Psychology, Chapter 1

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Psychology

Cynthia K. Shinabarger Reed

Butchered by Professor Carney

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Psychology, Research, & You

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Psychology• Psychology is the science of behavior

& mental processes.• Behavior

• What you see people do.• Mental processes

• Memories• Thoughts • Dreams• Conscious• Unconscious experiences

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Psychology• Attempts to predict

• Human behavior• Mental processes

• Goals• Describe• Understand• Predict • Control or modify

• Behaviors & thoughts

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Psychology

• Observe • Predict future behavior on what we have

seen.

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Science

• What do we say even today when scientists can’t explain something?• Crop circles• Same thing that has always been said?

• Folk wisdom or pseudoscience• Every culture has their own

• Tea leaves• Astrology• Example:

• Provides answers for all situations, but explains none.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dB3OEXTzE3g&feature=related

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Spiritualism

• Spiritualism • Belief in the supernatural

• After World War I, interest on both sides of Atlantic.• Why then?

• Always consider time & place when looking at theories.

• Most cities several mediums• People claim contact with spirit world• Communicate with dead

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Spiritualism• Sir Arthur Conan Doyle

• Creator of Sherlock Holmes• After death of son in WWI.

• Believed communicated with son.

• 1920 heard fairies had been photographed.• Did not question authenticity.• Felt confirmed belief of spirit world. • Modern technology shown fairies a

hoax.

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• Why important?• Teaches us to ask good questions. • Demonstrates importance of influence of

bias• Questions we ask

• Conclusions we draw

• Believe stars opinions?

Spiritualism

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Bias

• Bias • Beliefs that interfere with objectivity

• Prevent bias• Ask good questions• Collect useful data• Defensible conclusions

• Awareness of own biases & those of others• Internet effect?

• Who governs the Internet?

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The Law Of Parsimony

• The law of parsimony • Simple explanations of phenomena are

preferred to complex explanations.• Given 2 or more explanations

• Simplest

• Why is the kid running around the store?

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Research Methods

• Psychologists trained to• Ask good questions

• Gather useful information• Arrive at appropriate conclusions

• Develop & ask further questions based on information collected.

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Guidelines

• Guidelines help avoid pitfalls which lead to inaccurate conclusions.

• To evaluate statements or claims ask:• What is the statement or claim?• Who is making it?

• Basketball player?

• Based on scientific observations? • What do statistics reveal? • Plausible alternative explanations?

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Scientific Method

• A system of investigation in which a person makes careful observations of a phenomenon, proposes theories to explain the phenomenon, makes hypotheses about future behaviors, and then tests these hypotheses through more research & observation.

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• Theory• Explanation for a phenomenon based on

careful & precise observations.

• Hypothesis• Prediction about future behaviors that is

derived from observation and theories.

Scientific Method

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Scientific Method

• 5 Steps1. Hypothesis (theory)

2. Perform controlled test

3. Gather objective data

4. Analyze results1. Statistics

5. Publish, replicate, peer review1. Assessment of an article, piece of work, or research by

people who are experts on the subject

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Experiment: Color Personalities Pick your favorite color:

• Red

• Pink

• Yellow

• Green

• Blue

• Purple

• Orange

• Brown

• Black

• White

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Research Methods

• 3 research designs• 1. Descriptive Studies

• Case Study • Naturalistic Observation• Survey Method

• 2. Correlational Studies• 3. Experimental Studies

• Each has strengths & weaknesses• Choice of method usually determined by

type of problem investigated.

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Descriptive Case Study

• In-depth analysis of 1 person or small group• Goal • Use information to understand behaviors of others.

• Disadvantage• What we learn by studying 1 person may

not apply to others• Schizophrenic

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Descriptive Naturalistic Observation

• Observe behaviors as they occur, without intervening or altering the behaviors in any way.

• Goal• Describe the settings• Frequency• Characteristics of certain behaviors

in real world.

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• Good for:• Animals• Children• Cultural celebration

• Advantages• Cheap• Spontaneous• Varied• Ideas for future research

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• Disadvantages• Observer bias• Lack of control over variables

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Descriptive Survey Method

• Interview, questionnaire

• Collecting information from a selected group of people who are representative of a larger group.

• Representative sample• Selected to reflect the characteristics of a

larger group

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• Questioning a representative sample• Researchers can

provide useful information about a much larger population.


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• Disadvantages• Wording of questions can influence responses.• My not represent larger population• Response bias

• Respondents answer questions the way they think the questioner wants them to

• Advantages• Low cost

• Lots of information

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Correlational Research

• Relationship between variables

• IQ & spelling ability• Spelling Test• IQ Test

• See if there is a relationship between the 2.

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• Disadvantage• Doesn’t look at cause & effect• DeVry counselors test

• Spelling ability & intelligence• 2 variables are correlated, even highly correlated,

one variable does not cause the other.

• Can’t control variables


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• Positive Correlation• Variables do the same thing at the

same time.

• As one increases or decreases so does the other.


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Perfect Positive Correlation Movie Sales/Attendance

• Compare• Money spent on

tickets • Number of people

attending

• Movie ticket sales• Number of tickets

increases

• Money increases

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Negative Correlation

• When 2 variables do the opposite thing from each other.

• As values of one variable increase, values of other decrease.

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Perfect Negative Correlation

• Compare• Speed of car• Time to reach

destination.

• Speed increases• Time decreases

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• IMPORTANT• Can’t say for sure that the change in 1 variable

CAUSES the change in the other variable.• In spite of what people might want you to believe.

• Does not say why• Relationship between variables

• During a politician’s term the economy improved. • Due to the politician?

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Experimental Method

• Most powerful research approach• Manipulate 1 or more factors to see effect on • Behavior

• or • Mental processes

• Independent variables (IV)• Experimental factors that the investigator

manipulates.• Dependent variables (DV).• Effects the investigator gets from the experiment.

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• By manipulating an IV (the cause), researcher determines whether it influences the DV (the effect).

Experimental Method

ALBERT BANDURA STUDY

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• IV is manipulated to determine its effects on a DV.

• DV shows outcome of an experiment by revealing effects of an IV.

Experimental Method

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Experimental Group• Experimental group• Exposed to the IV• Ex: IV is Prozac

• Control group• Not exposed to the IV• Ex: No Prozac (Sugar Pill)

• Compared with the experimental group on the dependent variable.

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Research Methods in Psychology

• Random assignment• Assignment of participants to 2 or

more groups on basis of chance.• Control group• Experimental group

• Flip a coin

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• Random assignment • Different results between 2 groups is not due

to differences in subjects.• Usually results in 2 groups that are quite

similar in many characteristics.

• Does not solve all problems & make

all research perfect.

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Ethics• American Psychological Association (APA)

• Guidelines• Standards of conduct

• Example• Maintain high standards of competence• Recognize their limitations • Respect for rights & dignity of people

• Privacy• Confidentiality

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Ethics

• Many of the classic experiments we will look at could not be conducted today.

• 1974 APA created Human Ethics

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Before EthicsCarney Landis, 1924

• Experiment • Studying whether

emotions evoke characteristic facial expressions.

• Does everyone use same expression to show shock?

• One expression to display disgust?

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Carney Landis

• Painted lines on participants faces• See movement of muscles

• Exposed subjects to variety of stimuli • Designed to provoke strong psychological

reaction.

• As they reacted, he snapped pictures of their faces.

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Carney Landis• Smell ammonia• Fire crackers• Pornographic pictures• Skin diseases• Bucket containing frogs

• Told them there was more in the bucket

• Electric shock

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• Climax of the experiment• Live white rat on a tray

• Asked subjects to decapitate it. • Most people initially resisted

• Eventually 2/3 did as he ordered.

• 1/3 that refused, Landis decapitated rat

Carney Landis

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Carney Landis• Unable to match emotions & expressions

• We use variety of expressions to convey same emotion

• Bias• Did not focus on willingness of people to

obey demands of experimenters, no matter how bizarre

• Years later Miligram revisited it.• Milligram famous• Landis not

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• Research• APA

• Sets guidelines of conduct• No sex with clients

• Proposals reviewed to ensure compliance with the guidelines.

• Approved by an institutional review board • (IRB) established by a college, university, or

other organization where research is conducted.

Ethics

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Ethics

• Research using human subjects• Ensure protected • Physical • Psychological harm.

• Research records associated with a person’s name or identity• Kept confidential.

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Ethics

• Must be told participation in research is voluntary.

• Right to end participation at any time.

• Cannot use any form of threat or intimidation to force them to complete tasks in a study.

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• When deception used in research• Subjects must undergo a debriefing

session immediately after the study• Given complete explanation of research

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Origins of Modern Psychology

• Philosophy• Aristotle

• Believed that the heart was the basis for mental activity.

• 17th-century philosopher Thomas Hobbes• Scientific causes could be established for every sort of

phenomenon through deductive reasoning.

• Rene Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, & G. W. Leibniz• Mind-body theories

• Human mind's relation to the body and its actions

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Origins of Modern Psychology

• Wilhelm Wundt • Established 1st psychology laboratory at

University of Leipzig in Germany in 1879. • Date to remember

• Psychology became a science

• Wundt & student Edward B. Titchener• Brought Wundt’s type of psychology to

U.S.• Wanted to study psychology as one would study

physics or chemistry.

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The Origins of Modern Psychology

• Titchener’s research used a method called introspection• Participants gave verbal reports of their

conscious experiences.

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Schools of Psychology

• Goals of all schools of psychology • Describe

• Understand• Predict • Control or modify

• Behaviors & thoughts

• Approach same problem in different ways

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Example

• Bobby throws a temper tantrum• Biological

• Inherited fathers bad temper• Not much you can do about it

• Psychoanalytic• Freud

• Struggling of control over when & where he goes to bathroom

• Behaviorist• B.F. Skinner

• Children perform behaviors parents reinforce

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Example Cont.

• Bobby throws a temper tantrum• Cognitive

• Piaget• Child can’t see things from her point of view

• Humanistic• Rogers

• Child needs to find out who he is to maximize his potential.

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Behaviorism

• Focuses on observable behaviors

• Does not speculate (care) about mental processes such as thinking.

• Emphasizes the importance of learning in understanding how various behaviors occur.

• American psychologist John B. Watson• Believed psychology should be concerned not with

the mind or consciousness• Solely with observable behaviors

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• Sigmund Freud • Psychodynamic perspective

• Both normal & abnormal behaviors are determined primarily by unconscious forces

• Often sexual

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• Freud • Focused on early childhood experiences as

major influence on personality development.

• Psychoanalytic therapy• Attempts to bring unconscious causes of

distress to conscious level. • Once sources of distress are brought to

awareness, they can be changed.

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• Humanistic perspective• Carl Rogers • Abraham Maslow

• Emphasizes free will & individuals’ control of their own behavior• Positive view of human nature.• Sought to understand each person as a

unique individual

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• Physiological perspective• Focuses on underlying biological bases of all

forms of behavior.• Interest in functioning of brain & nervous

system.

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• Evolutionary perspective• Focuses on why a particular behavior or physical

structure developed• How that behavior or structure aids in adaptation to

the environment.

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• Cognitive perspective• Focuses on

• How thought occurs• How memories work• How information is organized & stored.

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Present Day Psychology

• Present-day psychologists eclectic• Use approach consider appropriate to

issue.

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Present Day Psychology

• Psychiatrist• M.D. degree• Can do therapy• Usually just prescribe psychotropic medication

• Ph.D.• Doctorate in research

• Psy.D.• Doctorate in Clinical Psychology

• M.F.T.• Masters degree in Clinical Psychology

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Psychological Specialties

• Cross-cultural psychology • Seeks to determine if research results are

universal• Can be generalized or applied to other cultures

• School psychologists• Employed by school systems as consultants to

other educational personnel.

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• Industrial & organizational psychologists• Concerned with all aspects of work

• Structure & function of organizations• Design of equipment & manufacturing

plants• Take into consideration relation between worker

& equipment• Capabilities of worker.

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• Consumer psychology• Scientific study of the behavior of consumers.

• Health psychology• Concerned with the relations between psychological

factors & health.

• Forensic psychologists• Work within legal system• May work in a prison to evaluate incoming prisoners• May assist in selecting a jury

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• Sport psychologists• Apply theories & knowledge of psychology to

enhance athletes’ performance.

• Neuropsychologists• Trained to diagnose disorders of the brain.