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Making a LivingMaking a Living
Food, Fun and FriendsFood, Fun and Friends
Ninety-nine Ninety-nine percent of our percent of our existence has existence has been spent as been spent as
hunter-hunter-gatherers.gatherers.
Food CollectionFood CollectionHorticultureHorticulturePastoralismPastoralismAgricultureAgriculture
IndustralizationIndustralization
Biological adaptations are Biological adaptations are changes in the human changes in the human
body over time. body over time.
Cultural adaptations Cultural adaptations include doing certain include doing certain things to survive in a things to survive in a
particular environment.particular environment.
Food-procurement Food-procurement strategies depend in large strategies depend in large part on the environment part on the environment
and the technology of the and the technology of the people in the area.people in the area.
Carrying Capacity is the Carrying Capacity is the maximum number of maximum number of
people a given amount of people a given amount of land can support, given land can support, given the available resources.the available resources.
Optimal Foraging Theory:Optimal Foraging Theory:Foragers look for plants Foragers look for plants
and animals that will and animals that will maximize their caloric maximize their caloric
intake for the time spent intake for the time spent hunting and gathering hunting and gathering
foods.foods.
AcheAche
= 4,600 per = 4,600 per hourhour
=1,800 per =1,800 per hourhour
Hunter-gatherers Hunter-gatherers generally have been generally have been relegated to marginal relegated to marginal areas – the Alaskan areas – the Alaskan
tundra, the Australian tundra, the Australian Outback, the Ituru Forest Outback, the Ituru Forest (of central Africa) and the (of central Africa) and the
Kalahari Desert.Kalahari Desert.
The lives of the remaining The lives of the remaining traditional Ju/’hoansi are traditional Ju/’hoansi are much like that of their much like that of their
hunter-gatherer hunter-gatherer forefathers.forefathers.
Mongongo Nut Mongongo Nut
Inuit
Seals are killed Seals are killed with harpoons with harpoons with toggle-with toggle-headed hooks -- headed hooks -- unless it’s unless it’s summer and summer and then they use then they use throwing throwing harpoonsharpoons
Today, most Today, most Inuit live in Inuit live in villages and villages and
hunt with guns hunt with guns rather than rather than spears or spears or
harpoons and harpoons and use use
snowmobiles snowmobiles rather than rather than dogsleds.dogsleds.
The Inuit got The Inuit got their own land their own land when the when the Canadian Canadian government government created the created the Nunavut (our Nunavut (our land) in 1999 - a land) in 1999 - a 1.2 million 1.2 million square mile piece square mile piece of land inhabited of land inhabited by only 27,000 by only 27,000 people.people.
Agriculture and animal Agriculture and animal domestication were a major domestication were a major
turning point in human turning point in human history.history.
Vere Gordon Childe: Vere Gordon Childe: believed that believed that
southwestern Asia from southwestern Asia from Turkey to the Nile Valley Turkey to the Nile Valley
and Mesopotamia was the and Mesopotamia was the cradle of both farming and cradle of both farming and
early civilization.early civilization.
The Fertile The Fertile Crescent Crescent includes includes
Mesopotamia, Mesopotamia, the Nile Valley, the Nile Valley,
the Jordan the Jordan Valley and Valley and
Zargros Zargros Mountains of Mountains of
Iran.Iran.
Holocene: (from the Holocene: (from the Greek word Greek word holosholos, which , which
means “recent”)means “recent”)
About 15,000 years ago, the great About 15,000 years ago, the great ice sheets began to retreat -- at ice sheets began to retreat -- at
times very rapidly.times very rapidly.
Sea levels Sea levels began to rise began to rise dramatically.dramatically.
Beringia (which separated Beringia (which separated Siberia and Alaska) was under Siberia and Alaska) was under
water by 11,000 BC.water by 11,000 BC.
Britain became an island and Britain became an island and the North Sea and Baltic the North Sea and Baltic assumed their modern assumed their modern
configurations.configurations.
By 6000 BC, we By 6000 BC, we see warmer see warmer
conditions and conditions and immigration of immigration of
new plants such new plants such as wild cereal as wild cereal
grasses in grasses in highland areas highland areas like the Zagros like the Zagros
Mountains in Iran.Mountains in Iran.
By 15,000 years ago, the By 15,000 years ago, the world’s hunter-gatherer world’s hunter-gatherer population was probably population was probably
approaching about 10 approaching about 10 million people.million people.
By 12,000 years ago, By 12,000 years ago, human populations began human populations began to match the ability of the to match the ability of the
world’s environment to world’s environment to support them - i.e., you support them - i.e., you
couldn’t just move to find couldn’t just move to find more food.more food.
The Holocene evolved The Holocene evolved pestles, grinders and other pestles, grinders and other tools specific to processing tools specific to processing seeds and other wild plant seeds and other wild plant
foods.foods.
Complex forager societies developed in Complex forager societies developed in places where:places where:
1. Population movements were 1. Population movements were limited limited by geography or the by geography or the presence of presence of neighborsneighbors
2. Resources were abundant and 2. Resources were abundant and predictable by seasonal predictable by seasonal
appearanceappearance3. Population growth reached a point 3. Population growth reached a point
where food shortages occurred where food shortages occurred and and there was an imbalance between there was an imbalance between
people and their food supply.people and their food supply.
No one person “invented” No one person “invented” agriculture - many groups were agriculture - many groups were doing the same sorts of things all doing the same sorts of things all over the world.over the world.
Most anthropologists Most anthropologists believe that a set of believe that a set of complex cultural and complex cultural and
environmental factors, environmental factors, combined with population combined with population growth, caused foragers growth, caused foragers
to switch to food to switch to food production.production.
HorticulturalistsHorticulturalists
Horticulture translates Horticulture translates roughly into “garden roughly into “garden
cultivation.”cultivation.”
Horticulture:Horticulture:· Utilizes simple technologies without · Utilizes simple technologies without plows, animals or machines.plows, animals or machines.
· Produces a much lower yield per acre · Produces a much lower yield per acre of land – rarely extra.of land – rarely extra.
· Allows for household sufficiency – each · Allows for household sufficiency – each household produces what it needs to live. household produces what it needs to live.
YanomamoYanomamo
Domestication is the Domestication is the process by which people process by which people
begin trying to control the begin trying to control the reproductive rates of reproductive rates of plants and animals by plants and animals by
manipulating the manipulating the environment to favor their environment to favor their
survival.survival.
r-strategy v. k-strategyr-strategy v. k-strategy
Sedentism is the practice Sedentism is the practice of establishing a of establishing a
permanent, year-round permanent, year-round settlement. settlement.
Swidden Plots - Swidden Plots - jumble of crops jumble of crops (roots, tubers, (roots, tubers, frit trees, palm, frit trees, palm, whatever will whatever will grow) in one grow) in one plot in a bed of plot in a bed of ash.ash.
Slash and Burn Slash and Burn AgricultureAgriculture
The Bemba practice shifting The Bemba practice shifting cultivation that includes clearing cultivation that includes clearing
land, burning branches and land, burning branches and planting directly on the ash-planting directly on the ash-
fertilized soil.fertilized soil.
Horticultural societies Horticultural societies have defined leadership have defined leadership roles that include tasks roles that include tasks like settling disputes, like settling disputes, arranging marriages, arranging marriages,
leading feasts and leading feasts and religious rituals.religious rituals.
Modern horticulturalists are Modern horticulturalists are sedentary and live in sedentary and live in
households which participate in households which participate in a larger unit -- the community a larger unit -- the community (comprised of kinship groups) (comprised of kinship groups) and participate in community-and participate in community-
wide religious or political wide religious or political activities.activities.
The social structure of the The social structure of the horticultural society is horticultural society is
complex and made up of complex and made up of well-defined and largely well-defined and largely
self-sufficient households.self-sufficient households.
Pastoralism is animal Pastoralism is animal husbandry and appeared husbandry and appeared
during the Neolithic.during the Neolithic.
Pastoralists operate in Pastoralists operate in habitats that are marginal habitats that are marginal
and move seasonally.and move seasonally.
Nomadism: A lifestyle involving the Nomadism: A lifestyle involving the periodic movement of human periodic movement of human
populations in search of food or pasture populations in search of food or pasture for livestock.for livestock.
Transhumance: A movement pattern of Transhumance: A movement pattern of pastoralists in which some men move pastoralists in which some men move
livestock seasonally while other livestock seasonally while other members of their group (women and members of their group (women and
children) stay in permanent children) stay in permanent settlements.settlements.
Mixed farming is a way to Mixed farming is a way to spread out the risk of spread out the risk of
drought, crop failures and drought, crop failures and diseasedisease
Pastoralists Pastoralists invest a lot invest a lot of energy of energy and effort and effort into breeding into breeding and caring and caring for their for their animals. animals.
If you were to compare If you were to compare pastoralism to agriculture, pastoralism to agriculture, the people can produce the people can produce 10 times as much food -- 10 times as much food -- measure in terms of measure in terms of calories per acre, by calories per acre, by raising grain as opposed raising grain as opposed to livestock.to livestock.
There are six main zones where There are six main zones where nomadic pastoralists are found:nomadic pastoralists are found:1. South of the Sahara in East Africa (cattle);1. South of the Sahara in East Africa (cattle);2. Deserts near the Saharan and Arabian Deserts 2. Deserts near the Saharan and Arabian Deserts (camels);(camels);3. North of the deserts of Central Eurasian steppe 3. North of the deserts of Central Eurasian steppe along the Mediterranean (sheep and goats);along the Mediterranean (sheep and goats);4. Eurasian Steppe – Mongolians (horses, sheep, 4. Eurasian Steppe – Mongolians (horses, sheep, goats);goats);5. The high-altitude pastures of the Tibetan Plateau 5. The high-altitude pastures of the Tibetan Plateau and the neighboring mountain regions (yak)and the neighboring mountain regions (yak)6. Sub-Arctic areas of Eastern Europe and Siberia 6. Sub-Arctic areas of Eastern Europe and Siberia (reindeer)(reindeer)
Most anthropologists Most anthropologists believe that believe that truetrue pastoralists (who get ALL pastoralists (who get ALL their food from animals) their food from animals) are rare to non-existent.are rare to non-existent.
Livestock is key, but not Livestock is key, but not just for food and by-just for food and by-products, but also non-products, but also non-economic social functions.economic social functions.
Social Function of Cattle - the use of Social Function of Cattle - the use of livestock by pastoralists not only for food livestock by pastoralists not only for food and its by-products, but also for purposes and its by-products, but also for purposes such as marriage, religion and social such as marriage, religion and social relationships.relationships.
The The MaasaiMaasai
The Maasai are The Maasai are one of several one of several East African East African cattle complex cattle complex cultures who are cultures who are savannah savannah dwellers that dwellers that herd cattle, herd cattle, goats and sheep goats and sheep and get most of and get most of their sustenance their sustenance from milk and from milk and cows’ blood.cows’ blood.
The Maasai believe their The Maasai believe their god (Ngai) gave them all god (Ngai) gave them all cattle on earth -so it’s cattle on earth -so it’s okay to steal their okay to steal their neighbors’ cattle. neighbors’ cattle.
Stock Friendship - A gift of Stock Friendship - A gift of cattle from one man to cattle from one man to another to solidify their another to solidify their
relationship.relationship.
Intensive Intensive agriculture is agriculture is farming that farming that involves the use of involves the use of draft animals, draft animals, tractors, plows and tractors, plows and often some form of often some form of irrigation to irrigation to maximize the maximize the output of the land output of the land being worked.being worked.
With intensive agriculture, With intensive agriculture, production is vastly production is vastly
increased through things increased through things like irrigation, fertilizers, like irrigation, fertilizers,
animal traction and efficient animal traction and efficient transportation and transportation and
equipment.equipment.
Intensive agriculture is seen in Intensive agriculture is seen in many marginal places such as many marginal places such as Egypt, the Middle East, China, Egypt, the Middle East, China, India, Indonesia – places with India, Indonesia – places with
large populations of people who large populations of people who need lots of food and where there need lots of food and where there is the ability to turn unproductive is the ability to turn unproductive land into productive land through land into productive land through
irrigation.irrigation.
Archaeologists Archaeologists have have
determined determined that agriculture that agriculture probably began probably began
in the Middle in the Middle East – in East – in
Turkey or Iraq.Turkey or Iraq.
Rise of Civilization 101Rise of Civilization 101
Intensification – Intensification – increasing the yields increasing the yields from labor or land.from labor or land.
Irrigation, Irrigation, like sliced like sliced bread, is bread, is one of the one of the most most important important inventions inventions in historyin history
Water is the lifeblood of all Water is the lifeblood of all humans. humans.
It is what has driven history.It is what has driven history.
Water was the primary Water was the primary limitation in regard to limitation in regard to
human habitation human habitation
The most common form of water The most common form of water control is irrigation – the act of control is irrigation – the act of
transporting water to a field and transporting water to a field and managing its direct application and managing its direct application and
drainage.drainage.
The The BureaucratBureaucrat
Access – who has it and Access – who has it and who doesn’t.who doesn’t.
RiceRice
Also key to increasing yield Also key to increasing yield is the use of non-human is the use of non-human labor –beasts of burden. labor –beasts of burden.
A pair of oxen produces 10 A pair of oxen produces 10 times more horsepower times more horsepower (pardon the expression) (pardon the expression)
than a human. They’re also than a human. They’re also less expensive and … not less expensive and … not
to put too delicate of a note to put too delicate of a note on it, they produce on it, they produce
fertilizer. fertilizer.
But you want to do more. But you want to do more.
That’s how the strategies That’s how the strategies of crop rotations, use of of crop rotations, use of
fertilizers and arboriculture fertilizers and arboriculture came into being. came into being.
Arboriculture entails the Arboriculture entails the tending of trees to create tending of trees to create
food/fruit that can be stored.food/fruit that can be stored.
Where intensive agriculture is present, Where intensive agriculture is present, there will be population increases. With there will be population increases. With population increases comes innovation population increases comes innovation and more innovative methods of farming and more innovative methods of farming … which produces more and more and … which produces more and more and allows for the storage of food. When allows for the storage of food. When there’s surplus food, you get craft there’s surplus food, you get craft specialization. When you get craft specialization. When you get craft specialization, you get trade and more specialization, you get trade and more complex social systems. With that you complex social systems. With that you get the need for administrators/a get the need for administrators/a bureaucracy … which leads to social bureaucracy … which leads to social stratification … which leads to class stratification … which leads to class differentiation. differentiation.
Wow!Wow!
Social stratification and Social stratification and craft specialization leads craft specialization leads to a division of labor and to a division of labor and
trade. trade.
There began to emerge higher status There began to emerge higher status people who have exclusive access to people who have exclusive access to goods, etc. goods, etc. About this time, we also begin to see About this time, we also begin to see religious specialization – shamans, priests, religious specialization – shamans, priests, prayers.prayers.
You have farmers. You have farmers.
You have craft specialists.You have craft specialists.
And then you have this new And then you have this new group of “non-producers” – group of “non-producers” – the religious leaders, the the religious leaders, the
politicians and the politicians and the administrators.administrators.
As agrarian societies evolved As agrarian societies evolved into large-scale states, into large-scale states,
communities near the urban communities near the urban centers grew and became centers grew and became
powerful. powerful.
Those farther away from the Those farther away from the urban centers languished. urban centers languished.
The first city states were essentially The first city states were essentially administrative and trading centers administrative and trading centers
established to control the surrounding established to control the surrounding countryside that provided the food.countryside that provided the food.
With intensive With intensive agriculture, the key is agriculture, the key is doing more with less doing more with less
energy.energy.
In the U.S., we expend In the U.S., we expend about 230,000 calories about 230,000 calories per capita per day and per capita per day and
spend about 10 percent of spend about 10 percent of our time (as a whole, our time (as a whole,
meaning population X 24 meaning population X 24 X 365) working.X 365) working.
In Burundi, they expend In Burundi, they expend 24,000 calories of energy 24,000 calories of energy
per capita per day and per capita per day and spend 25 percent of their spend 25 percent of their
time working.time working.
The people of Burundi have The people of Burundi have to work twice as hard to to work twice as hard to extract a fraction of the extract a fraction of the
usable energy that the U.S. usable energy that the U.S. worker does.worker does.
In countries where human labor constitutes In countries where human labor constitutes the main power supply, there is little spare the main power supply, there is little spare
energy to devote to anything other than energy to devote to anything other than maintaining the current infrastructure, maintaining the current infrastructure, reproduction and food procurement.reproduction and food procurement.
But not us (or U.S.)But not us (or U.S.)
The balance of energy in The balance of energy in the U.S. and other the U.S. and other
developed countries developed countries comes from fossil fuels, comes from fossil fuels,
converted into useful work converted into useful work by machines. by machines.
Preindustrial societies Preindustrial societies schedule agricultural schedule agricultural
activities so that they are activities so that they are as constant as possible. as constant as possible.
They make use of a They make use of a mixture of crops and mixture of crops and livestock that require livestock that require
different energy different energy expenditures.expenditures.
Plow cultivation and Plow cultivation and fertilization allowed fertilization allowed
farmers to reduce the farmers to reduce the amount of times their amount of times their fields must be fallow.fields must be fallow.
Fallow is the time that Fallow is the time that must be allowed between must be allowed between
crops for the soil to crops for the soil to regenerate its organic and regenerate its organic and
chemical content. chemical content.
Too much intensive can Too much intensive can lead to soil loss if nutrients lead to soil loss if nutrients
aren’t maintained, aren’t maintained, erosion, too much erosion, too much
irrigation can result in irrigation can result in waterlogged or salinized waterlogged or salinized
soils.soils.
Peasantry - rural people, usually on the Peasantry - rural people, usually on the lowest rung of society’s ladder, who provide lowest rung of society’s ladder, who provide urban inhabitants with farm products, but urban inhabitants with farm products, but
have little access to wealth or political have little access to wealth or political power.power.
Industrial society is a society that Industrial society is a society that relies on large inputs of fossil fuel relies on large inputs of fossil fuel
and industrial technology for survival.and industrial technology for survival.
Industrial agriculture is agriculture Industrial agriculture is agriculture that relies on large inputs of fossil that relies on large inputs of fossil fuel and industrial technology for fuel and industrial technology for
survival.survival.
Industrial society, because it’s fuel and Industrial society, because it’s fuel and technology based, creates things like technology based, creates things like
pollution of our air and water, acid rain and pollution of our air and water, acid rain and things such as global warming and a things such as global warming and a
depletion of the ozone.depletion of the ozone.
