MOTIVATION

DEFINITION & NATURE

• It refers to a set of forces that energise people to behave in certain ways.

• Motivation is necessary to accomplish tasks, to produce quality goods, & for other related purposes.

• Performance of an individual depends on his or her ability backed by motivation.

IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION

Qualities of Motivation:

Energizes behavior

Directs behavior

Enables persistence towards a goal

Six C’s of Motivation..

Choices

collaboration

Constructing meaningConsequences

Control

Challenges

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Early Theories – Scientific Management

• It is the name given to a philosophy & set of methods & techniques that stressed the scientific study & organisation of work at the operations level for the purpose of increasing efficiency.

• Scientific Management is more associated with F.W. Taylor who is remembered as the “Father of Scientific Management”.

• Scientific Management had contributed several techniques –

1. Planning the task

2. Standardisation

3. Specialisation & division of work

4. Mental Revolution

• Taylors theory stated that –

• Physical work could be scientifically studied to determine the optimal method of performing a job.

• Workers could thereafter be made more efficient by being given prescriptions for how they were to do their jobs.

• Workers would be willing to adhere to these prescriptions if paid on a different piece work basis.

Human Relations model

Contemporary Theories - Content Theories

• Content Theories include -

a) Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory

b) Herzberg 2 factor theory

c) Alderfer’s ERG theory

d) Achievement Motivation Theory

Maslow’s Theory

• Abraham Maslow is considered father of the humanistic movement.

• Hierarchy of needs: the motivational component of Maslow’s theory, in which our innate needs, which motivate our actions, are hierarchically arranged.

• Self-actualization: the fullest realization of a person’s potential

Abraham Maslow

Graphic: Hierarchy of Needs

• Efficient perceptions of reality

• Comfortable acceptance of self, others, and nature

• Spontaneity

•Profound interpersonal relationships

• Comfort with solitude (the state or situation of

being alone)

• Peak experiences

Characteristics of Self-Actualized People

Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are created by different factors.

Hygiene factors Maintenance factors -Extrinsic (Environmental ) factors that

create job dissatisfaction.

Motivation Factors- Intrinsic ( Psychological ) factors that create job

satisfaction.

Motivation–Hygiene Theory of

Motivation

Hygiene factors/ Maintenance factors -

job dissatisfaction

• Company policy &

administration

• Supervision

• Interpersonal relations

• Working conditions

• Salary

• Status

• Security

• Achievement

• Achievement recognition

• Work itself

• Responsibility

• Advancement

• Growth

Motivation factors increase job satisfaction

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

• Modification of Maslow’s need hierarchy was

proposed by Clay Alderfer.

• Alderfer’s views on motivation arose from the

results of questionnaires he gave to over 100

employees at several levels in a bank.

• Alderfer’s work led him to propose that there

are three (rather than maslow’s five) primary

categories of human needs. They are -

• Existence – The basic physiological needs

(hunger & thirst)& protection from physical

danger.

• Relatedness – Social & affiliation needs & the

need for respect & positive regard from others.

• Growth – The need to develop & realise one’s

potential.

Achievement Motivation Theory by

McClelland

According to David McClelland a person requires 3

types of needs as a result of one’s life experience.

They are –

• Need for Achievement (n Ach)– A drive to excel,

advance & grow

• Need for Power (nPow) - A drive to dominate or

influence others & situations

• Need for Affiliation (nAff) - A drive for friendly &

close inter-personal relationships

SUCCESSFUL ENTREPRENEURS

McClelland states that people with high need for

achievement are characterized by the following –

• They set realistic & attainable goals for them

• They take calculated risks & look for challenging

tasks.

• They prefer situations wherein they can take personal

responsibility for solving problems.

• They need concrete feedback on how well they are

doing

• Their need for achievement exist not merely for the

sake of economic rewards or social recognition rather

personal accomplishment is intrinsically more

satisfying to them.

• Employees with a high need for achievement derive

satisfaction from achieving goals.

• Succeeding the task is important to the high achiever.

• Although people with a high need for achievement are often

wealthy, their wealth comes from their ability to achieve

goals.

• In most societies goal achievement is rewarded financially.

• High achievers are not motivated by money.

• High achievers prefer to work independently, so that

successful tasks performance (or failure) can be

related to their own efforts rather than to someone

else’s.

• Eg – Kakinada Project in 1970’s.

• Researchers attempted to raise the achievement motivation of businessmen in Kakinada.

• The businessmen made plans that would help them realise their goals to become successful entrepreneurs & told each other about their goals & their methods of reaching them.

• The businessmen became more productive as

entrepreneurs, they started several large

industries, enlarged their businesses & hired

more than five thousand of their villagers.

• In a ten year reassessment of the programme,

achievement motivational levels & results

were still exceptional.

Process - Theories

• Process-Based Theories

–Deals with how motivation occurs

–Rather than attempting to identify motivational stimuli, process perspectives focus on why people choose certain behavioral options to satisfy their needs and how they evaluate their satisfaction after they have attained those goals.

Process - Theories

• Goal Setting Theory

• Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

• Adam’s Equity Theory

• Porter’s Performance Satisfaction Model

Goal Setting Theory

• Consists of 3 elements

1) Desire in an individual to attain his or her goal. When individuals succeed in meeting a goal, they feel competent & successful.

2) Acceptance by individuals of job & organisational goals as personal goals. This is the idea of goal commitment – the extent to which people invest themselves in meeting a goal.

3) Goal setting theory emphasizes that beliefs about self efficiency & goal commitment influence task performance.

Goals should be

S - Specific

M- Measurable

A – Attainable

R – Realistic

T – Time Bound

Equity Theory of Motivation

• Equity Theory

– Is the belief that one is being treated fairly in relation to others; inequity is the belief that one is being treated unfairly in relation to others.

• Social Comparisons

– Involves evaluating our own situation in terms of others’ situations.

• Four Step Process

– People in organizations form perceptions about the equity of their treatment through a four-step process.

Forming Equity Perceptions

• Step 1: A person evaluates how he or she is being treated by the firm.

• Step 2: The person forms a perception of how a “comparison other” is being treated.

• Step 3: The person compares his or her own circumstances with those of the comparison other to form an impression of either equity or inequity.

• Step 4: On the strength of this feeling, the person may choose to pursue one or more alternatives.

Expectancy Theory of Motivation

• The Basic Expectancy Model

– Suggests that people are motivated by how much

they want something and the likelihood they

perceive of getting it.

• Effort-to-Performance Expectancy

– A person’s perception of the probability that efforts

will lead to performance.

Expectancy Theory of Motivation

(continued)

• Performance-to-Outcome Expectancy

– An individual’s perception of the probability that

performance will lead to certain outcomes.

• Outcomes and Valences

– An outcome is anything that results from performing a

particular behavior.

– Valence is the degree of attractiveness or unattractiveness a

particular outcome has for a person.

The Expectancy Theory of Motivation

The Porter-Lawler Model

• Since its original conception, the expectancy

theory model has been refined and extended

many times.

• Although convention wisdom argues that

satisfaction leads to performance, Porter and

Lawler argued the reverse: If rewards are

adequate, high levels of performance may lead

to satisfaction.

The Porter-Lawler Model (continued)

• According to the model, at the beginning of the

motivational cycle, effort is a function of the value of

the potential reward for the employee (its valence)

and the perceived effort-reward probability (an

expectancy).

• Effort then combines with abilities, traits, and role

perceptions to determine actual performance.

The Porter-Lawler Model

EXTRINSIC AND INTRINSIC

REWARDS

• Extrinsic rewards—usually financial—are the

tangible rewards given employees by

managers, such as pay raises, bonuses, and

benefits. They are called “extrinsic”

• In contrast, intrinsic rewards are psychological

rewards that employees get from doing

meaningful work and performing it well.

• Extrinsic rewards remain significant for workers.

• Pay is an important consideration for most

workers in accepting a job, and unfair pay can be

a strong de-motivator.

• However, after people have taken a job and issues

of unfairness have been settled, it is found that

extrinsic rewards are now less important, as day-

to-day motivation is more strongly driven by

intrinsic rewards.

JOB PERFORMANCE

Features of job performance

• Performance versus outcomes

• Organizational goal relevance

• Multidimensionality