© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. LearningLearning Chapter 5

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

LearningLearningLearningLearning

Chapter 5Chapter 5

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.2

Classical ConditioningClassical ConditioningClassical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

• Learning Outcomes– Describe the basics of classical conditioning and

how they relate to learning– Give examples of applying conditioning principles

to human behavior– Explain extinction– Discuss stimulus generalization and discrimination

• Learning Outcomes– Describe the basics of classical conditioning and

how they relate to learning– Give examples of applying conditioning principles

to human behavior– Explain extinction– Discuss stimulus generalization and discrimination


The Basics of Classical ConditioningThe Basics of Classical ConditioningThe Basics of Classical ConditioningThe Basics of Classical Conditioning

• Learning: a relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience

• Classical conditioning: a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response– Palov’s experiment

• Learning: a relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience

• Classical conditioning: a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response– Palov’s experiment




• Neutral stimulus: before conditioning, this stimulus does not naturally bring about the response of interest (bell)

• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response, without having been learned (meat)

• Neutral stimulus: before conditioning, this stimulus does not naturally bring about the response of interest (bell)

• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response, without having been learned (meat)



• Unconditioned response (UCR): natural, innate, reflexive response; unlearned (salivation to meat)

• Conditioned stimulus (CS): once the neutral stimulus, paired with a UCS to bring about a response formerly caused by the UCS (bell)

• Conditioned response (CR): a response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus (salivation to the bell)

• Unconditioned response (UCR): natural, innate, reflexive response; unlearned (salivation to meat)

• Conditioned stimulus (CS): once the neutral stimulus, paired with a UCS to bring about a response formerly caused by the UCS (bell)

• Conditioned response (CR): a response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus (salivation to the bell)


Conditioning and Human BehaviorConditioning and Human BehaviorConditioning and Human BehaviorConditioning and Human Behavior

• Human behavior is also learned through classical conditioning, particularly emotional responses, such as fear– Watson & Rayner’s experiment to classically

condition Little Albert to show fear of a rat• Neutral stimulus = rat• UCS = loud noise• UCR = fear of the noise• CS = rat• CR = fear of the rat

• Human behavior is also learned through classical conditioning, particularly emotional responses, such as fear– Watson & Rayner’s experiment to classically

condition Little Albert to show fear of a rat• Neutral stimulus = rat• UCS = loud noise• UCR = fear of the noise• CS = rat• CR = fear of the rat


ExtinctionExtinctionExtinctionExtinction

• Extinction: a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears

• Spontaneous recovery: the reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and no further conditioning

• Extinction: a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears

• Spontaneous recovery: the reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and no further conditioning


ExtinctionExtinctionExtinctionExtinction


Generalization and DiscriminationGeneralization and DiscriminationGeneralization and DiscriminationGeneralization and Discrimination

• Stimulus generalization: a conditioned response follows a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus; the greater the similarity, the greater the likelihood for generalization

• Stimulus discrimination: if two stimuli are sufficiently different from each other that one brings about the conditioned response but the other does not

• Stimulus generalization: a conditioned response follows a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus; the greater the similarity, the greater the likelihood for generalization

• Stimulus discrimination: if two stimuli are sufficiently different from each other that one brings about the conditioned response but the other does not


Operant ConditioningOperant ConditioningOperant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

• Learning Outcomes– Define the basics of operant conditioning– Explain reinforcers and punishment– Present the pros and cons of punishment– Discuss schedules of reinforcement– Explain the concept of shaping

• Learning Outcomes– Define the basics of operant conditioning– Explain reinforcers and punishment– Present the pros and cons of punishment– Discuss schedules of reinforcement– Explain the concept of shaping


The Basics of Operant ConditioningThe Basics of Operant ConditioningThe Basics of Operant ConditioningThe Basics of Operant Conditioning

• Operant conditioning: learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened (more likely to recur regularly) or weakened (less likely to recur regularly), depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences

• Operant conditioning: learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened (more likely to recur regularly) or weakened (less likely to recur regularly), depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences


The Basics of Operant ConditioningThe Basics of Operant ConditioningThe Basics of Operant ConditioningThe Basics of Operant Conditioning

• Reinforcement: the process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated

• Reinforcer: any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again– Primary reinforcer– Secondary reinforcer

• Reinforcement: the process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated

• Reinforcer: any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again– Primary reinforcer– Secondary reinforcer


Positive and Negative ReinforcersPositive and Negative ReinforcersPositive and Negative ReinforcersPositive and Negative Reinforcers

• Positive reinforcer: a stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response

• Negative reinforcer: an unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in a preceding response

• Positive reinforcer: a stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response

• Negative reinforcer: an unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in a preceding response


PunishmentPunishmentPunishmentPunishment

• Punishment: a stimulus that decreases the probability that a preceding behavior will happen again– Positive punishment: adding an unpleasant

stimulus to the environment– Negative punishment: removing a pleasant

stimulus from the environment

• Punishment: a stimulus that decreases the probability that a preceding behavior will happen again– Positive punishment: adding an unpleasant

stimulus to the environment– Negative punishment: removing a pleasant

stimulus from the environment


Figure 2Figure 2Figure 2Figure 2


The Pros and Cons of PunishmentThe Pros and Cons of PunishmentThe Pros and Cons of PunishmentThe Pros and Cons of Punishment

• Punishment can be effective, but there are also disadvantages– Frequently ineffective if not delivered soon after

undesirable behavior– Physical punishment can send message of

approval & even encouragement of physical aggression in other situations

– Sometimes difficult for punisher to control the degree/amount of physical punishment…“in the heat of the moment”

• Punishment can be effective, but there are also disadvantages– Frequently ineffective if not delivered soon after

undesirable behavior– Physical punishment can send message of

approval & even encouragement of physical aggression in other situations

– Sometimes difficult for punisher to control the degree/amount of physical punishment…“in the heat of the moment”


Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of ReinforcementSchedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement

• Schedules of reinforcement: different patterns of frequency & timing of reinforcement following desired behavior– Continuous reinforcement schedule: reinforcing of a

behavior every time it occurs (learning occurs more rapidly)

– Partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule: reinforcing of a behavior some (but not all) of the time it occurs (behavior lasts longer after reinforcement stops)

• Schedules of reinforcement: different patterns of frequency & timing of reinforcement following desired behavior– Continuous reinforcement schedule: reinforcing of a

behavior every time it occurs (learning occurs more rapidly)

– Partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule: reinforcing of a behavior some (but not all) of the time it occurs (behavior lasts longer after reinforcement stops)


Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of ReinforcementSchedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement

• Fixed-ratio schedule: reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are made (ex.: rat receives a food pellet every 10th time it presses a lever)

• Variable-ratio schedule: reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses (ex.: telephone salesperson’s job)

• Fixed-ratio schedule: reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are made (ex.: rat receives a food pellet every 10th time it presses a lever)

• Variable-ratio schedule: reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses (ex.: telephone salesperson’s job)


ShapingShapingShapingShaping

• Shaping: the process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior– First, reinforce any behavior that is remotely

similar to the desired behavior– Then reinforce only responses that are closer to

the desired behavior– Then reinforce only the desired behavior

• Shaping: the process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior– First, reinforce any behavior that is remotely

similar to the desired behavior– Then reinforce only responses that are closer to

the desired behavior– Then reinforce only the desired behavior



Cognitive Approaches to LearningCognitive Approaches to LearningCognitive Approaches to LearningCognitive Approaches to Learning

• Learning Outcomes– Explain latent learning and how it works in

humans– Discuss the influence of observational learning in

acquiring skills– Describe research findings about observational

learning and media violence

• Learning Outcomes– Explain latent learning and how it works in

humans– Discuss the influence of observational learning in

acquiring skills– Describe research findings about observational

learning and media violence


Cognitive Approaches to LearningCognitive Approaches to LearningCognitive Approaches to LearningCognitive Approaches to Learning

• Cognitive learning theory: focuses on the thought processes (cognitions) that underlie learning

• Cognitive learning theory: focuses on the thought processes (cognitions) that underlie learning


Latent LearningLatent LearningLatent LearningLatent Learning

• Latent learning: Learning in which a new behavior is acquired but is not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it– Cognitive map: mental representations of spatial

locations and directions

• Latent learning: Learning in which a new behavior is acquired but is not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it– Cognitive map: mental representations of spatial

locations and directions


Observational LearningObservational LearningObservational LearningObservational Learning

• Observational learning: learning by watching the behavior of another person (model) (Albert Bandura, the “social cognitive approach”)

• Observational learning: learning by watching the behavior of another person (model) (Albert Bandura, the “social cognitive approach”)


Violence in the MediaViolence in the MediaViolence in the MediaViolence in the Media

• Research supports the claim that watching high levels of media violence makes viewers more susceptible to acting aggressively– One study found one-fourth of violent young male

offenders had attempted a media-inspired copycat crime

• Research supports the claim that watching high levels of media violence makes viewers more susceptible to acting aggressively– One study found one-fourth of violent young male

offenders had attempted a media-inspired copycat crime

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© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. LearningLearning Chapter 5