Best Practices in Best Practices in

Public Relations Public Relations ResearchResearch

Don W. Stacks, Ph.D.School of Communication

University of Miami

Coral Gables, FL 33145

What is Research?What is Research?

• Controlled, objective, and systematic gathering of data

• Strives to describe, understand, predict, and control social and business phenomena

• Seeks to answer questions• Reliable and valid way to access data• Systematic collection and interpretation of

data

Theory vs. Applied ResearchTheory vs. Applied Research

• TheoryAbstract, conceptualBuilds a “body of

knowledge” for PRAcademic or Basic

ResearchServes as a framework

for understanding and predicting why people act the way they do.

• Applied ResearchConcrete, practicalStrategic Research

develops programs, messages, and benchmarks

Evaluation Research determines whether communication campaigns works

Main Uses of Main Uses of Public Relations ResearchPublic Relations Research

• Monitoring developments and trends

• Examining public relations position

• Assessing messages and campaigns

• Measuring communication effectiveness

• Tracking studies

• Gap studies

• Evaluation research

General Research AssumptionsGeneral Research Assumptions

• Decision-making process is uniformly the same in all companies and organizations

• All communication research should:Set objectivesDetermine strategy to establish objectivesImplement tactics which bring strategies to life

Assumptions Assumptions (Cont’d.)(Cont’d.)

• Research can be divided into three general phases:– Program or campaign development– Program refinement– Program evaluation

• Communication research is behavior-driven and knowledge-based

Public RelationsPublic Relations Research Assumptions Research Assumptions

• Research must be behavior-driven and yield data that help design campaigns that lead to desired behavior

• PR campaign research must parallel decisions communication pros make; otherwise, they are not knowledge-driven or information based

• Effective research is integral to campaign creation, implementation, and evaluation

Best Practice Public Relations Research Programs…

1. Conduct background/secondary research to establish benchmarks

2. Establish achievable goals

3. Ask appropriate research questions

4. State measurable objectives

5. Employ the appropriate methodologies

6. Understand the need for programmatic research

7. Have the budgets/resources necessary

1. Does Homework: Secondary 1. Does Homework: Secondary Research/BenchmarkingResearch/Benchmarking

• Establishes both an understanding of what has been done and how it was doneAdds to an understanding of theoryProvides a window into past practiceNot a new concept; espoused by John Hill in the 50s

• Reduces the costs associated with needless replication

• Provides possible benchmarks against which to gauge progress

2. Establishes Achievable Goals2. Establishes Achievable Goals

• Goal: General outcome expected by campaign end

• Objective: Very specific projected output

• Outputs: individual communication elementsImpact of specific tacticsWritten, visual, verbal

3. Asks The Appropriate 3. Asks The Appropriate Research Question(s)Research Question(s)• All research addresses four research

questionsQuestions of DefinitionQuestions of FactQuestions of ValueQuestions of Policy

• Best practice research asks and answers them in order: definition, fact, value, policy

Questions Cont’d.Questions Cont’d.

• DefinitionWhat is it?How do I

operationalize it?

• FactDoes it exist? In what quantity?Do groups differ or did

change occur over time?

• ValueHow good or bad is it?How well was it done?Addresses aesthetics

• PolicyWhat should be doneAnswered through

research on definition, fact, and value

4. States Measurable Objectives4. States Measurable Objectives

• Management must concur about objectivesDo they meet the business objective(s)?

• Precise, results-oriented objectivesStated in measurable ways?

• Realistic, credible, measurable, and compatible objectivesAre they realistic or are they simply goals?

ObjectivesObjectives (cont’d.)(cont’d.)

• Informational objectives fairly clear cutWhat information does the public need?When do they need it (before, during, after)?

• Motivational objectives require Research Means to isolate effect provided by public relations

• Behavioral objectives stateWhat you expect the public to do

Programmatic Approach

Time

Development (Evaluation) Refinement (Evaluation) Final Evaluation

Secondary/Benchmark

Informational/Evaluation

Motivational/Evaluation

Behavioral/Evaluation

Planned benchmarked evaluations

Objectives, Objectives, cont’dcont’d..

Informational Objective(s)

Motivational Objective(s)

Behavioral Objectives

Business objective(s)

5. Employs Appropriate 5. Employs Appropriate Methodologies Methodologies

• A public relations campaign hardly ever employs only one method

• Best practices “triangulate” methods to ensure that all research questions are addressed

• Methods are often classified as “qualitative” and “quantitative” or “informal” and “formal”

Public Relations MethodsPublic Relations Methods

• Surveys and PollsDescriptiveExplanatoryAttitudeOpinion Polls

• Content AnalysesDescriptiveReadabilityReadership

• Communication Audits

• Delphi Studies• Focus Groups• Field Observations

Participant-Observation In-depth Interview

• Case Studies• Experiments

Qualitative or Quantitative Methods?Qualitative or Quantitative Methods?

• Qualitative: Questions of definition and value Intense, but small sampleIn-depth knowledge vs. GeneralizabilityExamples

Focus GroupsParticipant-ObservationInformal ObservationsIn-depth InterviewingCase Studies

Qualitative or Quantitative Methods? (Qualitative or Quantitative Methods? (Cont’d.)Cont’d.)

• Quantitative: Questions of definition and factScientificLarge samplesGeneralizability vs. In-depth understandingReliable, representative samplingExamples

Surveys (descriptive, explanatory, attitude)Opinion pollsDelphi studiesExperiments

Triangulation

Secondary Qualitative

Quantitative

Qualitative or Quantitative Methods? Qualitative or Quantitative Methods? ((Cont’d.)Cont’d.)

• TriangulationUses secondary, qualitative, and quantitative

methods to better describe, understand, predict, and control public relations campaigns

Provides both representative sampling and in-depth knowledge of the publics or audiences under study

Takes the case study into the “real” world

Quantifying via MeasurementQuantifying via Measurement

• Assigning numbers to categories• Four Levels

Nominal (distinguishes only; counts, percent)Ordinal (distinguishes and orders; counts,

percent)Interval (assumes an equal distancing between

categories; counts, means, dispersion)Ratio (assumes absolute distancing between

categories; counts, means, dispersion)

Measurement ExamplesMeasurement Examples

• Nominal England, France, Germany, Austria

• Ordinal GNP: Austria ($1B), England ($2B), France ($3B), Germany ($4B)

• Interval Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree, Strongly Disagree

• Assumes that the distance between SA = A = D = SD (problem is that SA=A, and D=SD, but DA)

• Data are interval, but not “scalar” in that there is no arbitrary zero point

• Ratio Actual date and time of birth; Bank account balance

AttitudeAttitude Measurement Measurement

• Most Often Likert-Type Measurement Assumes interval data Respondents “react” to statements, typically by degree of

agreement MUST have a “zero” point — a midpoint MUST have an ODD number of responses (3, 5, 7) MUST consist of two or more statements

Strongly Strongly

statement1. Agree Agree Uncertain Disagree Disagree

Strongly Strongly

statement2. Agree Agree Uncertain Disagree Disagree

AttitudeAttitude Measurement Measurement (Cont’d.)(Cont’d.)

• Creates a “scale” of statements that Range from Positive through Neutral to Negative

Strongly Strongly

Public Relations is an excellent career. Agree Agree Uncertain Disagree Disagree

Strongly Strongly

Public Relations is a career. Agree Agree Uncertain Disagree Disagree

Strongly Strongly

Public Relations is no career at all. Agree Agree Uncertain Disagree Disagree

Actual reaction to statements is +2 +1 0 -1 -2

Coded as 5 4 3 2 1

Scale Range = 3 (negative) to 15 (positive)

Surveys vs. PollsSurveys vs. Polls

• Polls– Short and quick– fact-based

• Surveys– Longer– Definition- and fact-based– Allow for limited questions of value

Poll & Survey SamplingPoll & Survey Sampling

• SamplingScientific Sampling = Probability Sampling

Group sampled represents the entire population from which it is drawn (cross-sectional; trend; panel; cohort trend)

Non-Scientific Sampling = Convenience SamplingGroup sampled is not representative of entire

population, but only one limited segment (volunteer, snowball, quota, “man-on-the-street”

6. Programmatic PR Research6. Programmatic PR Research

• Best practice research is programmatic

• Divided into three phases– Program development research– Program refinement research– Program evaluation research

Program Program DevelopmentDevelopment Research Research

• Program Development stage requires: Communications goals Research goals

• Communication Goals Establish actionable and measurable objectives Design overall strategy to achieve these objectives

• Research Goals Understand the situation Relate this understanding to the communications opportunities

Program Development Research Should Tell YouProgram Development Research Should Tell You

• The circumstances creating the opportunity or challenge

• Target audience(s) characteristics• What needs to be communicated to realize the

objective• How ideas can best be communicated• Go beyond just turning out information…

development stage helps to change, modify, or reinforce behavior

Program Program RefinementRefinement Research Research

• Communication GoalsMake correct decisions implementing the

PR or communication program

• Research GoalsValidate that decisions made are correctSupply the information necessary to choose

between alternatives

Why Program Refinement Research?Why Program Refinement Research?

• Pre-testing of messagesInformative, Persuasive, Attitude Change,

Attitude Reinforcement

• Pre-testing of public/audience stance on objectives

• Pre-testing communication strategies• Pre-testing for gatekeeper selection• Pre-testing for publics (Active, Aware,

Passive, Latent)

Program Refinement Research ExamplesProgram Refinement Research Examples

• Types:Concept/Message testing studies (definition)Spokesperson selection research (fact)Format testing (fact/value)

• MethodsFocus GroupsPolls (telephone/Internet)Informal Field Research

Program Program EvaluationEvaluation Research Research

• Communication GoalDetermine program/campaign’s

effectiveness

• Research GoalsPerformance measurements in terms of

• Outputs: Air time, clippings, Internet “hits,” etc.

• Impacts: What program/campaign did to audience(s)

• Behavior: Were desired behaviors realized?

7. Research and the Budget7. Research and the Budget

• Research is a necessary, not sufficient condition for public relations

• Research is a part of EVERY program/ campaign budget

• Research permeates the program/campaign, plan research across the process

• Integrated research is essential to effective public relations and should be built in to each budget

Budgetary FactorsBudgetary Factors

• Circumstances

• Availability of in-house personnel to conduct research

• Commercial research firm availability

• Whether the research has been budgeted across or simply as a budget “item”

• The research question(s) asked

Research CostsResearch Costs

• Focus Groups: $1,000 – $4,500 per group• One-on-One Interviews: $250 – $2,000 per

interview• Telephone Surveys:

Small: $ 3,500 – $35,000 Large: $20,000 – $95,000

• Mail/Internet Surveys Small scale: $ 5,000 – $30,000 Large scale: $12,500 – $85,000

Stretching the Research BudgetStretching the Research Budget

• Never sacrifice quality for price• Seek competitive bids

Never take the low bid without examining the individual or firm’s credentials

• Learn about research questions and budget appropriately Don’t conduct a survey when a focus group is more efficient When looking only for facts, consider a poll over a survey Never stop “participating” in the research experience

All good researchers are Participant-ObserversContinually seek informal data in the field

ConclusionsConclusions

• Best Practice Public Relations ResearchIs programmaticHas clearly defined and achievable goalsHas its objectives stated in measurable termsAddresses the appropriate research question(s)Employs a “triangulated” methodologiesHas the necessary resources allocated to the

research program