoo animals were secured by ministry officials, and advisories on how to manage livestock

carcasses and fishery interests were issued (News.gov.tt, 2019).

After Tropical Storm Karen had subsided, the MALF urged farmers to make claims for

agricultural losses due to the adverse weather through Extension officers and Extension offices

(De Souza, 2019). While marginal areas to the south and east of Trinidad were largely unaffected

by Tropical Storm Karen, there were reports of flood-prone central areas being affected due to

33

breaches in nearby waterways (Sambrano, 2019). A news release from the MALF indicated that

officers and agricultural engineers were out assessing and managing the effects of Tropical

Storm Karen (De Souza, 2019; Doondath, 2019). However, after most of the heavy rains

subsided, the aftermath of Tropical Storm Karen left 350 acres of agricultural lands under flood

waters (Rampersad, 2019). Crops affected included sweet pepper, eggplant, hot pepper, lettuce,

cauliflower, celery, tomato, and zucchini (Doondath, 2019). The effects of Tropical Storm Karen

also gathered international attention from news rooms like The Insider and ABC News after

Trinidad was illustrated as a flood-damaged country (Golembo et al., 2019; Sosnowski, 2019;

Watson, 2019). After Tropical Storm Karen, the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on

Agriculture (IICA), in an interview with the Minister of Agriculture, Land, and Fisheries,

Senator the Honorable Clarence Rambharat, stated that the Ministry considers flooding to be the

country’s number one risk for local agriculture (IICA, 2019). Additionally, the minister called

for greater focus on disaster preparedness and response planning for the future. MALF’s

Facebook page, a major source of its informational releases, indicated on September 22, 2019,

that the Ministry supported other emergency response agencies in alignment with a recently

commissioned disaster risk management plan considering Tropical Storm Karen.

Tropical Storm Karen presents key characteristics to be considered a case study.

According to Baxter and Jack (2008), a case study can be considered as a research approach

when the phenomenon is contextual. Gillham (2000) stated that the case study approach can be

applied to almost any phenomenon, the case simply needs to be defined. Similarly, Bickman and

Rog (2009) wrote that case studies can be a single event with unique characteristics. All authors

identified that case studies aim to extract an in-depth understanding of the case under

investigation (Baxter & Jack, 2008; Bickman & Rog, 2009; Gillham, 2000).

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In the case of Extension officers’ response to Tropical Storm Karen, several defining

characteristics should be considered. Firstly, Tropical Storm Karen was the first weather-related

disaster after the devastating floods in 2018. Secondly, it was the first disaster after the series of

local, regional, and international plans were initiated to increase disaster management response

for the country, many of which had immediate budget disbursements and government

interventions. Finally, Tropical Storm Karen came after MALF initiated a disaster management

plan for agriculture, to mitigate against the fallout of any future catastrophes after 2018.

Problem Statement

While Extension professionals are expected to aid in the development of communities,

several authors have highlighted disaster management and communication as premiere issues in

the agriculture sector in Trinidad (Cooper, 2015; FAO, 2015, 2018; Khan et al., 2019; Roberts,

2013). Extension officers’ dependence on traditional communication strategies and the

disproportionate ratio of Extension professionals to clients suggests room for improving

communication strategies during disasters. Combined with national, regional, and international

agendas to improve communication and disaster management within the agricultural sector on

the island, the potential for improvement in the aforementioned areas have already been

identified.

Regarding national policies, plans, and strategies for disaster management, Tropical

Storm Karen presents the opportunity for research to evaluate the roles of Extension

professionals during this weather-related disaster. In 2018, a major weather-related disaster

prompted immediate plans by the government to mitigate against the negative effects of weather-

related disasters in Trinidad. Additionally, Ramjattan et. al. (2018) confirms a need to evaluate

the roles of Extension professionals during weather-related disasters. In so doing, the personal

35

and professional resilience of these individuals must be considered. The projections of weather-

related disasters are suggested to intensify for the country (Middelbeek et al., 2014), while annual

disasters still occur. These factors suggest that the agricultural sector in Trinidad, which has been

long affected by the burden of perennial flooding, requires efficient disaster management. As

such, this research sought to evaluate the disaster management, communication, and resilience

strategies employed by Extension professionals in Trinidad during Tropical Storm Karen in

2019.

Purpose and Objectives

The purpose of this study was to identify disaster management strategies, communication

strategies, challenges to professional resilience of Extension professionals during Tropical Storm

Karen. Specific research questions are as follows:

• Research Question 1 (RQ1): How was weather-related disaster preparedness strategized by

Extension professionals in Trinidad during Tropical Storm Karen?

• Research Question 2 (RQ2): How was weather-related disaster response process strategized

by Extension professionals in Trinidad during Tropical Storm Karen?

• Research Question 3 (RQ3): How was communication strategized by Extension professionals

in Trinidad during Tropical Storm Karen?

• Research Question 4 (RQ4): What are the challenges to professional resilience experienced


Significance of Study

The results of this study have the potential to prepare Extension professionals in Trinidad

and Tobago to more effectively respond to weather-related emergencies as prescribed by local,

regional, and international agendas (FAO, 2015; Roberts, 2013). Disasters rarely affect one

institution (Adkins, 2012). Therefore, this study can potentially highlight the institutions that are

critical in assisting the Trinidad Extension service in managing disasters in a more holistic

36

manner. By using an integrated crisis management model, disaster management can structure a

cohesive communication effort to better assist stakeholders from pre- to post-event responses.

The component parts of the Jaques (2007) issue and crisis relational model, discussed in Chapter

3, can be used to assist the Extension service in planning, executing, monitoring, and evaluating

the Extension service’s efforts in Trinidad and Tobago in its ability to effectively communicate

with their clients and the public. Finally, this study has the potential for research longevity as per

implementation in other countries, as well as comparative studies for countries that have

employed the same strategies. A comparison of the disaster management strategies in Florida and

Trinidad can assist in identifying gaps in the research, as well as project future research in

additional areas.

Definition of Terms

• Agricultural assistant: An Extension professional supervised by an Extension officer

(Seepersad & Ganpat, 2008).

• Agricultural Extension: A service provided to farmers to transfer knowledge from

researchers, deliver advice, assist farmers in decision making, and clarifying farmer goals

and responsibilities for agricultural development (Anderson & Feder, 2007).

• Crisis communication: “The collection of processing and dissemination of information

required to address a crisis situation” (Coombs, 2010, p. 20).

• Disaster: “A serious disruption of the functioning of a society, causing widespread human,

material, or environmental losses which exceed the ability of affected society to cope using

only its own resources.” (Alcantarantara-Ayala, 2002, p. 110).

• Disaster management: “A set of rehearsed action which will reduce the likelihood of a

disaster occurring and further also reduce the extent of damage should a disaster

occur.”(Asamoah et al., 2018, p. 219).

• Extension agents: Individuals hired by land-grant universities in the United States to develop

and execute educational programming in a specific subject area to meet the needs of the

communities they serve (University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences,

2007).

• Extension director: An individual hired by the Government of Trinidad and Tobago to lead

specific units regarding Extension, and supervise Extension officers (Narine, 2018).

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• Frontline Extension officer: An individual hired by the Trinidad and Tobago government to

deliver extension services to farmers (Narine, 2018).

• Extension in Trinidad: A service provided by the Ministry of Agriculture, Land, and

Fisheries to distribute information to farmers and conduct farm visits for the development of

the agricultural sector in Trinidad (Narine, 2018).

• Extension professional: Any individual hired in an official capacity to deliver Extension

services in Trinidad to a target population.

• Preparedness: Actions taken to prevent and mitigate human and financial damage or loss

(Malkina-Pykh & Pykh, 2015, p. 260).

• Personal resilience: One’s capacity to manage high levels of challenges while regaining or

maintaining effectiveness (Hoopes, 2017).

• Professional resilience: The balance between work stress and life challenges, while

maintaining professional values (Lambert & Lawson, 2013, p. 263).

Limitations

The primary limitation of this study was the use of a case study approach. Several

researchers identified that case studies are only generalizable for the situation under

investigation, and provide a snapshot of an event in time (Ary et al., 2010; Fediuk et al., 2012;

Flyvbjerg, 2006). Secondly, a snowball sampling method was used to identify research

participants for this study. While a structured approach was established to initiate the snowball,

limitations of snowball sampling have been documented by various researchers, such as the fact

that it is a non-probability sampling technique.

Thirdly, a limitation of this study was that Extension professionals were asked to recall

their efforts during Tropical Storm Karen from memory. Working during a high-stress situation

as a weather disaster could lead to incorrect memory recall and could affect the data collected.

Finally, the COVID-19 pandemic impeded the data collection process as the government of

Trinidad and Tobago implemented social distancing mandates, which altered the operations of

Extension professionals. The pandemic altered the operations of Extension professionals by

38

establishing a shift system in Extension offices, further reducing the office time of Extension

staff.

Assumptions

It was assumed that Extension professionals in Trinidad were involved in all aspects of

disaster management, from mitigation to post-response, such that they can participate in the

study efficiently. Additionally, it was assumed that respondents could provide a reliable

recollection of past events at different points in history from memory, from assisting with

disaster management, to their emotions and feeling while working through a disaster. Further, it

is assumed that the sample size was appropriate to capture the information being asked by the

research questions. The ability of an individual to sufficiently communicate their stress was

another assumption of this study. Finally, it was assumed that the target sample would answer

truthfully and without bias.

Chapter Summary

This chapter provided context for the current study. Described in this chapter was an

overview of Extension in the U.S., the Caribbean, and Trinidad. Additionally, the function of the

Extension service in disaster management was also described in specific geographic locations

and with various examples. The unique elements of Trinidad Extension were explained and

linked to the role that can be played in disaster management. Further, the disaster context in the

Caribbean and in Trinidad was also highlighted to provide a better picture for the current study.

The development of Tropical Storm Karen, as well as the social, economic, and environmental

impacts were highlighted, along with the effects on the agricultural sector in Trinidad.

Information on local, regional, and international initiatives were mentioned in this chapter, along

with the historical context of past weather-related disasters that lead to their implementation.

After the 2018 flooding disaster in Trinidad, several plans were initiated to assist in the event of

39

another weather-related disaster. As a result, using Tropical Storm Karen as a case study, this

research will investigate the disaster management, communication, and resilience strategies

employed by Trinidad Extension professionals during this event.

40

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Overview

This chapter provides literature on disaster preparedness, disaster response,

communication, and resilience during disasters. Covered in these sections are previous research

findings on disaster management, with specific focus on disaster preparedness and disaster

response. Also highlighted in this section is research on the role of Extension in disaster

management in a global context, the U.S. context, the Caribbean context, and the Trinidad

context. Communication during disasters was evaluated and the role of communication in

disaster management was also underscored. Research on resilience within Extension and in other

sectors assisted in identifying factors that affected professional resilience based on previous

research. The Jaques (2007) relational model is described, and the similarities with other models

are outlined in this chapter. The disaster management literature, communication literature, and

the resilience literature are then tied to the conceptual model for the current study, where Uses

and Gratification Theory, Fink-Samnick’s (2009) professional resilience model, and Jaques’

(2007) relational model form the foundation.

Disaster Management

In covering literature on disaster preparedness, several themes arose from previous

research. Some of these included disaster management planning, training, and communication,

among others. Themes are presented in subsections below.

Planning and Disaster Management

The discussion of critical disaster plans and planning was a major highlight found in

previous research. Zakaria, Ahmad, Noor, and Ahmad (2018), in their research on knowledge

integration during disasters in Malaysia, found that having a disaster plan allows for efficient

41

disaster management. A qualitative approach was used in the study to evaluate the impact of

knowledge integration of flood disasters in the district of Kememan. A previous study by Zakaria

et al. (2018) included knowledge of the following elements as part of disaster planning:

Basic information on different ways to handle floods, flood kits for victims and

information on relief centres. Placement centres, cooking areas, food depots and

places to store items donated by the public have also been identified during this

period… Receipts for essential items; registration of victims with the allocated

relief centres; food management; and distribution of goods to be donated to flood

victims. (p. 400)

In a disaster management plan that became the gold standard for disaster management in

Malaysia, it was concluded in the study that knowledge integration was an important element in

the success of the disaster management plan (Zakaria et al., 2018).

Specific to Extension, a mixed methods study with 328 Extension faculty in Florida from

Telg et al. (2008) found that 94% of respondents knew of a disaster handbook, and 85% of

respondents knew where the handbook was stored at their office. However, more than 60% of

the respondents either never used the plan or used it minimally, and close to 69% of respondents

were never trained on the use of the handbook (Telg et al., 2008). The researchers suggested that

being familiar with this document can be important in disaster management (Telg et al., 2008).

In another study with Extension agents in Connecticut, the researchers found similar

results to Telg et al. (2008), where agents themselves were generally unsure of the disaster plans

at their Extension centers (Ricard et al., 2017). In a sample of 62 Extension professionals, the

results of the study indicated that 44% of the Extension agents disagreed that there was disaster

planning at their Extension Center, and 88% of respondents either strongly agreed or agreed that

there should be a disaster management plan (Ricard et al., 2017). The research uncovered both

personal and professional preparedness items, where only 13 respondents either agreed or

42

strongly agreed to having a disaster plan at home, but 97% of respondents agreed that they

should have a plan for the home or office (Ricard et al., 2017).

Research with 24 Extension professionals in North Dakota revealed that 53% of

Extension offices had an active, defined role in their county’s emergency plans (Eighmy & Hall,

2012). It was indicated that part of the planning process for Extension agents was being up-to-

date with county-wide emergency plans, and reporting client needs and issues where necessary

(Eighmy & Hall, 2012). Kerr et al. (2018) also highlighted the importance planning in reporting

on Washington State University Extension’s response to a mudslide on State Road 530 in the

state of in Washington. Kerr et al. (2018) reported that Extension-placed interns were placed in

communities to assist in planning to assist in post recovery activities. This initiative of the

Extension service, as well as the use of existing disaster management plans, led to legislative

changes and future planning for managing disasters (Kerr et al., 2018).

Extension has played an important role in managing both natural and man-made

disasters. The Extension agencies close to the location of the devastating mudslide in

Washington formed a 15-member team that pooled its intellectual and physical resources to

manage this disaster (Kerr et al., 2018). One such man-made disaster concerned the Deep Water

Horizon oil spill, which negatively affected marine and coastal areas, damaging coastal life and

those who depended on it (Lindsey, 2013; Sempier et al., 2018). Due to the lack of an early

warning system or space for planning for an event of this magnitude, Extension was important to

the disaster recovery efforts through its integration into four Sea Grant programs to provide

communication to the affected stakeholders (Lindsey, 2013; Sempier et al., 2018). Lindsey

(2013) stated that Extension was an important part of this recovery effort by developing

messaging, and correcting misinformation.

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In other studies outside of Extension, Asamoah et al. (2018) conducted research with 92

officials of various Ministries in Ghana concerning disaster management. The researchers found

that 73.8% of respondents were not aware of any disaster control or disaster recovery plan,

indicating a low level of disaster preparedness (Asamoah et al., 2018). In a similar study on

disaster plan awareness, researchers interviewed 40 library officials from Namibia, and over 50%

of the participants indicated that they were not aware of any disaster preparedness plan (Nyanga

et al., 2018). Further, some of the participants who were aware that a plan existed, were not

aware of the contents of the plan (Nyanga et al., 2018). It was recommended by the researchers

that awareness strategies should be initiated to increase the plan awareness among the staff at the

institutions.

Disaster management plans help shape the path of disaster response. For example, in a

study on 498 respondents across six organizations from Pakistan, 90% of organizations had a

disaster emergency operations plan (Nadir et al., 2019). Nadir et al. (2019) also found that 85%

of the organizations had a chain of command, as well as dedicated manpower for the disaster

plan execution thereby increasing the potential for success of the plan. This is similar to Eighmy

and Hall’s (2012) study, where Extension professionals had a defined role in disaster

management. In more research on disaster preparedness, researchers found that over 90% of the

990 pharmacies surveyed in three rural areas after Hurricane Katrina had a formal disaster plan,

and there were no statistical differences on these pharmacies based on the economic status of the

area (Henkel & Marvanova, 2019). Researchers concluded that community-level variables, like

socio-economic status, did not prevent pharmacies from having a plan.

Regardless of the awareness of or access to a disaster management plan, several

researchers found that employees understood the importance of a disaster preparedness plan, and

44

that members of staff should understand the plan and its content (Asamoah et al., 2018; Eighmy

et al., 2012; Ricard et al., 2017). Additionally, even though individuals were not aware of or had

access to a disaster management plans, the researchers found that they were willing to

investigate, participate in, or become more aware of the plans available to them. (Asamoah et al.,

2018; Ricard et al., 2017; Telg et al., 2008). Having a disaster management plan and actively

improving the plan was highlighted to be one of the successes in Cuba’s management of

Hurricane Irma (Zakrison et al., 2019). However, not all disaster planning practices are

successful. Research on disaster management in the Philippines where 13 local, regional, and

international initiatives were thematically analyzed, researchers found themes of prevention,

preparedness, response, and recovery (Vicario-Merino et al., 2019). However, the results of the

study indicated the lack of a coherent plan leads to gaps in communication, difficulties in

coordination, challenges in mobilizing resources for disaster response (Vicario-Merino et al.,

2019).

Training and Disaster Management

Training was covered throughout the literature mainly to highlight the gaps in training

needs in disaster management. In U.S. Extension, Telg et al. (2008) found that respondents in

their study (61.7%) indicated, at least, a slight need for training concerning personal stress, and

62.1% indicated, at least, a slight need for training on personal needs (emotional and physical).

In the study by Ricard et al. (2017) it was found that 79.4% of the respondents indicated the need

for disaster preparedness training. Ricard et al. (2017) indicated that most respondents in their

study were unsure if there was disaster preparedness training available to them. However, there

was a willingness to participate in several disaster preparedness training items, since 88% of

respondents in this study indicated that they either agreed or strongly agreed to the belief that

there should be training available (Ricard et al., 2017). Further, 82% of respondents indicated

45

that they would participate in disaster management training. Additionally, 81% of respondents

would welcome training in disaster preparedness for their job, and 91% of respondents would

implement a disaster preparedness plan at home if they were trained (Ricard et al., 2017). As part

of the response program in Eighmy and Hall’s (2012) study mentioned earlier, Extension staff

were trained on the use of new disaster resources, much of which was based on past experiences

of disasters among agents (Eighmy & Hall, 2012). Some of the new resources included both

personal and professional topics like family preparedness, community strengthening, and

Extension’s role in emergency planning, among others (Eighmy & Hall, 2012). These findings

are also similar to Telg et al. (2008) and Ricard et al. (2017) in terms of personal/professional

training of Extension agents for disaster management.

As a result of Extension’s interaction with emergency and disaster response, emergency

skills training has been added to the cadre of skills taught at some Extension offices (Roka et al.,

2017). However, where agents deal with personal loses, Extension agents have had difficulty

effectively responding to the needs of clients during disasters (Ali, 2019; Telg et al., 2008).

Further, agents needed training through the use of resources like the UF/IFAS Disaster

Handbook (Ali, 2019; Telg et al., 2008).

Outside of Extension, Everhart et al. (2019), in research on 29 local health departments in

Washington, found that respondents had high interest in participating in state-wide workshops

for training in disaster preparedness and response. In the study by Martono et al. (2019), the

nurses’ preparedness to assist with disaster management was influenced by their previous

education, training, and experience with other disasters. Further, the participants in the study

attributed their adequate knowledge of disaster preparedness and response to disaster training

46

(Martono et al., 2019). Martono et al., (2019) concluded in their study that continuous training is

important for efficient disaster response.

After past experiences with earthquakes in Pakistan, researchers found that disaster

training was adopted by 80% of respondents to assist in further disasters (Nadir et al., 2019).

Cuban authorities, in the research by Zakrison et al. (2019), promoted family disaster

preparedness and response training, thereby allowing citizens to participate in the disaster

management process, making disaster management more successful. In qualitative research on

13 disaster response and recovery documents, training was identified as an important

recommendation for disaster preparedness in the Philippines (Vicario-Merino et al., 2019). The

researchers recommended the development of a coherent national training program for key

stakeholders in disaster response as a preparedness measure for future disasters (Vicario-Merino

et al., 2019).

Research with 586 Iranian nurses found that failure to train staff led to their lack of

knowledge on disaster preparedness and response (Yousefi et al., 2020). The researchers

concluded that training was essential for increasing knowledge and performance in disasters

(Yousefi et al., 2020).The study by Nyanga et al. (2018), highlighted earlier, found no disaster

management training available to their research participants, which led them to being unprepared

to manage any disasters. Martono et al. (2019) highlighted that training by external institutions

assisted in helping nurses be adequately prepared for manage disasters. An externality of

collaboration is training; Azamoah, et al. (2018) found that 38.5% of participants in their study

were trained by a collaborating institution in disaster management.

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Communication and Disaster Management

Communication is considered an important part of disaster response (Shultz et al., 2016).

In research on describing the vulnerability of small islands states, Shultz et al. (2016) stated

“Communications are critical for coordinating the activities of frontline response personnel and

informing the general public about disaster risks, protective actions to take, and available

resources” (p. 38). In terms of communication with stakeholders, Telg et al. (2008), in the study

previously mentioned found, that Extension agents communicated and worked with other

stakeholders to share information about disasters in the study. The authors found that Extension

agents interacted the most with Country Emergency Management at the local level, the Farm

Service agency at the Federal level, and the Red Cross, generally, during disasters (Telg et al.,

2008). Eighmy and Hall (2012) emphasized that the Extension service should establish

relationships with county emergency planning and gather information on the needs of the county.

The researchers also identified that Extension should share information using just-in-time

strategies and maintain communication with all stakeholders as much as possible throughout

disasters (Eighmy & Hall, 2012). In emergency situations, Extension was found to communicate

on topics such as clean-up, chemicals, water quality, and financial claims (Eighmy & Hall,

2012).

Ali (2019) found that communication from Extension offices ranged were initiated

immediately after disasters, up to 14 days, depending on the damages. In research with 18

Extension faculty in Florida who had worked through hurricanes in Florida, Ali (2019) found,

similar to Eighmy and Hall (2012), the information most requested by clients involved applying

for aid and assistance, but there were also requests concerning water quality, mold, and salt water

intrusion (Ali, 2019). Communication between colleagues at Extension offices after disasters

concerned work objectives, peer well-being, and expectations about conducting damage

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assessments (Ali, 2019). Communication to and from statewide partners was also involved,

largely concerning information on the damage assessments (Ali, 2019).

Communication methods in extension

The success story of Louisiana State University Extension highlighted the viability of

face-to-face communication in agricultural Extension in a case study after a Hurricane Rita

(Land, 2015). The findings of the study indicated that face-to-face Extension increased

credibility in the community through long-term relationships with clients (Land, 2015). The

agent in the study was able to access a grant that assisted in building community capital and

promoting community resilience in response to the disaster (Land, 2015). The researcher

concluded that Extension administrators should continue to support in-person relationships in

Extension, as it increases communication efficiency (Land, 2015).

Ali (2019) found that agents used phones, face-to-face, and internet-based platforms like

email and social media to communicate throughout disaster management. However, like Land

(2015), Ali (2019) found that face-to-face communication was the best form of communication

after disasters, as it was the most reliable; phone connections were unstable and internet

connections were sporadic. Additionally, Facebook was most mentioned by participants as the

easiest social media platform to use (Ali, 2019).

In a study on community interactions with Minnesota Extension agents, wider

community reach increased efficiencies in collecting data and in providing disaster-related

information efficiently (Hendrickson et al., 2017). Additionally, the researchers found that video-

based information tools were viable in distributing financial-aid information to clients after

disasters (Hendrickson et al., 2017). Like Ali (2019) and Eighmy and Hall (2012), financial aid

information was important for clients in the study by Hendrickson et al. (2017).

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Hurricanes are an annually recurring issue in Florida; impacts from hurricanes are

managed, in part, by Extension agents (Rumble et al., 2018). Studies on the 2004 hurricane

season in Florida showed that Extension agents preferred face-to-face communication, along

with using web-based communication technologies, to reach their clients before and after the

disaster (Maharaj et al., 2019; Ricard et al., 2017; Telg et al., 2007).

Ganpat et al. (2018) found that Extension officers in the Caribbean commonly used face-

to-face communication (40.8%), on-site visits (63.2%), and telephone communication (43.4%) to

interact with clients. In this study, the researchers used a modified instrument from Telg et al.

(2008) with 76 Extension officers and 458 farmers, and found that most farmers received

information via the radio through public service announcements (Ganpat et al., 2018). Only

24.4% of farmers preferred information from Extension directly (Ganpat et al., 2018).

In studies outside of Extension, several examples of communication being critical in

disaster management exist. Researchers found that communication using social media tools, like

WhatsApp, assisted in the exchange of flood knowledge in a faster, more effective manner

throughout disaster management in a case study in Malaysia (Zakaria et al., 2018). The

researchers observed that disaster preparation included the testing of communication equipment

prior to the disaster season, as well as working with telecommunication companies to facilitate

smooth communication during disasters (Zakaria et al., 2018). Emergency communication

equipment included walkie-talkies, GPS systems, and cellular phones (Zakaria et al., 2018).

Contingency plans were also prepared for at-risk populations (Zakaria et al., 2018). During their

flood response, Zakaria et al. (2018) observed that social media was extremely helpful in sharing

and integrating knowledge to stakeholders, consistent with findings from Ali (2019) in the

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Extension sector. Speedy knowledge exchange, efficient response, and timely feedback were

some of the communication successes discussed in their study (Zakaria et al., 2018).

Social media is considered a communication efficiency tool among many disaster

researchers (Ali, 2019; Howard et al., 2017; Huang & Xiao, 2015; Narine et al., 2019; Williams

& Phillips, 2014; Zakaria et al., 2018). A Caribbean-wide study on disaster risk management

found that social media was also highlighted as a disaster management communication tool in

three areas: managing population expectations, increasing situational awareness, and using

citizens and information nodes (Williams & Phillips, 2014). The drawback of using social media

is the effort of data management, the volume of information requests, and relevance of

information provided by society (Williams & Phillips, 2014). Nan and Lu (2017), in a mixed

methods study after an earthquake in Sichuan province, China, found that participation in social

media communities can lead to self-organization in managing and responding to disasters. Forum

participation also showed users involvement in feedback actions online to further assist with

crisis management activities (Nan & Lu, 2017). In modelling visible skepticism, Dailey and

Starbird (2014) found that a blog for individuals who were affected by Hurricane Irene became a

primary source of information for damage reports, evacuations, and help requests. The

ethnographic study used participant observations and interviews with 11 participants of the blog

to conclude that the blog also helped reshape misinformation about events in the disaster zone

(Dailey & Starbird, 2014).

Nadir et al. (2019), in the study mentioned earlier, found that communication strategies,

including early warning systems and communication during a disaster, were available in more

than 90% of all the companies investigated in their study, and 90% of managers implemented

new systems of communication after a recent earthquake. Moreover, 100% of those institutions

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practiced their emergency communication strategies at least once per year (Nadir et al., 2019).

Researchers from the Philippines suggested that, within the hierarchy of disaster management

agencies, if vertical communication was improved within the government, disaster response is

likely to improve (Vicario-Merino et al., 2019).

Even when several communication channels are employed, some mechanisms fail to

deliver. Qualitative research conducted with 28 individuals in Southern California during brush

fires indicated that local governments rely almost solely on the mass media to disseminate

disaster management information (Shklovski et al., 2008). However, the respondents indicated

that the information was not relevant to community needs, which led to lost credibility in the

media (Shklovski et al., 2008). Where the media failed, the study found that the local community

banded together to share relevant information using internet-based platforms, phone, radio, and

face-to-face means (Shklovski et al., 2008). Twitter was reported to be an information

clearinghouse to collect and disseminate disaster information. The researchers also discovered

that the community learned from past wildfires in the management of the wildfire in the study,

and intended to use past information in future disasters (Shklovski et al., 2008).

Uses and gratifications theory in disaster management

Uses and Gratifications Theory (U&G) was based on determining why audiences used

certain communication mediums and the satisfaction derived from those mediums (Blumler &

Katz, 1974). Blumler and Katz posited that the audiences actively participate in mass media

information, and that the audience is goal-oriented (Ruggiero, 2009). The type of information

desired, the communication channel selection, and the sources of influence are presented in

U&G theory (Ruggiero, 2009). The four typologies as to why audiences use specific media

include surveillance, diversion, personal identity, and social utility (Ruggiero, 2009).

Researchers often uses this theory to investigate different forms of media to compare uses among

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audiences, as well as individual communication mediums, and to investigate the use of a specific

program (Bantz, 1982). The main criticism of U&G theory includes the requirements of self-

reporting by the audience (Ruggiero, 2009). However, other criticisms include not accounting for

the variability in audiences, the inability to justify the needs derived from media, and the heavy

focus on different audiences (Ruggiero, 2009).

In disaster research, U&G theory has been used in various ways. Directly related to

Extension, Ali (2019) employed U&G theory in a study mentioned earlier in this chapter. Of the

four mentioned typologies, social utility and surveillance were identified in the study by Ali

(2019). The results showed that participants used cellphones, face-to-face, social media, and

emails to communicate with clients (Ali, 2019). The results also showed that the participants of

the study used the specific channels to satisfy job requirements. However, it was found that face-

to-face communication was most feasible after the event, but other digital means were available

in the short term.

Outside of Extension, Sommerfeldt (2015) used U&G theory to evaluate the information-

seeking behaviors in a sample 1,843 Haitians after the 2010 earthquake. It was found that even

though there was access to mainstream media in the aftermath of the earthquake, many

individuals chose not to use television and text messages as an information source because those

dissatisfied the surveillance typology. Aisha et al. (2015) employed U&G theory to evaluate the

social media utility after the 2014 floods in Malaysia. The researchers found that Facebook was

the most used platform for communicating, followed by WhatsApp and text messaging. The ease

of use, popularity among the user base, and ease of access were accounted for the gratification

received. Social media platforms were directly evaluated in a quantitative study on the Chennai

floods of 2015 (Chandrashekar & Sampath, 2016). The researchers found that social media

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served as more than a repository for information as users depended on the platforms for real-time

data (Chandrashekar & Sampath, 2016) which also points to the surveillance typology in U&G

theory. Additionally, social media assisted in streamlining the flow of information to planners

and city officials as the access to the information was convenient (Chandrashekar & Sampath,

2016).

The Role of Extension During Disasters

Extension has a history of assisting communities with disaster-related issues. An early

recording of Extension assistance in a disaster concerned the Great Flood of 1972 (Downey et

al., 2018). Since then in states like Florida, individual counties have been required to have an

emergency management plan (Kapucu, 2008). The national community may consider first

responders to be a combination of local, state and federal emergency services, depending on the

magnitude of the disaster (Kerr et al., 2018). While Extension professionals are often not

considered first responders in times of disasters, they have often acted as first responders to the

communities they serve (Kerr et al., 2018). Telg et al. (2007) agreed with this, stating that

Extension has often played an active role in disaster preparation, response, and recovery in the

communities served, as well as neighboring communities. Other research has highlighted that

when emergency services have played their role, local public officials (like Extension agents)

have been the main individuals dealing with clean-up and debris (Monteil, 2018). Agricultural

Extension has played a vital role in moving information to clients, as the service has sought to

improve the overall development of the agricultural sector (Khan et al., 2019). However, several

researchers have highlighted that the role of the Extension Service has grown beyond the

prospect of the agricultural sector to include roles in the formal education system, food waste

management, research, policy development, community development and emergency response

(Infante-Casella et al., 2018; Kerr et al., 2018; Mccoy, 2019; Schroeder et al., 2018).

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Additionally, several authors have stated that Extension’s unique position and roles in the

communities it serves has allowed it to connect with community members through its

relationships with businesses, families, and local government, which has been critical in a variety

of ways (Angima & Stokes, 2019; Kerr et al., 2018). Specifically, Extension’s position has

allowed it to (a) assess the disaster, (b) provide strategies for the disaster, (c) support those

affected more directly, (d) estimate damages, (e) assist with disaster recovery in various ways, (f)

plan for the immediate future, and (g) prepare homes and businesses before and after an event

(Boteler, 2007; Edgar et al., 2012; Eighmy & Hall, 2012; Fannin & Guidry, 2010; Long et al.,

2015; Lutz & Lindell, 2008; Ricard et al., 2017; Schattenberg, 2018). In this regard, the

Extension Service and Extension professionals have been well positioned to assist in managing

disasters in their communities.

The Caribbean Context

Disaster Vulnerability

Many authors have identified the Caribbean islands as vulnerable Small Island

Developing States (SIDS) characterized by having a small land mass, close proximity to the

shore line and the potential for high destruction during weather disasters (Mackay & Spencer,

2017; Monioudi et al., 2018; Murray & Watson, 2019; Nelson et al., 2018; Sealey-Huggins,

2017; Stancioff et al., 2018). While no official list of SIDS has been made available, the United

Nations has maintained a list of both land-locked countries and SIDS combined, with 29 out of

58 countries on this list being from the Caribbean (Robinson, 2018). Mohan and Strobl (2017)

indicated in their research on hurricane wind risk in the Caribbean, that lessons learned from past

events should inform future disaster response strategies. They posited that while weather-related

disasters can affect all parts of the Caribbean economy, the agricultural sector is particularly

vulnerable (Mohan & Strobl, 2017). Based on their forecasting of hurricane events, they found

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that the Caribbean agriculture can be impacted by a major hurricane every 13 years and incur

over $600 million USD in damages (Mohan & Strobl, 2017). Trinidad was among the islands

included in the estimates. Further, Pemberton, Patterson-Andrews, and De Sormeaux (2016), in a

study on food security vulnerability on all Caribbean islands, found that close to 50% of

Caribbean countries are food-vulnerable to hurricanes.

Several regional studies have looked at disaster management, some focusing on specific

countries, and some on the region. Weekes and Bello (2019) conducted a study in the region

looking at disaster risk management strategies for the Caribbean countries of Suriname,

Barbados, Guyana, Saint Lucia, and Trinidad and Tobago. Their five-pillar approach included

risk identification, risk reduction, preparedness, resilient recovery, and financial protection. The

report indicated a focus on decentralizing risk management, integration of risk management,

promotion of risk management, and technical guidelines to better respond to natural disasters

(Weekes & Bello, 2019). In a study of the future of the Extension services in the Caribbean,

Extension directors from 10 Caribbean islands pointed to knowledge, information channel

improvement, and increasing the capacity of the Extension system (Ganpat et al., 2015) to assist

in disaster response. Researchers have studied the need for a more integrated approach to

regional disaster response, highlighting regional transportation, pooling of resources, and cross-

country collaboration as areas of necessary improvement (Balcik et al., 2019). Additionally the

Caribbean National Disaster Management Network (NDMN) highlighted that contributions at

the executive level have been lacking, hindering the development of regional best practice in

response to disasters (Cooper, 2015). Issues such as weak regional member bonds, lack of

collaboration, poor communication among the executive, high turnover among members, and

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negative member behavior have inhibited the effectiveness of strategizing for disasters in the

region (Cooper, 2015).

Nevertheless, while regional plans have been constructed, individuals from these islands

have painted a different story. One study found that individuals from the islands of St. Kitts and

Nevis, across all age groups and genders, were concerned with the environmental changes that

they experienced as it relates to climate change and disasters (Stancioff et al., 2018). In terms of

risks associated with being impacted by a hurricane, Mohan and Strobl (2017) conducted a risk

analysis for Caribbean islands using past hurricane data and forecasted that Cuba, the Dominican

Republic, and Haiti were most at risk, while Antigua, St. Vincent, and Barbados were least at

risk. Further, the researchers estimated that a damaging hurricane can cause an average of $41

million (USD) in food export loss, with Jamaica, Cuba, and Dominica potentially being most

affected.

Researchers have found that several climate change factors, including soil erosion,

flooding, and sea level rise have become concerns for individuals in these countries (Sealey-

Huggins, 2017; Stancioff et al., 2018). Additionally, researchers have found that some Caribbean

islands are still dependent on agriculture through the sectors’ contribution to GDP, making them

more vulnerable to disaster effects (Mackay & Spencer, 2017). Researchers have also found that

climate change can impact land, air, and sea transportation, which can also have a negative effect

on the agricultural sector (Monioudi et al., 2018). Murray and Watson (2019) agreed with this

sentiment, stating that agriculture is one of the hardest hit sectors in times of disasters. The Food

and Agricultural Organization (FAO) (2018) conducted a food loss analysis in Trinidad and

Tobago and found that 33.6% of agricultural land was subject to flooding. Further, this study

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identified weather-related disasters, like flooding and drought, as major factors in agricultural

decline (FAO, 2018).

Research on four Caribbean countries showed that over 50% of households engage in

disaster preparedness activities, which include gathering medical supplies, gathering food,

securing important documents, and water management (Ferdinand et al., 2012). Additionally, it

was found that only 20% of respondents in this study claimed to have a disaster management

plan, which particularly burdened poor farmers (Ferdinand et al., 2012). The lack of cohesion

and poor coordination can occur in the absence of a disaster management plan (Ferdinand et al.,

2012). Disaster management plans were found to be non-existent, or otherwise outdated in many

Caribbean countries (Ferdinand et al., 2012). While there is potential for communication

between stakeholders, the lack of a current plan and poor communication practices was found to

create inefficiencies in disaster management (Ferdinand et al., 2012).

A UN-funded project on disaster risk mitigation in the Caribbean (which featured

Trinidad) described the pros and cons of using different communication technologies in the

Caribbean during disasters (Williams & Phillips, 2014). Mobile phones were found to be the

most popular form of communication, where text messaging was highlighted as the most

efficient service during disasters (Williams & Phillips, 2014). Talk and web applications on

cellular devices were perceived to be bandwidth heavy and can fail during disasters, in addition

to the concern for device charging (Williams & Phillips, 2014). The researchers found that 66%

of respondents use information and communication technologies (ICTs) in the business

environment for disaster communication, but, respondents indicated a reluctance in information

sharing between cross-national stakeholders at times (Williams & Phillips, 2014). The report

found that governance was important in disaster management by way of implementing rules,

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strategies and plans in disaster management, but also found that regional compliance is varied,

and full compliance is rare (Williams & Phillips, 2014). The researchers found that 75% of

respondents needed clear plans for disaster management, and 70% indicated that there were plans

for specifically for information communication (Williams & Phillips, 2014). The report

highlighted that 80% of Caribbean countries had a national disaster management plan, but many

were outdated. Similarly, 80% of the of the countries lacked a direct ICT disaster plan, and just

over 50% of human resources are proficient in the use of various ICTs (Williams & Phillips,

2014). One major recommendation from this report was training staff in the use of ICTs and

other communication practices (Williams & Phillips, 2014).

In similar regional research that featured Trinidad, Kirton (2013), employing a mixed

methods approach, used content analysis on regional documents and semi-structured interviews

with stakeholders targeting regional disaster management agencies to evaluate the disaster

response and management mechanisms. It was found that the Caribbean Disaster Emergency

Management Agency (CDEMA) was taking a holistic approach to disaster management in the

region, from preparedness to recovery (Kirton, 2013). It was also found that the CDEMA relies

on data from past disaster experiences, while including the academic and technical communities

prepare for future disasters (Kirton, 2013). The findings highlighted disaster, iterative planning,

improving communication and communication technologies, and public education as focal points

in the CDEMA’s key activities for national and regional disaster management (Kirton, 2013).

Regarding agriculture, the report looked at past impacts on natural disasters on the regional

agricultural sector and noted the dependence of some countries on agricultural exports for

foreign exchange (Kirton, 2013). Overall, the report noted a major redundancy and lack of

coordination existed among agencies in the region, leading to wasted resources (Kirton, 2013).

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The respondents also indicated a disconnect in communication with stakeholders, especially with

the private sector (Kirton, 2013).

A more recent case study by Levius et al. (2017) corroborates many of the claims made

by Kirton (2013). Levius et al. (2017) looked at the case study of national disaster organizations

in relation to the CDEMA and the management of disasters in the Caribbean. The researchers

found that ICTs, like radios, phones, satellites, and the internet were critical in early warnings

systems, and supported decision making in regional disaster management (Levius et al., 2017).

However, the researchers also found that, despite the importance of ICTs, there was still no

national or regional strategy for developing ICT capacity (Levius et al., 2017). Additionally,

human resource training, expectations, technology support, and updated technologies were found

to be needs for the region (Levius et al., 2017). The study found that GIS systems, video

conferencing, and web-based platforms were the ICTs of greatest interest to respondents (Levius

et al., 2017).

Extension in the Caribbean

A description of the average Extension officer in Caribbean was provided by Roberts et

al. (2016):

The average Extension officer was a 39-year-old male who has worked in

extension for just over 12 years. He has a tertiary level education (65.1%). He did

not grow up on a farm (58.7%), nor does he currently operate a farm (63.5%). He

often pays attention (44.4%) to global agricultural issues, but has not had training

on food security (60.3%). Respondents were more evenly split on which

extension region they worked (47.6% in the north and 52.4% in the south). They

were also more evenly split on their intentions to stay working in extension

(46.0% said 0 to 5 more years and 36.5% said more than 10 more years). (p. 77)

Concerning the agricultural Extension service in the Caribbean, 41% of regional farmers in a

recent study stated that they were satisfied with the Extension service provided (Ganpat et al.,

2015). However, this study also found that farmers believe Extension agents unequally treat the

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clients they serve (Ganpat et al., 2015). Nevertheless, Lindner and Dolly (2012) stated that

Extension has been deemed important in contributing to the emerging issues in agriculture,

which includes responding to natural disasters and hurricanes (Lindner & Dolly, 2012). The

report stated that part of the FAO’s strategy would include improving Extension’s expertise on

early warning information dissemination and outreach at the local level during disasters

(Roberts, 2013). In St. Lucia, the Extension Service has been deeply involved in disaster relief

and preparedness (FAO, 2011). The FAO report called for increasing the capacity of Extension

to improve the local resilience against hazards through initiating training on disaster response, as

well as information dissemination skills in the country (FAO, 2011). Similar findings were

published in other parts of the world, like Canada, where increasing Extension’s capacity to

manage vulnerable households was highlighted as a part of disaster management (Sherman &

Ford, 2013). However, there is vulnerability in providing Extension’s services after a disaster.

One study concluded that even though Extension professionals are willing to provide information

to farmers on disaster risk management, farmers may find difficulty in understanding the

terminology (Shannon & Motha, 2015). Nevertheless, the researchers also found that when

disaster risk information is provided to farmers, disaster management is more effective in

farming communities (Shannon & Motha, 2015).

Researchers suggested a major disconnect in the communication between Extension and

major organizations, where vital information is rarely communicated to farmers and the role of

Extension is largely administrative (Roberts et al., 2015). Roberts et al. (2015), who focused on

food security and implications for Extension, posited that extreme weather events were partially

responsible for market fluctuations in the agricultural sector. Ganpat, et al. (2015) wrote that the

ICT infrastructure in the Caribbean was well developed and younger farmers take advantage of

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improvements in technology (Ganpat, et al., 2015). However, the researchers also indicated that

Extension officers were ill-equipped professionally to supply farmers with information in a data-

driven environment (Ganpat, et al., 2015). Their research on 467 farmers led them to recommend

that governments in the region should take the time to empower Extension officers to operate in

a modern communication environment (Ganpat, et al., 2015). In terms of the use of ICTs, in

research conducted with 90 Trinidadian Extension officers, Narine et al. (2019) found that 88%

of Extension officers in Trinidad contacted their clients via voice calls, and 64% communicated

via text messages with clients as well. The researchers also found that 40% or less of the

respondents used email, social media, or multimedia messages (Narine et al., 2019). Only 6% of

respondents used video calls to communicate with clients (Narine et al., 2019). In terms of their

willingness to use individual ICTs, the researchers reported that more officers were willing to

use text messaging, social media, and voice calls than not use them (Narine et al., 2019).

However, out of 88 officers, 57% were not willing to use video calling as a means of client

communication, while 70 respondents either agreed or strongly agreed that using text messages

to communicate with farmers is easy (Narine et al., 2019).

Concerning effective crisis communication, Shultz et al. (2016) stated “communications

are critical for coordinating the activities of frontline response personnel and informing the

general public about disaster risks, protective actions to take, and available resources” (p. 38).

Specifically focusing on early warning systems and water information systems, the FAO (2015)

sought to build the decision-making capacity of the governments in the region. Antigua and

Barbuda were damaged significantly by Hurricane Irma in 2017, but the islands were ready

because of their preparation for annually recurring hurricane season (Gray et al., 2019). The

people on the islands were prepared by the communications received mainly through television

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and radio, pointing to activities the citizens should engage in to reduce their risk for impending

disaster (Gray et al., 2019). However, social media, including Facebook and Twitter, were used

to move information, but the research found that this was a negative social stressor (Gray et al.,

2019). Additionally, response during the hurricane was disrupted by the damages to

communication technologies, and WhatsApp became the main medium of social communication

during and after the event as a mechanism for communication post-crisis (Gray et al., 2019). On

the issue of communicating with stakeholders, Shannon and Motha (2015) found a success story

in the Southeast Climate Consortium concerning Caribbean Extension’s management of disaster

risks for farmers. The researchers found that Caribbean Extension officers’ main methods of

communication included a website and face-to-face communication with farmers.

In Jamaica, a study was conducted on the farming population to determine its adaptation

and coping strategies pre- and post-Hurricane Dean. Researchers found that 73% of the farmers

were aware of the threat, mostly finding out by word of mouth, television, and radio (Campbell

& Beckford, 2009). Post-Hurricane Dean, the researchers found that farmers engaged in post-

hurricane harvesting, plant restoration, and relocation of farming activities or reduced production

to restart the farm (Campbell & Beckford, 2009). A later study from Jamaica found that farmers

tended to employ both long-term and short-term coping strategies to spread risks in light of

disasters (Elizabeth et al., 2011). Other researchers found similar results where 65% of the

responding farmers scaled down their operations to better manage production and costs after a

disaster (Elizabeth et al., 2011). Another study found that coping mechanisms employed by

Caribbean farmers included re-investing from personal savings, waiting, and finding other forms

of employment (Lashley & Warner, 2015). Crop diversification, income diversification, financial

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management, and crop storage were found to be coping strategies employed generally by

Caribbean farmers (Shannon & Motha, 2015)

The impacts of future disasters in the Caribbean can be mitigated if plans are continually

updated after major events (Seraphin, 2019). Based on research of the tourism sector in the

Caribbean, Seraphin (2019) stated that the Caribbean should do more research pre- and post-

disaster to improve disaster management efficiency. Research on the value of flood mitigation

practices in Trinidad highlighted that flood damage estimations are uncertain (Brookhuis &

Hein, 2016). This lends itself to the uncertainty of Extension officers to estimate the flood

damages by farmers after a flood (Brookhuis & Hein, 2016). Using Trinidad as a case study,

Middelbeek et al. (2014) interviewed 60 families and found that flooding disasters affected 92%

of respondents. Close to half of the respondents expressed experiencing at least one flood every

year (Middelbeek et al., 2014). However, about 80% of the respondents engaged in disaster

preparation activities including clearing drains and house alterations, and 45% of respondents

were unable to identify any national disaster management strategies employed by the

government (Middelbeek et al., 2014). Many respondents reported an increase in frequency and

intensity of flooding disasters (Middelbeek et al., 2014).

The Office of Disaster Preparedness and Management (ODPM) issued a 2019

preparedness guide as a resource for citizens to manage the impending hurricane season. Stating

that the hurricane season is 30% likely to be above normal activity, the document highlighted a

number of processes to prepare and plan for the hurricane season, including property protection,

water management, understanding emergency warnings, and information sources, among others

(Wint, 2019). Charles (2019) referenced the activities of the ODPM during the effects of

hurricane Bret, indicating in the results of the study that the ODPM was an information source

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for shelters, reports, and updates accordingly. However, respondents felt that the emergency

authorities could have done more to adequately inform and supply the population with disaster

relief resources (Charles, 2018). Major assertions from this recent study included that Trinidad

and Tobago has no system of building codes, as well as an outdated disaster response mechanism

employed by the emergency services of the country (Charles, 2018).

Disasters and Effects

Emergency response entities have served important roles in coordinating response actions

both during and after hurricanes (Huang et al., 2017). Communication has been an important part

of this response (Pitt & Treen, 2017), and Extension has played a role in keeping communities

informed (Eighmy & Hall, 2012). Globally, natural disasters have resulted in major economic

damage and the disruption of normal life for long periods of time (Campbell & Beckford, 2009).

In Japan, Typhoon Mireille cost the country approximately $5 billion USD in damages in 1991

(Fujii, 1998). Similarly, the island of Dominica experienced almost complete devastation as a

result of Hurricane Maria, where most of the island’s locally grown commodities were destroyed

(Hatcher et al., 2019).

In the past 20 years, states along the Gulf and eastern borders of the U.S. have

experienced hundreds of billions of dollars in damages due to hurricanes, with the major events

being hurricanes Katrina, Harvey, and Sandy (Klotzbach et al., 2018). In Florida, the effects of

hurricanes have been particularly significant. Within a six-week period in 2004, four hurricanes

made landfall, which had a devastating effect across Florida’s 67 counties (Acierno et al., 2007).

Destruction hit Florida again in 2017, when Hurricane Irma made landfall three times (Acierno

et al., 2007; Zolnikov, 2017). Klotzbach et al. (2017) highlighted that the 2017 hurricane season

alone cost roughly $125 billion in damages in the U.S. While hurricanes have caused a mass

effect in some states, other natural and man-made disasters, including mudslides, flooding,

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wildfires, oil spills and droughts, also have left a major impact on the communities (Downey et

al., 2018; Kerr et al., 2018; Rumble et al., 2018; Sempier et al., 2018). This has led some

researchers to assert that natural hazards are becoming more frequent, more severe, and more

destructive, mostly pointing to climate change as the main catalyst (Gray et al., 2019; Klotzbach

et al., 2018). In the Caribbean, Jamaica experienced significant losses in the agricultural sector

due to natural disasters, totaling close to $50 million USD due to hurricanes Dean, Charlie, and

Ivan, among other events (Elizabeth et al., 2011).

Professional Resilience

Resilience as a concept started as early as the 1800s and has been described in various

ways, including a cycle, a process, and a trait (Jackson et al., 2007). In a literature review on

resilience, Jackson et al. (2007) stated that as a personality trait, resilience is a combination of

physical characteristics and psychological characteristics. The definition of resilience in

psychological terms is the capacity for an individual to positively move forward in life from a

traumatic experience (Jackson et al., 2007). Physiologically, people have the inherent ability to

foster resilience in the presence of a stressor (Jackson et al., 2007). In another literature review

on resilience, Bhamra, Dani, and Burnard (2011) corroborated some of the claims by Jackson et

al. (2007), but also pointed to two definitions of resilience in disaster situations from two

separate authors. Bruneau et al. (2003) defined resilience in disaster situations as “the ability of

social units (e.g., organizations, communities) to mitigate hazards, contain the effects of disasters

when they occur, carry out recovery activities in ways that minimize social disruption, and

mitigate the effects of future (disasters)” (p. 735). Paton et al. (2000) described resilience in the

context of disaster as “an active process of self-righting, learned resourcefulness and growth. The

concept relates to the ability to function at a higher level psychologically given an individual’s

capabilities and previous experience” (p. 173). From the information of both literature reviews,

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resilience can be covered from different perspectives, using different constructs and themes to

evaluate the concept. However, there are common terms and themes across several authors as

highlighted in the literature review, including stress as an indicator of resilience (Ali, 2019;

Bistricky et al., 2019; Lee et al., 2009; McCanlies et al., 2018; Tuohy & Stephens, 2012),

depression as an indicator of resilience (Bistricky et al., 2019; Blackmon et al., 2017; Jackson et

al., 2007; McCanlies et al., 2018), self-care in improving resilience (Ali, 2019; Bloomquist et al.,

2016; Lambert & Lawson, 2013; Warbington et al., 2019), learning from the past (Faas et al.,

2019; Kirton, 2013; Lambert & Lawson, 2013; Warbington et al., 2019; Zakrison et al., 2019),

and personal factors (Bhamra et al., 2011; Fink-Samnick, 2009, 2017; Hoopes, 2017; Hoopes,

2012; Jackson et al., 2007; Maddi, 2005, 2013; Paton et al., 2000; Paton & Johnston, 2001).

Since Extension professionals were indicated to have worked through weather-related disasters,

these elements are critical.

The Professional Resilience Paradigm

Concerning professional resilience, Fink-Samnick developed the Professional Resilience

Paradigm to address the challenges that cross the personal/professional spectrum. Asserting the

separation between personal stresses and professional stresses, Fink-Samnick (2009) posited that

professional resilience be operationalized with set principles to ensure that evaluations are done

in context. Referring to professional burnout as the opposite of professional resilience, Fink-

Samnick (2009) proposed six building blocks of professional resilience, which include

promoting physical and psychological self-care, maintaining a fountain of inner strength,

defining personal and professional values, achieving personal and professional goals, self-

advocacy, and career longevity (Fink-Samnick, 2009, 2017). She also promoted strategies to

achieve professional resilience, some of which include valuing one’s professional self, positive

socializing, taking control of activities, exercise, and laughing (Fink-Samnick, 2009, 2017). In a

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later document, Fink-Samnick (2017) wrote about the consequences of not practicing

professional resilience for the organization, which included absenteeism, decreased productivity,

increased risk of turnover, and increased support fees. It was also found that professionals who

practiced professional resilience strategies were able to better serve their clients and their

organizations (Fink-Samnick, 2017).

Regarding previous research on the professional resilience paradigm, Lambert and

Lawson's (2013) studied the resilience of counselors after hurricanes Katrina and Rita and

mentioned Fink-Samnick's (2009) work in the professional resilience section of their study. In

their study of 104 mental health professionals after hurricanes Katrina and Rita, Lambert and

Lawson (2013) found that compassion fatigue and vicarious traumatization to be more than

double that of the national sample of professionals of the American Counseling Association.

Thompson (2017) used parts of the professional resilience paradigm to operationalize elements

of a study concerning compassion fatigue, trauma stress, and burnout among licensed mental

health professionals. Thompson (2017) found that 62.2% of the participants were at risk of

burnout, trauma stress, and fatigue. Reasons for these risks were highlighted in the study and

were counter to the strategies offered by Fink-Samnick's (2009) for professional resilience,

including devaluing one’s professional self, not taking control, and not taking breaks.

Bloomquist et al. (2016) mentioned Fink-Samnick’s (2009) work in evaluating quality of

life in social workers. Using self-care and self-perceptions as variables, the study found that

respondents engaged in most frequently in physical self-care, followed by professional,

emotional, and psychological self-care (Bloomquist et al., 2016). In terms of professional self-

care, respondents engaged in social time with co-workers the most, but participated in stress

management training the least (Bloomquist et al., 2016). Fink-Samnick (2009) was also

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mentioned by Sortedahl and Campagna (2018) in evaluating professionals when they are met

with ethical dilemmas.

Professional Resilience in Research

Professional resilience was studied on mental health practitioners in New England using a

two-stage interview narrative inquiry (Ashby et al., 2013). It was found that the respondents

recognized the need for professional socialization for support through difficult times, which

included relationships with superiors, subordinates, and peers at the same professional level

(Ashby et al., 2013). Practicing professional socialization was concluded to enhance professional

resilience (Ashby et al., 2013). Researchers investigated 786 counselling professionals from

across the U.S. to investigate self-care practices among social workers in the US (Bloomquist et

al., 2016). Effective self-care practices are tied to increases in personal and professional

resilience. Within the broad categories, respondents were reported to engage in physical,

professional, and emotional self-care the most (Bloomquist et al., 2016). Among the professional

self-care activities, professional socializing, quiet time, and training was mention as “often” or

“very often” activities practiced by respondents (Bloomquist et al., 2016). Physical self-care

activities like exercising, eating healthy, and sleeping regularly was practiced often among

respondents (Bloomquist et al., 2016). Overall, the respondents believed that practicing self-care

is important for stress relief, but the study found that the respondents were not practicing self-

care frequently (Bloomquist et al., 2016).

McCanlies et al.(2018), in research with New Orleans police officers after Hurricane

Katrina, investigated resilience as it related to depressive symptoms. The authors found that

resilience was associated with lower instances of depressive symptoms in the police officers

(McCanlies et al., 2018). Additionally, social support was tied to resilience in this study, as

increased social support increased resilience in the study population (McCanlies et al., 2018).

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The researchers also indicated that resilience is modifiable, therefore any effort to further

increase resilience will further decrease depressive symptoms (McCanlies et al., 2018).

As per specific self-care strategies in personal and professional resilience, Bonamer and

Aquino-Russell (2019) investigated the impact of transcendental meditation (TM) on nurses in

the southeastern U.S. using a pre-test post-test method. In four months of using the TM

technique, resilience scores were higher and the researchers found an inverse relationship

between professional burnout and resilience (Bonamer & Aquino-Russell, 2019). However, they

could not find a statistically significant relationship between stress and resilience (Bonamer &

Aquino-Russell, 2019). The researchers concluded that resilience strategies should be built into

professional development programs as a way to make professionals more resilient (Bonamer &

Aquino-Russell, 2019).

Research on residents in Mississippi focused on resilience and depression for two major

disasters: Hurricane Katrina and the Deepwater Horizon oil Spill (Blackmon et al., 2017). Using

the Connor-Davidson Resilience scale (Connor & Davidson, 2003), it was found that lower

education levels and increased financial hardships increased lowered resilience in respondents

(Blackmon et al., 2017). Outputs of the regression models also found that having access to health

insurance increased resilience (Blackmon et al., 2017). Additionally, when controlling for

socioeconomic status, demographic factors, and disaster damage, the researchers found that

resilience was inversely linked to depression (Blackmon et al., 2017).

In research by Mccanlies et al. (2014) on police officers in New Orleans after Hurricane

Katrina, resilience scores decreased as alcohol intake increased. Additionally, higher levels of

resilience were found to reduce post-traumatic stress symptoms (Mccanlies et al., 2014). The

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researchers also stated that the breakdown of communication technologies rendered officers

isolated from their peers (Mccanlies et al., 2014)

Resilience in Extension

Resilience has also been covered in studies concerning Extension. In evaluating UF/IFAS

Extension agents for personal resilience traits and communication strategies in post-disaster

management, Ali (2019) concluded that Extension agents, overall, exhibited varying levels of

resilience. Based on the operationalized terms in the Maddi (2013) model of resilience, Ali

(2019) also found that Extension agents exhibited high levels of commitment and medium levels

of challenge. Additionally, Extension agents in this study showed high levels of social

interaction, problem-solving, and proactive abilities, but medium levels of self-care (Ali, 2019).

Further, poor communication with Extension agents increased stress and was suggested to

diminish resilience, but training was indicated to be a positive influence on resilience in this

study (Ali, 2019). Personal experience from past weather-related disasters also assisted agents

with managing later weather-related disasters, and the researcher recommended promoting

disaster response training as part of the job requirements of Extension agents.

Much of what Ali (2019) found that was specific to Extension agents was found in an

earlier study by Telg et al. (2008). Telg et al. (2008) found that Extension faculty were not

prepared to personally or professionally manage disasters, where professional development

training was suggested to remedy these research outcomes. Respondents (61.7%) also indicated,

at least, a slight need for training concerning personal stress, and 62.1% indicated, at least, a

slight need for training on personal needs (emotional and physical). Additionally, 79.4% of the

respondents indicated the need for disaster preparedness training (Telg et al., 2008), which is

suggested to improve resilience in disaster situations. The authors referred to the fact that while

Extension clients faced disaster, the agents themselves often faced the same disaster (Telg et al.,

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2008). Close to 25% of the respondents faced either moderate or great personal hardships during

disasters, while close to 45% experienced stress associated with weather-related disasters (Telg

et al., 2008). Additionally, 72.6% of respondents indicated some measure of difficulty in

balancing personal and professional demands (Telg et al., 2008).

Much of what Telg et al. (2008) and Ali (2019) found in their studies can be substantiated

in research done by Ensle (2005). Ensle (2005) spoke to work-life balance of Extension agents

through describing challenges in their personal and professional life. Burnout was characterized

by workload imbalances, stress, and lack of self-care (Ali, 2019; Ensle, 2005). Researchers

suggested that discrepancies with Extension leadership added to these factors as well. Describing

the need to prevent turnover and improve the overall health of Extension agents, Ensle (2005)

proposed different in-service training to reduce burnout. Strong and Harder (2009) also found

that personal and professional stress added to turnover in Extension, and that work-life balance

was a concern for Extension’s workforce. Both Strong and Harder (2009) and Ensle (2005)

spoke to Extension agents being asked to work beyond their regular hours and regular duties,

suggesting that these added to their stress. This was also found in Trinidad, where Ramjattan,

Ganpat, and Chowdhury (2017) highlighted that Extension officers are asked to perform non-

Extension duties and perform beyond regular hours.

Resilience and Weather-related Disasters

In research around Hurricane Harvey, Bistricky et al. (2019) investigated the resilient

behaviors of adult survivors. Firstly, the researcher stated that past exposure to disasters will

influence post-disaster behaviors of future experiences (Bistricky et al., 2019). It was found that

56% of respondents experienced a weather-related disaster before, and that resilience was a

factor in avoidant coping mechanisms for respondents (Bistricky et al., 2019). Additionally,

resilience, along with social support, predicted lower depressive symptoms and also predicted

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lower levels of post-traumatic stress symptoms (Bistricky et al., 2019). The researchers

concluded that resilience could decrease post-traumatic stress symptoms, depression, and other

negative emotional effects of weather-related disasters (Bistricky et al., 2019).

In a study on the resilience of individuals 65 years and older involved in New Zealand

floods, the analysis of the narratives provided by the respondents showed how experience from

past disasters can increase psychological resources and improve personal resilience to respond to

weather-related disasters (Tuohy & Stephens, 2012). Additionally, the research also showed how

the same disaster can be experienced differently by different people based on circumstance and

the kind of stress experienced, based on the person who experienced the stress (Tuohy &

Stephens, 2012). Reich (2006) used control, coherence, and connectedness as constructs in a

study of the Sumatran tsunami disaster. Control was linked to resilience as the psychological

rebound to having the choice of returning to normalcy. Coherence was described as the

maintenance of emotional, behavioral, and cognitive capacities considering a disaster situation

(Reich, 2006). Humans are suggested to be more resilient when they are coherent (Reich, 2006).

Finally, connectedness was described as the ability of people to recognize human capital in

response to disaster (Reich, 2006). Resilience was tied to connectedness through social support,

positive social interaction, and bonding (Reich, 2006). These can all reduce anxiety and improve

emotional stability in disaster times (Reich, 2006).

In research with the African American community after Hurricane Katrina, researchers

investigated psychological distress and resilience in evacuees and found that higher distress in

respondents meant lower levels of personal resilience (Lee et al., 2009). Additionally, death was

the biggest influencer variable on distress, which meant if a close associate died, a person was

likely to be less resilient (Lee et al., 2009). The researchers also asserted that mental health

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professionals can play a role in disaster preparedness, as well as assist in post-disaster activities

(Lee et al., 2009).

The Issues and Crisis Management Relational Model

Several theories and models are used to manage, investigate, or study the implications of

weather-related disasters. Some of these include the Comprehensive Emergency Management

(CEM) model (Drabek, 1985; Hughey, 2008; Hughey & Bell, 2011; Waugh & Sadiq, 2011), the

CARE model (Lindenberg, 2002), the comprehensive model for disaster management (Asghar et

al., 2006), and Comprehensive Disaster management (Morris & Edwards, 2008). However, the

Jaques’ (2007) relational crisis model proposes that crisis management is continuous, where

periods before the crisis occurs are just as important as managing the crisis itself. Jaques’ (2007)

model also posits a non-linear structure, where elements in the model should be viewed as

clusters that overlap and affect other clusters. Disasters have been characterized in research as

rare and extreme acts of nature that are detached from social issues (Chipangura et al., 2016;

Franklin-Johnson & Comyns, 2016; Jaques, 2007; Monteil, 2018; Pearson & Clair, 1998).

Therefore, the model fits the criteria for managing weather-related disasters.

In referencing Life Cycle Models, Jaques (2007) highlighted that these models use a

stepwise procedure for managing issues and crises, which starts with some form of concern and

ends with a resolution. In summary, Jaques (2007, p. 148) stated that “issue management is not a

linear process.” Monteil (2018) also wrote about the benefits of having a nonlinear disaster

response process, pointing to distinct but overlapping stages, depending on the magnitude of the

disaster. Weekes and Bello (2019) also highlighted overlaps between the elements in their pillars

of effective crisis management in the Caribbean. However, as a criticism, non-linear models have

been difficult to use, as no clear separation of the working elements, from beginning to end, has

been observed (Monteil, 2018). This sentiment is also highlighted in the Jaques (2007) model.

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Given the weather-related disaster events that have occurred in Trinidad, managing the

various elements associated with the issue as independent and linear has subscribed to Jaques’

(2007) notion of ineffective management, since there were several overlapping considerations.

The ODPM in Trinidad has used the clusters of mitigation, planning, preparation, response, and

recovery on the organization’s website, but it was unclear if these are part of a process or

independent elements. However, Jaques’ (2007) model is centered on effective crisis

management that occurs because of four main clusters. The first two clusters, Crisis

Preparedness and Crisis Prevention, fall under the category of Pre-Crisis Management. The

remaining two clusters, Crisis Event Management and Post-Crisis Management, fall under the

category of Crisis Management. Each of the four clusters contains specific sub-elements that are

indicative of the cluster.

Cluster 1 - Crisis Preparedness

The first element under in the relational model concerns crisis preparedness.

Preparedness, and the sub-elements therein, has been identified as a critical disaster element by

authors in the Extension sector (Ali, 2019; Eighmy et al., 2012; Ensle, 2005; Ramjattan et al.,

2017; Ricard et al., 2017; Telg et al., 2008), as well as in other sectors (Maricle, 2011; Murray &

Watson, 2019; Nyanga et al., 2018; Paton et al., 2000; Paton & Johnston, 2001; Yousefi et al.,

2020). The planning process looks at putting a plan in place, assigning roles and responsibilities,

and establishing ownership of the process (Jaques, 2007). Jaques (2007) stated that an

organization that lacks in preparedness can see a crisis lasting much longer than one that is

sufficiently prepared. This sentiment was also highlighted by various authors including Eighmy

and Hall (2012), Pradhan and Bhattacharyya (2018), and Sammy et al. (2016).

The second element in this cluster involves the systems and manuals available to the

organization. It takes into consideration the crisis management infrastructure, the equipment

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used, resources available for crisis management and requisite documentation associated with

crisis management. An item like the hurricane disaster handbook falls into this cluster within this

element. Jaques (2007) stated that these elements are important to crisis management and are a

main part of the foundation of crisis response.

The third element in this cluster involves trainings and simulations. These can be in the

form of a drill, training programs, testing, work exercises or any similar activity that can assist

with preparing for a crisis. Again, several researchers identified disaster management training as

important for the overall process of disaster management (Ali, 2019; Bekele & Ganpat, 2015;

Ricard et al., 2017; Roberts et al., 2015; Roka et al., 2017; Strong et al., 2014). Jaques (2007)

suggested that more organizations engage in emergency response practice, such as schools and

businesses with fire drills. Some authors have highlighted that the preparedness phase presents

an opportunity for organizations to be more resilient, as much of the work is done on the front

end to prepare for recurring issues with potential disasters (Gray et al., 2019).

Cluster 2 - Crisis Prevention

The first element in this cluster concerns early warning and scanning. Organizations may

engage in forecasting, environmental scanning, audits and maintenance to determine threat levels

in the environment that can potentially turn into crises (Jaques, 2007). Jaques (2007) framed

many of the warning and scanning procedures as research items, including media content

analyses, literature reviews, and participating in conferences, among others. However, having too

much data has been cited as a drawback, where the mismanagement of information and the

actions associated with that can be a crisis in itself (Jaques, 2007).

The second element in this cluster deals with issues and risk management. As mentioned,

Jaques (2007) separated issues from crises by definition; an issue is described as an unsettled

matter, ready for decision. This element deals with prioritizing, developing and implementing

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strategies associated with a crisis (Jaques, 2007). Jaques (2007) drew the reference of overlap

between the scanning and risk management elements, as both need requisite action and decision

making by the organization.

The third element in Crisis Prevention concerns emergency response. This element

considers the infrastructure, documentation and training within the organization for crisis

management (Jaques, 2007). Jaques (2007) suggested that while emergency response is

necessary, it cannot replace crisis management for an organization. Additionally, Jaques (2007)

stated that knowing the definitional difference between and emergency and a crisis is somewhat

tricky, since an emergency for a large organization can be a crisis for a small organization.

Nevertheless, the model suggests that knowing how to strategically manage an emergency such

that it does not lead to a crisis is important for crisis prevention (Jaques, 2007).

Cluster 3 - Crisis Incident Management

The first element under Crisis Incident Management deals with the crisis recognition.

Crisis recognition considers the transition from an emergency to a crisis, the assessments in the

process and early recognition (Jaques, 2007). Again, Jaques (2007) referred to the overlap

between early warning and incident management such that it can be valuable to devise an

approach to the response (Jaques, 2007). Additionally, there was usually more than one

emergency signal that leads to a crisis, and a leader should focus on the crisis associated with the

diversionary problems (Jaques, 2007).

The second element in this cluster concerns system activation or system responses. After

recognizing the crisis, organizations should be concerned with activation of the response process,

effective mechanisms for call out, back-ups, contingencies and system redundancy (Jaques,

2007). While the literature has spoken to organizational reputation as valuable to company

(Franklin-Johnson & Comyns, 2016), Jaques (2007) stated that focusing on reputation protection

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or shortfalls in planning and practice can lead to inadequate response and criticisms of the

organization and the response system associated with it.

The third element in this cluster deals with crisis management and seeks to select a

strategy, mitigate damage, manage stakeholders and devise media responses among other items

(Jaques, 2007). Some of the literature has highlighted using checklists and action plans, as well

as case studies on crises that have been poorly and successfully managed (Jaques, 2007).

Cluster 4 - Post Crisis Management

The fourth cluster of the Jaques (2007) model deals with post-crisis management. In this

cluster, the first element concerns recovery and business resumption through operational

recovery, market retention, and business momentum among others (Jaques, 2007). The primary

concern is to return to a state of normalcy to avoid further costs associated with the crisis

(Jaques, 2007). Elizabeth et al. (2011) also stated this in their findings on Jamaican farmers after

disasters. One study found market retention strategies can include expression condolences,

providing relief items and reassuring clients of the containment of the crisis (Franklin-Johnson &

Comyns, 2016).

The second element in this cluster deals with post-crisis issue impacts. This element

looks at the legal and administrative items associated with the crisis, including litigation, judicial

inquiries, reputational damage, and media scrutiny, among others (Jaques, 2007). Jaques (2007)

stated that issues arising out of a crisis are common, but the biggest reputational impact can be

from issues after the crisis. Further, decisions made during the pressure of a crisis can negatively

impact the organization for a long time (Jaques, 2007).

The last element in this cluster concerns evaluation and modification, which consider

items such as root cause analysis, management assessment, process review, and implementation

of change (Jaques, 2007). Jaques (2007) asserted that after a crisis has occurred, organizations

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can capitalize on the room for learning and response modification. Additionally, the end of every

crisis should be considered part of the preparation phase for the next potential crisis (Jaques,

2007). Jaques (2007) recommended debriefing immediately after a crisis as an important

evaluative tool to prevent the crisis from reoccurring (Franklin-Johnson & Comyns, 2016;

Jaques, 2007). Monteil (2018) highlighted that it is important for a community to learn from past

disasters in order to be more resilient for the future, and this phase assists with that concept.

Research has shown that after surviving an event, but post-disaster recovery is the most

challenging time for those affected (Monteil, 2018). However, the recovery phase of disasters

has been the least understood phase of crisis management (Monteil, 2018). Disasters lead to what

some researchers have classified as “the new normal,” where affected communities are forced to

adapt in the wake of disruptions due to disasters (Lawther, 2016, p. 494). Communities have

often operated in a time-compressed state during disasters, where the pressure to return to

normalcy can be hindered by the flow of resources, the demand for action, the need for quality

information and the need to make good decision (Monteil, 2018).

Conceptual Model

The conceptual model of effective disaster management, communication, and resilience

in Trinidad Extension officers, developed for this study (See Figure 2-1), was influenced by

Jaques’ (2007) relational model, Fink-Samnick’s (2009) professional resilience paradigm, and

U&G theory (Blumler & Katz, 1974). Overall, the four main elements of the model (disaster

preparedness, disaster response, communication during disaster, and resilience), overlap in the

disaster literature. Some researchers identify the relationships between the elements of the

model. Examples include, communication and resilience overlapping in the research by Land

(2015), disaster management and resilience overlapped in the research by Lambert and Lawson

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(2013), and communication in disaster management being covered in research by Telg et al.

(2007).

Figure 2-1. Conceptual model of effective disaster management for Extension officers in

Trinidad.

Therefore, the representation of these elements as connected components in the same

framework environment with disaster management at the center is justifiable.

Preparedness in the framework was influenced by several factors in the preparedness

environment. Planning for Tropical Storm Karen was considered in the model to determine the

arrangements made for the impending storm. Preparedness planning was highlighted in the

disaster literature as critical, such that engaging in disaster planning was impactful in disaster

response (Nyanga et al., 2018; Pitt & Treen, 2017; Seraphin, 2019). Further, being aware of

disaster plans allows for informed decision making in disaster circumstances (Kanhai et al.,

2016; Nyanga et al., 2018; Telg et al., 2008). Disaster preparedness training in the model

determines how Extension professionals were equipped to manage the variables of disaster

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management in the preparedness phase. Training was highlighted in the literature regarding

several disaster factors including basic life support (Ricard et al., 2017), volunteer management

(Downey et al., 2018), and overall disaster management. Collaborations with stakeholder

institutions are also highlighted to be important for sharing important information among

stakeholder institutions. Finally, Jaques’ (2007) considered the challenges that may have existed

in the disaster management environment that could be applied to the current study. Challenges

that were highlighted in the disaster literature include demanding schedules (Adams & Stewart,

2015), lack of plans (Asamoah et al., 2018), and lack of resources (McLean & Whang, 2019).

The right side of the model concerned disaster response, which included lessons learned,

recovery, and data collection, challenges, and future applications, among others. Several

challenges were identified in the literature regarding various disasters; challenges in this model

seek to determine what those were for Extension professionals in Trinidad. Challenges of

resources (Bonanno et al., 2010), inability to access disaster sites (Blackmon et al., 2017), and

access to technologies (Imran et al., 2018) were highlighted in the literature. The data collection

element under response sought to identify what data was collected, as well as how it was used

during Tropical Storm Karen. Data collection is identified as important for having a better

understanding of the impact of the disaster and charting a way forward (Roka et al., 2017).

Learning from past disaster experiences has been identified in the literature to improve disaster

management of current disasters or aid in preparing for future disasters. For example, Cuba

established over 50 years of iterative disaster management practices, attributed to learning from

past disasters in successfully managing Hurricane Irma (Zakrison et al., 2019). This also tied into

the future applications of the lessons learned, since applying the lessons learned assisted Cuba

responding to Hurricane Irma. Finally, on the response side of the diagram, recovery was

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considered in terms of highlighting recovery activities, as well as the duration of recovery.

Response and recover were often tied together in past research (Imran et al., 2018; Nyanga et al.,

2018; Yang & Wu, 2019).

Communication strategies of Extension officers during Tropical Storm Karen is

evaluated through the U&G theory. Challenges in communication as identified in the model

sought to determine the issues in the communication environment during Tropical Storm Karen.

Past literature highlighted several challenges in communicating during disasters, including lost

connectivity (Habib et al., 2013), incompatible communication technologies (Pitt & Treen,

2017), and the inability to access the target audience (Spence et al., 2007), among others.

Professional resilience characteristics exhibited by Extension officers (RQ4) are assessed

through the professional resilience paradigm. Along with the tenets of the paradigm, Fink-

Samnick (2009) also prescribed strategies for fostering professional resilience. Self-care

activities, professional networking, and honest revision are among the strategies proposed by the

paradigm. The connections in the conceptual model were also hypothesized to be important. The

central node in the diagram highlighted the purpose of the model: disaster management. The

arrows pointing towards disaster management from preparedness and response indicated that the

two entities are directly contribute to disaster management. The additional curved arrows

presented in the diagram connects disaster preparedness and disaster response.

The curved nature of the arrows signifies the cyclical nature of disaster management,

where disaster preparedness informs disaster response, and the lessons learned in disaster

response feeds into preparedness for the next disaster. Given that Tropical Storm Karen was a

case study, the arrows signified that the lessons from previous disasters were filtered to the

preparedness for Tropical Storm Karen, and that preparedness for Tropical Storm Karen

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impacted the response for the event. Additionally, communication was placed above the central

point to signify that communication is central to disaster management. Finally, professional

resilience is highlighted below all the other elements, signifying that disaster preparedness,

disaster response, and communication worked together to promote the professional resilience of

Extension professionals during the event.

Summary

This chapter offered the research backdrop on which the current study is based. An

examination of the body of knowledge in disaster management was conducted, where disaster

preparedness and response in Extension were featured. The themes from the literature were used

as sub-headings in this chapter, and considered planning, training, and communication in disaster

management. Studies on the role of Extension professionals in disaster management were also

synthesized to provide a summary of their functions in disaster situations. Since Trinidad is an

island in the Caribbean, Extension in the Caribbean context, as well as the specific context of

Trinidad Extension were assessed to provide an understanding of the Extension system in that

region. Professional resilience research was highlighted to illustrate the professional resilience

paradigm, as well as identify research on resilience in Extension, and resilience in weather-

related disasters. The relational model as presented by Jaques (2007) analyzed in this chapter to

provide a holistic picture of disaster management as pursued in the current study. This was

followed by the conceptual model used in the study, and an explanation of the tenets thereof.

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CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

Chapter 3 outlines the methodology used in conducting this research. The qualitative

approach used in this study, along with using a case study method was explained in this section.

The use of semi-structured interviews was highlighted and justified as the primary data

collection method, and the interview guides are also illustrated in this section. Concept maps and

drawings as secondary data collection methods are also explained in this section, along with the

methods of analysis for each tool. This section also highlights the sample strategy and inclusion

criteria for the participants. A subjectivity statement and a chapter summary are included.

Qualitative Methodology

The use of qualitative research methods has been used since the early 1900s in the fields

of marketing and academia (Belk, 2007; Elkind, 1964; Tisher, 1971). Qualitative research allows

researchers to collect data on peoples’ interpretation of a lived experience and the meanings

associated with those experiences (Elkind, 1964; Englander, 2016; Merriam & Tisdell, 2015).

This fits with the purpose of this study, as data was collected on Trinidad Extension officers’

preparedness and response to Tropical Storm Karen. Events in society that impact social norms,

like natural disasters, have guided researchers to take an inductive approach, rather than a

deductive approach research (Ary et al., 2010; Creswell & Plano-Clark, 2017). Inductive

reasoning is described by Ary et al. (2010) as “deriving general conclusions through direct

observation” (p. 13). Thomas (2006) described inductive analysis as an approach that evaluates

raw data through extensive reading to derive themes and concepts or to create a model from the

interpretation of the data. Ary et al. (2010) defined inductive analysis as an interpretation or

conclusion that is extracted from the data. Stated differently, researchers attempt to form a

perfect connection between the data and explanation in inductive reasoning (Katz, 2015).

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Deductive reasoning, in contrast, starts with a general statement, or hypothesis, and examines

various possibilities to reach a logical conclusion (Ary et al., 2010).

The philosophical assumption of qualitative research suggests that multiple forms of

reality exist through the individuals experiencing it (Creswell & Plano-Clark, 2017;

DeJonckheere et al., 2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Ontologically, collecting qualitative data

from Extension officers who have worked professionally during Tropical Storm Karen in

Trinidad helps shape a more general picture of that event from those individuals. Ontology seeks

to provide answers about what exists and concerns very high levels of data abstraction from

objects, events, and processes, among other items (Mark & Smith, 2004).

While quantitative methods allows researchers to collect data from a larger sample,

qualitative research investigates the deeper understanding of the social context as experienced by

the participants (Ary et al., 2010; Katz, 2015; Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Additionally,

quantitative data allows researchers to predict, explain, or control variables of the research

process (Ary et al., 2010; Dillman et al., 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). However, qualitative

research is concerned with providing a detailed description of an experience and meanings

within that experience (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Further, a description provided by Borg and

Gall (1989) suggested that qualitative research is recommended when the purpose of a study is to

determine the knowledge needs of organizations for it to function effectively.

The questions being asked in this study also suit a qualitative approach; descriptive

responses are solicited by the researcher, the outcomes are data-guided, and the purpose of the

study is to discover process elements rather than confirmation of a phenomenon. The researcher

is the primary data collection instrument in qualitative research (Ary et al., 2010; Creswell &

Plano-Clark, 2017; Dillman et al., 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). This study requires the

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researcher to play an active role in collecting data from study subjects, which allows for

interpretation of vocal inflections, body language, and other physical cues presented by the

subjects (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015).

The Phenomenological Case Study Approach

In selecting a research methodology, consideration must be made to the nature of the

phenomena explored (Noor, 2008). There are instances in scientific inquiry where researchers

are interested in discovery, insight, and interpretation (Noor, 2008). In this regard, a

phenomenological case study approach was chosen as the research method for understanding

Trinidad Extension professionals’ response to Tropical Storm Karen in context.

Phenomenological research aims to explain the essence of human experiences by gaining a rich

understanding of the experience from the perspective from the research participants (Ary et al.,

2010; Moran, 2000). Noor (2008) explains that phenomenology aims to appreciate the different

meanings that individuals place upon their experiences. Originally pursued by Husserl,

phenomenology started with the need to critique reason, but evolved to concentrate more on

human experiences (Moran, 2000). One phenomenological approach highlighted by researchers

concerns hermeneutics or interpretive phenomenology (Flood, 2010; Moran, 2000). Flood (2010)

wrote “hermeneutics goes beyond the description of core concepts and essence to look for

meanings imbedded in common practice” (p. 9). Stating that people exist in their social, political,

and cultural environments, Flood (2010) suggested that humans experiences are circumscribed

by their dispositions. Hermeneutic phenomenology assesses life experiences of humans to extract

meaning from the experience (Flood, 2010; Moran, 2000).

A case study is a research method that emphasizes the details of a limited number of

events (usually one) in context (Dooley, 2002). Originally pioneered by William Thomas and

Robert Parks, Dooley (2002) defined case study research as “scholarly inquiry that investigates a

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contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, when the boundaries between

phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are

used” (p. 336). Many researchers attest to the ability of case study research to provide an in-

depth understanding of cases (Ary et al., 2010; Baxter & Jack, 2008; Creswell & Plano-Clark,

2017; Gillham, 2000). Contextualizing for case studies has been identified by several authors in

research methodologies (Ary et al., 2010; Baxter & Jack, 2008; Creswell & Plano-Clark, 2017;

Gillham, 2000; Merriam & Tisdell, 2015; Yin, 2009, 2016). Case studies help researchers retain

the meaningful characteristics of events (Gillham, 2000; Yin, 2009, 2016). Case studies have

also been identified as an appropriate research strategy for contemporary cases (Yin, 2009).

The purpose of case study research in this context is to describe the range of behaviors

that the participants engaged in during Tropical Storm Karen. While flooding events are common

during the rainy season in Trinidad, Tropical Storm Karen presents as a case since major

damages were incurred during the rainy season of the previous year. Additionally, governmental

initiatives were established at the end of the previous rainy season for managing future disasters

to prevent the catastrophic losses incurred during previous events. Treating Extension’s response

to Tropical Storm Karen as a phenomenological case can provide insight into potential changes

in behaviors, both personally and professionally

Several authors have used the case study approach to investigate specific circumstances

during weather-related disasters. After Hurricane Katrina in 2005, Cole and Fellows (2008)

evaluated disaster communication using the context of New Orleans and Hurricane Katrina as

the parameters for their case study. Similarly, Mukerji (2020) researched Hurricane Katrina, but

the case study focused on flood mitigation policies, using changing geographies as the context.

Chen, Liu, and Chan (2006) used geographical constraints of a village as their case to evaluate a

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community-based disaster program in Taiwan. Similarly, Tran, Shaw, Chantry, and Norton

(2009) used the context of a country to test knowledge of flood disaster management in Vietnam.

Researchers also used the disaster event Hurricane Harvey as a case to estimate how well global

precipitation can estimate hurricanes (Omranian et al., 2018). Finally, Campbell and Beckford

(2009) used Hurricane Dean as a case study to estimate farmers’ adaptation to disaster in

Jamaica.

Data Collection

The primary qualitative tool used to collect data in this study was semi-structured

interviews. The early works of Piaget in clinical child psychology allowed him to look for means

of having flexibility in following the meanderings of respondents, while maintaining

standardization in questioning for each participant (Elkind, 1964; Tisher, 1971). Since then, the

interview has become the major data collection method most closely associated with qualitative

research (Englander, 2016). Interviews are one of the most widely used data collection methods

in the field of social science (Ary et al., 2010; Dillman et al., 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2015;

Plowright, 2011). Using interviews to collect data presents the researcher with the advantage of

collecting large amounts of in-depth data in a short period of time (Ary et al., 2010; Merriam &

Tisdell, 2015). Additionally, interviews can be semi-structured such that immediate follow-up

questions, points of clarification, and additional probes can be used, depending on the trends in

the dialogue (Ary et al., 2010; Creswell & Plano-Clark, 2017; Dillman et al., 2014; Elkind,

1964). In referencing Dunn (2005), Longhurst(2003) stated that semi-structured interviews are in

the middle of a continuum between fully structured interviews, and unstructured interviews.

Semi-structured interviews retain the advantage of having guiding questions to motivate

responses, while allowing for additional questions to emerge from the dialogue (Longhurst,

2003; Whiting, 2007). Another advantage of conducting semi-structured interviews is that

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participants become more open and provide unguarded responses, which can lead to collecting

valuable data (Ary et al., 2010; Merriam & Tisdell, 2015).

In qualitative data collection, the acknowledgement of the researcher as a major element

cannot be understated. The presence of the interviewer can influence responses or introduce bias

when conducting the interviews (Ary et al., 2010; Hamilton et al., 2017; Valeria et al., 2016). In

this study, the influence of the researcher was minimized by avoiding leading questions, asking

open-ended questions, avoiding reinforcing gestures, allowing the respondent to fully respond,

and asking for clarification, when necessary (Ary et al., 2010; Dillman et al., 2014; Merriam &

Tisdell, 2015; Plowright, 2011).

Since the research subjects were in another country, web-based technologies were

employed to connect with respondents. Authors have highlighted the use of technology, such as

telephone and the internet, to conduct interviews remotely (Dillman et al., 2014). For this study,

the videoconferencing software Zoom® was used to connect with the participants. The

videoconferencing application had the option to reliably record the sessions with the participants

either remotely on Zoom’s secured data cloud, or locally on the hard drive of the host. Data

redundancy was also established simultaneously screen capturing the video and saving those files

to a separate encrypted folder to protect against data loss (Easton et al., 2000). Participants were

asked to download the Zoom software on their electronic devices from which the meetings were

conducted. Where this was not possible, an intermediary provided a device with internet, a

camera, and software to participants for the interviews. This step in the data collection process

was initiated to ensure that all participants had access to the communication technologies for the

research.

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The intermediary was a graduate student at the University of the West Indies who was

willing to assist with the research process. Data bundles were purchased for the intermediary,

and overhead costs, like transportation and meals, were reimbursed. When interviews were

scheduled, participants were asked about their access to internet connectivity and the software

necessary for conducting the interview. Where participants had difficulty with access, the

intermediary would connect with Extension professionals at their office, link the researcher to

the participant through Zoom on her own device, and leave the room for the duration of the

interview. The intermediary also assisted with procuring additional research participants.

Although audio-only communication was the major mechanism to collect data using the

internet for the past 20 years, video calling has become more frequent with the increase of

available tools and technological advances to accommodate it (Weller, 2015). Additionally,

audio-only forms of data collection removes the nonverbal associations with interview data

collection (Valeria et al., 2016). Comparisons between face-to-face and video interviews,

Hamilton et al. (2017) found that “that participants interviewed via video-feed were just as

accurate as the short delay face-to-face interviews; however, they gave more accurate and

detailed reports than the longer delay face-to-face interviewed participants” (p. 261).

Economically, video interviews are more cost effective and time efficient than face-to-

face interviews, especially when subjects are in a different country or a location that is difficult

to access (Valeria et al., 2016; Weller, 2015). Concerning respondent comfort, research has

highlighted that remote video interviews allow subjects to feel more comfortable, which helps in

extracting more viable information (Haddouk et al., 2013; Hamilton et al., 2017; Valeria et al.,

2016; Weller, 2015). Research by Haddouk et al. (2017) highlighted that one of their respondents

was initially uncomfortable with the video interview, but then enjoyed it because the person was

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able to see themselves while being interviewed. Similarly, Valeria et al. (2016) spoke to the

comfort and efficiency in venue, indicating that video interviews removed the concern of a

meeting location, and participants could find an interview setting suitable to their own needs.

Authors have pointed to the use of electronic recording devices, such as audio and video

recorders, to allow the interview to be saved for later transcription and analysis (Ary et al., 2010;

DeJonckheere et al., 2018; Dillman et al., 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Additionally, notes

were taken for each interview as a mechanism for identifying key points in the discussion, or for

outlining follow-up questions not presented in the interview guide. Note taking during interviews

has been highlighted as a common practice by several authors (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015;

Plowright, 2011). Additionally, the use of video to collect qualitative data can reduce respondent

reactivity, a phenomenon where subjects’ responses are guided by the physical presence of an

interviewer (Liang, 2015). Minor physical adjustments were actively used by the researcher to

ensure that participants knew they were still digitally connected.

Authors have highlighted the advantage of having the interviewer directly interact with

the participant. The ability to read and interpret body language, nervous reactions, facial

expressions, and other bodily gestures can be critical in probing an item further (Dillman et al.,

2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2015; Witkin & Altschuld, 1995). However, the COVID-19 pandemic

made international travel difficult to physically connect participants during the data collection

period. COVID-19 forced governments to issue travel restrictions and close their borders (Brady,

2020; Weixel, 2020). On January 31, the U.S. Government initiated travel restrictions to and

from the U.S. to protect the country from the virus (Brady, 2020). However, travel restrictions

were being discussed earlier in January 2020 (Aljazeera, 2020). Even when travel was allowed, a

mandatory 14-day quarantine was enforced at most ports of entry (Aljazeera, 2020; Brady,

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2020). These restrictions, along with health risks associated with commuting and viruses, made

travelling for data collection unfavorable. In lieu of not being physically in the presence of the

participants, the internet-based software provided the ability to capture these kinds of data.

Plowright (2011) stated that this technique allows for the virtual presence of the interviewer and

has a greater impact than telephone interviews, which only captures audio.

Instrument

An interview guide was developed to allow for consistency during the interviews.

Interview guides, otherwise known as interview schedules or interview protocols, have been

identified as useful for ensuring each respondent is exposed to a similar line of inquiry (Ary et

al., 2010; Creswell & Plano-Clark, 2017; Dillman et al., 2014; Plowright, 2011). An expert panel

assisted with the development of the interview guide. The expert panel consisted of University of

Florida faculty who specialized in disaster research, communication research, Trinidad

Extension, and/or qualitative research methods. The series of consultations yielded advice on

question construction, question flow, interview guide structure, content, and terminology, among

others. The guidance from the panel was iterative, where new advice was added whenever a new

version of the interview guide was presented to be assessed. The interview guide was then

assessed by an Extension officer and an agricultural assistant from Trinidad, whose responses

were not included in the data analysis. The assessment yielded suggestions about the duration of

the interviews, questions structure, terminology, and appropriateness of questions.

The interview guides used in this study had six major components: an introduction,

disaster preparedness during Tropical Storm Karen, disaster response during Tropical Storm

Karen, communication during Tropical Storm Karen, the professional resilience of Extension

officers, and a closing section. Two interview guides, one for Extension officers and another for

Extension directors, were developed. The two guides were similar in nature, except when

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referring to the position of the Extension professional. Interview guides are presented in

Appendix B (interview guide for Extension directors) and Appendix C (interview guide for

Extension officers). An introductory section assisted with respondents transitioning to more

difficult lines of questioning. This tempering process is used by researchers to establish an

environment of comfort and open communication in the interview process (Creswell & Plano-

Clark, 2017; Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). The introductory section asked respondents about their

comfort in participating in a video interview.

The second section focused on disaster preparedness during Tropical Storm Karen and

considered items describing their preparedness strategies, disaster training, challenges, and

lessons learned. The section opened with an explanation that preparedness for Tropical Storm

Karen concerns all the activities that the Extension professional engaged in before the event.

Some direct questions from this section are as follows:

• How did you strategize preparing for Tropical Storm Karen?

• What did you learn in preparing for Tropical Storm Karen?

• Can you describe any challenges you encountered when preparing for Tropical Storm Karen?

• Based on your experience, how would you prepare differently for weather-related disasters in

the future?

Questions in this section were based largely on the Jaques (2007) model and concerned

planning, manuals, and training, among others. Accessing data on these disaster preparedness

measures are critical in answering RQ1. Additionally, questions about challenges, lessons

learned, the roles played in preparing for Tropical Storm Karen directly, were included as part of

this section. Since weather-related disasters occur almost annually in Trinidad, questions about

learning from past weather-related disasters, and differences in preparing for weather-related

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disasters were also included. A review of the literature in weather-related disaster preparedness,

along with expert assistance, aided in shaping the questions.

The third section focused on Extension’s response to Tropical Storm Karen. The section

opened with an explanation stating that response concerns all Extension activities during and

after Tropical Storm Karen. Questions in this section covered items such as the response

strategies, challenges in responding to Tropical Storm Karen, lessons learned, and responding to

future weather-related disasters. Some specific questions from this section are as follows:

• How did Tropical Storm Karen disrupt Extension?

• Based on your experience in responding to past weather-related disasters, how did Extension

respond differently during Tropical Storm Karen?

• In responding to Tropical Storm Karen, can you describe any challenges Extension may have

had in responding to this disaster?

• How can Extension officers be equipped to respond to future weather-related disasters?

Like the preparedness section, questions in this section were based largely on the Jaques

(2007) relational crisis model and concerned accessing information on the response activities of

Extension professionals. Data on these disaster response measures are critical in answering RQ2.

Additionally, questions about challenges, lessons learned, the roles played in response to

Tropical Storm Karen directly, were included as part of this section. Since weather-related

disasters occurred almost annually in Trinidad, questions about learning from past weather-

related disasters and differences in responding to weather-related disasters were also included. A

review of the literature in weather-related disaster response, along with expert assistance, aided

in shaping the questions.

The fourth section of the interview guides focused on communication during Tropical

Storm Karen. This section opened with an explanation of the importance of communication in

disaster management. Questions in this section covered communication strategies, barriers to

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communication, communication technologies, and future communication strategies. Some

questions from this section are as follows:

• How did you strategize communication with your clients during Tropical Storm Karen?

• Can you describe any barriers or challenges to communication that you may have

experienced during Tropical Storm Karen?

• What did you learn about communication during Tropical Storm Karen?

• What sort of communication technologies do you think can assist Extension in managing

disasters in the future?

Questions in the fourth section were based on the U&G theory of communication. This

theory suggests that individuals use specific media to fulfil specific gratifications (Ruggiero,

2009). The specific gratifications associated with the communication strategies employed by the

Extension professionals were evaluated in this section to determine how Extension professionals

in Trinidad manage communication during disasters. Questions about lessons learned in past

communication strategies and technology that can potentially assist with communication were

also assessed. In addition to being guided by theory, literature concerning communication during

disasters also played a role in the formation of questions in this section. Challenges in

communication, barriers to communication, and strategizing communication during disasters

were all part of this section. These elements were important in answering RQ3. Resilience

questions were included in the fifth section, covering professional resilience of Extension

officers during Tropical Storm Karen. Questions from this section include:

• How did Tropical Storm Karen disrupt your life personally?

• How did Tropical Storm Karen disrupt your life professionally?

• Did you experience any mental, physical, or emotional stress in your response to Tropical

Storm Karen?

• If you can, please describe some of these stresses?

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The resilience section of the interview guide was guided by Fink-Samnick’s (2009)

Professional Resilience Paradigm. As mentioned in Chapter 2, resilience can cross the

personal/professional spectrum and affect professionals in both areas of life (Fink-Samnick,

2009). This section touched on many aspects of resilience indicators, including stress, social

activity, assistance in self-management, and type of stress as presented in the paradigm.

Additionally, literature on stress during disaster management also assisted in framing the

questions. These questions were critical in answering (RQ4).

Data Analysis

The data collected during the interviews were transcribed to digital text for analysis. The

researcher manually transcribed each interview, since transcription software was inconsistent due

to the country accents and local dialects of the respondents. The videos were played in Otter.ai

web player at playback rate of 25%, where the speed of typing roughly matched the respondent

audio. This did not eliminate the need for spot-checking the transcription through replaying

video segments (Halcomb & Davidson, 2006). During the transcription process, start/stop

sentences, filler words, and stutters/repeat terms were removed for interpretive intent (Widodo,

2009). While verbatim transcriptions are common in qualitative research, denaturalized

transcripts help maintain the substance of the interview, while improving the efficiency of

transcription and analysis (Halcomb & Davidson, 2006; Oliver et al., 2005). Each text transcript

was identified by the position of the respondent, location of the interview, and the order in which

the interview occurred. For example, the transcript for the first Extension officer at the first

location to be interviewed would be labeled O1L1. Similarly, a director at the third location

would be labeled as D1L3. This assisted in properly de-identifying the responses while

maintaining a unique identifier for each respondent. The concept maps and drawings were

labeled with the same respondent code to ensure consistency.

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The data were then manually analyzed using the constant comparative technique (Glaser

& Strauss, 2017). The constant comparative technique (CCT) allows researchers to draw

conclusions across the entire data set by identifying themes in the data where each piece of data

must be compared with every other relevant piece of data (Boeije, 2002; Fram, 2013). Originally

developed by Glaser and Strauss (1967), the constant comparative technique was designed for

use in grounded theory research and as a measure of organizing and reducing data (Charmaz,

1996; Fram, 2013; Glaser & Strauss, 2017; Leech & Onwuegbuzie, 2007; Miles & Huberman,

1994). Since then, the use of the CCT has moved beyond classic Grounded Theory to

accommodate a range of research methodologies (Fram, 2013). The CCT can be used inductively

or deductively (Fram, 2013; Glaser & Strauss, 2017; Kolb, 2012). Additionally, the CCT method

of data analysis was initially developed to be used over several rounds of qualitative data

collection (Leech & Onwuegbuzie, 2007). However, comparisons can be done between single

interviews within the same group (Fram, 2013; Leech & Onwuegbuzie, 2007). During this

process, the researcher determines the relevance of items within the data. For the purposes of this

study, the CCT was used inductively using one round of interview data collection, where open

coding was employed.

Using the constant comparative technique, the interview data from all the participants

were reviewed. In this step, the simultaneous act of analyzing and coding was accomplished

(Boeije, 2002; Kolb, 2012). In the review of the data from the first respondent, key phrases,

words, terms, or sentences were highlighted as potential codes (Boeije, 2002; Leech &

Onwuegbuzie, 2007) concerning Extension and Tropical Storm Karen. Each code was assigned

to a category consisting of one word or a short phrase to capture the essence of the highlight. The

same approach was taken with the interview data from the second respondent. A comparison of

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the highlights from first and second interviews were done to determine the similarities in the

potential codes in the interviews (Fram, 2013). For the responses from the third interview, the

potential codes were highlighted and compared to the first two interviews. This process

continued until all the interviews were analyzed. Only one researcher coded the data, which

increased the interpretive consistency (Olson et al., 2016). Table 3-1 provides samples of the

coding strategy employed in the study.

Table 3-1: Sample coding used for each research question.

Data chunk (Sample Quote) Code Category Theme

Research Question 1

Even before (disaster occurs), from the time rain falls and

we heard there is rainfall in a certain area, officers are

required to go into what is called a reconnaissance to see

if they have any flooding in a particular area

Data

collection Field work

Disaster preparedness

was strategized through

fieldwork

We have a crop registry in place that takes place before

any natural disaster situations. That’s one of the ways

we prepare

Data

collection

So now fast forward to 2019, before the start of the rainy

season, that’s when we tried to get information out to

people about, you know, what to look out for and

what to do.

Advising

So now fast forward to 2019, before the start of the rainy

season, that’s when we tried to get information out to

people about, you know, what to look out for and

what to do.

Advising

Research Question 2

In terms of resources, sometimes we have a little trouble

getting the vehicle because there is one vehicle

available to us, in terms of 4x4.

Capable

vehicles

Resources Extension professionals

faced a lack of

resources and field

work challenges in their

response to Tropical

Storm Karen

And then to get into some of the areas, I mean, not all the

officers will have 4x4 vehicles, and even some 4x4

vehicles can’t even access some of the affected areas.

Capable

vehicles

For the longest while we haven’t received any protective

gears

PPE

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Table 3-1. Continued

Data chunk (Sample Quote) Code Category Theme

Right now, I need a new pair of boots PPE

Resources is a big, big issue Money

If we had drones, we would have been able to collect the

data needed to report.

Money

Research Question 3

After the storm, we would try to call as many farmers as

we could to make appointments to do field

assessments

Phones Client

communication

capacity

Communication was

strategized through the

requirements of the job

and client capacity.

I also have the contact number for my farmers, my

farmers have my contact number. They could contact

me any time

Phones

WhatsApp, man… WhatsApp Apps

Most of them have smart phones now. In terms of ease of

use of other apps, the majority of them don’t have

Facebook.

Apps

Farmers nowadays, there are not much of them who have

access to email and so on just yet.

Email

Email and thing, they not even going to respond to that

because most of them don’t even know about the

internet.

Email

Research Question 4

And to see people lose thousands of dollars or everything

in some cases and to know that that was the man’s

livelihood. It’s heart-breaking.

Vicarious

Traumas

Emotional Stresses Extension professionals

experienced various

stresses in responding

to Tropical Storm

Karen

It's not normal for me doing flood in that amount of

damage. We accustomed doing flooding, we

accustomed seeing losses of crops.

Vicarious

Traumas

So remember, Extension is a sort of a frontline first

response. They get the jamming (abuse) when the

Ministry or government not doing anything for the

farmers.

Farmer

aggression

Farmers were aggressive. So, they didn't want to hear

what we have to say, they were abusing the Ministry,

abusing the staff

Farmer

aggression

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Concept Mapping

The second part of the data collection process included the use of concept mapping to

identify actions and thought processes in the disaster preparedness phase, as well as the disaster

response phase of Tropical Storm Karen Concept maps can be defined as a schematic device

representing interconnectedness between concepts or ideas within a given framework (Butler-

Kisber & Poldma, 2009; Daley & Milwaukee, 2004; Kinchin et al., 2010; Novak & Cañas,

2006). Researchers attribute the origins of concept mapping to Ausubel’s (1980) Assimilation

theory, which provided graphical representations of complex data (Kinchin et al., 2010; Novak &

Cañas, 2006). While concept mapping has been used in both qualitative and quantitative data

collection (Atkinson et al., 2019), concept maps have been used in qualitative data collection to

supplement interview data since the 1970s (Butler-Kisber & Poldma, 2009; Wheeldon &

Faubert, 2009). In terms of accessing knowledge structures, Novak’s (1990) pioneering works

highlighted three uses of concept maps being paired with interviews: to inform interview guides,

to assess understanding of interview data by the interviewee, and to analyze interview data by the

researcher (Rye & Rubba, 1998). The second option is the direction that was chosen for the

current research.

Interviews are common in collecting meaningful data from participants (Ary et al., 2010).

However, researchers have found difficulty in explaining concepts and propositions acquired

during the interviews (Novak, 2010). Wheeldon (2011) corroborates this by asserting the

importance of interviews, but also stating that participants should be removed from their own

narrative to provide more in-depth, concise reflections of their experience through concept

mapping. Further, visual modes of inquiry in qualitative approaches posits that there are multiple

realities and methods of understanding through the constructivist epistemology (Butler-Kisber &

Poldma, 2009). Concept maps are also less hindered by cultural, language, and social barriers

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(Wheeldon, 2011) and have been used in international studies as well (Aarons et al., 2019).

Concept mapping in qualitative data collection allows respondent-generated visual meaning of

expression and can help the researcher draw conclusions based on the user output (Wheeldon &

Faubert, 2009).

For this study, participants were asked to draw a concept map to reiterate what they

covered during the interview. Each participant was given an instruction sheet and four examples

of concept maps associated with Extension work from which to frame their own map. The

examples were not directly associated with weather-related disaster management. Two digitally-

rendered concept map representations, and two hand-drawn concept maps were provided to the

respondents as guides. Butler-Kisber and Poldma (2009) highlighted that concept maps can be

constructed by hand or by using software. The current study provided both options to study

participants. Additionally, any evidence of understanding of the central idea is acceptable, from

rough sketches to highly sophisticated diagrams (Butler-Kisber & Poldma, 2009). The

instructions were sent via email, phone, or hand-delivered through the intermediary, and

respondents were asked to complete the maps within the next business week. Concept maps were

delivered via phone pictures through WhatsApp, or by email. Follow-up messages were sent to

respondents as reminders when the original timeframe had elapsed, and periodically sent once

every week.

The concept maps were returned via email or WhatsApp. A standard method of analyzing

concept maps has not been established in research (Edmunds & Brown, 2012). However, concept

maps were employed as follow-ups to the interviews to determine how Extension officers

conceptualized managing Tropical Storm Karen. Wheeldon and Faubert (2009), in reviewing

concept maps in qualitative research, stated, “Instead of looking to the researcher to search for

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codes, concepts, and categories within the data, maps allow for the identification of concepts and

connections based on how the participant frames their experience” (pp. 72-73) Therefore, the

analysis was done by examining the concept maps in conjunction with the interview data. The

similarities and differences between the content of the interview data and the concepts in the

concept maps were identified and noted. Concept maps were analyzed using content analysis to

identify visual representations of codes discovered in the interviews. Numbers were appended to

areas of interest in digitally represented maps and aligned to codes at the bottom of the drawing

(see Figure 3-1). The familiarity with the interview data and the structure of the interview made

this process uncomplicated. The direction of the connections, the arrangement of the elements,

and the location of the elements were considered in the analysis. The method of interview-then-

concept map was mentioned by several researchers, including Kinchin and Ma (2010), Novak

and Cañas (2006), and Wheeldon (2011), to show the similarities in knowledge representation

between the interview and the concept maps. Zanting et al. (2003) also used this method to

evaluate data from the practical knowledge of mentor teachers. Their research showed the

feasibility of concept maps as a method of data collection and interview data triangulation.

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Figure 3-1. Sample concept map analysis.

Drawings in Qualitative Research

Participants in this study were given instructions on drawing Extension officers’

management of Tropical Storm Karen. Early use of drawings as a method of data collection was

done by Goodenough (1962) in what was then known as the Goodenough Draw-a-Man test

(Caskey & Yeo, 2020; Williams et al., 2011). Children were given the test instructions to draw

the best image of a man they could, as a test of intelligence (Williams et al., 2011). Since then,

the test was rebranded as the Goodenough-Harris test (Scott, 1981) and has been used for both

children (Ångström-Brännstrom & Norberg, 2014; Köse, 2008; Nicholls & Kennedy, 1995; Rae,

1991; Samaras et al., 2012; Williams et al., 2011) and adults (Adamis et al., 2016; Atanu K.

Dogra, 2011; Bat Or & Ishai, 2019; Calvo, 2017; Del Greco et al., 2018; Guillemin, 2004;

Klingemann & Klingemann, 2016; Moagi, 2014; Stewart & Brosh, 1997). Another iteration of

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the test was developed by Chambers (1983), who evaluated the stereotypes of scientists through

children’s drawings (Caskey & Yeo, 2020; Finson et al., 1995). Since then, several forms of this

test have been used by various researchers to extract data from participants through drawings,

including the House-Tree-Person test (Buck, 1950), the Draw-A-Family test (Gross & Hayne,

1998), and the Kinetic Family Drawings (Burns & Kaufman, 2013) among others.

Drawings have been used to collect various kinds of data, including motor-skill

development, intelligence, sexual abuse, knowledge of internal body parts, and school readiness,

among others (Williams et al., 2011). Several authors have also used drawings to collect data on

natural disasters, including art therapy after natural disasters (Lee, 2018), impact of cyclones

(Haring & Sorin, 2016), the depiction of Hurricane Katrina (Kelley-Romano & Westgate, 2007),

earthquakes in Haiti (Brolles et al., 2017), and disaster trauma (Roysircar et al., 2019). Kearney

and Hyle (2004), along with Nossiter and Biberman (1990), support that drawings can be used as

a measure of triangulation in qualitative research.

Overall, these methods allow scientists to move beyond collecting verbal or written data

to a medium that still informs research (Caskey & Yeo, 2020; Parrott, 2019). In previous

research, drawings are stated to be a form of human expression and have been identified as a

human thinking tool (Calvo, 2017; Moagi, 2014). The use of drawings also aid researchers in

instances where participants find difficulty in expressing themselves verbally (Filhol et al., 2020;

Moagi, 2014). Humans draw as a mechanism of understanding their physical and natural

environment (Calvo, 2017; Hsu, 2017; Kearney & Hyle, 2004). Nossiter and Biberman (1990)

found that a drawing focuses a person’s response while promoting parsimony and honesty.

Drawings can also be used as a mechanism for reflecting on life events, as reflective drawings

help researchers reconstruct and refine perspectives beyond those stated verbally by the

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participant (Calvo, 2017; Caskey & Yeo, 2020; Del Greco et al., 2018; Guillemin, 2004; Hsu,

2014; Moagi, 2014). In the process of reflective drawing, individuals may simultaneously think,

recall, and reconstruct the lived experience (Calvo, 2017).

For this study, participants were asked to draw an Extension professional executing their

duties during Tropical Storm Karen. Each participant was provided with examples of drawing

that were based in the agricultural sector. The drawings were returned via email or WhatsApp.

This interview-then-drawing method has been used by many researchers as a measure of

participant reflection in the interview (Ångström-Brännstrom & Norberg, 2014; Guillemin, 2004;

Kearney & Hyle, 2004; Parrott, 2019). Like the concept maps, the drawings were compared to

the interviews of the individuals. An example is provided in Figure 3-2 below. This method of

data comparison for triangulation has been used by many authors (Kearney & Hyle, 2004;

Parrott, 2019; Williams et al., 2011; Yuksel, Aksak, Arican, & Bakan, 2016). Drawings were

analyzed using content analysis to identify visual representations of codes discovered in the

interviews. Numbers were appended to areas of interest in digitally represented drawings and

aligned to codes at the bottom of the drawing. Cross-referencing of the elements in the drawings

and the expression of those elements in the interview were investigated. Additionally, the

number of human figures, facial expressions, the setting represented, identified instruments, text

labels, color, and other identifiers were considered in the analysis as mentioned by Meade,

Wammes, and Fernandes. The familiarity with the interview data and the structured nature

interview made this process uncomplicated. Many of the visual identifiers were used by previous

researchers like Brooks (2009), Kearney and Hyle (2004), and Lev-Wiesel et al. (2005).

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Figure 3-2. Participant rendered drawing analysis.

Sample Selection and Inclusion Criteria

The population from which the sample was selected consisted of Extension professionals

employed by the MALF who worked through Tropical Storm Karen and at least one other

weather-related disaster, and the supervisors who supervised them. Frontline Extension

professionals are directly responsible for managing flood claims by farmers. However, their

supervisors form the managerial arm of Extension offices, and provide directives on how to

proceed with disaster management. The final sample included Extension directors, Extension

officers, and an agricultural assistant. While Extension professionals worked in Tobago at the

time of the study, that branch of the Extension services was managed by an entity within the

Tobago House of Assembly, under different directives and objectives for that island (Narine,

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2018). Private Extension services were also available to assist farmers. However, Extension

officers employed by these private, for-profit businesses were not considered for this study

because they were not a part of MALF’s flood incentive process, and they were not required to

respond to farmers during disasters.

Prior to approaching the Extension professionals, official Ministry permission to collect

data from employees was sought. Several Letter-of-Permission requests were sent through the

MALF website in October and November 2019. A direct email to the Permanent Secretary at

MALF in November 2019 was responded to by that office, and further clarifying edits were

suggested before the letter would be issued. After updating the letter to conform with Ministry

requests, a non-disclosure agreement (NDA) was signed to protect Ministry information. The

final permission letter was received in February 2020. The NDA sought to restrict the

publication of sensitive information and improve the security of confidential information that

may have been divulged in the collection of data. Additionally, the NDA stated the various ways

in which the NDA would be terminated, effectively restricting access to the target population.

A snowball sampling technique was used to recruit willing participants for this study. The

snowball technique considers that one member of the target population can guide the researcher

to other participants who exist within the same phenomenon (Ary et al., 2010; Creswell & Plano-

Clark, 2017; Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Snowball sampling is a type of non-probability sampling

used to identify and recruit key informants who may divulge rich information on the research

questions (Ary et al., 2010). Narine (2018) used a similar approach to identify the sample in

Trinidad for a study on small farmers. The snowball for this study was started with an initial

contact to an Extension director known to the researcher. After explaining the parameters of the

study, the director proceeded to appoint a day and time for the interview, as well as provide

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contacts for additional respondents. A similar approach was used with one other contact known

to the researcher. From these two contacts, the rest of the study participants were acquired. The

participants were derived from six different locations in the disaster-prone areas of Trinidad as

guided by the maps presented by Roopnarine et al. (2018). These areas highlighted the majority

of the flooding disasters in the country, as well as represented the areas with the highest

population density and areas under agricultural production in Trinidad (Roopnarine et al., 2018).

Respondents were contacted with an initial email or text message, and reminder emails

followed within five business days of non-response. If an individual indicated willingness to

participate in the research, information about potential days and times to conduct interviews was

requested from them. Reminder emails were consistently sent until interviews were conducted or

respondents indicated they were no longer willing to participate. Data collection started on

February 3, 2020. A sample of 16 Extension officers was initially the target. However, data

saturation occurred at the eighth interview, with five more interviews confirming saturation.

Saturation refers to the phenomenon where no new information emerges from the interviews

(Creswell & Plano-Clark, 2017; Dillman et al., 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Saturation can

be used as a sample size decision tool in interview studies, with the option of additional

interviews for confirmation of saturation (Malterud et al., 2016). Six to 10 participants has also

been identified as enough for collecting interview data (Malterud et al., 2016). However, 13

individuals comprised the final sample size.

Trustworthiness

In qualitative research, trustworthiness of the study depends on four main tenets:

credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. Credibility refers to the truth of the

findings (Ary et al., 2010), in other words, how much confidence can be placed in the

researcher’s scientific application of the qualitative process. Credibility in this study was

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established by member checking, which is a process by ensuring the interpretation of the data is

confirmed to be true by the participants. This was done by summarizing the comments made by

participants after every section in the interview. Credibility was also ensured by peer debriefing,

where the data were made available to the chair of the researcher’s dissertation committee for

cross-referencing of themes presented. Transferability estimates the ability of the findings of the

study to be generalized beyond the participants in the research sample. The inclusion of a

reflexivity statement and the detailed description of the methods allows for better transferability

of the study. Dependability measures in qualitative research do not exist, but the results of the

qualitative data should, at least, make sense (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Lastly, confirmability

concerns the ability of other researchers to derive the same results from the data. Ary et al (2010)

suggested using audit trails. This was ensured by sharing data with the committee chair and

involving their expertise throughout the research process.

Subjectivity Statement

A subjectivity statement is appended to qualitative studies such that there is transparency

as to the connection between the researcher’s lived experiences and the phenomenon being

studied (Ary, 2010). This ensures that readers can evaluate the potential biases of the researcher.

As a citizen of the country highlighted in the study, I have experienced all the major sectors

under consideration in the research, including the Extension services, the agricultural sector,

weather-related disasters, and research. First, as a youth in Trinidad, the commonality of low-

impact flooding events made me think that it was irrelevant to consider these flooding events as

important. After all, if it were important, it would be rectified by the relevant authorities.

Attending an institution dedicated to forestry increased my awareness of the causes and effects of

floods. Further, being a regular commuter, instances of days home due to flooding became a

point of frustration, as heavy rainfalls became synonymous to diminished daily productivity. At

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the time of my graduate academic pursuits, highways, major access roads, and even entire

communities would be engulfed in flood waters. Additionally, the capital, Port-of-Spain, is

notorious for flooding with even short periods of rainfall.

Earning a master’s degree in agribusiness management provided me with insight into the

inconveniences of weather-related disruptions on a farm and the effects those can have on

agriculture-related business. Bridging the personal experiences of weather-related disasters and

my academic knowledge, I gained a deeper appreciation for the risks in the agricultural sector.

Research activities also allowed me to learn about other Caribbean islands and the effects of

natural disasters on the agricultural sectors there as a travelling student researcher.

During my academic pursuits, I was afforded the opportunity to intern with the Extension

Training and Information Services Division of the Agriculture Ministry. While I was not

interning as an Extension officer, I was able to interact with officers directly and gained an

appreciation for their responsibilities to the country. During this time, I became interested in the

various roles Extension officers manage as part of their daily activities, including communicating

with clients, teaching farmers, conducting field visits, solving problems, and uplifting

communities through various partner programs, among others. During this two-year period,

flooding disaster struck the central region of Trinidad, and I was able to gain insight into the

activities employed by Extension officers to assist in recovery. However, my current

understanding of disaster management affords the realization of the need for further

investigation.

Notwithstanding my inexperience in research, my inquisitive nature pushed me to enquire

about research opportunities at the University of Florida. My first research effort at the

University of Florida was in the area of disaster management, and the “eureka” moment arrived

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at the end of the first submission of this document: “You should investigate the disaster

management practices employed by Extension officers back home.”

Summary

This chapter covered the methodology that was used in this study. Qualitative analysis

with data triangulation using three data collection methods was discussed. Interview data,

concept mapping, and drawing analysis were the three qualitative tools used to gather data. A

description of the target population, sample selection process, and sample characteristics were

also identified and discussed. Details on the use of video interviews as a viable source of data

collection was highlighted, as well as the process to access to the target population. Constant

comparative analysis was used to analyze the interview data, while comparative analyses were

used with the concept maps and drawings. Finally, a subjectivity statement on the researcher was

provided to share personal views and opinions on the phenomenon discussed. The next chapter

will provide the results of the analyses.

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CHAPTER 4

RESULTS

Introduction

This study sought to assess information on disaster management during Tropical Storm

Karen through evaluating disaster preparedness strategies (RQ1) and disaster response strategies

(RQ2) activities of Extension professionals. The study also sought to evaluate communication

strategies during Tropical Storm Karen by Extension professionals (RQ3), as well as challenges

to professional resilience (RQ4). This chapter presents the results of the study. The chapter was

sectioned according to the research questions as it relates to the interview data. Denaturalized

quotes from the respondents were provided to highlight themes found in the interview data.

Concerning RQ1, the theme that emerged from the data was “disaster preparedness was

strategized through field activities.” Additionally, other categories that emerged concerned

preparedness planning and training. Regarding RQ2, the theme that emerged from the data was

“Disaster response was strategized through field activities.” Field visits were required by

Extension professionals to assess damages to farmers’ plots and advice was provided to farmers

on how to move forward after the event. A second theme that emerged from the data concerning

RQ2 was “Extension professionals faced various challenges in responding to Tropical Storm

Karen.” Regarding RQ3, the theme that emerged from the analysis was “communication was

strategized by considering the requirements of the job, and the capacity of the client to

communicate.” Regarding RQ4, the theme that emerged from the analysis was “Extension

professionals in Trinidad experienced various stresses in managing Tropical Storm Karen.”

Finally, the results of the concept maps and drawings are also highlighted in this chapter and

compared to the interview data as a measure of triangulation. The chapter ends with a summary.

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The Research Participants

Extension professionals in Trinidad who worked through Tropical Storm Karen and at

least one other weather-related disaster served as participants for the study. A total of 18

Extension professionals initially agreed to participate in the study. Three potential respondents

were lost due to participant mortality through drop out. One participant revealed, while being

interviewed, that while the person was employed as an Extension officer during Tropical Storm

Karen, the person did not participate in the disaster management efforts since the person was on

vacation. Another Extension professional revealed that Tropical Storm Karen was the first

disaster event the person managed. The data from those individuals were not used in the analysis.

Data from a total of 13 Extension professionals were used for the study. A description of each

participant is provided as follows:

• Interview 1 (February 3, 2020): Director 1 at location 1 (D1L1): An Extension professional

with more than 20 years of experience in Extension, currently in the position of director.

• Interview 2 (February 12, 2020): Officer 1 at location 2 (O1L2): Extension officer with five

years of experience in Extension.

• Interview 3 (February 12, 2020): Officer 2 at location 2 (O2L2): Extension officer with just

under five years of experience in Extension.

• Interview 4 (February 22, 2020): Director 1 at location 3 (D1L3): A professional who has

worked through more than one weather-related disaster, besides Tropical Storm Karen,

currently in the position of director.

• Interview 5 (March 4, 2020): Officer 1 at location 4 (O1L4): An Extension officer with more

than five years of experience in Extension.

• Interview 6 (March 4, 2020): Officer 2 at location 4 (O2L4): An Extension officer with more

than five years of experience in Extension.

• Interview 7 (March 4, 2020): Officer 3 at location 4 (O3L4): Extension officer with just

under five years of experience in Extension.

• Interview 8 (Part 1-March 4, 2020. Part 2- March 11, 2020): Officer 4 at location 4 (O4L4)-

An Extension officer with more than five years of experience in Extension.

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• Interview 9 (March 11, 2020): Officer 5 at location 4 (O5L4): An Extension officer with

more than five years of experience in Extension.





• Interview 12 (March 25, 2020): Agricultural Assistant 1 at Location 5 (A1L5): An

agricultural assistant with more than 20 years of experience as an extension professional.

• Interview 13 (May 1, 2020): Officer 1 at Location 6 (O1L6): An Extension officer with more

than 10 years of experience in Extension.

To minimize the risk of possibly identifying any or all Extension professionals, only

vague descriptions of the participants are presented at the individual level. Additionally, the

singular they/them pronouns are used in accordance with the American Psychological

Association standards for gender neutrality. Collectively, the group of respondents consisted of

six men and seven women from six different Extension locations spread about the main disaster-

affected areas of Trinidad. Their experience ranged from under five years of experience to more

than 20 years of experience as an Extension professional. The age groups of the participants

varied. All the descriptors were either volunteered by the participants, disclosed during the

discussion, or observed by the researcher in the interaction. Regarding the digital interview data

collected, four interviews were interrupted by connectivity issues but were completed within the

same hour. One other interview was interrupted by time constraints but was completed on

another day.

Interview Results

Disaster Preparedness (RQ1)

Regarding the disaster preparedness strategies employed by Extension professionals in

Trinidad during Tropical Storm Karen, the theme that emerged from the data was “Disaster

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preparedness was strategized through field activities”. The strategy for disaster preparedness

revolved around having as much information about farming activities as possible to prepare for

flood claims, as well as to guide farmers by advising them on preventative agriculture to mitigate

against flood damage to their crops. The categories associated with this theme include data

collection and advice. These are discussed below.

Data collection

In terms of data collection by Extension officers, several respondents stated that, after the

2018 flooding disaster, a newly established crop registry was used more seriously to collect data

on farm produce under cultivation. As O2L2 said, “We have a crop registry in place that takes

place before any natural disaster situations. That’s one of the ways we prepare.” An officer at the

same location shared similar sentiments. O1L2 said, “We would have started the crop registry

maybe last year (2018) because in previous years we would have had difficulties in assessing

what the farmers would have had planted when the crop is totally covered [in water] for a couple

of days.” However, O1L2 framed the crop registry differently by saying that the registry is

geared towards data collection for the rainy season and not towards Tropical Storm Karen, or any

storm specifically. O1L2 noted:

I wouldn’t say it is preparation for Tropical Storm Karen because then we prepare

for the rainy season or we prepare for any disaster that would happen during that

period of time so we would start back our preparation again maybe from the

month of May, going back out and check these farmers.

Another dimension of data collection for weather-related disaster preparedness was through the

incentive programs and the farmer registration programs. O3L4 mentioned, “From that

perspective, before the event, I guess that would be probably trying to handle the AIP

(Agricultural Incentive Program) and FRP (Farmers Registration Program) work to basically

make room for the upcoming flood situation.” Extension professionals were involved in

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reconnaissance work prior to disaster damage to farmers as a measure of observational data

collection: “Even before (disaster occurs), from the time rain falls and we heard there is rainfall

in a certain area, officers are required to go into what is called a reconnaissance to see if they

have any flooding in a particular area” (A1L6). Finally, many officers suggested that regular

farm visits allowed Extension professionals to have a mental idea of the areas under production

by their clients. One of the respondents highlighted that the mandate of MALF is incentive and

subsidy distribution, which underscores the data collection activities of Extension professionals.

O1L4 said:

We don’t prepare weather disasters in Trinidad you know. We know rainy season

here. And what much can we do to prevent floods and these kind of things... I just

told you that that Ministry of Agriculture realistically is about subsidies and

incentives and that kind of thing, and very minimal technical advice.

Advice

Regarding the category of providing advice to farmers, Extension professionals spoke to

advising farmers to assist them in disaster preparedness for Tropical Storm Karen. One

Extension director spoke to extending information to the wider community after the effects of

past disasters. D1L1 said:

Before you would hear about farmers having flood damage that kind of thing, but

I think that one [2018 flooding disaster] was like a big whammy in the country.

And then we realize how unprepared the Ministry was… So now fast forward to

2019, before the start of the rainy season, that’s when we tried to get information

out to people about, you know, what to look out for and what to do.

Additionally, an officer suggested that advice to clients was all that could have been done to

assist farmers in preparing for Tropical Storm Karen. O2L4 said, “What we did, we identified

farmers, especially in the flood proned areas, you know, to try and make sure that the drains are

well maintained, is clean.” O4L4 made similar sentiments concerning preparedness for Tropical

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Storm Karen, saying, “Basically, the most we do is try to advise them,” while explaining the

disaster advice shared with clients.

Other categories

Beyond the categories associated with the theme of field activities, preparedness planning

and training emerged as other categories from the analysis. These categories are described

below.

Preparedness planning

Regarding preparedness planning, respondents described the lack of a disaster

preparedness plan, while also discussing the importance of a plan. Many of the respondents

stated outrightly that there was no disaster preparedness plan. However, other respondents

referred to disaster management plans that were in progress of being developed. For example,

D2L3 stated, “There was no plan in place. The Ministry is now doing a disaster plan. So, there is

no set structure in place saying you have to do XYZ and having first responders.” Similarly,

D1L1 and A1L5 made complementary statements, highlighting that MALF did not have a

disaster management plan, and that a plan was in progress where several stakeholders, including

the FAO and other Extension professionals were contributing.

Notwithstanding the absence of a current plan during Tropical Storm Karen, many

respondents commented on the importance of a disaster management plan. O6L4 talked about

the human condition in disaster preparedness planning, and that a disaster plan would assist in

reminding Extension professionals about disaster preparedness procedures. O6L4 said, “Actually

there are things that you forget, it’s obvious, we as humans forget. So, if we have a plan or

schedule, we should have everything listed.” Similarly, O1L3 suggested that having a plan puts

everything in place, allowing for smoother disaster management. However, one other Extension

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officer stated that any disaster preparedness plan would be ineffective, suggesting that plans only

work if farmers produce. O5L4 noted:

A plan wouldn’t really help too much, its either you plant, or you don’t plant. Or

if the government itself have more drainage, or a different system, a better system

itself, because when the [Location] bank burst, you really can’t do anything.

Training

Like disaster planning, training was explored as a preparedness mechanism and was

perceived as important by almost all the respondents. However, the availability of consistent

training was varied across responses, from not at all, to once per year. Where training was

suggested to be widely unavailable among respondents, one participant suggested that training

was a foreign concept. O1L2 stated that:

I think it [training] would be based on what we have to do. Like our requirements

in a disaster as an Extension officer. I’m not sure exactly how the disaster

preparedness training would come in because I have no concept of it right now.

So, I can’t tell you exactly how it would come in. If it were different in terms of

social development having, to deal with more people issues of homes flooding out

or of having to carry food or having the logistics of having to save human life,

that is different as opposed to going out into the field that were flooded. If you

talking to me in terms of an Extension officer, going out to check with these

farmers, I’m not sure how the disaster preparedness training would be beneficial

to me.

Conversely, some of the respondents highlighted that training was available, albeit, to different

degrees. O1L6 stated that annual training was available, to the effect that special disaster

preparedness training is not required. O1L6 noted:

We do in-house training, regularly. We have trainers that come and train us…

Within the first year of employment in the Ministry of Agriculture, I would have

done a training course on disaster relief, where two persons would have come and

trained us in making the visit, filling out the forms... This is an ongoing exercise

since I’ve been working in this department. So, I would say for any particular

disaster no special training is required or no special preparedness because we’re

always prepared… We have been trained in the past to deal with these disasters.

So, because we’ve been trained in the past, when a disaster strikes we just spring

into action.

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Similarly, D1L1 highlighted training as part of their regular schedule. In response to another

question, they highlighted that their office assists in training Extension professionals before the

rainy season to reiterate information, as well as to update the Extension professionals on any new

information that came up. However, D1L1 also stated that consistent Extension-wide training is

not available:

Nobody’s trained, none of the Extension officers are trained in disaster

preparedness as it pertains to the agriculture community, and how to respond to it,

what they should or shouldn't be doing, that kind of thing. There is no formal

training that was ever done

However, many officers pointed to the potential positive effects of training if it becomes

available. As O7L4 said:

Oh, that (training) would actually be really helpful because it would actually have

people in these fields that would be more experienced. And remember I only

working here for [X] years now. So, the experience they would pass on to us to

better help farmers out there would be great.

Similarly, O5L4 highlighted that training on new methods of disaster preparedness would help

them better assist farmers considering a disaster. Nevertheless, a few officers, like O6L4,

suggested that annual disaster training would be ideal for Extension officers, stating that “…as

ministry officials, I think we should get, at least, training every year to prepare us for disaster

events.”

Disaster Response (RQ2)

The results listed in this section concerns Extension’s disaster response after Tropical

Storm Karen occurred. Concerning research question two, the theme that emerged from the

analysis was “disaster response was strategized through field activities.” The categories

associated with this theme include data collection, reconnaissance work, and field evaluations.

However, another theme emerged from the data: Extension professionals faced various

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challenges in responding to Tropical Storm Karen. These themes and the associated categories

are described below.

Field work

Concerning field work, the consensus provided by respondents was that most of the

disaster management activities concerning Tropical Storm Karen occurred in the response phase

of the event. Three major categories emerged regarding field work in response to Tropical Storm

Karen. These include data collection, reconnaissance work, and field evaluations for subsidy

payments. To provide context, A1L5 highlighted what happened when Tropical Storm Karen

occurred:

So, let me say how it how it would be. Ideally, when a flood takes place, the

farmers have seven days within which to come in and make a claim. After that,

the Officers are assigned to different areas where they would go out and do the

evaluation. And they have, depending on the quantum [of produce], a specific

time to come in and bring in the calculations. In relation to the actual

compensation, they have the instructions of how to go about doing compensation

and they know what to look for in the field etc. So once that comes in, we have a

procedure now to evaluate that administratively to get it checked and double-

checked by a number of people.

To summarize what was stated across all respondents, the responsibility of Extension

professionals when Tropical Storm Karen occurred was to collect data on the damages to crop

and livestock on farms for the purposes of providing compensation should a farmer make a claim

at the respective Extension office. Respondents worked in teams of up to three professionals and

were not assigned to their regular farmers to avoid any conflicts of interest. They collected the

data using physical notes, and then transferred the data into a digital spreadsheet at the Extension

office, which automated the flood claim calculations. The figures were then verified by other

Extension professionals, and a final estimate was used to solicit claim disbursements from the

government. The farmers had to visit the respective Extension office to collect the claim via

cheque. These sentiments were echoed, in part or full, by all respondents in the study.

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Challenges in response

The second theme to emerge from the analysis was that Extension professionals faced

various challenges in responding to Tropical Storm Karen. The major categories regarding this

theme included the lack of resources and challenges in conducting field work.

In the process of collecting flood damage data, most of the respondents pointed to a lack

of resources, like access to appropriate transportation, and human resources as major challenges

in responding to Tropical Storm Karen. For example, O1L3 stated:

Number one, the quantity of farmers that was affected for the number of officers

that we have to do this assessment to start with is really, really... it’s really, really

difficult. And then to get into some of the areas, I mean, not all the officers will

have 4x4 vehicles, and even some 4x4 vehicles can’t even access some of the

affected areas. So that was basically a specific challenge, on my side as an officer.

Regarding access to farmers’ plots, the access to appropriate transportation was the main concern

highlighted, where there were too few 4x4 vehicles for the Extension professionals to collect the

required data and advise farmers after Tropical Storm Karen. O5L3 said:

In terms of resources, sometimes we have a little trouble getting the vehicle

because there is one vehicle available to us, in terms of 4x4. Because certain areas

we can’t go with our regular cars. And during flood times, officers book the

vehicle to go into certain areas, other officers now have to wait.

The officer went on to say having more vehicles and more human resources, in terms of drivers,

would assist Extension professionals in responding to future disasters.

Another capital resource mentioned by some of the respondents concerned PPE (Personal

Protective Equipment) in response to Tropical Storm Karen. However, the discussion around

PPE was inconsistent. As a point of clarification, the type of PPE was stated by officers to

include boots, coveralls, umbrellas, and raincoats. Two officers mentioned an annual

disbursement of funds for PPE, but two other officers mentioned that disbursements have not

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been made in recent years. One other officer mentioned that they had not received any PPE since

being employed.

The lack of financial resources was also stated by a few respondents, but in different

areas. D1L1 highlighted budgetary disbursements did not allow for the effective dissemination of

disaster information during Tropical Storm Karen. D1L1 said:

Resources is a big, big issue because we would like to use mass media. So, we

would like these things [disaster information] on radio, and out on TV, nice

bulletins, send people text messages, that kind of thing. Unfortunately, we don't

have the budget for that. So, we just depend on ministry social media and the

ministries, and the Ministry web page and of course Extension offices, and

officers to hand them out.

Another major challenge highlighted by many of the respondents concerned the data collection

processes associated with disaster response. D1L3 discussed the inefficiency of the data

collection method during Tropical Storm Karen, describing it as “archaic” and “inefficient.”

D1L3 said MALF, other stakeholders, and international entities required data after Tropical

Storm Karen, but given the current data collection system, they were not able to respond to the

effect required. D1L3 stated:

They would have had to report to make to these international bodies that I don’t

know offhand who they are obligated to respond to as a ministry. So we would

have to respond: areas affected, number of farmers affected, number of crops

affected, to be able to kind of estimate the production levels that would have been

decreased as a result of the flood. So that’s the kind of data that they asked us,

which we were not able to give because we did not have that before. So that’s

what I’m saying right now we’re putting things in place to collect that data. So

we're doing our commodity profile for each commodity. So in the unfortunate

case, of a disaster, probably in the next year or two, then we'll be able to respond

but those are some of the questions around so you were just able to give basic.

Other than access to the resources, most of the respondents stated that the effects of the disaster

directly impacted their ability to access farmers and their plots to conduct field work. Farmers’

plots were stated to be inaccessible even with Ministry transportation, sometimes for weeks after

the event. According to O1L6:

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With Karen, sometimes the field is inaccessible. So, a farmer makes a claim and

we literally cannot visit his field because the floodwaters are very high and it’s

dangerous on our part. Sometimes it's a narrow log or they want us across a river

and they don’t have a bridge. It’s just a tree across the river. And they cross the

tree and they telling you come.

However, D1L3 spoke to using unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) (drone) technology in

highlighting inaccessible areas by saying, “We partnered with the University of the West Indies

and got drone imagery, because there are instances where you kind of want to go (to collect data)

and so we suggested that I use drone imagery as well.”

Disaster response for Extension professionals in Trinidad during Tropical Storm Karen

primarily entailed data collection concerning crop damage assessments for farmer compensation.

However, while past disasters influenced the personal activities of some of respondents, there

were several challenges and lessons learned that were unique to this event.

Communication During Tropical Storm Karen (RQ3)

The communication strategy

This section describes elements of the communication strategies employed by Extension

professionals during Tropical Storm Karen. To preface the presentation of results for this section,

data from a few of the respondents suggested that there was no official disaster communication

strategy in Extension in Trinidad. The theme that emerged from the analysis concerning RQ3

was “communication was strategized by considering the requirements of the occupation and

communication capacity of Extension clients.” It was a requirement of Extension professionals

to visit farmers in their fields to conduct damage assessments. The field assessments required

face-to-face communication with farmers for accurate data collection, as well as communicating

advice on disaster recovery. However, the official lines of contact between Extension officers

and clients during Tropical Storm Karen was the office land line phones. Additionally, personal

cell phones were used as a matter of convenience to connect with clients directly instead of the

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office land line phone. WhatsApp was also used to connect with the Extension administrators to

move information through to the rest of the Extension service. While social media platforms

could have been accessed by the clients, Extension professionals in Trinidad are not required to

use those as official lines of communication. Another category of data that emerged from the

analysis concerned challenges to communication. Respondents highlighted the incompatibility of

modern technologies with their clients. These categories are detailed below.

Requirements of the job

As mentioned, face-to-face communication during Tropical Storm Karen was a necessary

part of the response procedure during Tropical Storm Karen. A1L5 suggested that farmers also

are required to make face-to-face visits at Extension offices for claims purposes. A1L5 stated:

Ideally, the first line [of communication] is when the farmer comes in and makes

that claim. So that claim is the first medium of communication, because it’s not

that we go out and see who gets damaged. They are required to come in and make

that claim. So based on that claim form now, when you have a number of claim

forms, the clerk’s office sent back to the county officer in charge. So he now

organize for his supervising officers to assign these applications to Extension

officers. So they put the officers in teams and they are given the screen forms.

From the claim forms. Now, officers are required to contact the farmers to make

appointments to come and do the investigation.

However, the purpose of Extension officers in disaster response was to evaluate flood damage

across various locations after the event. O7L4 responded succinctly in saying, “Everything we do

is via field visits.” O1L6 described the activities that leads to face-to-face site visits with farmers,

while also highlighting that constant communication between work colleagues took place as

well:

When our supervisor assigns us a group of farmers that visit we immediately sit

down together, my colleague and I. We would develop a schedule for the week of

how many farmers we are going to visit. The visit because with my colleague,

disaster relief is two persons have to go there's not one person going so I must go

with a colleague. So right away we sit down and we communicate on who we

going by when we going. During the visit we are constantly communicating with

one another, and after the visit, we both have to sit down and communicate on this

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particular farm or this particular field visit. We in constant communication that is

needed and then both of us have to sign the [field evaluation] documents together.

While the primary method of interacting with clients is face to face, to arrange the face-to-face

communication, Extension professionals used both cell phones and office phones. This was

highlighted in the narrative above and by many other respondents. For example, O6L4 stated,

“First things first, we do all the calling and appointments. We set up certain times to go out

there.” Similarly, O5L4 said that in the aftermath, they would try to call as many farmers as they

could, and arrange field visits with farmers as strategically as they could. In addition to arranging

field visits, some respondents disclosed that their clients were in possession of their cell phone

number and were able to contact them at any time. O2L4 said, “I also have the contact number

for my farmers, my farmers have my contact number. They could contact me any time.”

Beyond face to face and phones, many officers described the use of WhatsApp as a

method of communicating with clients during Tropical Storm Karen and beyond. When asked

about connecting with work colleagues, one officer replied “WhatsApp, man… WhatsApp”

(O1L3), indicating that communication was available via this method. O2L3 highlighted that this

was one of the easiest ways to communicate with clients: “Remember now is social media,

WhatsApp, and all these other things. So, you know that this one of the easiest ways now to

communicate with farmers, so you make particular farming community groups, WhatsApp chats,

and so forth.” At the level of director, D1L1 stated that WhatsApp communication is filtered

through from the administrative level of the Ministry:

The Ministry heads of division and Permanent Secretary have a WhatsApp group,

which I can’t delete myself from. So, the Permanent Secretary will send out any

info that she gets. And also, the Director of Engineering will post whatever is

happening on the ground. This is during the while it’s raining and the flood and

stuff.

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While communicating via clients though WhatsApp was highlighted, some of the officers spoke

about using defined WhatsApp groups, or communicating with farmers’ group administrators to

filter disaster information. Another use of WhatsApp highlighted in the interviews was to

provide audio-visual representation of the disaster. O1L2 stated:

Farmers would take recordings of what is happening. If they were in the field and

saw water coming in, they would send it via WhatsApp. So they would have

pictures of their field and their crops.

O1L2 summarized the use of most communication channels:

The majority of farmers don’t have emails. The easiest access point to a farmer

now is your smart phone. Most of them have smart phones now. In terms of ease

of use of other apps, the majority of them don’t have Facebook. I am not really

going to add my farmers on my personal social media. So even if they add me I

usually don’t. my personal social media is not a professional thing. With

WhatsApp on the other hand I can speak to them professionally and with phone

calls and video calls if need be.

Challenges in communication

In evaluating the data, challenges to communication during Tropical Storm Karen

emerged as a category. Two groups of data concerning this category involved technology

incompatibility and the lack of access to a communications plan.

The primary challenge to communication was the incompatibility of modern technologies

with the client base. While most of the respondents spoke to using WhatsApp in their

communication strategy, several respondents highlighted that the age of clients inhibited the

smooth flow of communication through this channel. O2L4 stated:

Number one, plenty people [farmers] don’t have phones, the older people. And

the older people who do have phones, they can’t use WhatsApp and all these sorts

of things. Some don’t even know how to dial a number. Some will tell you they

don’t even have a phone.

O3L4 shared similar sentiments, highlighting that phone call contact was the best method of

contacting farmers, stating, “Farmers nowadays, there are not much of them who have access to

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email and so on just yet. A lot of the farmers are old-timers as well.” The generational

perspective of technology use was introduced by O4L4, when it was stated that older clients

were in retirement age and were just getting into WhatsApp due to the influence of their

children. O7L4 stated that farmers prefer face-to-face communication because modern

technologies were incompatible with communicating with the farming community:

Remember most of the farmers are older people, so technology is not really

something they want to deal with. They prefer like a face-to-face meeting. We

have the telephone contact so we could always contact them. Email and thing,

they not even going to respond to that because most of them don’t even know

about the internet. Because it’s the older heads as the younger ones don’t want to

get into agriculture.

The other challenge to communication during Tropical Storm Karen was the absence of a

communication plan. Several respondents highlighted the lack of communication plan, such as

D1L1 who stated directly that, “There's no formal communication plan.” Similarly, D1L3

highlighted the lack of a plan while stating how a plan would be beneficial:

There is no plan in place therefor you wait, unfortunately, until eight o'clock on a

working day. So if the risk happens on a Saturday, we unfortunately wait until

Monday morning, eight o'clock. But with the plan that they're proposing, there

should be steps to be taken, and who exactly to call, no matter what time it is.

Professional Resilience (RQ4)

The results listed in this section concerns the challenges to professional resilience

experienced by Extension professionals in managing Tropical Storm Karen. The theme that

emerged from the analysis was “Extension professionals experienced various stresses in

responding to Tropical Storm Karen.” The categories that emerged from the data included

emotional stresses, environmental stress, workload stresses, and physical stresses. All

respondents in this study mentioned experiencing one or more of these stresses.

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Emotional stress

The data revealed that respondents were exposed to various forms of emotional stresses.

Most of the respondents spoke to experiencing vicarious trauma. Vicarious trauma, sometimes

called secondary traumatic stress, describes the effect where a person indirectly experiences

trauma through others, but is stressed or traumatized as a result. In this case, many of the

respondents indirectly experienced the losses of their clients and others, and were affected. In

highlighting vicarious trauma directly, D1L1 explained:

People take it for granted but remember some Extension officers work really

closely with farmers. And to see people lose thousands of dollars or everything in

some cases and to know that that was the man’s livelihood. It’s heart-breaking,

and not everybody deals with it the same way. Also, you feel helpless.

In describing the connection between unregistered farmers and the inability to assist in

compensating them, O1L2 highlighted the double difficulties in seeing the loss of investment to

farmers, and having to explain that government compensation is unlikely:

Having to tell these guys that, ‘More than likely listen, you squatting on this piece

of land and more than likely you wouldn’t be compensated.’ And they would have

probably invested most of their livings into this crop hoping that they would get

back something. But it doesn’t happen. A lot of the farmers as well, a lot of the

bigger farmers as well, are unregistered, but the mere fact is that they’re still

producing food for the country. So even though they are unregistered I mean they

still serving that same purpose and to deal with those issues and to see that they

have nothing and nothing to get is a difficulty by itself.

Livestock farmers were also affected, and O7L4, who works with livestock clients, was mentally

affected by seeing that loss:

It's not normal for me doing flood in that amount of damage. We accustomed

doing flooding, we accustomed seeing losses of crops. But it had cases where we

saw livestock. We found other people’s livestock floating away in different

parcels and that kind of had an effect on us.

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Some officers described feeling connected to disaster victims generally. For example, D1L3

described being in shock after learning about some of the details in the aftermath of Tropical

Storm Karen:

I'm not sure if this is stress, but seeing the effects. So, a lot of the persons, a lot of

the farmers’ homes, that kind of thing is a bit shocking, you know? Driving and

seeing where the watermark was. Because two days when you pass and you look

it all over and you seeing where the watermark was, and then you wonder, you

know, how people actually survive that.

Another source of emotional stress was aggression from clients. D1L1 described

Extension professionals as pseudo-first responders, and suggested that farmers were likely to

turn their frustrations on the Extension officials, which can sometimes lead to abuse.

So remember, Extension is a sort of a frontline first response. They get the

jamming [abuse] when the Ministry or government not doing anything for the

farmers. Like, “Well they didn’t clean the river that’s why we got flooding.” Or

“Nobody close the sluice gate.” The person they are telling that to and slamming

and abusing is the Extension staff.

Other respondents highlighted similar emotional concerns and faced aggression from clients

managing Tropical Storm Karen. O5L4 highlighted unpleasant experiences with farmers due to

the frustrations of sustaining crop damage: “Farmers were aggressive. So, they didn't want to

hear what we have to say, they were abusing the Ministry, abusing the staff.” Further, some

participants in the study were concerned about having to face aggression in the field while

responding to Tropical Storm Karen, based on past experiences. For example, A1L6 said:

The interaction between farmer and Extension officer during that time: so, you

lost your crop and then somebody coming to evaluate, and we may have a

difference of opinions. It can get dangerous. out there. Because I remember I got

threatened and run [chased] out of a field already.

Likewise, O1L6 described similar experiences in dealing with irate farmers who, sometimes,

physically threaten Extension professionals when flood claims are denied.

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Workload stress

Most of the respondents pointed to increased workload pressures because of Tropical

Storm Karen. Changing work environment, and work backlog are some of the issues highlighted

by respondents. For example, D1L1 said:

So, production-wise [work-wise], from a professional standpoint things are almost

at a standstill. But we are still expected to do the same amount of work, you

know? Then, we deal with a Minister, who knows that we ain’t got no resources,

but expect responses in a particular kind of way. “Why this not happening? Why

that not happening?” But where the resources to do it? So, anger and frustration

that you can’t do more.

In referencing other duties during disaster management, O1L2, like several other respondents,

described being constrained by having to postpone regular work assignments, which

accumulated and needed to be managed regardless of disaster response.

So, a lot of work would have backed up because of the mere fact of doing flood

claims and doing inspections with regards to these things and calculations. So,

incentives and farmers registration that we would have had to check since

September, because Karen would have happened, I think the 22nd of September,

a lot of those things basically went on hold maybe until the end of November.

Then at the end of November it was difficult to get onto farms because persons

were trying to push their crop out for the Christmas season or were not in their

field at that point in time. So, it was quite difficult. A lot of work actually backed

up over those months, quite a lot.

O1l6 also described having to manage the workload in a similar fashion. In describing the

response to Tropical Storm Karen, O1L6 highlighted that disaster response work became the

priority, and that all other duties “take a backseat.” In continuing, O1L6 stated that only when

disaster evaluations are completed, regular duties resumed. In terms of returning to normalcy,

some of the officers mentioned long recovery periods in returning to normal duties. O2L2 stated:

It takes almost about three months to return to a level of normal. Because after we

actually do the first assessment and all that, farmers have up to 40 days to make

their claim before we start doing assessments on the fields. So, at the point of

doing the assessment when that is completed then we would start calculations and

fine tune all the other paperwork. So, we’re talking a couple weeks now well into

it.

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The lack of resources to perform duties was also described as a workload stress. As mentioned in

previous sections in this chapter, Extension professionals were unable to sufficiently access

transportation resources and PPE to effectively execute response duties during Tropical Storm

Karen. O3L4 described Extension staff having to share a limited number of vehicles to conduct

field visits, while O7l4 described not being able to access funds from the travelling

disbursements for using personal vehicles. Additionally, several respondents highlighted not

having access to PPE to conduct the necessary field work in disaster response.

Physical stress

Responding to Tropical Storm Karen was described as physically demanding by the

respondents. Types of physical stresses to emerge from the data include working long hours, the

potential for physical injury, and the physical fatigue in executing duties. One officer spoke to

feeling the physical stress of working for long hours: “We had a lot of visits to do, so I was

outside there, and the sun was hot, whole day we were out. So that’s mental stress, physical

stress…. sunburn” (O5L4). Similarly, O7L4 described having to be at on-call while in the field

and working long hours. In attempting to access farmers’ plots, O4L4 described having to walk

long distances through areas affected by heavy rains to conduct flood damage assessments

during Tropical Storm Karen.

Respondents also described the increased potential for physical injury in conducting

flood damage assessments. O1L6 described being stressed by having to consider her physical

safety during Tropical Storm Karen, and always having to be on guard:

There are other dangers as well, you know? You could fall, you could damage

yourself. So, you will constantly be on guard. I am always holding on to my

colleague, his arm or his shoulder, in dangerous areas because I don’t want to fall

and damage myself. I gave you the experience, it did happen to me one time.

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Respondents also mentioned the experiences of other officers being physically affected in their

response to Tropical Storm Karen. A1L5 stated, “We have another officer who went to look for

damage and end up in a sinkhole and up knee deep in some sinking sand.” Similarly, O6L4

described the physical injury that had to be considered in responding to Tropical Storm Karen,

saying, “Officers who haven't grown up in conditions like that they would go to the flood and

perhaps fall down, then might slip they might go into a piece of water, thinking it shallow and go

deep, so it's very dangerous.”

Environmental stress

Respondents identified environmental stressors in their response to Tropical Storm

Karen, which included contaminated flood waters, wildlife concerns, and navigating weathered

topography. O3L4 summarized the environmental concerns of Extension professionals during

Tropical Storm Karen:

You know we encounter certain health risks and dangers. Like sometimes we

have to cross a river. Sometimes you might encounter some wildlife. Like you

know during flood it have caimans and snakes does just go all over and be a little

unpredictable.

O1L6 shared similar sentiments about the wildlife by saying: “We are dealing with a dangerous

environment. The environment is dangerous, right? There are snakes in the water, there are rats,

we could get leptospirosis, we could get cholera. So, I mean it is stressful going out there.” O2L2

also shared similar sentiments in managing environmental stresses:

Another thing is that when you’re out on these wetlands is that natural habitats are

displaced. So that’s something that you’d want to be mindful of as well when you

going to do flood visits… like snakes and alligators. So sometimes it’s not your

fancy. It might be a fearful situation knowing that these creatures just might be

lurking around the area just looking to get back to some form of normalcy too.

Respondents also described having to navigate hillsides affected by rains, or cross river with

high flood waters to access farmers’ plots for evaluation. For example, O2L2 also stated:

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Some of the area of farmers that I had to visit would be like hilly farmers, farmers

on hillsides. So, access to hilly areas under wet conditions and during these

natural disasters a lot of soil movement takes place as well. That would be some

of the concerns with regards to disasters.

Similarly, O6L4 underscored environmental concerns even on flat terrain:

Some of the areas are very dangerous in terms of the drainage [flood water], they

are deep. Sometimes you have to cross board [walk across planks], sometimes

you have to ride a tractor. If you’re not accustomed to riding a tractor with your

muddy boots you can slip on the metal. So, it’s very dangerous.

In assessing the data, most of the respondents highlighted that the stresses associated with

responding to Tropical Storm Karen was part of the job.

Concept Map Analysis

As a measure of triangulation, concept maps were requested from respondents regarding

their disaster management strategies during Tropical Storm Karen. Concept maps were received

from six participants: D1L1, O1L4, O2L4, O5L4, O7L4, and A1L6. All concept maps were

edited to be identified by participant. Some concept maps were further edited or digitally

recreated to improve clarity of the data on the map. Concept maps are presented in Appendix D.

The results of the concept maps are presented in order of the interviews conducted.

D1L1

In the concept map presented by D1L1 (see Figure 4-1), it was observed that the flow of

the map represented a chain of command at MALF. The administrative levels within MALF

were represented by the mention of the Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago, the Minister of

Agriculture, and the Permanent Secretary of MALF. Additionally, regional, county, and office

leaders were mentioned in the hierarchy of the map. Concerning the connection between

Extension officers and farmers, there was a unidirectional arrow that connected both entities at

two points: one direct connection from the professional to the farmer, and one connection that

passed through a node called “farm works.” However, the map also highlighted more

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connections to the farmer via external agencies like the University of the West Indies, the FAO,

the ODPM, and IICA. Infrastructural support also connected the Prime Minister to the farmers.

The node labeled “Extension officer” had hierarchical connections that flowed vertically, and

was positioned between a supervisor and the farmer. In terms of technology, the node labeled

“information technology supports” had only one connection to the office director, which then

flowed to the rest of the hierarchy.

In comparing the interview data to the concept map, the first major similarity concerns

the connection between the farmer and the Extension officer. D1L1 highlighted that Extension

professionals were the major connection to MALF Tropical Storm Karen: “So remember,

Extension is a sort of a frontline first response. They get the jam when the Ministry or

government not doing anything for the farmers.” Along with this quote, D1L1 also highlighted

the lack of information technology supports for Extension offices, and connected this issue to the

leadership in MALF in both the interview and the concept map: “The Wi-Fi keeps dropping in

the office and the hard line connected internet’s not working. And most of the government

infrastructure is a little poor.” Information technology was also highlighted through

communication technology and data collection technology (UAVs) during the interview. Finally,

the infrastructure support provided to farmers as observed in the concept map was also identified

in the interview data:

So recently, we started the same thing for rainy season where we put out rainy

season alerts and how farmers should be prepared, what they should do with their

livestock, what they should do crop-wise. And when there’s an actual flood, we

will put out bulletins and publications like for consumers to be aware of produce

that might have been damaged by flood and not to consume it. To farmers,

making them aware of what pests might be floating around, to be careful of the

flood waters, what are some of the alleviation things that they can do.

Additionally, the mention of stakeholder institutions, such as the FAO, the ODPM, and other

stakeholder agencies, were mentioned in both the interview and the concept map:

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There are certain heads, engineering for example. He will liaise with ODPM.

That’s the liaison point for the Ministry. So, when they get information,

engineering will share it with other heads. And then I would share whatever with

my staff in whatever form.

There was also additional information provided in the concept map that was not covered in the

interview. Many of the mentioned administrative positions were not covered in the interview, as

well as the information concerning the chain of command. The concept map presents a very

broad-structured approach to disaster management, while the interview data highlighted specifics

of disasters from the position of a MALF director.

Figure 4-1. Recreated concept map of participant D1L1.

O1L4

The concept map provided by O1L4 (see Figure 4-2) shows the major elements of

disaster management by Extension during Tropical Storm Karen. The concept map was drawn

with a title element stating, “Extension’s response to floods/natural disasters.” This element

flowed into “Prepare” which was positioned towards the middle of the diagram, but below the

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title node. To the right of Prepare, elements associated with preparing for disaster relief efforts

were observed, including, “communicate with affected farmers,” “scout field (affected area),”

and “district assessment.” These elements read from right to left respectively, leading into

Prepare. Elements of the concept map then flowed to the left of Prepare and curved downward.

To the left of prepare were “Farmers submit claims,” followed by “Extension’s visit to field,”

and “Assessments,” respectively. Finally, the “submission of verified information” element tied

the concept map together above Assessments, and below Prepare.

Comparing the concept map and the interview data, many similarities can be identified.

This respondent highlighted many of the concept map elements in the following paragraph from

the interview data:

Well, as the storm [Tropical Storm Karen] passed, we went out and did a flood

assessment. So, geographically we would have gone to all the areas we know

would have been affected. And we have taken information of floods and affected

and try to quantize produce and livestock as loss and feed that information back to

the office. In our capacity, that is what we would have done.

The concept map of this respondent separated the sequence of events into independent elements

that concerned the preparedness and response of Extension professional during Tropical Storm

Karen.

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Figure 4-2. Concept map of participant O1L4.

O2L4

The concept map provided by this participant (see Figure 4-3) had a central element

stating, “Extension’s response to flooding situations.” There were three elements to the left

concerning disaster response preparation, and four elements to right concerning responding to

disasters. The preparation elements flowed vertically, with “making teams of officers” at the top,

“prepare for field inspections” in the middle, and “making calls to visiting” at the bottom. To the

right of the central element, another vertical structure with four elements was observed. These

elements included “Calculating” at the top, followed by “field visits (response),” “inspecting,”

and “data input” at the bottom.

In connecting the concept map elements to the interview data, several similarities were

noted that indirectly related to the concept map elements. Firstly, the preparation through making

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teams of officers was represented in the interview data using the terms “we” and “us.” For

example, D2L4 stated, “What we did, you know, identifying farmers especially in the flood

proned areas, to try and make sure that the drains are well maintained.” Secondly, preparing for

field visits was mentioned in the interview data through identifying flood proned areas and

farmers: “The first thing I did was I traverse the area, see which part of the area might be

flooded.” Additionally, making calls to visit was underscored in the interview data when the

respondent identified that the phone contact to and from farmers was always available. In terms

of the response side of the concept map, field visits during Tropical Storm Karen was also

discussed in the interview. Data collection was highlighted in the interview, but data input, as

represented in the concept map, was not.

Figure 4-3. Concept map of participant D2L4.

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O5L4

The concept map submitted by O5L1 (see Figure 4-4) showed a simple layout with two

sides. At the top of the concept map, an element labeled, “Extension officer” was observed, with

“farmer” below it. The concept map was then forked into two other elements under farmer,

representing livestock farmers on the left, and crop farmers on the right. Under livestock farmers,

there were two items horizontally aligned. The element on the left said, “building structure,”

while the element on the right stated, “Where farmers live in flood-prone area, try to move

animals out to secure location until disaster has passed.” Similarly, under “crop farmers,” there

were two elements that were horizontally aligned. The element on the left said, “type of crop,”

with text below it stating, “some crops can withstand more water than others.” The element to

the right was labeled, “land prep,” and highlighted two successive elements below it. The first

node under “land prep” was labeled “orientation of beds,” while the secondary element said

“drainage.”

In comparing the interview data and the concept maps, while livestock was not addressed

during the interview, crops were. The information from the concept map concerning some crops

withstanding more water than others was also noted in the interview as well: “most of my

farmers are in [place], and are in low lying areas. So, I basically tell them what crops to plant and

what not to plant at all because they normally do get flood.” This respondent also stated that “the

only thing I learned is to only plant crops that could tolerate water.” Finally, drainage was also

similar in both the interview and concept map. O5L4 stated, “We either tell them not to plant or

to plant crops that could take flood. And (we talk to our farmers about) drainage.”

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Figure 4-4. Concept map of participant O5L4

O7L4

The concept map presented by O7L4 (see Figure 4-5) depicted the “Extension office” as

a central node with other elements appended to the left and right. On the left side of the map,

three elements were observed in a cluster formation: “crops to plant,” “drainage,” and “prepare.”

To the right of the central element, three more items were observed vertically aligned: “salvage

crop,” “field inspections,” and “advise farmers on recovery.” Regarding the left side of the

diagram, there was a summary paragraph identified in the interview that similarly described

these elements. O7L4 said, “Okay, so in 2018 we saw what happened. We didn’t have any kind

of preparedness. And then (in 2019), I was able to go out now, in the rainy season time and make

sure to tell the farmers what to do. So, I would say more advice was given out on how to

prepare.”

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Regarding the right side of the central element, another summary statement from the

interview aligned with the information from the concept map. During the interview, the

respondent outlined the disaster response procedures of Extension professionals:

The next day, we were out on the field making our rounds to see how badly

affected the farmers were. And then we had to come back and make a report.

From there we had to start to work on flood damage assessment where we would

go out there and see the damages, the losses that famers would have incurred.

from then we have the incentives where farmers would be paid for their losses.

Figure 4-5. Concept map of participant O7L4.

A1L6

The concept map submitted by A1L6 (see Figure 4-6) was hierarchical in nature, with

several vertical and horizonal layers of data. The main element, situated at the top of the map,

acted as a title node stating, “management of Tropical Storm Karen.” Below this element were

three nodes that were horizontally aligned: “Prior to the incident” (Prior) at the left of the map,

“Response to the storm incident” (Response) at the top middle, and “Aftermath” to the top right

of the map. Under Prior, there were four horizontal elements, each having up to four additional

sub-elements. There were several similarities in the elements and sub-elements under Prior as in

the interview data. Concerning drainage, A1L6 suggested the Extension professionals are

supposed to be encouraging farmers to in proper drainage practices: “Ideally for extension staff,

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we are supposed to be encouraging farmers in practices to alleviate some of the flooding in terms

of good drainage practices.” Additionally, the idea of a crop registry was also discussed in the

interview, and also represented in the concept map: “We've tried doing a crop registry, where we

ask that the farmers register the crop when they plant.” Additionally, nodes concerning training

and retraining of Extension professionals on the computerized model of compensation was

represented in the concept map, as well as in the interview data: “I train the staff to do the flood

damage. And then, the models they used to compensate, we do the training and updating for

that.” The respondent also highlighted staffing challenges and inconsistencies in county

operations of disaster management, as well as flood compensations in both the concept map and

the interview data.

Under Response, there are four horizontal nodes, each having up to four sub-elements.

Similarities between the interview data and the concept map observations include evaluation of

crop damage, lack of staff, compensation calculation, and unregistered farmers. An example of

statement from the interview data is as follows: “A minister may go into an area with

unregistered farmers indicate to them: don’t worry we will pay you. But then we don't have that

instruction based on our policy.” Additionally, accessibility to farmers’ plots and technology

limitations were represented in both the interview data and the concept map. A sample statement

concerning plot access is as follows: “Another issue to extension staff are not allowed to have T

(truck) vehicles. So, accessing some of those areas is quite interesting without four-wheel drive.”

Under Aftermath, there were three horizontally aligned nodes, each with one sub-element

below them. The nodes under Aftermath represents new information that were not disclosed in

the interview. Some of these include the limited ability to impact other Ministries, limited data

entry personnel, and long payment processing times for farmers. Similarly, there were elements

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under Prior and response that were introduced in the concept maps. Some of these include the

lack of a database to store collected data, challenges not being directly linked to drainage

personnel, and challenges in farmer registration information.

Figure 4-6. Concept map of participant A1L6.

Drawing Analysis

Respondents were asked to produce a drawing of an Extension professional responding to

Tropical Storm Karen. The drawings were evaluated by identifying corresponding data from the

interviews that were pictorially represented in the drawings. Drawings were received from six

participants: D1L1, O1L4, O2L4, O5L4, O7L4, and A1L6. All drawings were labeled with the

participant identifier and are available in Appendix E. The results of the drawings are presented

in order of the interviews. Overall, it was observed that all the drawings provided the context of

an Extension professional in disaster response in the field, which was also underscored in the

interviews. In contrast, it was observed that none of the drawings highlighted more than one

Extension professional assisting with disaster response, when most of the respondents

highlighted being accompanied by a colleague in conducting field evaluations.

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D1L1

D1L1’s (see Figure 4-7) drawing had several visual indicators of communication,

including text, arrows, and color, were observed. Overall, the picture highlighted constraints to

disaster management in the working environment for an Extension professional responding to

Tropical Storm Karen. Two human figures in the drawing were labeled “Extension” and

“farmer.” Both the farmer and Extension professional in the drawing were created with frowns

on their face, signaling a negative emotion. However, the farmer was drawn with blue tears near

the face area, signifying greater grief than the Extension professional. Additionally, there were

no female gender indicators on the human figures. The figure of the Extension professional was

drawn with question marks over its head. Additionally, the Extension professional was drawn in

a higher position on the canvas, as if to look down on the farmer. While the human figures in the

drawings were drawn to face each other, there was a clear visual wall-like barrier near the

Extension professional that appeared to identify the inability to connect. This barrier was

surrounded by text in boxes, accompanied by arrows which pointed towards the professional.

The text included “no physical access,” “no tools to communicate with farmer,” “no information

on the situation,” and “no clear policy direction,” among others. At the top right-hand corner of

the drawing area, there appeared to be a giant foot moving downward in the direction of the

professional. The farmer, drawn at the bottom left of the page, was on what appeared to be a crop

plot bounded in blue, signifying a flooded field.

The drawing by D1L1 reinforced many of the points highlighted during the interview. A

portion of the interview that covered many of the references in the drawing is as follows:

Nobody’s trained. None of the Extension officers are trained in disaster

preparedness as it pertains to the agriculture community and how to respond to it:

what they should or shouldn't be doing, that kind of thing. There's no formal

training that was ever done. Not at the tertiary level of education and not when

they came out to the job. And then the Ministry doesn't have a plan. They are

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preparing one, but we don't have one right now. And then there's no resources

allocated in your budget for disaster preparedness.

The lack of community information, information on disaster management, and a clear policy

direction, as highlighted in the text of the drawing, was discussed in the interview covering the

lack of a disaster management plan. As D1L1 said, “At the end of the day, you’re a public

servant, and you have to have clear directives as to what would be a response plan. And there is

none.” In addition to the plan-related information highlighted by D1L1 in the drawing, there

were also indicators of resource deficiencies in the text of the drawing, including “no tools to

communicate with farmer,” “no online access,” and “don’t have appropriate protective gears.”

The lack of a communication plan and communication resources was covered in D1L1’s

interview:

You need to have a formal communication plan and then you have to have the

tools to with the formal communication plan. So, if this communication plan says

cell phones and WhatsApp and emails or whatever, that is the way to

communicate during a disaster. And right after then we need to provide those for

the people.

The lack of physical access was discussed where D1L1 suggested that disasters render certain

key areas inaccessible. There was one point of conflict between the data from the interview and

the drawing. One of the text boxes in the indicated that Extension professionals are not first

responders. However, during the interview, D1L1 said: “So remember Extension is a sort of a

frontline first response.” Additionally, new information was introduced in the drawing that was

not represented in the interview. While the lack of resources was discussed during the interview,

there was one textbox that directly spoke to PPE. However, PPE was never mentioned during the

interview specifically.

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Figure 4-7. Participant rendered drawing of participant D1L1.

O1L4

The drawing provided by O1L4 (see Figure 4-8) contained two human figures

representing the farmer and an Extension professional, as well as text labels for each figure. The

overall drawing represented a light mood in disaster management. It was observed that the two

human figures were drawn with smiles on their faces. However, there were no female gender

indicators on the human figures. They were drawn at the same level. The Extension professional

was drawn with what appears to be a clipboard for data collection, while the farmer was drawn

with a farm tool. Another color used in the drawing identified the flooded crop that was drawn to

the far right of the page. The crop area had a text label associated with it. However, not all of the

crop area appeared to be affected by the color. Connecting the data from the interview and the

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drawing, O1L4 highlighted face-to-face field visits as the primary method of communication:

“Well, as the storm passed, we went out and did a flood assessment… And we have taken

information of floods and affected and try to quantify produce and livestock as loss and feed that

information back to the office.” Beyond this, there were no connections between the interview

data and the drawing indicating happy emotions, partially flooded crops, or other information

that can be gleaned from the drawing.

Figure 4-8. Participant rendered drawing of participant O1L4.

O2L4

O2L4’s drawing (see Figure 4-9) highlighted several visual indicators of communication,

including color, text, human figures, and arrows. This drawing also had a title at the top of the

page, which read “Extension officer inspecting a farmer’s flooded field.” Two labeled human

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figures in the drawing represented the farmer and the Extension professional. The Extension

professional was drawn with a neutral expression on the face, while the farmer was drawn with a

frown and tears, which were in blue. Although the human figures were drawn at the same level,

the farmer appeared to be pointing away from the professional. However, there were no female

gender indicators on the human figures. The Extension professional in the drawing had a MALF

indicator on the chest area, as well as a clipboard with a text label. The farmer appeared to have a

farm tool which was not identified by text. The human figures were drawn on what appeared to

be a crop plot, where plants were drawn in one color, and the flood indicator in another color.

Both the plant and the flood water had a text and an arrow indicator.


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Regarding the correlation between what was drawn and the interview, O2L4 highlighted

the face-to-face measure of evaluating famers’ flood damage and assessing crops. O2L4 stated:

“That’s the easiest way for us as officers who on the ground to meet the farmers and assess the

areas that were affected.” The emotion highlighted in the drawing was also highlighted in the

interview. From the perspective of the Extension professional, O2L4 said, “In this profession,

you know, you try to encourage people to go into farming. When you see these things happen,

you know, it kind of, it’s kind of really heart-wrenching, upsetting.” O2L4 also provided context

in the interview as to why farmers may be emotionally devastated:

The thing about it is that when you’re outside and you’re working with farmers

and see what these fellas go through, and you go down and you see a crop like

that flattened. Now yes, they will be compensated, but the length of time that the

compensation takes to come to these guys, you know. That’s these fellas bread

and butter, and you know. If they don't have money or that was their final crop to

make some money to move on, that’s the end of them.

No further information from the interview was revealed.

O5L4

The drawing provided by O5L4 (see Figure 4-10) highlighted three visual indicators of

communication, including text, human figures, and arrows. Both human figures presented in the

drawing were indicated by text labels which identified a farmer and an Extension professional.

Both human figures were drawn with smiles and the Extension professional was drawn at a

higher level than the farmer. The Extension professional was drawn with an apparatus that was

highlighted with a label and arrow saying, “application form.” To the right of the page, a crop

being partially affected by flood waters was highlighted. The partial affect was indicated by

arrows and text reading “crops affected by flood waters.” At the bottom of the drawing, a small

description of the evaluation process was provided: “land is sloped; therefore, the bottom portion

was flooded out. Farmer will only be paid for losses he incurred.”

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Several similarities in comparing in the interview data and the drawing were observed.

The face-to-face interaction described in the interview is apparent in the drawing. O5L4 said,

“After the storm we went to visit farmers and do assessments on the crops and stuff, and what

damage they got.” This also provided context for the application form attached to the Extension

professional in the drawing. The partial disbursements of crop losses, as indicated in the drawing

of the crop, was also highlighted in the interview:

We go to visit a farmer and assess his crop, assess if he really got damage and if

he could salvage the crop still. And then we would pay to suit how much damage

he got. We have a system to evaluate the damage for the farmer.

There was an inconsistency between the drawing and the interview data concerning the

representation of emotion. O5L4 highlighted unpleasant experiences with farmers due to the

frustrations of sustaining crop damage: “Farmers were aggressive. So, they didn't want to hear

what we have to say, they were abusing the Ministry, abusing the staff.” No further

inconsistencies or similarities with the interview data were presented in the drawing.

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O7L4

The visual representation of the response to Tropical Storm Karen by O7L4 (see Figure

4-11) was represented by two human figures in context, text, and arrows, indicating the flow of

information. Two human figures were identified by a text label and an arrow: one for the

Extension professional and one for the farmer. No facial expressions were placed on the faces of

the stick-figure drawings. The figures were positioned in a crop plot that was affected by flood

damage, underscored by text. An arrow pointed to a leg of the Extension professional and had a

label stating “boots,” while another arrow and a label stating “fork,” pointed to a drawing of a

fork.

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In comparing the interview data and the drawing, D7L4 highlighted the direct contact

with farmers in context after Tropical Storm Karen, saying, “We had to start to work on flood

damage assessment where we would go out there and see the damages, the losses that famers

would have incurred.” While direct reference to boots was not made in the interview, O7L4 did

refer to the lack of resources for Extension professionals generally. No other information or

inconsistencies were matched to the drawing.


A1L6

The communication cue observed in the drawing provided by A1L6 (see Figure 4-12)

was the Extension professional in the context of conducting flood damage assessments. There

was no use of color, text, labels, or titles. The human figure in the drawing is wearing a frown.

There appears to be a clipboard apparatus to record data, and the use of PPE as indicated by the

hat and boots. While there was no indication of crops being affected by the floods, a cow was

observed in what appeared to be deep water. Connecting the observations of the drawing to the

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interview data, the representation of both crop and livestock in the damage assessments by

Extension professionals was underscored in the interview. A1L6 said, “Right now we are

focusing mainly on crops,

but livestock is affected.” The respondent also spoke about making field visits during the

interview, and this was observed in the drawing. Concerning the frown worn by the human

figure in the drawing, the respondent spoke to the emotions experienced in responding to

Tropical Storm Karen: “From the time you hear the words, ‘flood damage’ is like a depressing

kind of scenario.”


Summary

The research questions outlined in the study were developed to assess the disaster

preparedness strategies (RQ1), the disaster response strategies (RQ2), the communication

strategies (RQ3), and challenges to resilience (RQ4) of Trinidad Extension professionals during

Tropical Storm Karen. In evaluating the interview data that was triangulated with concept map

and drawing analyses, each research question was afforded a specific theme, and additional

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categories were highlighted where necessary. For RQ1, disaster preparedness was strategized

through field activities, including advising services and data collection. Additionally, the lack of

a disaster preparedness plan and the importance of training also emerged from the analysis RQ1.

Concerning RQ2, disaster response was also strategized by conducting fieldwork. Categories of

data associated with RQ2 included field work, advice, and field evaluations. However, a

secondary theme concerning the challenges in response also emerged from the analysis

concerning RQ2. This theme covered the lack of resources and the inability to access fields after

the event. Concerning RQ3, communication was strategized by considering the ability of the

farmers to communicate, as well as considering the requirements of the job. Finally, Extension

professionals experienced several stresses in managing Tropical Storm Karen. Categories for this

research question included workload stresses, emotional stresses, environmental stresses, and

physical stresses.

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CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

Introduction

The purpose of this study was to identify disaster management strategies employed by

Extension professionals during Tropical Storm Karen in Trinidad by examining disaster

preparedness and disaster response during this event. Additional interest was placed on

communication strategies during disaster management and challenges to professional resilience

of Extension professionals during Tropical Storm Karen. The research questions that guided this

study are as follows:

• Research Question 1 (RQ1): How was weather-related disaster preparedness strategized by


• Research Question 2 (RQ2): How was weather-related disaster response strategized by


• Research Question 3 (RQ3): How was communication strategized by Extension professionals

in Trinidad during Tropical Storm Karen?

• Research Question 4 (RQ4): What are the challenges to professional resilience experienced


This chapter presents concluding remarks based on the findings of the study and relate

the study to the existing body of disaster management knowledge in Extension. An overview of

the study is presented, followed by key findings of the study, and implications and

recommendations for practice regarding Extension systems. Additionally, recommendations for

future research are presented based on the overall study, as well as the individual research

questions. The chapter will end with an explanation of the limitations of the research, and a

summary of the chapter.

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Overview

The research questions used in this study were developed based on the literature in the

areas of disaster management, disaster communication, and resilience during disasters. The

findings of the current study can provide insights to assist the Extension service in Trinidad to

manage future weather-related disasters more efficiently.

Disaster Preparedness

Disaster preparedness has been highlighted in the literature as a critical aspect of disaster

management (Henkel & Marvanova, 2019; McLean & Whang, 2019; Nyanga et al., 2018). The

results of the study indicated disaster preparedness was strategized through fieldwork by

Extension professionals during Tropical Storm Karen. This involved providing disaster advice to

clients, as well as data collection for disaster response. Other major categories included the lack

of a disaster preparedness plan, and the importance of training. Advice on mitigative planting

practices, flood resistant varieties, mitigative livestock practices, and crop management was

provided to Extension clients prior to Tropical Storm Karen. The advice provided to farmers

promoted the reduction of crop loss, which may have been beneficial in the response phase by

way of reduced agricultural losses. These findings aligned closely to the research conducted by

Hasan and Bart (2006) who concluded in their research that technical advice is critical in disaster

management in the agricultural sector in Bangladesh. Similarly, Kgakatsi and Rautenbach (2014)

identified that advice to stakeholders in agriculture assisted in preventative measures for

disasters. Additionally, the application of preventative agricultural practices in the Caribbean

was highlighted by Shannon and Motha (2015), and were shown to be successful.

Data collection was another part of the preparedness strategy, where reconnaissance work

and direct data collection from farmers’ fields were conducted. The reconnaissance activities

occurred just before the event, which allowed Extension professionals to identify areas under

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production and farmers that were most at risk of Tropical Storm Karen. The direct data collection

allowed Extension professionals to quantify areas under agricultural production, as well as

update the crop registry with the types of crops in the fields of clients.

As indicated in Chapter 4, Extension professionals were generally not able to access a

disaster plan, nor were they privy to disaster planning for Tropical Storm Karen. Disaster

planning and access to an existing disaster plan has been highlighted to be a critical element in

disaster management (Asamoah et al., 2018; Eighmy & Hall, 2012; Pitt & Treen, 2017). Without

a disaster management plan or access to one prior to Tropical Storm Karen’s landfall, Extension

professionals engaged in preparedness activities based on their own considerations, supervisor

directions, and information gleaned from external stakeholders. Extension professionals who

worked directly with clients operated within the confines of their job requirements and the

resources available from their direct supervisor. Extension directors worked within similar

constraints, except that information was received from Extension administrators at MALF, and

then filtered to other professionals who worked more directly with clients.

Finally, disaster preparedness training was highlighted by many of the respondents, but

the availability of disaster preparedness training varied among participants. Some respondents

indicated having access to regular training, while other suggested that training was not an

available option. However, most of the respondents underscored training as important to disaster

preparedness. This finding highlights the lack of consistent, regular training among Extension

professionals in disaster management. Disaster preparedness training was highlighted to be

important for disaster management in previous research by way of accessing resources,

understanding procedures, scheduling human resources, and executing plans, among others

(Edgar et al., 2012; Nyanga et al., 2018; Ricard et al., 2017; Shannon & Motha, 2015).

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Additionally, disaster preparedness training was highlighted to assist professionals in responding

to disasters (Martono et al., 2019; Yousefi et al., 2020). Based on the data, disaster preparedness

training for Extension professionals in Trinidad would involve increasing the knowledge of a

disaster plan and its contents, reiterating the disaster preparedness process, highlighting protocols

in disaster response, and conflict management in the field.

Disaster Response

Disaster response was the arm of disaster management that deals with managing the

event while the event is occurring, and after the event has ended. As mentioned in Chapter 1,

disaster response was investigated from the position of post-event activities in this study. The

results of the study indicate two major themes in disaster response: (a) field work and (b)

challenges in response.

All respondents indicated that their primary response strategy involved field work

through visiting farmers’ plots and estimating the amount of damage to quantify a flood relief

disbursement. Field work, much like in disaster preparedness, consisted of reconnaissance

activities, providing advice to clients, and data collection. The reconnaissance activities in

disaster response allowed officers to determine which of their clients were affected, and to what

degree. The data showed that just after the event Extension professionals would survey the areas

where their clients would practice agriculture and determine the urgency of the effect.

Additionally, when dealing with farmers directly during disaster response to Tropical Storm

Karen, Extension professionals would provide advice on how to recover from the event. For

example, farmers were guided to access the flood incentive by going to the Extension office and

submitting a claim. Data collection was a requirement of the job to process flood claims, as well

as update the data on areas under production. Much of the literature concerning disaster response

regarding Extension professionals point to field work and communicating directly with clients

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(Kerr et al., 2018; Telg et al., 2007, 2008). However, data collection for flood relief claims was

the primary purpose for the field work. Data collection is a common practice highlighted in

disaster response. Many researchers highlighted that data allows response teams to make

informed decisions in the response phase of the disaster management cycle (Bonanno et al.,

2010; Everhart et al., 2019; Merwaday et al., 2016). Additionally, data collection helped with

accessing resources from other key stakeholders, like state or national funds (Chen et al., 2006;

Downey et al., 2018; McLean & Whang, 2019). Therefore, data collection in the current study

aligned with previous research.

In moving beyond the data collection function of disaster response in the current study, if

the regulatory and educational functions of Extension were combined, the advisory function

would become more important for agricultural recovery. Advice on flood resistant crops, land

management, and overall vulnerability to flooding become essential for future agricultural

success. Based on the results of the study, Extension professionals do provide this advice to

some extent, but the focus is on data collection for flood claims, thereby creating a circumstance

for flooding disasters in the same agricultural fields to repeat.

Regarding challenges in response, two major categories emerged: (a) lack of resources

and (b) challenges to field work. The literature provides the argument that not having the

appropriate resources in disaster response hinders the success of disaster response efforts

(Asamoah et al., 2018; Cummins & Wooden, 2014; Medford-Davis & Kapur, 2014; Norris et al.,

2008; Tran et al., 2009). All the respondents mentioned resource constraints in one form or

another. The inability to readily access UAVs to collect data and geographical mapping were

topics that were common among the directors, as well as the need for disaster training and

consistent plans for disaster management throughout Extension. The directors also spoke to the

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lack of resources available for managing disasters, highlighting reduced efficiency as a result.

The situation of insufficient governmental resources for disaster management was highlighted by

Tran et al. (2009) in investigating flood risk maps in Vietnam. However, McLean and Whang

(2019) stated that when resources are redirected away from disaster management, there is a

higher propensity for sustained economic damage. Primarily, the lack of access to appropriate

transportation was highlighted by most of the respondents in the current study. However, access

to PPE, financial resources, and human resources were also found to be resource constraints.

Additionally, the inability to access farmers’ plots because of the event was also

highlighted as a major challenge in disaster response. Respondents mentioned that flood waters

from the storm rendered farm plots inaccessible for up to weeks after the event had passed.

While this inaccessibility was not under control of the Extension professionals, several variables

highlighted in Chapter 1 contributed to this phenomenon, including the country’s poor

infrastructure to handle excess water and inefficient farming practices employed by farmers.

Communication Strategies

Having a communication strategy that aligns with the interest of the target population is

important in disaster management (Ali, 2019; Cole & Fellows, 2008; Shklovski et al., 2008;

Spence et al., 2007; Vicario-Merino et al., 2019). Respondents in this study strategized

communication by (a) considering the requirements of their job, and (b) understanding the

technology limitations of their clients. Field work for data collection, field assessments, and

delivering advice to clients were perceived to required face-to-face communication. Face-to-face

and phone communication was also highlighted to be effective in previous disaster management

research in the field of Extension (Ali, 2019; Eighmy & Hall, 2012; Telg et al., 2008). However,

phone calls were used to coordinate appointments with clients to conduct the field evaluations in

the current study. These findings align with the tenets of U&G theory, where the data pointed to

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the communication platforms used, and the rationale for using them. Several authors highlighted

that Extension professionals communicate with their clients during the disaster response phase of

disaster management (Ali, 2019; Kerr et al., 2018; Telg et al., 2008). Similar communication

methods were used in these cases as well. Narine (2018) found that farmers in Trinidad may be

receptive to using two-way ICTs for communicating with Extension for Extension related

activities, which can extend to disaster management. These ICTs include text messaging,

smartphone applications, and multimedia messaging (Narine, 2018). However, the

communication strategy should be modular to accommodate the circumstance of the disaster. For

example, Vicario-Merino et al. (2019) noted that disaster management authorities in the

Philippines adjusted their communication strategy considering the disaster parameters. When

face-to-face communication was unavailable, they switched to communicating using social

media platforms and digital applications that were popular with the community. However, given

the challenges to communication, this may be more difficult to achieve.

The primary challenge in communication during Tropical Storm Karen concerned the

compatibility of modern technology with clients. Respondents highlighted the advanced age of

farmers as an explanation for their inability to use web-based technologies, such as email, social

media, and WhatsApp. This was similar to the findings of Ganpat et al. (2018), where fewer than

10% of farmers received information from the internet or e-mail. While WhatsApp was

mentioned frequently as a communication method in the data, the assertions of incompatibility

were highlighted by the respondents. Previous research also indicated that the age of farmers in

Trinidad can impact the communication methods and strategies used to reach them (Narine,

2018; Narine et al., 2019). However, Narine (2018) found that some farmers may be willing to

integrate ICTs in their communication with their Extension contacts beyond text messages and

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phone calls. This has also been highlighted generally in disaster communication literature

(Howard et al., 2017).

Challenges to Resilience

Findings of the study pointed to several challenges to resilience through various

categories of stresses, including emotional stress, physical stress, workload stress, and

environmental stress. Primarily, Extension professionals experienced vicarious traumas as a

major stress in response to Tropical Storm Karen. Vicarious trauma during disasters has been

covered in the literature by several authors (Lambert & Lawson, 2013; Omura et al., 2018;

Warbington et al., 2019). Additionally, as mentioned by Fink-Samnick (2009), this stress crosses

the persona/professional paradigm in many of the cases in the current study. Because of the

direct contact with their clients in disaster response as well as the pre-existing relationships with

their clients, Extension professionals experienced vicarious trauma through seeing their clients

lose their crops and livestock. This is compounded by the other stresses associated with disasters

that may affect Extension professionals. Additionally, the literature pointed to the perennial

flooding that occurs in Trinidad, suggesting that this phenomenon is a regular occurrence.

However, there were no findings of resilience support for Extension professionals in the current

study. This aligns with findings by Ganpat et al. (2016), where Extension professionals in

Dominica (73%) indicated that there was no support for Extension professionals there. Another

emotional stress highlighted by the respondents concerned the aggression of frustrated farmers.

Anecdotes of being chased out of fields or aggression from disagreements with clients were

found in the data.

Working long hours and the increased propensity for physical damage were highlighted

as physical stresses associated with the response to Tropical Storm Karen. The respondents

suggested that field work was the priority where responding to disasters is concerned. Previous

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research has highlighted the impact of long working hours on Extension professionals. Ensle

(2005) looked at the factors attributed to burnout in Extension agents from Ohio Cooperative

Extension and found that the sample required flexible working hours to reduce burnout. This was

echoed by Benge et al. (2015), where long working hours with limited resources were

highlighted to be major challenges among Colorado State University Extension professionals.

Respondents in the current study also expressed that various situations that can lead to falls while

conducting field visits.

Environmental stress concerned navigating the weathered topography, as well as

managing displaced wildlife that may have been unpredictable. Wild animals were a major

concern for some officers who feared of snakes, alligators, and other displaced wildlife. The

flooding that occurred after Topical Storm Karen was also unpredictable, where the depth of the

water was unknown. Hilly areas with soil that was loosened by the heavy rains was indicated to

be an issue as well. Many of the respondents also noted that the stresses associated with

responding to Topical Storm Karen were a part of the job. Professionals believing that work

stress is a part of the job has been covered in previous research as well (Ali, 2019; Ramjattan et

al., 2017; Tuohy & Stephens, 2012).

Other Findings

The relational and conceptual models

The interconnected nature of disaster management in Trinidad was evident from the

interviews. With referencing to Jaques’ relational model (2007) in Chapter 2, the elements of

disaster management are linked and overlap with each other. Similarly, the conceptual model of

effective disaster management for Extension officers in Trinidad also suggests that the elements

of disaster management during Tropical Storm Karen overlapped. The main difference between

the two models is that the Jaques (2007) model considered pre-preparedness and post-response

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evaluations. It was found from the study that in comparison to the conceptual model,

preparedness activities are interconnected with response activities. Disaster preparedness

affected disaster response through the collection of data on vulnerable areas, as well as areas

under production in the preparedness phase. It emerged from the data that when Extension

professionals performed field activities in the preparedness phase, they were better able to

structure responses based on the needs of the farmers in the response phase.

Communication was also critical in the preparedness phase and the response phase to

connect with clients. However, communication was also used to connect with colleagues to

access necessary information about the event. Communication affected response such that where

there was clear communication, Extension professionals were able to conduct response activities

effectively. However, where there were incorrect details concerning addresses, phone numbers,

and other contacts, the respondents reported inefficiencies in executing Extension duties.

Finally, resilience is connected to the previous elements in different ways. Preparedness

activities allowed Extension professionals to be more resilient in response. Similarly, where

communication was efficient, Extension professionals were more resilient in executing their

response duties. The circular arrows in the model represented the learning between past disasters

that was introduced during Tropical Storm Karen.

Inconsistencies in disaster management in Extension in Trinidad were evident. For

example, some respondents said training for disasters was available annually, while others

suggested it was never available. Some mentioned disaster training was optional, while others

indicated it was a requirement. Similarly, some respondents in the study indicated the availability

of a disaster plan, while others suggested no plans exist. From the analysis, it would appear that

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there were disparities in communication and protocols associated with disaster management

throughout the Extension service.

Drawings to Collect Data in Extension

The use of drawings as a data source in Extension research is limited. The Extension

professionals in this study returned drawings that related directly to the instructions provided.

The drawings were also consistent with the interview data regarding field work and provided

other non-verbal cues in the submission. Additionally, some drawings provided more

information that was discussed in the interview, which can be important for data analysis and

methodological applications in the future.

Implications and Recommendations for Practice

The findings of this study describe the disaster management strategies employed by

Extension professionals during Tropical Storm Karen. Although the case study approach was

used, the perennial flooding disasters that affect Trinidad make this study more relevant for

future applications. MALF in Trinidad can capitalize on the results of this study to implement

Ministry-wide changes in its disaster management approach and filter it to Extension

professionals who need it. The Government of Trinidad and Tobago may also seek to improve

food security since the results of the study relates directly to the interaction with the domestic

food supply.

As highlighted in Chapter 1, Trinidad is categorized as a vulnerable island state. The

effects of weather-related disasters are amplified by the amount of the country’s land mass that is

close to the shoreline, as well as the topography and infrastructure of the island. The analysis of

the data underscored the devastation to the agricultural sector that can be sustained during one

event. The Government of Trinidad and Tobago can use the results of this to improve resilience

in the agricultural sector and in the country. Improving disaster response with farmers can allow

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Extension professionals to deliver salient advice to better protect agriculture on the island,

thereby also protecting the social, economic, and cultural components thereof.

MALF consists of several layers in its organizational structure. While the findings of the

current study focused on the direct link between the farmers and Extension professionals in

disaster management, they also offer a foundation on which the Ministry can build Ministry-wide

disaster management protocols. Extension professionals who directly manage the effects of

weather-related disasters are at the lowest level of the MALF organizational chart (See Figure 1-

5 in Chapter 1). Therefore, it requires interest from the top levels of the organization to effect

change using the results of this study. If Extension directors have the positional power within the

Ministry, they can more directly capitalize on the results of this study to develop the disaster

management strategies at that level. Extension directors supervise the Extension officers who

directly manage weather-related disasters; therefore, they may understand where results and

recommendations of this study may apply. Following are some direct implications and

recommendations for MALF based on the results.

Implications/Recommendations Summary

• Consistency in disaster management: In evaluating the data, several respondents highlighted

different experiences in major areas of disaster management. In this light, consistency in

disaster planning, preparedness, and training be provided to Extension professionals involved

in disaster management. The benefit of this arrangement concerns the ability for any

Extension professional to assist with disaster management in throughout the different

counties of the country. Extension professionals from counties less affected can provide

critical human resource assistance in highly affected areas.

• Introduce professional resilience strategies: Various categories of challenges to resilience

emerged from the data. Emotional stresses, like vicarious traumas and farmer aggression was

mentioned by most of the respondents. Terms like ‘sad’, ‘depressing’, ‘heart-breaking’, and

‘difficult’ were used to describe the experience of loss through their clients. Further, some

respondents highlighted experiencing nightmares, and used the term PTSD (post-traumatic

stress disorder) to describe the event. However, several respondents indicated that stress

management services are not offered by the Ministry. Further, several respondents could not

identify any stress coping mechanisms they employ regarding stresses associated with

Tropical Storm Karen. In this regard, it is recommended that MALF initiate stress

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management programs specifically relating to the emotional stress of disaster management.

Previous research suggests that failure to address these stresses can lead to employee

turnover, low productivity, and employee burnout.

• Improve efficiency by including other data collection strategies: A challenge to disaster

management involves the inaccessibility to client fields. Combined with insufficient Ministry

vehicles to conduct disaster response data collection, many respondents pointed to the use of

UAV technologies for data collection. Additionally, geographic gridding, or forming farm

areas into grids, was suggested by one of the directors as a data collection strategy in lieu of

manual data collection. Geographic zoning was also highlighted as a strategy to prioritize

affected areas for data collection efficiency. The implication of employing strategies like

these is the potential for increased data collection efficiencies, as well as data reliability. Data

collection through digital means as opposed to manual means was also mentioned as a

strategy. This eliminates the need for data input at the office and can provide real-time data

from the field using internet platforms.

• Initiate web-based reporting for farmers: The first line of contact with farmers when

reporting disasters is where farmers physically go to Extension offices to make an initial

report. However, given the severity of past weather-related disasters, this initial interaction

can take days to occur. Providing a web platform for farmers to make an initial report of field

damage can eliminate this step and improve efficiencies in the system. While many

Extension clients were stated to be technologically underdeveloped, starting the transition

can lead to a fully online system for initial reporting. This web resource can double as a data

collection facility for the Ministry and can evolve as needed.

Disaster Management

The lack of consistent disaster management plans was identified from the current study.

This circumstance meant that Extension professionals were managing disasters without clear

protocols or guides besides those from their supervisors. The relational model presented by

Jaques (2007) offers a foundation to implement planning strategies in every segment of disaster

management, while offering a holistic approach to developing a disaster management plan for

Extension. The relational model considers many elements highlighted as gaps in the current

study, while offering other elements not discussed. Crisis preparedness in the relational model

points to planning processes, training, simulations, and manuals. By considering these pre-crisis

elements, Trinidad Extension can be prepared for future disasters in a consistent manner.

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Crisis prevention, while not directly investigated in the current study, was highlighted in

the relational model to consider early warning systems, emergency response and risk

management. Many of these activities fall outside the purview of frontline Extension

professionals, but can be considered by supervisors, administrators, and Extension directors to

enable frontline Extension in managing disasters. The crisis incident management phase in the

relational model points to crisis response, system activation, and crisis management. The current

method of response in Trinidad Extension considers these factors, but the Jacques (2007) model

assumes adequate resources for disaster response. Additionally, the inconsistencies in response

activities captured in the data points to having consistent disaster response directives and

resources to be successful. Finally, post crisis management in Jaques (2007) model aligns with

the need to assess the country-wide impact of disasters. Disaster evaluation, post crisis impacts,

and agricultural business recovery should be considered as tools for measuring the implications

for disasters in the future. Extension professionals are positioned to assist in collecting post

disaster data, but resources are needed to conduct post-disaster work effectively.

Technology for reliable data

Data collection is an integral part of the disaster management process as highlighted in

the disaster preparedness and disaster response sections of Chapter 4. However, several

inhibiting factors were associated with the data collection process. One of those factors involved

the inability to access farmers’ plots to assess damage because of Tropical Storm Karen. Several

Extension professionals highlighted that the use of UAV technology could offer a solution to this

problem. Currently, Ministry personnel must collaborate with other institutions to access this

technology. However, having Ministry access to these technologies directly can improve the data

collection efficiency.

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Additionally, the current method of data collection involves using paper-based methods

to record data in the field, then performing data entry at the office. Technology solutions were

suggested by participants to rectify several inefficiencies in the current system. Using a mobile

device with the necessary applications for data input, the data entry step at the office can be

minimized. The proposed solution may also include a mobile internet strategy that can assist in

real-time data input, as well as accountability in the field through geographic positioning system

(GPS) data.

Professional resilience support

The findings of this study open the discussion on mental health support for Extension

professionals who directly manage the effects of weather-related disasters. Vicarious trauma was

recognized by the directors, as well as most of the front-line professionals in the current study.

This speaks to the empathy of Extension professionals which is identified as a positive human

trait. However, previous research suggests that having to pour empathy into clients can lead to

compassion fatigue. Research on this phenomenon is more substantial in counselling research,

but the concerns are similar. The negative externalities of this type of trauma include feeling

overwhelmed, emotion depletion, despair, and resentment (Lambert & Lawson, 2013; Omura et

al., 2018; Warbington et al., 2019). These factors can reduce workplace productivity, especially

at critical times. Resilience can be promoted from the front-end of disaster management through

proper planning and preparation. However, providing counselling or other kinds of professional

mental health support after traumatic events can increase the resilience in Extension staff in the

field.

While research on MALF provided no results on mental health provisions, there are other

branches of the government, and partner stakeholders that may aid in this regard. The Ministry of

Health hosted inpatient and outpatient guides among its mental health provision on its website.

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Similarly, conflict resolution training can be beneficial for those who find themselves in hostile

interactions with distressed farmers. This also becomes more relevant when considering the

perennial flooding that occurs in the country, and the fact that Extension professionals service

clients in other districts. In interacting with unfamiliar Extension professionals while being

evaluated for flood damage can increase tensions throughout the evaluation process. Hedelin et

al. (2017) spoke to the management of the human aspects of disaster management and

highlighted the propensity for interpersonal conflicts in the field between various actors. One

recommendation was to provide information through meetings with actors in the process to

understand need and how to meet them effectively. In the context of Trinidad disaster

management, information can be provided to Extension clients as to the process of damage

evaluations, thereby assisting in the familiarity with the procedures. Extension professionals

should also be provided with conflict management training, aimed at diffusing hostile situations,

and reporting these situations for further recourse. Ahmadvand and Karami (2007) researched

Extension-based conflict management and provided a holistic approach to conflict management

that considers all actors within the system.

Communication

Emerging from the interview data was the need for a communications plan for Trinidad

Extension in disaster management. Several respondents highlighted the lack of a

communications plan. Edgar et al. (2012) stated that crisis communications plans improve the

sustainability of the agriculture industry. Additionally, Kapucu (2008) stated that a

communications plan helps individuals make sense of the information in their environment. Ali

(2019) suggested that a communications plan could improve the professional network for

disaster communication within Extension, as well as connecting with other stakeholders to

improve the quality of information available to Extension professionals.

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Communication was strategized based on the requirements of the job and the

technological capacity of the clients to communicate. Researchers like Narine (2018) and Ganpat

et al. (2018) showed that communication incompatibility among Extension and farmers is a

Caribbean-wide issue. While platforms for the advancement of communication practices

seemingly exists in the agricultural sector in Trinidad, the lack of a communication plan or

current communication policy hinders the communication capacity of the sector. One notable

finding from the results highlighted that farmers must come into the office to initiate the flood

damage claim process before Extension professionals can be dispatched to the fields.

Notwithstanding the technology gaps that exist between farmers and Extension professionals, the

suggestion of a web-based flood claim system can be explored as a first step in farmers making

claims. The respondents in the current study highlighted that some clients have the technical

capacity to navigate digital applications. The web resource can be presented as an option to

current farmers with the capacity to use the platform. Additionally, establishing this resource can

provide a data repository that can collect data into the future as farmers use the resource.

Researchers have highlighted the value of face-to-face communication where Extension,

disasters, and client relations intersect (Ali, 2019; Land, 2015; Telg et al., 2008). Extension

professionals must conduct research to collect data. Additionally, the respondents underscored

the close social relationships between Extension professionals to their clients. However, the

reliance on face-to-face communication can be affected by the disaster event itself. Ali (2019)

described face-to-face communication as a preferred method of communication, but access to

clients was also inhibited by the disaster event in that study. This was also found in the current

study where physical access to farmers was impossible due to flood waters. A disaster

communication strategy should be flexible to accommodate the needs of the target audience. Pitt

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and Treen (2017) also highlighted that communication plans can fail in various ways. Where one

communication method fails, other communication methods should be employed to

accommodate the disaster recovery process. While data collection must happen face to face,

advice to farmers, as well as general disaster information can be filtered through other

communication channels.

An Updated Conceptual Model

The original concept model for the current research posited several assumptions based on

the theories and paradigms that guided them. The results of the study prompts reimagining the

conceptual model to align more closely with the characteristics of disasters in Trinidad and the

sample population. Figure 5-1 presents an updated conceptual model for consideration in future

studies. Structurally, the concept model remains the same to represent a cyclical approach to

disaster management. D-1 in the new diagram represents learning from past disasters, while D+1

represents applying what was learned in future disasters. This iterative concept allows for the

increased potential for disaster management success as described by Zakrison et al. (2019). The

major elements of the model are illustrated to be connected as functions of one area of the model

overlaps with other areas. As mentioned, activities in disaster preparedness can have significant

implications in disaster response. However, communication was previously viewed from the

organizational perspective. Given the analysis, it was found that Extension professionals interact

with new clients when engaging in disaster management. Additionally, it was found that

emotional uncertainty of clients led to volatile situations. Therefore, communication overlaps

with disaster response through directly managing uncertainty with clients. Resilience concerns

the potential of successfully managing a disaster, preparedness, response, and communication

can all impact the resilience of the disaster management process.

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The flow of the model has been modified to consider lessons from past disasters in

preparedness, and packaging lessons in the response phase to apply to future disasters. One

major change concerns shifting from the professional resilience paradigm to the Hardiness model

presented by Maddi (2005). Maddi (2005) presented a pattern of attitudes and strategies that

changes stress to growth. The 3C’s comprise hardiness attitudes that include challenge,

commitment, and control. Challenge describes an attitude of framing stressful situations as

opportunities to learn, while commitment describes an attitude of remaining engaged and

involving others in a stressful activity until it is resolved. Control relates to striving to achieve

influence over the stressor, rather than retreating to powerlessness.

Figure 5-1. An updated conceptual model for future consideration.

Hardy coping and hardy social interactions are also parts of the Maddi model, where

hardy coping considers mental coping and behavioral action, while social interaction considers

the search for supportive relationships. The hardiness model aligns with Trinidad Extension’s

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response to disaster management since the tenets of the model provides context for professionals

managing disasters. Having control and commitment in the face of challenge underlines useful

practices for Extension professionals managing disasters. Additionally, this model of resilience

accounts for mental coping more directly and can account for the emotional stresses experienced

by the respondents in the current study.

Another change to the model considers evaluating communication through interactions

with clients. Respondents in the current study identified several factors that increased the

uncertainty with managing clients during Tropical Storm Karen, including working with

unknown/new clients, working with emotionally volatile clients, and working in altered

environments. Uncertainty reduction theory posits that strangers would attempt to make initial

communication as predictable as possible to leverage predictability from another person.

Extension professionals may employ and active strategy, a passive strategy, or and interactive

strategy when communicating with clients in disasters. Additionally, several axioms can be used

as variables to understand client interactions, including shared networks, information seeking,

self-disclosure, and verbal communication.

Other Implications and Recommendations

Trinidad and Caribbean extension

The Caribbean region’s Extension system was identified to be homogenous in Chapter 1.

The function of Extension professionals was similar from country to country. Hurricanes

throughout the region usually occur around the same time of Trinidad’s hurricane season. Other

Caribbean countries may find value in evaluating this study for their own purposes. While local,

regional, and international disaster management plans were stated to be initiated for Trinidad, the

current study can be used as supplemental material for plans in progress. From the analysis, it

can be inferred that employing the recommendations can lead to increased efficiency in the

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Extension service regarding disaster management. Employing technologies for data collection

can lead to faster, improved decision making in the short term, while planning for long-term

efficiencies in the agricultural sector. Further, lowering the risk for employee turnover can also

save resources, since previous research has identified the high cost to replace Extension

professionals in other systems (Strong & Harder, 2009). However, Trinidad can also improve its

position as a SIDS through improved food security in the long term by using reliable data that

can be collected if some recommendations are considered.

When weather-related disasters, like hurricanes and storms occur, they rarely affect only

one country in the region. The themes that emerged from the data can be evaluated by the

Extension systems in other Caribbean countries based on the relevance there. Governments in the

region are provided an information resource specifically based on Caribbean Extension by using

this study to guide disaster management in their agricultural sector.

Drawings as data

Drawings as a form of data collection is popular in research associated with children

(Brooks, 2009; Burns & Kaufman, 2013). However, drawing as a data collection method has

grown to access data from various population segments (Bat Or & Ishai, 2019; Nowicka-Sauer,

2007). In the current study, drawings were impactful as a data collection method. The drawings

presented by participants gave a visual depiction of disaster management that corroborates the

data from the interview, as well as presents the data in a different format. The respondents used

color, facial expressions, symbols, arrows, and human figures within the drawings in relaying

their story about disaster response. In all cases, the data collected from the respondents during

the interviews were reflected in the drawings. However, in many cases, additional information

was presented in the drawings that was not presented in the interview. Research has indicated

that when interview respondents are allowed time to reflect, additional information may surface

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after the interviews (Calvo, 2017). Since the drawings were requested after the interviews,

additional information was presented by the respondents. Further, the visual elements of

communication that were observed in the drawings provide information beyond vocal and

physical cues observed in interviews. Arrows to indicate the flow of the information, text to label

and highlight elements, color to highlight important elements, and facial expressions to signal

emotions were all observed across the drawing provided by the participants. Previous research in

Extension that used drawings as data was not found in the disaster literature. The suggestion is to

continue to access data from individuals in the Extension profession using drawings, especially

from those who are directly engaged in weather-related disasters to add to the body of

knowledge on disaster management, as well as push the boundaries of methodologies for

researchers to consider.

Recommendations for Future Research

Overall

The current study has the capacity to be replicated to other disaster events as case studies,

to disaster management in general, to wider Extension populations, and to other countries in the

region. One of the events in Trinidad’s disaster history was Tropical Storm Bret, which

significantly impacted the island in 2018. The study methodology could be replicated to

determine the impact on disaster management for that event as a case study. This can be

beneficial as a source of disaster management information in Extension, as well as comparative

analysis with the current study. Broadening the study to investigate all aspects of disaster

management could yield results to improve the overall strategy for disaster management on the

island. The potential study can include pre-preparedness and post-event management as other

elements of the model.

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The sample represented in this study included Extension directors, Extension officers,

and agricultural assistants who directly responded to Tropical Storm Karen in the flood-prone

districts of Trinidad. Expanding the study population to include all county offices, as well as

professionals at other levels within the Extension hierarchy, may add to the body of knowledge

of disaster management research in Trinidad. Additionally, Trinidad represents one island in the

Caribbean. Expanding the current study methodologies to other islands, countries, or territories

within the Caribbean can add to the holistic story of disaster management regarding agricultural

Extension in the region.

Beyond replicating the current study directly, a level two needs assessment study

focusing on the needs of frontline Extension professionals in managing weather-related disasters

can be beneficial to improving disaster management. A needs assessment is a “systematic set of

procedures undertaken for the purpose of setting priorities and making decisions on program or

organizational improvement.” (Witkin & Altschuld, 1995, p. 4). A level two needs assessment

considers the needs of service providers, like Extension professionals. Several resource

constraints were identified by the respondents throughout the data. However, a needs assessment

study can provide deeper analyses and uncover needs in more detail.

Finally, a disaster management plan was unavailable to Extension professionals at the

time of the current study. A qualitative approach to determining the challenges in developing a

weather-related disaster management plan for the Extension service can assist the Ministry in

filling this need identified in the current study. Similar studies were conducted at the regional

level, but a local variant may be beneficial to Trinidad.


The respondents in the current study identified various disaster preparedness activities in

preparing for Tropical Storm Karen, even in the absence of a consistent plan. A quantitative

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study determining the disaster preparedness activities across all Extension professionals involved

in weather-related disasters can help shape an efficient preparedness strategy. Additionally, in

the absence of consistent training for disasters, it would be beneficial to initiate research on the

impact of disaster training on all Extension professionals who directly manage disasters. An

explanatory mixed methods design, with a pre-test post-test variant could provide feedback on

the perceived effectiveness of the plan and provide foundations on improving plans in the future.

The qualitative portion of the study could potentially evaluate the value of the training for the

participants and the Ministry. The programming could potentially impact the advice provided to

farmers in the preparedness phase of disasters, as well as positively impact disaster response.

Self-regulation theory (Bandura, 2005) could be used to frame the study, where the constructs of

the theory could guide the data collection.

Disaster Response

Respondents indicated that, in the absence of a disaster preparedness, response, or

management plan, field work through data collection strategies was the primary disaster response

activity. However, inconsistent data collection and evaluation processes were evident among the

respondents. Evaluating the data collection methods used by Extension offices to collect flood

damage data can be instrumental in highlighting the inconsistencies in the current system, as well

as move towards a standardized data collection and evaluation strategy in the future. As

mentioned earlier in this section, the development of a disaster management strategy can assist

with identifying resource gaps in Extension’s response to disasters. However, other challenges in

response, as mentioned in Chapter 4, included the inability to access farmers’ fields to collect

data because of the storm. The use of UAV technology can be investigated as a feasible solution

in this regard. The proposition would be to have an experimental research study with two groups

(control and experiment) where UAV technology is used an intervention. One group of

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Extension officers will be the control group and collect data normally, while the other group of

Extension professionals will receive the intervention technology. The data collected from the two

groups can be compared for accuracy and detail, among other factors. Rogers' (2010) Diffusion

of Innovations theory could guide this research.

Disaster Communication

The communication strategy employed by Extension professionals during Tropical Storm

Karen revolved around the communication capacity of extension clients and the requirements of

the job. Respondents also mentioned that farmers must come into the office to make a claim. One

research study could develop a nested mixed-method research design to evaluate the potential of

a website for agricultural disaster relief applications. This could potentially allow farmers to

initiate flood claims remotely. The target population for this study would be farmers that indicate

willingness and ability to use web-based platforms in applying for disaster relief through a

quantitative assessment. The website would be developed and made available to the target

population. The website would record more quantitative data on the use of the website by the

participants including click count, pages accessed, and time spent on the page. Focus groups or

interview discussions could probe the user experience of the website, as well as compare the

website to conventional flood relief application processes. This study can be done on the

foundations of Uses and Gratifications theory (Blumler & Katz, 1974).

Additionally, a needs assessment regarding a communications plan could be beneficial in

identifying how Extension professionals should communicate with their clients and their

colleagues. The data highlighted several dimensions to the current communication environment

with Extension professionals during disasters, including unofficial communication platforms, the

use of personal devices, and the type of information disseminated to clients. A needs assessment

study could be useful in addressing these concerns.

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Professional Resilience

Several challenges to professional resilience were outlined in Chapter 4, including

workload stresses, emotional stresses, environmental stresses and physical stresses. Concerning

the emotional stresses of Extension professionals during disasters, a quantitative study on the

impact of annual disaster management on Extension professionals could be conducted to

determine the psychological impact on untrained responders in Extension. The data could be

collected annually after the end of the hurricane season and contribute to a longitudinal study.

Vicarious trauma was suggested to be experienced by most of the respondents. An additional

study evaluating the vicarious traumas experienced by Extension professionals in disaster

management, as well as the impact of these traumas, could be pursued to improve professional

resilience in the proposed study population. The study methodology could use an interview-

drawing-interview data collection process to triangulate the data.

Aggression faced by clients in the field was another emotional stress that emerged from

the current study. A pre-test post-test assessment of competency training geared towards

managing hostile situations can be pursued to determine if Extension professionals are capable of

diffusing situations of this nature. This research can be done on the foundations of the Theory of

Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1985) where the tenets of the theory (behavioral beliefs, normative

beliefs, and perceived behavioral control) could guide the study. Investigating the emotional

impacts of disaster management on Extension professionals also has the potential to encourage

collaborations with other stakeholders. Experts in the field of psychology, psychiatry, and

counselling can be solicited to assist in the study ideas presented and improve professional

resilience.

Similarly, for environmental stresses like unpredictable wildlife, difficult terrain, and

flood waters, training can also be employed and tested with Extension professionals. Finally, the

180

diffusion of professional resilience strategies among Extension professionals who manage

disasters can be tested to determine which strategy is compatible with the working environment

of members in this population. The professional resilience strategies outlined by Fink-Samnick

(2009) could be used as a guide for attempting to improve professional resilience among

Extension professionals.

Limitations

The case study approach and the sampling approach used in this study present the

following limitations. Case studies consider one event; therefore, the findings of this study are

not generalizable to other events of this kind. According to Coombs (2007), case studies present

data in snapshots of time, and researchers should take this into account when pursuing research

of this nature. Additionally, a snowball sampling technique was used to acquire participants for

the research. A limitation of this non-probability sampling technique is the inability to generalize

to all Extension professionals who responded to Tropical Storm Karen. Further, the sample

consisted of Extension professionals who serve areas that are highly susceptible to flood damage.

This excluded experiences from other Extension professionals in different areas. Including

Extension professionals from other areas may have also increased the sample size, making the

results more generalizable to the population. Finally, the interviews were also conducted

remotely. The physical presence of the interviewer may have changed the interaction of the

respondents.

Summary

The results of the study indicate that disaster preparedness was managed through

collecting data and providing advice to farmers. Preparedness planning and training was

highlighted as gaps in disaster preparedness for Extension officers during Tropical Storm Karen.

Response was managed in a similar manner. However, several challenges to disaster response

181

were evident among the respondents. Communication was strategized by considering the

technology constraints of the client-base in combination with the requirements of the job.

Professional resilience was challenged by various stresses during Tropical Storm Karen,

including those from the environment, workload, emotional stress, and physical stress. The

implications of the study can impact disaster management planning at the level of Extension

directors or resonate with the administration at MALF. Several future research ideas from this

study were generated, including replicating the study in other Caribbean countries and looking

into resilience support for Extension professionals. Extension professionals are suggested to be

first responders with their clients in times of disaster. The current study can assist in improving

the disaster management landscape for Extension professionals in Trinidad and beyond.

182

APPENDIX A

EMAIL/TEXT MESSAGE SENT TO PARTICIPANTS

Dear (Participant Name),

You are receiving this email/text because you have been identified as a qualified candidate for

my University of Florida dissertation study on weather-related disaster management During

Tropical Storm Karen with Extension Professionals in Trinidad. For this study, I am asking

participants to partake in an interview (~60 minutes), fill out a concept map, and draw/sketch an

Extension professional during Tropical Storm Karen.

If you would graciously accept this invitation to participate in the study, please contact me with

the information below.

Thank you in advance for your time.

IRB 02 Study #: 201902920

Moses Mike

University of Florida (PhD candidate)

Phone: 352-216-3392

WhatsApp: 868-736-9697

Email:

183

APPENDIX B

INTERVIEW GUIDE: EXTENSION DIRECTORS

Verbal consent petition:

(Participant Name), thank you for agreeing to discuss your willingness to participate in my study.

I would like to let you know that:

➢ I do have permission from the Ministry of Agriculture to conduct this research,

➢ Your information will be de-identified to prevent any information you provide from

being linked to you,

➢ You are not obligated to participate, but I appreciate your time.

➢ We can move forward with other interview questions if you are unable to answer specific

questions,

➢ You may stop the interview process any time you need.

➢ and, you may contact the University of Florida’s Institutional Review Board for more

information about your rights as a research participant.

Do you understand and agree to participate? You must verbally consent.

Pre-interview Conversation and Being Video Interviewed

I’m very happy that you agreed to participate in this study. (Generic ice breaker e.g.: how was

your carnival season?). Okay, since we are doing this interview through video chat, I wanted to

ask you:

1. How comfortable are you doing a video interview?

2. If I were there in person, how do you think that would affect the way you feel and

respond?


We are here to talk about disaster management with respect to Tropical Storm Karen. Let us

start with disaster preparedness. Disaster preparedness concerns any activities you do

considering an approaching disaster.

1. Please describe the role you played as an Extension director in preparing for Tropical

Storm Karen.

2. If you can, please describe the roles Extension officers played in preparing for Tropical

Storm Karen?

184

3. What weather-related disaster management resources, if any, are available to Extension

professionals.

4. How did Extension Directors coordinate disaster preparation efforts prior to Tropical

Storm Karen?

5. Based on your preparation for past weather-related disaster events, how was preparing for

Tropical Storm Karen different?

6. Can you describe anything you learned learn in preparing for Karen?

7. Can you describe any problems or challenges Extension encountered in preparing for

Tropical Storm Karen?

8. Did you feel Extension, overall, was adequately prepared to manage the effects of


a. If so, how?

b. If not, why not?

9. How can Extension prepare differently for weather-related disasters in the future based

on all your experience?

10. How can administrators in Extension equip officers in future weather-related disaster

preparedness?

11. How would a plan be beneficial to you as an Extension Director?

12. Can you describe how disaster management training would be an asset to Extension?

a. What type of disaster management training do you think would be best for

Extension professionals?

Disaster Response

Preparedness is one part of disaster management; I would like to ask about your response to

Tropical Storm Karen.

1. How did Tropical Storm Karen affect the Extension service?

2. Can you describe the roles you played as an Extension Director in response to Tropical

Storm Karen?

3. Based on your experience in responding to past weather-related disasters, how did you


4. What did you learn in responding to Tropical Storm Karen?

185

5. In responding to Tropical Storm Karen, can you describe any challenges you may have

encountered?

6. How would Extension respond to weather-related disasters in the future, based on all

your experience?

7. How did other Extension administrators, that you know of, assist in disaster response?

8. How can Extension administrators be equipped to respond to future weather-related

disasters?


Communication is an important part of disaster management. I would like to ask about

communication strategies used in your response to Tropical Storm Karen.

1. How did you strategize communication with your unit during Tropical Storm Karen?

2. How did you strategize communication during past weather-related disasters?

3. Can you describe any barriers or challenges to communication that you may have


4. What did you learn about communication during Tropical Storm Karen?

5. Given your experience, how should Extension strategize for communication in the

future?

6. What sort of communication technologies do you think can assist Extension in managing


a. Why would these be helpful?

Professional Resilience in Disaster Management

Finally, I would like to ask some questions about your resilience in disaster response.

1. How did Tropical Storm Karen disrupt your life personally?

2. How did Tropical Storm Karen disrupt your life professionally?

a. Have you returned to normalcy?

i. If yes, how long did it take you to return to normalcy?

3. How were you able to balance personal and professional demands?

a. How does Extension administrators help officers balance personal and

professional demands after disasters like Tropical Storm Karen?

186

4. Did you experience any mental, physical, or emotional stress in your response to Tropical

Storm Karen?

a. If you can, please describe some of these stresses?

b. Have you fully recovered from these stresses?

i. How long did it take you to recover?

c. How are these stresses similar or different from those associated with weather-

related disasters of the past?

5. Can you describe any points in your disaster management efforts during Tropical Storm

Karen where you felt like you were unable to execute your duties.

a. Why did you feel this way?

b. How were you able to resolve those situations?

6. Did you ever feel isolated, alone, or otherwise disconnected from your professional

colleagues during Tropical Storm Karen?


b. How did it affect your ability to perform your job?

7. Did you seek help regarding any stress you experienced? If so, what kind of help? To

whom did you make the request for assistance?

8. How can Extension administrators assist Extension employees in managing stresses

associated with future weather-related disasters?

Wonderful! I only have a couple more questions associated with the interview experience.

Post-interview question

1. Overall, how was the video interview experience for you?

2. How, do you think, would having an interview in person change your experience?

3. Why would you prefer face-to-face interview as opposed to a video interview?

4. Why would you prefer a video interview as opposed to a face-to-face interview?

Thank you so much for your time. If you need any information from me, please contact me via

email at [email protected], or WhatsApp at 1-868-736-9697.

187

APPENDIX C

INTERVIEW GUIDE: EXTENSION OFFICERS

Verbal consent petition:

(Participant Name), thank you for agreeing to discuss your willingness to participate in my study.

I would like to let you know that:

➢ I do have permission from the Ministry of Agriculture to conduct this research,

➢ Your information will be de-identified to prevent any information you provide from

being linked to you,

➢ You are not obligated to participate, but I appreciate your time.

➢ We can move forward with other interview questions if you are unable to answer specific

questions,

➢ You may stop the interview process any time you need.

➢ And, you may contact the University of Florida’s Institutional Review Board for more

information about your rights as a research participant.

Do you understand and agree to participate? You must verbally consent.

Pre-interview Conversation and Being Video Interviewed

I’m very happy that you agreed to participate in this study. (Generic ice breaker e.g.: how was

your carnival season?). Okay, since we are doing this interview through video chat, I wanted to

ask you:

1. How comfortable are you doing a video interview?

2. If I were there in person, how do you think that would affect the way you feel and

respond?


We’re here to talk about disaster management with respect to Tropical Storm Karen. Let’s start

with disaster preparedness. Disaster preparedness concerns any activities you do considering an

approaching disaster.

1. Please describe the role you played as an Extension officer in preparing for Tropical

Storm Karen.

2. If you can, please describe any weather-related disaster management resources are

available to Extension professionals.

188

3. How did Extension officers coordinate disaster preparation efforts prior to Tropical

Storm Karen?

4. Based on your preparation for past weather-related disaster events, how was preparing for

Tropical Storm Karen different?

5. Can you describe anything you learned learn in preparing for Karen?

6. Can you describe any problems or challenges you encountered as an Extension officer in

preparing for Tropical Storm Karen?

7. Did you feel Extension, overall, was adequately prepared to manage the effects of


a. If so, how?

b. If not, why not?

8. How can Extension prepare differently for weather-related disasters in the future based

on all your experience?

9. How can administrators in Extension equip officers for future weather-related disaster

preparedness?

10. How would a disaster preparedness plan be beneficial to you as an Extension officer?

11. Can you describe how disaster management training would be an asset to Extension

officers?

a. What type of disaster management training do you think would be best for

Extension officers?

Disaster Response

Preparedness is one part of disaster management; I would like to ask about your response to

Tropical Storm Karen.

1. How did Tropical Storm Karen affect the Extension service?

2. Can you describe the roles you played as an Extension officer in response to Tropical

Storm Karen?

3. Based on your experience in responding to past weather-related disasters, how did you


4. What did you learn in responding to Tropical Storm Karen?

5. In responding to Tropical Storm Karen, can you describe any challenges you may have

encountered?

189

6. How would you, as an Extension officer, respond to weather-related disasters in the

future, based on all your experience?

7. How did other Extension officers, that you know of, assist in disaster response?

8. How can Extension administrators be equipped to respond to future weather-related

disasters?


Communication is an important part of disaster management. I would like to ask about

communication strategies used in your response to Tropical Storm Karen.

1. How did you strategize communication with your clients during Tropical Storm Karen?

2. How did you strategize communication during past weather-related disasters?

3. Can you describe any barriers or challenges to communication that you may have


4. What did you learn about communication during Tropical Storm Karen?

5. Given your experience, how should Extension strategize for communication in the

future?

6. What sort of communication technologies do you think can assist Extension in managing


a. Why would these be helpful?

Professional Resilience in Disaster Management

Finally, I would like to ask some questions about your resilience in disaster response.

1. How did Tropical Storm Karen disrupt your life personally?

2. How did Tropical Storm Karen disrupt your life professionally?

a. Have you returned to normalcy?

i. If yes, how long did it take you to return to normalcy?

3. How were you able to balance personal and professional demands?

a. How does Extension administrators help officers balance personal and

professional demands after disasters like Tropical Storm Karen?

4. Did you experience any mental, physical, or emotional stress in your response to Tropical

Storm Karen?

a. If you can, please describe some of these stresses?

190

b. Have you fully recovered from these stresses?

i. How long did it take you to recover?

c. How are these stresses similar or different from those associated with weather-

related disasters of the past?

5. Can you describe and any points in your disaster management efforts during Tropical

Storm Karen where you felt like you were unable to execute your duties?


b. How were you able to resolve those situations?

6. Did you ever feel isolated, alone, or otherwise disconnected from your professional

colleagues during Tropical Storm Karen?


b. How did it affect your ability to perform your job?

7. Did you seek help regarding any stress you experienced? If so, what kind of help? To

whom did you make the request for assistance?

8. How can Extension administrators assist its Extension officers in managing stresses

associated with future weather-related disasters?

Wonderful! I only have a couple more questions associated with the interview experience.

Post-interview question

1. Overall, how was the video interview experience for you?

2. How, do you think, would having an interview in person change your experience?

3. Why would you prefer face-to-face interview as opposed to a video interview?

4. Why would you prefer a video interview as opposed to a face-to-face interview?

Thank you so much for your time. If you need any information from me, please contact me via

email at [email protected], or WhatsApp at 1-868-736-9697.

191

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Moses Mike was born in the twin-island Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. After

pursuing a bachelor’s and master’s degrees at the University of the West Indies, Moses was

employed at the same institution to serve in the capacity of a Technical Assistant II, where he

applied himself to information technology, teaching, and department management activities until

2017. During his academic career, Moses developed a passion for agricultural communication

through his leadership positions in honors societies and student associations. Through his

departmental position, Moses also facilitated study abroad trips with faculty from Florida, Texas,

Alabama, and other institutions, and assisted in their experience with different agricultural

systems. Moses was invited to apply to the agricultural communication specialization at the

Department of Agricultural Education and Communication at the University of Florida to pursue

his doctoral degree. With his research focus of communication during disasters, Moses will

continue trying to change the world using his acquired training, skills, and knowledge, one

disaster at a time. Moses received his Ph.D. from the University of Florida in 2020.

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