Democracy: the Indonesian Experience

Democracy:Democracy:Democracy:Democracy:the Indonesian Experiencethe Indonesian Experiencepp

Ginandjar KartasasmitaGinandjar KartasasmitaChairman, House of Regional Representatives Chairman, House of Regional Representatives

of the Republic of Indonesiaof the Republic of Indonesia

4040thth World Annual Conference World Annual Conference International Association of Political Consultants (IAPC)International Association of Political Consultants (IAPC)International Association of Political Consultants (IAPC)International Association of Political Consultants (IAPC)

DenpasarDenpasar--Indonesia, November 13Indonesia, November 13thth 20072007

ContentsContentsINTRODUCTION

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

PRE-REFORM INDONESIA

THE END OF AUTHORITARIAN RULE

TRANSITION TO DEMOCRACYTRANSITION TO DEMOCRACY

CONSOLIDATING DEMOCRACY

ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE

DOES CULTURE MATTER?

INDONESIA AND THE WORLD

CONCLUSION

IAPC Conference 2007IAPC Conference 2007 www.ginandjar.comwww.ginandjar.com 22

CONCLUSION

I. INTRODUCTION


Indonesia is emerging from long period ofIndonesia is emerging from long period ofIndonesia is emerging from long period of Indonesia is emerging from long period of authoritarian rule to consolidate its status as authoritarian rule to consolidate its status as

f th ld’ l t d tif th ld’ l t d tione of the world’s largest democratic one of the world’s largest democratic country.country.Although Indonesia has not been on Although Indonesia has not been on ““the the road to democracy,road to democracy,”” for long, there is much for long, there is much y,y, g,g,that has been achieved for which many that has been achieved for which many citizens may be proud.citizens may be proud.citizens may be proud. citizens may be proud.


In 2004 the Indonesian people for the first In 2004 the Indonesian people for the first ti di tl l t d th i P id tti di tl l t d th i P id ttime directly elected their President. time directly elected their President. In the same year parliamentary elections In the same year parliamentary elections were also held for a multiparty House of were also held for a multiparty House of Representatives and nonRepresentatives and non--partisan House of partisan House of pp ppRegional Representatives (Senate).Regional Representatives (Senate).


Democracy has already rooted and become Democracy has already rooted and become ““th l i tth l i t ”” lth h it tilllth h it till““the only game in townthe only game in town””, although it still , although it still faces various challenges and yet to prove to faces various challenges and yet to prove to b h bb h b f h lf h lbe the bestbe the best——if not the onlyif not the only——way to way to creating the conditions for sustainable creating the conditions for sustainable development and enhancement of peopledevelopment and enhancement of people’’s s welfare.welfare.This presentation is an attempt to highlight This presentation is an attempt to highlight salient aspects of and draw some lessonssalient aspects of and draw some lessonssalient aspects of, and draw some lessons, salient aspects of, and draw some lessons, from Indonesiafrom Indonesia’’s experience in democracy.s experience in democracy.


II. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW


The Indonesian Archipelago The Indonesian Archipelago p gp g

• a country of 220 million (as of 2005), • an archipelago strung 5000 kilometers along the equator. g g g• more than 13,000 islands, 5,000 are inhabited. • more than 200 ethnic groups and 350 languages and dialects. • 85 to 90% are Muslims.


85 to 90% are Muslims.

Rise of IndonesiaRise of Indonesia’’s nationalisms nationalismRise of IndonesiaRise of Indonesia s nationalism s nationalism

The Dutch ruled the Indonesian archipelago for The Dutch ruled the Indonesian archipelago for three and a half centuries. They first came to three and a half centuries. They first came to I d i h d f h 16 h dI d i h d f h 16 h dIndonesia at the end of the 16th century as traders, Indonesia at the end of the 16th century as traders, and later as colonizers.and later as colonizers.May 20 1908 the birth of an intellectual organizationMay 20 1908 the birth of an intellectual organizationMay 20, 1908 the birth of an intellectual organization May 20, 1908 the birth of an intellectual organization Budi Utomo, commemorated as the Budi Utomo, commemorated as the ““National National Awakening DayAwakening Day””. . g yg yOctober 28, 1928 declaration of the Youth Oath: one October 28, 1928 declaration of the Youth Oath: one country, one nation, one language: Indonesia.country, one nation, one language: Indonesia.In World War II, the Japanese military drove out the In World War II, the Japanese military drove out the Dutch and occupied Indonesia as the new colonial Dutch and occupied Indonesia as the new colonial rulerruler


ruler. ruler.

Construction of independenceConstruction of independenceConstruction of independence Construction of independence

Th d f t f th D t h t th h d fTh d f t f th D t h t th h d fThe defeat of the Dutch at the hands of an The defeat of the Dutch at the hands of an Asian power fueled the rise of indigenous Asian power fueled the rise of indigenous resistances.resistances.The Japanese allowed a committee to be The Japanese allowed a committee to be ppestablished to established to ““investigate the preparation investigate the preparation of independenceof independence””..of independenceof independence ..What philosophical foundation the What philosophical foundation the independent Indonesia state should be builtindependent Indonesia state should be builtindependent Indonesia state should be built independent Indonesia state should be built on?on?


Construction of independenceConstruction of independenceConstruction of independence . . .Construction of independence . . .

The founding fathers of IndonesiaThe founding fathers of Indonesia’’s s i d d di d d d P ilP il th t tth t tindependence agreed on independence agreed on PancasilaPancasila as the state as the state philosophy.philosophy.Pancasila:Pancasila:Pancasila: Pancasila: 1)1) Belief in the One and Only God; Belief in the One and Only God; 2)2) Just and Civilized Humanity;Just and Civilized Humanity;2)2) Just and Civilized Humanity; Just and Civilized Humanity; 3)3) The Unity of Indonesia; The Unity of Indonesia; 4)4) Democracy; Democracy; 5)5) Social Justice.Social Justice.


Birth of a nation Birth of a nation

All the necessary elements for anAll the necessary elements for anAll the necessary elements for an All the necessary elements for an independent nation had already existed when independent nation had already existed when the Japanese surrendered to the Allied the Japanese surrendered to the Allied pppowers.powers.August 17 1945, Sukarno and Hatta on August 17 1945, Sukarno and Hatta on g ,g ,behalf of the people, proclaimed the behalf of the people, proclaimed the independence of Indonesia.independence of Indonesia.Indonesia under the 1945 Constitution: A Indonesia under the 1945 Constitution: A nationalist nonnationalist non--sectarian, unitarian republic sectarian, unitarian republic

ith id ti l t f tith id ti l t f twith a presidential system of government.with a presidential system of government.


III. PRE-REFORM INDONESIA


Regime Change in IndonesiaRegime Change in Indonesia

August 1945August 1945 -- MarchMarch

SukarnoSukarno

March 1968March 1968 -- May 1998May 1998

SuhartoSuharto

August 1945 August 1945 March March 19681968Elected by the PPKIElected by the PPKIImpeached by MPRSImpeached by MPRS

March 1968 March 1968 May 1998May 1998Elected by MPRSElected by MPRSResigned under pressureResigned under pressure

October 1999October 1999 JulyJulyB.J. HabibieB.J. HabibieAbdurrahman WahidAbdurrahman Wahid

May 1998May 1998--October 1999October 1999Accountability Speech Accountability Speech RejectedRejectedDeclined to run for Declined to run for

October 1999 October 1999 –– July July 20012001Elected by MPRElected by MPRImpeached by MPRImpeached by MPR

PresidentPresident

Susilo Bambang Susilo Bambang YudhoyonoYudhoyono

MegawatiMegawati

October 2004 October 2004 –– 20092009Directly electedDirectly elected

YudhoyonoYudhoyonoJuly 2001 July 2001 –– October October 20042004Elected by MPR Elected by MPR Lost election to SBYLost election to SBY


Summary of Indonesia’s Political HistorySummary of Indonesia’s Political History

PresidentPresident PeriodPeriod ConstitutionConstitution Government Government SystemSystem

The WayThe WayElectedElected ExitExit

Sukarno 1945 1950 1945 Presidential/ IndependenceSukarno 1945-1950 1945 Presidential/ Parliamentary

Independence Committee

1950 Federal Parliamentary1950-1959 Provisional Parliamentary1950-1959 Provisional Parliamentary1959-1966 1945 Presidential Deposed/

ImpeachedSuharto 1966-1998 1945 Presidential MPRS ResignedgHabibie 1998-1999 1945 Presidential MPR Accountability

speech not accepted by the MPRMPR

Decided not to run again

Wahid 1999 2000 1945 Presidential MPR ImpeachedWahid 1999-2000 1945 Presidential MPR ImpeachedMegawati 2001-2004 1945 Presidential MPR Lost in general

electionSBY 2004-(2009) 1945 Presidential Directly


( ) yElected

An attempt at liberal democracyAn attempt at liberal democracyAn attempt at liberal democracy An attempt at liberal democracy

In 1955 a free and fair multiparty election was held to In 1955 a free and fair multiparty election was held to elect the Parliament and the Constitutional Assembly elect the Parliament and the Constitutional Assembly yy((KonstituanteKonstituante).).The weak shortThe weak short--lived parliamentary governments created lived parliamentary governments created l d hi d i d i i t ti hl d hi d i d i i t ti hleadership vacuum and indecisiveness at time when leadership vacuum and indecisiveness at time when strong leadership was needed.strong leadership was needed.TheThe KonstituanteKonstituante failed to reach the necessary majorityfailed to reach the necessary majorityThe The KonstituanteKonstituante failed to reach the necessary majority failed to reach the necessary majority to get an agreement on a new constitution.to get an agreement on a new constitution.On July 5On July 5thth, l959, the President Sukarno dissolved the , l959, the President Sukarno dissolved the Parliament and Parliament and KonstituanteKonstituante with a Presidential Decree with a Presidential Decree and restored the 1945 Constitution.and restored the 1945 Constitution.


Guided DemocracyGuided DemocracyGuided Democracy Guided Democracy

Sukarno declared that liberal democracy had failed Sukarno declared that liberal democracy had failed in Indonesia and had brought only disunity and in Indonesia and had brought only disunity and g y yg y ymisery to the people.misery to the people.Sukarno proclaimed Sukarno proclaimed ““Guided DemocracyGuided Democracy”” as the as the suitable system for Indonesia.suitable system for Indonesia.Sukarno ended IndonesiaSukarno ended Indonesia’’s first attempt at s first attempt at d I d i j i d th fd I d i j i d th fdemocracy. Indonesia now joined the group of democracy. Indonesia now joined the group of countries to reverse from democracy to countries to reverse from democracy to authoritarianismauthoritarianismauthoritarianism. authoritarianism. The rise of the military role in politics: dual The rise of the military role in politics: dual functions of the military.functions of the military.


yy

Sukarno: The romantic revolutionarySukarno: The romantic revolutionarySukarno: The romantic revolutionarySukarno: The romantic revolutionary

I d i d S k t k l di l iI d i d S k t k l di l iIndonesia under Sukarno took a leading role in Indonesia under Sukarno took a leading role in Asian African countries solidarity and fight Asian African countries solidarity and fight against colonialismagainst colonialismagainst colonialism.against colonialism.Sukarno together with third world leaders Sukarno together with third world leaders initiated the Noninitiated the Non aligned movement which untilaligned movement which untilinitiated the Noninitiated the Non--aligned movement, which until aligned movement, which until today still exists.today still exists.But his misguided economic policies based onBut his misguided economic policies based onBut his misguided economic policies based on But his misguided economic policies based on the notion of a “guided economy” brought chaos the notion of a “guided economy” brought chaos to the economy and increased suffering for theto the economy and increased suffering for theto the economy and increased suffering for the to the economy and increased suffering for the common people.common people.


The end of Guided Democracy and The end of Guided Democracy and the rise of the New Orderthe rise of the New Order

On September 30On September 30thth 1965, an aborted 1965, an aborted coup dcoup d’’etatetatwas allegedly staged by the communist partywas allegedly staged by the communist partywas allegedly staged by the communist party.was allegedly staged by the communist party.Two military figures escaped from the Two military figures escaped from the assassination attempt General Nasution andassassination attempt General Nasution andassassination attempt, General Nasution and assassination attempt, General Nasution and Mayor General Suharto.Mayor General Suharto.P d d t bili th l l ilit fP d d t bili th l l ilit fProceeded to mobilize the loyal military forces, Proceeded to mobilize the loyal military forces, and neutralized the units that were involved in and neutralized the units that were involved in th tith tithe mutiny. the mutiny. The rift of President Sukarno and the military. The rift of President Sukarno and the military.


The end of guided democracy and the rise The end of guided democracy and the rise of the New Order . . .of the New Order . . .

On May 11On May 11thth 1966 President Sukarno, under 1966 President Sukarno, under pressure from the military and the public issuedpressure from the military and the public issuedpressure from the military and the public, issued pressure from the military and the public, issued a Letter of Instruction to accede authority of a Letter of Instruction to accede authority of dayday--toto--day government to General Suhartoday government to General Suhartodayday toto day government to General Suharto.day government to General Suharto.In the 1968 the Provisional MPR dismissed In the 1968 the Provisional MPR dismissed Sukarno as President and appointed GeneralSukarno as President and appointed GeneralSukarno as President and appointed General Sukarno as President and appointed General Suharto as his successor, hence rise of the New Suharto as his successor, hence rise of the New Order.Order.Order.Order.


Development TrilogyDevelopment TrilogyDevelopment TrilogyDevelopment Trilogy

Stability

Growth EquityGrowth Equity


Political stabilityPolitical stabilityPolitical stabilityPolitical stabilityThe military, the bureaucracy and Golkar (the The military, the bureaucracy and Golkar (the y, y (y, y (government party) constituted the political pillars government party) constituted the political pillars of the New Order.of the New Order.

h l l ll dh l l ll dTwo other political parties were allowed to exist, Two other political parties were allowed to exist, but were politically constrained.but were politically constrained.The floating mass concept (depolitization of theThe floating mass concept (depolitization of theThe floating mass concept (depolitization of the The floating mass concept (depolitization of the masses) constituted an important aspect of the masses) constituted an important aspect of the political strategy to sustain longpolitical strategy to sustain long--term politicalterm politicalpolitical strategy to sustain longpolitical strategy to sustain long term political term political stability. stability. The political system had produced the intended The political system had produced the intended p y pp y presult: political stability that had endured for result: political stability that had endured for three decades, sustaining economic growth which three decades, sustaining economic growth which in turn further reinforced its claim to legitimacyin turn further reinforced its claim to legitimacy


in turn further reinforced its claim to legitimacy.in turn further reinforced its claim to legitimacy.

Economic DevelopmentEconomic DevelopmentEconomic DevelopmentEconomic Development

With political stability assured, theWith political stability assured, the Soeharto Government earnestly embarked on economic development, e ba ed o eco o c de e op e t,which was widely considered as successful using various standard of gmeasurements.


East Asian MiracleEast Asian MiracleEast Asian MiracleEast Asian MiracleThe economic performance of preThe economic performance of pre--crisis Indonesia could crisis Indonesia could b f l f f lb f l f f lbe seen as part of a general pattern of successful be seen as part of a general pattern of successful economic development in Asia.economic development in Asia.HPAEs a eHPAEs a eHPAEs are:HPAEs are:

Japan (The Leader)H K th R Of K Si d T iHong Kong, the Rep. Of Korea, Singapore and Taiwan (The Four Tigers ).Indonesia Malaysia and Thailand (NewlyIndonesia, Malaysia and Thailand (Newly Industrializing Economies of Southeast Asia / NIE).

Since 1960 the HPAEs have grown more than:Since 1960 the HPAEs have grown more than:twice as fast as the rest of East Asia.three times as fast as Latin America and South Asia


three times as fast as Latin America and South Asia.

CharacteristicsCharacteristicsCharacteristicsCharacteristics

Hi h t f i thHi h t f i thHigh average rate of economic growthHigh average rate of economic growthRapid productivity growth.Rapid productivity growth.High rates of growth of manufactured exports. High rates of growth of manufactured exports. Declines in fertility. Declines in fertility. yyHigh growth rates of physical capital, supported High growth rates of physical capital, supported by high rates of domestic savings and by high rates of domestic savings and y g gy g ginvestment. investment. High initial levels and growth rates of human High initial levels and growth rates of human g gg gcapital. capital. Declining levels of poverty.Declining levels of poverty.


IV. THE END OFAUTHORITARIAN RULEAUTHORITARIAN RULE


It all ended with the 1997 financial crisis.It all ended with the 1997 financial crisis.It all ended with the 1997 financial crisis. It all ended with the 1997 financial crisis. The economy crumbled under the weight of The economy crumbled under the weight of the crisis, followed by popular movement the crisis, followed by popular movement , y p p, y p pagainst the Soeharto regime.against the Soeharto regime.


What went wrong?What went wrong?Wh afte 32 ea s of contin o s and seeminglWh afte 32 ea s of contin o s and seemingl

What went wrong?What went wrong?Why after 32 years of continuous and seemingly Why after 32 years of continuous and seemingly successful rule, the Soehartossuccessful rule, the Soehartos’’ government fell? government fell? Huntington (1991) makes the point that theHuntington (1991) makes the point that theHuntington (1991) makes the point that the Huntington (1991) makes the point that the legitimacy of an authoritarian regime might be legitimacy of an authoritarian regime might be undermined even if it does deliver on itsundermined even if it does deliver on itsundermined even if it does deliver on its undermined even if it does deliver on its promises. promises. By achieving its purpose, it lost its purpose. This By achieving its purpose, it lost its purpose. This y g p p , p py g p p , p preduced the reasons why the public should reduced the reasons why the public should support the regime, given other costs (e.g. lack support the regime, given other costs (e.g. lack of freedom) connected with the regimeof freedom) connected with the regimeof freedom) connected with the regime. of freedom) connected with the regime. Economic development provided the basis for Economic development provided the basis for democracydemocracy


democracy. democracy.

What went wrong?...What went wrong?...What went wrong?...What went wrong?...

Huntington maintains that a social scientist who wished Huntington maintains that a social scientist who wished di f d i idi f d i i ““ ld h dld h dto predict future democratization to predict future democratization ““would have done would have done

reasonably well if he simply fingered the nonreasonably well if he simply fingered the non--democratic democratic countries in the $1,000countries in the $1,000--$3,000 (GNP per capita)$3,000 (GNP per capita)countries in the $1,000countries in the $1,000 $3,000 (GNP per capita) $3,000 (GNP per capita) transition zonetransition zone”” (1991: 63).(1991: 63).Further studies, in particular an extensive quantitative Further studies, in particular an extensive quantitative

h d l d b k l (h d l d b k l (research and analysis done by Przeworsky et.al. (2000: research and analysis done by Przeworsky et.al. (2000: 92) has lent support to Huntington92) has lent support to Huntington’’s threshold argument. s threshold argument. In 1996 the year before the economic crisis sweptIn 1996 the year before the economic crisis sweptIn 1996, the year before the economic crisis swept In 1996, the year before the economic crisis swept Indonesia, its GNP per capita had reached $1,155. Indonesia, its GNP per capita had reached $1,155. According to HuntingtonAccording to Huntington’’s theory, at that stage s theory, at that stage g gg g y, gy, gIndonesia had entered the transition zone, which meant Indonesia had entered the transition zone, which meant that eventually sooner or later political change would that eventually sooner or later political change would happenhappen


happen. happen.

What went wrong?...What went wrong?...What went wrong?...What went wrong?...Three decades of development had significantly increased Three decades of development had significantly increased the level and reach of education across the nation and the level and reach of education across the nation and social classes, resulting in significant social emancipation social classes, resulting in significant social emancipation of the population. of the population. International commerce brought about the opening up notInternational commerce brought about the opening up notInternational commerce brought about the opening up not International commerce brought about the opening up not of only the Indonesian market to foreign goods but also of only the Indonesian market to foreign goods but also the Indonesian society to foreign ideas. the Indonesian society to foreign ideas. With globalization came not only the integration of With globalization came not only the integration of markets but also the introduction and eventual integration markets but also the introduction and eventual integration of ideasof ideasof ideas. of ideas. Thousands of Indonesians who studied at foreign Thousands of Indonesians who studied at foreign universities, most of them in western countries, learned universities, most of them in western countries, learned f h d hf h d h l l l h h b hl l l h h b hfirst hand the sociofirst hand the socio--cultural values that has been the cultural values that has been the driving force behind the scientific and technological driving force behind the scientific and technological advances that resulted in the affluence of the western advances that resulted in the affluence of the western


societies. societies.


They returned home with the spirit of freedom whichThey returned home with the spirit of freedom whichThey returned home with the spirit of freedom, which They returned home with the spirit of freedom, which was a potent source of inspiration and motivation to was a potent source of inspiration and motivation to change.change.They saw that the way the system worked obviously did They saw that the way the system worked obviously did not meet the basic principles required in a free society.not meet the basic principles required in a free society.The existence of political parties civic organizations andThe existence of political parties civic organizations andThe existence of political parties, civic organizations and The existence of political parties, civic organizations and interest groups was highly regulated, and only the ones interest groups was highly regulated, and only the ones that were established or recognized by the government that were established or recognized by the government

ll d h l d h b l bll d h l d h b l bwere allowed to exist, these including the business, labor, were allowed to exist, these including the business, labor, journalist, youth, and women organizations.journalist, youth, and women organizations.The absence of effective opposition is one of theThe absence of effective opposition is one of theThe absence of effective opposition is one of the The absence of effective opposition is one of the essential arguments refuting the New Orderessential arguments refuting the New Order’’s claim to s claim to democracy.democracy.



At the height of the praise for the New Order At the height of the praise for the New Order achievement many Indonesian’s complainedachievement many Indonesian’s complainedachievement, many Indonesian s complained achievement, many Indonesian s complained of the lack of distributive justice, and of the lack of distributive justice, and rampant corruption and nepotismrampant corruption and nepotismrampant corruption and nepotism.rampant corruption and nepotism.Many argued that the Indonesian economic Many argued that the Indonesian economic success had benefited the urban andsuccess had benefited the urban andsuccess had benefited the urban and success had benefited the urban and industrial sector while marginalizing the rural industrial sector while marginalizing the rural and traditional sectorsand traditional sectorsand traditional sectors. and traditional sectors.



The emerging role of Islam as a force of change should The emerging role of Islam as a force of change should also not be underestimatedalso not be underestimatedalso not be underestimated. also not be underestimated. Most Indonesian proMost Indonesian pro--democracy activists are more than democracy activists are more than nominally Muslim and they often use Islamic discourses nominally Muslim and they often use Islamic discourses y yy yto motivate the struggle for democracy.to motivate the struggle for democracy.Among the social forces that were poised against the Among the social forces that were poised against the N O d th t i t t d ilit t thN O d th t i t t d ilit t thNew Order, the most consistent and militant were the New Order, the most consistent and militant were the students. students. They were successful in galvanizing the silent They were successful in galvanizing the silent majority to be concerned about current political issuesmajority to be concerned about current political issuesmajority to be concerned about current political issues majority to be concerned about current political issues confronting the nation. confronting the nation. Student activism of the late 1980s and early 1990s has Student activism of the late 1980s and early 1990s has yycontributed to a radicalization of the democratic contributed to a radicalization of the democratic opposition in Indonesia. opposition in Indonesia.



Many among the political elites felt that the time had Many among the political elites felt that the time had come for political reforms. come for political reforms. But an opportunity for a renewed start to rebuild the But an opportunity for a renewed start to rebuild the confidence of the people and engaged in concerted confidence of the people and engaged in concerted efforts to regain control of the economy was wasted, efforts to regain control of the economy was wasted, when Soeharto appointed his daughter and cronies towhen Soeharto appointed his daughter and cronies towhen Soeharto appointed his daughter and cronies to when Soeharto appointed his daughter and cronies to the cabinet at the height of the crisis. the cabinet at the height of the crisis. The cracks in the ranks of the New Order had come toThe cracks in the ranks of the New Order had come toThe cracks in the ranks of the New Order had come to The cracks in the ranks of the New Order had come to the surface, as the regime supporters within and the surface, as the regime supporters within and outside the government, including those in the military outside the government, including those in the military had grown alienated by the way Soeharto handled thehad grown alienated by the way Soeharto handled thehad grown alienated by the way Soeharto handled the had grown alienated by the way Soeharto handled the crisis, and by his inability or unwillingness to embark on crisis, and by his inability or unwillingness to embark on reforms. reforms.



Before the crisis there were already forces, inBefore the crisis there were already forces, inBefore the crisis there were already forces, in Before the crisis there were already forces, in favor of political change, arrayed against the New favor of political change, arrayed against the New Order regime. Order regime. However in the absence of the necessary catalyst However in the absence of the necessary catalyst those elements were inert, and even if change those elements were inert, and even if change h ld h it ld t k l hil hh ld h it ld t k l hil hshould happen it could take a long while, such as should happen it could take a long while, such as

when Suharto pass away or Suharto became when Suharto pass away or Suharto became physically incapable to leadphysically incapable to leadphysically incapable to lead. physically incapable to lead. The financial crisis provided the catalyst that set The financial crisis provided the catalyst that set off a process of change The halving of per capitaoff a process of change The halving of per capitaoff a process of change. The halving of per capita off a process of change. The halving of per capita income translated into social misery: income translated into social misery: unemployment, hunger, riots, and death. unemployment, hunger, riots, and death.


p y , g , ,p y , g , ,


It is evident that the inability of President It is evident that the inability of President Suharto to bring Indonesia out of the crisisSuharto to bring Indonesia out of the crisisSuharto to bring Indonesia out of the crisis, Suharto to bring Indonesia out of the crisis, combined with the growing domestic and combined with the growing domestic and international awareness that his response to the international awareness that his response to the ppcrisiscrisis——economic as well politicaleconomic as well political——was digging was digging the country into a deeper abyss, destroyed the the country into a deeper abyss, destroyed the Hobbesian compact that had kept the countryHobbesian compact that had kept the countryHobbesian compact that had kept the country Hobbesian compact that had kept the country united and politically stable on the path of united and politically stable on the path of development.development.The conclusion: crisis forced a rewriting of the The conclusion: crisis forced a rewriting of the social contract.social contract.


V. TRANSITION TO DEMOCRACYV. TRANSITION TO DEMOCRACY


Laying the foundation for democracyLaying the foundation for democracyLaying the foundation for democracyLaying the foundation for democracy

It was during Habibie’s administration that It was during Habibie’s administration that most of the initiatives that significantly most of the initiatives that significantly g yg yaccelerated Indonesia’s democratization were accelerated Indonesia’s democratization were initiated. initiated. Th f d ti ti h d b iTh f d ti ti h d b iThe process of democratization had been in The process of democratization had been in conjunction with the process of economic conjunction with the process of economic recovery one reinforcing the other on the wayrecovery one reinforcing the other on the wayrecovery, one reinforcing the other on the way recovery, one reinforcing the other on the way up, in contrast with the situation when the up, in contrast with the situation when the confluence of economic and political crises had confluence of economic and political crises had b ht th t d d i t thb ht th t d d i t thbrought the country down deeper into the brought the country down deeper into the abyss.abyss.


Laying the foundation for democracyLaying the foundation for democracyLaying the foundation for democracy . . .Laying the foundation for democracy . . .The recognition of the basic principle of the separation of powers of The recognition of the basic principle of the separation of powers of th ti l i l ti d j di i l b h f tth ti l i l ti d j di i l b h f tthe executive, legislative and judicial branches of governmentthe executive, legislative and judicial branches of governmentThe dual function of the military was revokedThe dual function of the military was revoked““Political prisonersPolitical prisoners”” were released from detention.were released from detention.East Timorese were granted a referendum to determine their own East Timorese were granted a referendum to determine their own destiny. destiny. In July 1999 a multiparty election was held. The election In July 1999 a multiparty election was held. The election was supervised by an electoral committee of the participating was supervised by an electoral committee of the participating

l l d h d b h d f f bl l d h d b h d f f bpolitical parties and watched by thousands of foreign observers. political parties and watched by thousands of foreign observers. It was universally agreed that the election was open, fair and clean. It was universally agreed that the election was open, fair and clean. The result reflected the will of the people and thus heralded the reThe result reflected the will of the people and thus heralded the re--bi th f d i I d ibi th f d i I d ibirth of democracy in Indonesia.birth of democracy in Indonesia.In July 1999 a multiparty election was held. The election was In July 1999 a multiparty election was held. The election was supervised by an electoral committee of the participating political supervised by an electoral committee of the participating political

ti d t h d b th d f f i bti d t h d b th d f f i bparties and watched by thousands of foreign observers. parties and watched by thousands of foreign observers. It was universally agreed that the election was open, fair and clean. It was universally agreed that the election was open, fair and clean. The result reflected the will of the people and thus heralded the reThe result reflected the will of the people and thus heralded the re--birth of democracy in Indonesiabirth of democracy in Indonesia


birth of democracy in Indonesia.birth of democracy in Indonesia.

Constitutional ReformConstitutional ReformConstitutional ReformConstitutional Reform

The democratization process in Indonesia, The democratization process in Indonesia, although triggered by the 1997/1998 economicalthough triggered by the 1997/1998 economicalthough triggered by the 1997/1998 economic although triggered by the 1997/1998 economic crisis, has been undertaken relatively peacefully crisis, has been undertaken relatively peacefully in conjunction with the reform of the in conjunction with the reform of the jjconstitution.constitution.The weaknesses in the constitution contributed The weaknesses in the constitution contributed heavily to the concentration and abuse of heavily to the concentration and abuse of power, the lack of law and order, shallow citizen power, the lack of law and order, shallow citizen representation, opacity of governance, and the representation, opacity of governance, and the high incidence of human rights abuses.high incidence of human rights abuses.


Constitutional reformConstitutional reformConstitutional reform . . .Constitutional reform . . .

The constitution was written in a very broad and The constitution was written in a very broad and general way. It has only 37 articles and 6 transitorygeneral way. It has only 37 articles and 6 transitorygeneral way. It has only 37 articles and 6 transitory general way. It has only 37 articles and 6 transitory provisions. provisions. There is strength to the way it was written that There is strength to the way it was written that

k th tit ti fl ibl d il d t blk th tit ti fl ibl d il d t blmakes the constitution flexible and easily adaptable. makes the constitution flexible and easily adaptable. The weakness is that it is so broad, general and The weakness is that it is so broad, general and flexible that it can beflexible that it can be——and has beenand has been——interpreted ininterpreted inflexible, that it can beflexible, that it can be and has beenand has been interpreted in interpreted in different ways.different ways.It gives a lot of room to the incumbent president to It gives a lot of room to the incumbent president to

d t t i hi hd t t i hi hmaneuver and concentrate power in his or her maneuver and concentrate power in his or her hands, as history has shown with Indonesia’s first hands, as history has shown with Indonesia’s first and second presidents.and second presidents.


a d seco d p es de tsa d seco d p es de ts

The amendment processThe amendment processThe amendment processThe amendment process

The First Amendment 1999The First Amendment 1999The First Amendment 1999The First Amendment 1999The Second Amendment 2000The Second Amendment 2000The Third Amendment 2001The Third Amendment 2001The Fourth Amendment 2002The Fourth Amendment 2002The Fourth Amendment 2002The Fourth Amendment 2002


The First Amendment 1999The First Amendment 1999The First Amendment 1999The First Amendment 1999

f ff fA term limit of two consecutive fiveA term limit of two consecutive five--year year terms. terms. Returned the power of legislation to Returned the power of legislation to parliament.parliament.parliament.parliament.


The Second Amendment 2000The Second Amendment 2000The Second Amendment 2000The Second Amendment 2000Decentralization and regional autonomy. Decentralization and regional autonomy. Members of the parliament would have to be elected Members of the parliament would have to be elected through public elections. This provision sends the through public elections. This provision sends the message that there should be no more appointedmessage that there should be no more appointedmessage that there should be no more appointed message that there should be no more appointed members to the parliament. members to the parliament. The separation of the police from the military. The separation of the police from the military. Through a separate decree that is not part of the Through a separate decree that is not part of the constitution, the appointment of the commander of the constitution, the appointment of the commander of the armed forces and the chief of police have to bearmed forces and the chief of police have to bearmed forces and the chief of police have to be armed forces and the chief of police have to be confirmed by the parliament. This provision sent a clear confirmed by the parliament. This provision sent a clear signal that the military is subordinate to civilian authority. signal that the military is subordinate to civilian authority. g y yg y yA new section on human rights was constituted that A new section on human rights was constituted that incorporated statements from the Universal Declaration incorporated statements from the Universal Declaration f H Ri htf H Ri ht


of Human Rights.of Human Rights.

The Third Amendment 2001The Third Amendment 2001The Third Amendment 2001The Third Amendment 2001

Provides for direct election by the people of the president and Provides for direct election by the people of the president and the vice president as a ticket. the vice president as a ticket. To be elected the candidate will have to get more than 50%To be elected the candidate will have to get more than 50%To be elected, the candidate will have to get more than 50% To be elected, the candidate will have to get more than 50% of the popular vote with at least 20% of the vote in at least of the popular vote with at least 20% of the vote in at least half of all the provinces.half of all the provinces.Sets out rules and procedures for the impeachment of theSets out rules and procedures for the impeachment of theSets out rules and procedures for the impeachment of the Sets out rules and procedures for the impeachment of the president. president. The parliament can only propose that the president be The parliament can only propose that the president be impeached after requesting that the (the newly established)impeached after requesting that the (the newly established)impeached after requesting that the (the newly established) impeached after requesting that the (the newly established) Constitutional Court examine the charges against the Constitutional Court examine the charges against the president and after receiving from the court a finding that the president and after receiving from the court a finding that the president is guilty as charged.president is guilty as charged.president is guilty as charged. president is guilty as charged. This mechanism is intended to prevent abuse of impeachment This mechanism is intended to prevent abuse of impeachment proceedings by the legislature.proceedings by the legislature.


The Third Amendment 2001The Third Amendment 2001The Third Amendment 2001 . . .The Third Amendment 2001 . . .

Appointments of the members of the Supreme Court by the Appointments of the members of the Supreme Court by the president have to be proposed by a newly constituted president have to be proposed by a newly constituted independent judicial commission, and approved by theindependent judicial commission, and approved by theindependent judicial commission, and approved by the independent judicial commission, and approved by the parliament. parliament. In a major structural change to the legislative body, although In a major structural change to the legislative body, although Indonesia remains a unitarian state the third amendmentIndonesia remains a unitarian state the third amendmentIndonesia remains a unitarian state, the third amendment Indonesia remains a unitarian state, the third amendment constituted a bicameral system of representation. constituted a bicameral system of representation. It established the House of Regional Representatives It established the House of Regional Representatives (Dewan (Dewan Pe akilan Dae ahPe akilan Dae ah DPDPD)D) ep esenting each of the p o incesep esenting each of the p o incesPerwakilan DaerahPerwakilan Daerah--DPDPD), D), representing each of the provinces representing each of the provinces equally, similar to the US Senate.equally, similar to the US Senate.Established the rules on general election, to be held once Established the rules on general election, to be held once every five years. every five years. The elections are carried out by an independent general The elections are carried out by an independent general election commission.election commission.


e ect o co ss oe ect o co ss o

The Fourth Amendment 2002The Fourth Amendment 2002The Fourth Amendment 2002The Fourth Amendment 2002

Stipulates universal governmentStipulates universal government--sponsored sponsored i d ti i i ti d ti i i tprimary education, minimum aggregate primary education, minimum aggregate

education spending of 20% from the national education spending of 20% from the national government and regional government’s budgetgovernment and regional government’s budgetgovernment and regional government s budget,government and regional government s budget,Incorporates clauses on social justice and Incorporates clauses on social justice and environmental protectionenvironmental protectionenvironmental protection. environmental protection. Defines that the MPR consists of the parliament Defines that the MPR consists of the parliament (House of Representatives or DPR) and the(House of Representatives or DPR) and the(House of Representatives or DPR) and the (House of Representatives or DPR) and the Regional Representative Council (DPD).Regional Representative Council (DPD).


VI. CONSOLIDATING DEMOCRACYVI. CONSOLIDATING DEMOCRACY


I th tI th t t iti i d th I d it iti i d th I d iIn the postIn the post--transition period the Indonesian transition period the Indonesian polity has to grapple with two key issues in polity has to grapple with two key issues in

lid ti it t dlid ti it t dconsolidating its nascent democracy: consolidating its nascent democracy:

how best to strengthen the political culture,how best to strengthen the political culture,how best to strengthen the political culture, how best to strengthen the political culture, deepen democracy, and enhance political deepen democracy, and enhance political institutionalization.institutionalization.how to improve the performance of the how to improve the performance of the newly established democratic regime.newly established democratic regime.newly established democratic regime. newly established democratic regime.


Strengthening the Political Strengthening the Political InstitutionsInstitutions

All political offices are elected through All political offices are elected through general elections:general elections:general elections:general elections:

President and Vice President; President and Vice President; ;;Member of both house of parliaments, and Member of both house of parliaments, and regional councils;regional councils;regional councils;regional councils;Governors, Bupati (District Heads), Majors, Governors, Bupati (District Heads), Majors, Village HeadsVillage HeadsVillage Heads.Village Heads.


All important political appointeeAll important political appointee——eexceptxceptAll important political appointeeAll important political appointee eexcept xcept members of the cabinetmembers of the cabinet——have to be confirmed have to be confirmed by the parliament; i e :by the parliament; i e :by the parliament; i.e.: by the parliament; i.e.:

Chiefs of the Military and Police; Chiefs of the Military and Police; Supreme and Constitutional Court Justices;Supreme and Constitutional Court Justices;Governor and Deputy Governor of the CentralGovernor and Deputy Governor of the CentralGovernor and Deputy Governor of the Central Governor and Deputy Governor of the Central Bank.Bank.


Members of national commissions such as: Members of national commissions such as:

Anti corruption; Anti corruption; Judicial;Judicial;Judicial;Judicial;Elections;Elections;Fair business competition;Fair business competition;Fair business competition;Fair business competition;Ambassadors from and to Indonesia;Ambassadors from and to Indonesia;Human rights;Human rights;Human rights;Human rights;

have to be confirmed by the parliament.have to be confirmed by the parliament.


Political PartiesPolitical PartiesOne of the basic requirements or institutions in aOne of the basic requirements or institutions in a

Political PartiesPolitical PartiesOne of the basic requirements or institutions in a One of the basic requirements or institutions in a democracy is the existence of a free and active political democracy is the existence of a free and active political parties to represent the people in the governance of a parties to represent the people in the governance of a nationnationnation.nation.In 2004 elections, 42 political participated, 17 parties In 2004 elections, 42 political participated, 17 parties won seats in the parliament.won seats in the parliament.Indonesia is gearing for the next general election in Indonesia is gearing for the next general election in 2009.2009.The law for parliamentary elections is being deliberatedThe law for parliamentary elections is being deliberatedThe law for parliamentary elections is being deliberated The law for parliamentary elections is being deliberated in the parliament.in the parliament.Among the crucial issues are the redrawing of the Among the crucial issues are the redrawing of the oting constit encies and the pa t th eshold inoting constit encies and the pa t th eshold invoting constituencies and the party threshold in voting constituencies and the party threshold in

parliament.parliament.


Civil SocietyCivil SocietyCivil SocietyCivil Society

Democracy requires a public that is organized Democracy requires a public that is organized for democracy socialized to its values andfor democracy socialized to its values andfor democracy, socialized to its values and for democracy, socialized to its values and norms, and committed not just to its owned norms, and committed not just to its owned myriad narrow interestsmyriad narrow interests although they arealthough they aremyriad narrow interestsmyriad narrow interests——although they are although they are important and are the raison d'etre for their important and are the raison d'etre for their existenceexistence but to a larger common set of civicbut to a larger common set of civicexistenceexistence——but to a larger, common set of civic but to a larger, common set of civic ends.ends.A d h bli i l ibl ith ib tA d h bli i l ibl ith ib tAnd such a public is only possible with a vibrant And such a public is only possible with a vibrant "civil society. ""civil society. "


Civil SocietyCivil SocietyCivil Society . . .Civil Society . . .

Indonesia's civil society has grown in recent years and Indonesia's civil society has grown in recent years and has played a role in the political change.has played a role in the political change.However as a real countervailing force to the state it isHowever as a real countervailing force to the state it isHowever, as a real countervailing force to the state, it is However, as a real countervailing force to the state, it is still weak.still weak.Not only is it a relatively new concept in Indonesia's Not only is it a relatively new concept in Indonesia's

lit d th t t t th lit f th llit d th t t t th lit f th lpolity, and thus yet to mature, the quality of the people polity, and thus yet to mature, the quality of the people who are attracted to join it does civil society little good.who are attracted to join it does civil society little good.Only recently has civil society attracted betterOnly recently has civil society attracted better--qualifiedqualifiedOnly recently has civil society attracted betterOnly recently has civil society attracted better qualified qualified people from among the graduates of top universities people from among the graduates of top universities and among the top ranks.and among the top ranks.In the past this class of young people was moreIn the past this class of young people was moreIn the past, this class of young people was more In the past, this class of young people was more attracted to the bureaucracy, the academia, business attracted to the bureaucracy, the academia, business and even the military.and even the military.


Civil SocietyCivil SocietyCivil Society . . .Civil Society . . .

The existence of such a civil society is particularly The existence of such a civil society is particularly important to Indonesia at the present stage of important to Indonesia at the present stage of democratic consolidation as clean opendemocratic consolidation as clean opendemocratic consolidation, as clean, open, democratic consolidation, as clean, open, transparent and accountable governance has yet to transparent and accountable governance has yet to be established. be established. The country needs an active, informed, selflessly The country needs an active, informed, selflessly motivated civil society to strengthen the institutions motivated civil society to strengthen the institutions of governance for checking monitoring andof governance for checking monitoring andof governance, for checking, monitoring and of governance, for checking, monitoring and restraining the exercise of power of the state, its restraining the exercise of power of the state, its institutions and office holders and holding them institutions and office holders and holding them accountable to the law and public expectations ofaccountable to the law and public expectations ofaccountable to the law and public expectations of accountable to the law and public expectations of responsible government.responsible government.


The rise of the middle classThe rise of the middle class

Economic development gave birth to the middle classEconomic development gave birth to the middle class

The rise of the middle classThe rise of the middle class

Economic development gave birth to the middle class. Economic development gave birth to the middle class. Urban middle class is a product of wider and higher Urban middle class is a product of wider and higher education and economic growth. In agrarian Indonesia education and economic growth. In agrarian Indonesia th t iddl l h d i b dth t iddl l h d i b dthe nascent middle class had grown in number and the nascent middle class had grown in number and influence with the advance of industrialization and influence with the advance of industrialization and urbanization. urbanization. They are businessmen and intellectuals, doctors, They are businessmen and intellectuals, doctors, lawyers, managers, technicians, university lecturers, lawyers, managers, technicians, university lecturers, writers, artists and journalists.writers, artists and journalists.writers, artists and journalists. writers, artists and journalists. However up until the end of the 1980s the Indonesian However up until the end of the 1980s the Indonesian middle class, or families that were able to support a middle class, or families that were able to support a middle class lifestyle was still relatively small Hencemiddle class lifestyle was still relatively small Hencemiddle class lifestyle, was still relatively small. Hence, middle class lifestyle, was still relatively small. Hence, some have called this problem the “hollow middle” in the some have called this problem the “hollow middle” in the Indonesian economic and social class structure.Indonesian economic and social class structure.


The rise of the middle classThe rise of the middle classThe rise of the middle class . . .The rise of the middle class . . .

At that stage the Indonesian middle class political attitude At that stage the Indonesian middle class political attitude g pg pwas not necessarily antiwas not necessarily anti--government; in fact until the end of government; in fact until the end of the 1980s the majority of the middle class who owed their the 1980s the majority of the middle class who owed their economic advancement to the government’s development economic advancement to the government’s development g pg pefforts believed in the government’s development creed and efforts believed in the government’s development creed and strongly favored political stability. strongly favored political stability. By the midBy the mid 1990s the Indonesian middle class had reached1990s the Indonesian middle class had reachedBy the midBy the mid--1990s the Indonesian middle class had reached 1990s the Indonesian middle class had reached the “critical mass” in number as well as in resources to play a the “critical mass” in number as well as in resources to play a significant role at political change. And they had increasingly significant role at political change. And they had increasingly b iti l f th t th i iti l db iti l f th t th i iti l dbecome critical of the government; their writings, plays and become critical of the government; their writings, plays and discourses had provided for intellectual inspiration towards discourses had provided for intellectual inspiration towards democratization. democratization. They have now become the backbone of Indonesia’s civil They have now become the backbone of Indonesia’s civil society as well as filling the growing demand for intellectual society as well as filling the growing demand for intellectual professional members of political parties.professional members of political parties.


professional members of political parties.professional members of political parties.

DecentralizationDecentralizationDecentralizationDecentralization

O f th h ll f i I d i i k i thO f th h ll f i I d i i k i thOne of the challenges facing Indonesia is keeping the One of the challenges facing Indonesia is keeping the country united.country united.The threat of separation has always plagued the countryThe threat of separation has always plagued the countryThe threat of separation has always plagued the country The threat of separation has always plagued the country since the first days of independence.since the first days of independence.One of the main grievance is income and regional One of the main grievance is income and regional g gg gdisparity. It is a complex problem and would take time disparity. It is a complex problem and would take time and effort to resolve, but at the heart of the problem and effort to resolve, but at the heart of the problem was the overly centralized government structure andwas the overly centralized government structure andwas the overly centralized government structure and was the overly centralized government structure and decision making process.decision making process.Devolvement of central authority should be the first step Devolvement of central authority should be the first step y py ptoward addressing the problem.toward addressing the problem.


DecentralizationDecentralizationDecentralization . . . Decentralization . . .

Therefore decentralization constitutes one of the Therefore decentralization constitutes one of the most important aspect of "reformasi" in Indonesia. most important aspect of "reformasi" in Indonesia. p pp pThe principles are now embedded in the The principles are now embedded in the constitution.constitution.Decentralization enhances the efficacy quality andDecentralization enhances the efficacy quality andDecentralization enhances the efficacy, quality and Decentralization enhances the efficacy, quality and legitimacy of democracy; hence decentralization is a legitimacy of democracy; hence decentralization is a necessity for democracy.necessity for democracy.It is even more so for largeIt is even more so for large——and particularly and particularly multiethnic and multiculturalmultiethnic and multicultural——countries such as countries such as Indonesia as decentralization will close the distanceIndonesia as decentralization will close the distanceIndonesia, as decentralization will close the distance Indonesia, as decentralization will close the distance between the citizens, the stakeholder, and the between the citizens, the stakeholder, and the power and the process of policy making.power and the process of policy making.


DecentralizationDecentralizationDecentralization . . . Decentralization . . .

Since 1999 Indonesia has two sets ofSince 1999 Indonesia has two sets ofSince 1999 Indonesia has two sets of Since 1999 Indonesia has two sets of decentralization laws before the amendment decentralization laws before the amendment to constitution:to constitution:to constitution: to constitution: 1)1) law No 22/1999 and Law No 25/1999 and;law No 22/1999 and Law No 25/1999 and;

2)2) after the amendment consisting of set Law No after the amendment consisting of set Law No 32/2003 and Law No 33/2003. Both set of laws 32/2003 and Law No 33/2003. Both set of laws

h d li i f h Di i dh d li i f h Di i dput the decentralization focus on the District and put the decentralization focus on the District and City level for the purpose of getting public City level for the purpose of getting public

i d d i i ki l ti d d i i ki l tservices and decision making process closer to services and decision making process closer to the people.the people.


DecentralizationDecentralization

Aft th i l l ti tt fAft th i l l ti tt f

Decentralization . . . Decentralization . . .

After the regional elections, a new pattern of After the regional elections, a new pattern of relationship between the local and central relationship between the local and central governments will emerge The locally elected leadergovernments will emerge The locally elected leadergovernments will emerge. The locally elected leader governments will emerge. The locally elected leader will consider himself to be more independent and will consider himself to be more independent and more predisposed to oppose the central government more predisposed to oppose the central government if its policies are considered to be against the if its policies are considered to be against the interests of his community.interests of his community.D t li ti i t l liti l di tD t li ti i t l liti l di tDecentralization is not merely political expedience to Decentralization is not merely political expedience to deal with rebellious regions. It has more basic value deal with rebellious regions. It has more basic value to democracy and democratic consolidation Thusto democracy and democratic consolidation Thusto democracy and democratic consolidation. Thus to democracy and democratic consolidation. Thus decentralization enhances the legitimacy and hence decentralization enhances the legitimacy and hence stability of democracy.stability of democracy.


y yy y

The Role of IslamThe Role of IslamThe Role of IslamThe Role of IslamThe threat to the unity and integrity of the country hasThe threat to the unity and integrity of the country hasThe threat to the unity and integrity of the country has The threat to the unity and integrity of the country has recently been perceived as not only to come from ethnic or recently been perceived as not only to come from ethnic or regional separatism but also from fundamental and political regional separatism but also from fundamental and political Islam Many have speculated about the political implication ofIslam Many have speculated about the political implication ofIslam. Many have speculated about the political implication of Islam. Many have speculated about the political implication of the rise of the social standing of Islam in Indonesia. the rise of the social standing of Islam in Indonesia. In actuality, however, Indonesian Islam is embedded in a In actuality, however, Indonesian Islam is embedded in a y, ,y, ,culture of tolerance that can be traced back to the history of culture of tolerance that can be traced back to the history of Islamization of the archipelago.Islamization of the archipelago.Islam originally came to Indonesia and religiously "conquered"Islam originally came to Indonesia and religiously "conquered"Islam originally came to Indonesia and religiously conquered Islam originally came to Indonesia and religiously conquered the people not through war, but through trade, marriage and the people not through war, but through trade, marriage and education.education.H th b ti f I l b th i ti i thi tH th b ti f I l b th i ti i thi tHence the absorption of Islam by the societies in this vast Hence the absorption of Islam by the societies in this vast archipelago was generally peaceful and involved little archipelago was generally peaceful and involved little coercion.coercion.


The Role of IslamThe Role of IslamThe Role of Islam . . .The Role of Islam . . .

In fact in the propagation of Islam there was aIn fact in the propagation of Islam there was aIn fact, in the propagation of Islam there was a In fact, in the propagation of Islam there was a tendency to adjust the new religion to older beliefs that tendency to adjust the new religion to older beliefs that resulted in moderate and tolerantresulted in moderate and tolerant——some may say some may say

titi ttit d th j it f I d ittit d th j it f I d isyncreticsyncretic——attitudes among the majority of Indonesian attitudes among the majority of Indonesian Muslims.Muslims.It is true that fundamentalist Islamic groups some ofIt is true that fundamentalist Islamic groups some ofIt is true that fundamentalist Islamic groups, some of It is true that fundamentalist Islamic groups, some of them militant, do exist in Indonesia, but they are them militant, do exist in Indonesia, but they are marginal and have little popular support.marginal and have little popular support.Despite the recurrence of incidents involving some Despite the recurrence of incidents involving some Islamic extremists, for many years, Indonesia, the Islamic extremists, for many years, Indonesia, the country with the largest Muslim population in the worldcountry with the largest Muslim population in the worldcountry with the largest Muslim population in the world, country with the largest Muslim population in the world, has been well known as a pluralistic society has been well known as a pluralistic society characterized by religious moderation and tolerance.characterized by religious moderation and tolerance.



Although Indonesia is a predominantly Muslim CountryAlthough Indonesia is a predominantly Muslim CountryAlthough Indonesia is a predominantly Muslim Country, Although Indonesia is a predominantly Muslim Country, Islamic political parties in Indonesia has never been able to Islamic political parties in Indonesia has never been able to attain more than 40% of the votes, since the election of 1955 attain more than 40% of the votes, since the election of 1955 up to the last election in 2004 Therefore most Indonesianup to the last election in 2004 Therefore most Indonesianup to the last election in 2004. Therefore, most Indonesian up to the last election in 2004. Therefore, most Indonesian Muslim voted for parties not based in religion.Muslim voted for parties not based in religion.The different from one election to another is the composition The different from one election to another is the composition ppof the votes garnered by the Islamic parties, which constantly of the votes garnered by the Islamic parties, which constantly changes reflecting the political mood and environment of the changes reflecting the political mood and environment of the time.time.time.time.In the, short run, however, the revival of Islamic values in the In the, short run, however, the revival of Islamic values in the minds and lives of the population, most importantly among minds and lives of the population, most importantly among the intelligentsia and the political elite and the young maythe intelligentsia and the political elite and the young maythe intelligentsia and the political elite, and the young, may the intelligentsia and the political elite, and the young, may affect, attitudes or responses to political issues that involve affect, attitudes or responses to political issues that involve Islam such as international terrorism.Islam such as international terrorism.



The September 11 act of terrorism against the US was The September 11 act of terrorism against the US was almost unanimously condemned by organized Muslims and almost unanimously condemned by organized Muslims and by the public in general.by the public in general.by the public in general.by the public in general.Except for a few very vocal fanatics, Indonesia's Muslims Except for a few very vocal fanatics, Indonesia's Muslims were outraged by with happened in New York.were outraged by with happened in New York.The feeling of outrage against terrorism that had taken theThe feeling of outrage against terrorism that had taken theThe feeling of outrage against terrorism that had taken the The feeling of outrage against terrorism that had taken the lives of innocent people was heightened when Indonesia lives of innocent people was heightened when Indonesia also became a victim of international terrorism with the also became a victim of international terrorism with the bombing in Bali on 12 October 2002 the more recentbombing in Bali on 12 October 2002 the more recentbombing in Bali on 12 October 2002, the more recent bombing in Bali on 12 October 2002, the more recent Marriot bombing in Jakarta on 5 August 2002, and the Marriot bombing in Jakarta on 5 August 2002, and the second Bali Bombing in 2005.second Bali Bombing in 2005.F I d i M li t i h d lF I d i M li t i h d lFor many Indonesian Muslims, terrorism had only For many Indonesian Muslims, terrorism had only succeeded in creating the wrong image of Islam and succeeded in creating the wrong image of Islam and Islamic values.Islamic values.


The Role of the MilitaryThe Role of the MilitaryThe Role of the MilitaryThe Role of the MilitaryObservers of Indonesia have paid much attention to the role ofObservers of Indonesia have paid much attention to the role ofObservers of Indonesia have paid much attention to the role of Observers of Indonesia have paid much attention to the role of the military in postthe military in post--New Order politics and how the military New Order politics and how the military perceive its role in democracy.perceive its role in democracy.Events surrounding the fall of Soeharto showed that the militaryEvents surrounding the fall of Soeharto showed that the militaryEvents surrounding the fall of Soeharto showed that the military Events surrounding the fall of Soeharto showed that the military had been supportive of political change. Its role was crucial in had been supportive of political change. Its role was crucial in the peaceful transition from an authoritarian regime to real the peaceful transition from an authoritarian regime to real democracydemocracydemocracy.democracy.In the political transition period, the military lent its political In the political transition period, the military lent its political weight to the institutionalization of democracy, that dismantled weight to the institutionalization of democracy, that dismantled th ld th it i t t d l d it ith d tith ld th it i t t d l d it ith d tithe old authoritarian structures and replaced it with a democratic the old authoritarian structures and replaced it with a democratic system.system.The military has shown its commitment to democracy when it The military has shown its commitment to democracy when it accepted the consensus of the polity that it should no longer accepted the consensus of the polity that it should no longer take an active role in politics and therefore no longer hold seats take an active role in politics and therefore no longer hold seats in the elective political institutions.in the elective political institutions.


pp

The Role of the MilitaryThe Role of the MilitaryThe Role of the Military . . .The Role of the Military . . .

In the postIn the post--Soeharto period, the military had been Soeharto period, the military had been steadfast in refusing to be used as an instrument to steadfast in refusing to be used as an instrument to subvert the constitution and resisted the pressure tosubvert the constitution and resisted the pressure tosubvert the constitution and resisted the pressure to subvert the constitution and resisted the pressure to reverse to authoritarianism.reverse to authoritarianism.Although many retired senior officers were against Although many retired senior officers were against g y gg y gchanging the constitution, the serving military changing the constitution, the serving military establishment fully supported the amendments that have establishment fully supported the amendments that have become the foundation for a stronger and more stablebecome the foundation for a stronger and more stablebecome the foundation for a stronger and more stable become the foundation for a stronger and more stable democracy.democracy.Therefore it is safe to say that at present the military is Therefore it is safe to say that at present the military is y p yy p ynot a threatnot a threat--but an asset to Indonesia's democracy.but an asset to Indonesia's democracy.


VII. ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE


After the dramatic economic, political and social After the dramatic economic, political and social upheavals at the end of the 1990s Indonesia hasupheavals at the end of the 1990s Indonesia hasupheavals at the end of the 1990s, Indonesia has upheavals at the end of the 1990s, Indonesia has started to regain its footing. The country has largely started to regain its footing. The country has largely recovered from the economic crisis that threw millions ofrecovered from the economic crisis that threw millions ofrecovered from the economic crisis that threw millions of recovered from the economic crisis that threw millions of its citizens back into poverty in 1998 and saw Indonesia its citizens back into poverty in 1998 and saw Indonesia regress to lowregress to low--income statusincome statusregress to lowregress to low--income status. income status.

Recently with GNP per capita of Recently with GNP per capita of $1280$1280 (2005), it has (2005), it has once again become one of the o ld's eme gent middleonce again become one of the o ld's eme gent middleonce again become one of the world's emergent middleonce again become one of the world's emergent middle--income countries. Poverty levels that had increased by income countries. Poverty levels that had increased by

thi d d i th i i b k tthi d d i th i i b k tover oneover one--third during the crisis are now back to prethird during the crisis are now back to pre--crisis levels. crisis levels.


Poverty in Indonesia fell rapidly until the 1990s, and has declined again since the crisis


Macroeconomic UpdateMacroeconomic Updatepp

Indonesia: Economic Growth 1998-2006

66.5 6.5

0.9

4.9

3.84.4

4.9 5.15.6 5.6

1.2

5.1 4.9 5.25.7 6

0

5

-5

01998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Perc

ent p

.a

-10

-13.8-14.1-15

GDP Non Oil and Gass


Positive Growth TrajectoryPositive Growth TrajectoryPositive Growth TrajectoryPositive Growth Trajectory

E i t d d E i t d d

Sustained economic growth despite difficult environment

Economy is on a steady upward Economy is on a steady upward trend. Indonesia’s performance trend. Indonesia’s performance is very much comparable in the is very much comparable in the region region 5 6 %

> 7%6 - 7 %

region region

Over the medium term, this Over the medium term, this acceleration process should acceleration process should

4 %

5.25 %5 - 6 %

continue assuming that all continue assuming that all reform programs are reform programs are implemented. implemented.

4 %

The Indonesia’s economy is still The Indonesia’s economy is still fragile and sensitive to external fragile and sensitive to external shocks (financial turbulence, shocks (financial turbulence, 2001-2003 2004-2005 2006 2007 - 2009 2010 -


Source: CBS .high oil price, etc) high oil price, etc)

2001-2003 2004-2005 2006 2007 - 2009 2010 beyond

VIII. DOES CULTURE MATTER?VIII. DOES CULTURE MATTER?


Does culture matter?Does culture matter?Does culture matter? . . .Does culture matter? . . .

All th di i d b d thAll th di i d b d thAll the discussions on democracy are based on the All the discussions on democracy are based on the works of western scholars. Is democracy a works of western scholars. Is democracy a monopoly of the west? Are there no cultural variantsmonopoly of the west? Are there no cultural variantsmonopoly of the west? Are there no cultural variants monopoly of the west? Are there no cultural variants of democracy? On the other hand, is culture a of democracy? On the other hand, is culture a legitimate (or genuine) justification or merely an legitimate (or genuine) justification or merely an excuse (or apology) for authoritarianism?excuse (or apology) for authoritarianism?Indonesia, under both Sukarno and Soeharto Indonesia, under both Sukarno and Soeharto i i t d th t lt i d di i t d th t lt i d d thth di ti tidi ti tiinsisted that culture was indeed insisted that culture was indeed the the distinctive distinctive variable of any political system, and launched variable of any political system, and launched concepts for the political systems that wouldconcepts for the political systems that wouldconcepts for the political systems that would concepts for the political systems that would respond best to what they claimed to be the intrinsic respond best to what they claimed to be the intrinsic values characterizing Indonesia’s society.values characterizing Indonesia’s society.


g yg y

Does culture matter?Does culture matter?

L K Y th f P i Mi i t f SiL K Y th f P i Mi i t f Si

Does culture matter? . . .Does culture matter? . . .

Lee Kwan Yew, the former Prime Minister of Singapore, Lee Kwan Yew, the former Prime Minister of Singapore, the founding father of the country and its political the founding father of the country and its political architect, has been making a very strong case about the architect, has been making a very strong case about the a c tect, as bee a g a e y st o g case about t ea c tect, as bee a g a e y st o g case about t eAsian values as an important element in the political Asian values as an important element in the political system of the East Asian countries. He believes that system of the East Asian countries. He believes that adversarial politics is out of place in a multiracial societyadversarial politics is out of place in a multiracial societyadversarial politics is out of place in a multiracial society adversarial politics is out of place in a multiracial society such as Singapore.such as Singapore.Many scholarly works have been devoted on the subjectMany scholarly works have been devoted on the subjectMany scholarly works have been devoted on the subject Many scholarly works have been devoted on the subject of cultural paradoxes in democracy; most concluded that of cultural paradoxes in democracy; most concluded that indeed culture exerts a certain influence on how indeed culture exerts a certain influence on how democracy is adapted among countries (see Alagappademocracy is adapted among countries (see Alagappademocracy is adapted among countries (see Alagappa, democracy is adapted among countries (see Alagappa, 1996; Fukuyama, 1996; Lipset, 1996; Huntington, 1996: 1996; Fukuyama, 1996; Lipset, 1996; Huntington, 1996: Inglehart, 2000; Sen, 2001).Inglehart, 2000; Sen, 2001).



I th f A i t i th h b hI th f A i t i th h b hIn the case of Asian countries there has been much In the case of Asian countries there has been much serious discourse about Asian values being the serious discourse about Asian values being the determinant factor in the remarkable economicdeterminant factor in the remarkable economicdeterminant factor in the remarkable economic determinant factor in the remarkable economic achievements of the East Asian countries. But in the achievements of the East Asian countries. But in the wake of the economic crisis, the argument for the wake of the economic crisis, the argument for the Asian values has somewhat lost its credence.Asian values has somewhat lost its credence.The fact that countries in Asia have abandoned The fact that countries in Asia have abandoned tt hi t i l t d dtt hi t i l t d dattaching certain values to democracy and attaching certain values to democracy and

embraced the western style of democracy, such as embraced the western style of democracy, such as the Philippines Korea Thailand Taiwan and mostthe Philippines Korea Thailand Taiwan and mostthe Philippines, Korea, Thailand, Taiwan and most the Philippines, Korea, Thailand, Taiwan and most recently Indonesia have further muted the cultural recently Indonesia have further muted the cultural argument.argument.


gg


However culture does matterHowever culture does matterAlthough there are certain intrinsic values of democracy Although there are certain intrinsic values of democracy that are universal in nature without which the termthat are universal in nature without which the termthat are universal in nature, without which the term that are universal in nature, without which the term democracy does not apply, cultural values are still democracy does not apply, cultural values are still regarded as important variables and providing more than regarded as important variables and providing more than g p p gg p p gjust local color for democracy.just local color for democracy.As Inglehart (2000: 96) says that “in the long run, As Inglehart (2000: 96) says that “in the long run, democracy is not attained simply by making institutionaldemocracy is not attained simply by making institutionaldemocracy is not attained simply by making institutional democracy is not attained simply by making institutional changes or through elite level maneuvering. Its survival changes or through elite level maneuvering. Its survival also depends on the values and beliefs of ordinary also depends on the values and beliefs of ordinary p yp ycitizen”. citizen”.


IX. INDONESIA AND THE WORLD


Indonesia and the worldIndonesia and the world

Indonesia has always been an active member ofIndonesia has always been an active member of

Indonesia and the world . . .Indonesia and the world . . .

Indonesia has always been an active member of Indonesia has always been an active member of the international community.the international community.B i (i t f l ti )B i (i t f l ti )Being (in term of population): Being (in term of population):

the fourth largest;the fourth largest;the largest Muslim country;the largest Muslim country;the third largest democracy;the third largest democracy;the third largest market economy in the world;the third largest market economy in the world;the largest in ASEAN;the largest in ASEAN;

calls for certain involvement, responsibility and calls for certain involvement, responsibility and influence in the world affairs.influence in the world affairs.


Indonesia and the worldIndonesia and the worldIndonesia and the world . . .Indonesia and the world . . .

Indonesia has been the host and one of Indonesia has been the host and one of initiators of many international or regional initiators of many international or regional undertakings, such as:undertakings, such as:

AA: Bandung Conference (1955);AA: Bandung Conference (1955);APEC: Bogor Declaration (1994);APEC: Bogor Declaration (1994);Bali Conference on Climate Change (2007). Bali Conference on Climate Change (2007).

Indonesia is currently a member of the UN Indonesia is currently a member of the UN Security Council.Security Council.yyIndonesia has contributed to UN peace keeping Indonesia has contributed to UN peace keeping missions since 1950’s.missions since 1950’s.


missions since 1950 s.missions since 1950 s.


Indonesia is actively participating in regional affair:Indonesia is actively participating in regional affair:ASEANASEANSouth East Asia CommunitySouth East Asia CommunityAPECAPEC

While keeping close ties with western countries, While keeping close ties with western countries, Indonesia maintains good relationship with Indonesia maintains good relationship with countries that are deemed to be “adversaries” ofcountries that are deemed to be “adversaries” ofcountries, that are deemed to be adversaries of countries, that are deemed to be adversaries of the west, such as:the west, such as:

IranIranIranIranNorth KoreaNorth Korea(Venezuela)(Venezuela)


( )( )


In the Middle Eastern affairs, Indonesia projects In the Middle Eastern affairs, Indonesia projects a moderate stance although it always fullya moderate stance although it always fullya moderate stance, although it always fully a moderate stance, although it always fully supports the rights and the struggle of the supports the rights and the struggle of the Palestinian peoplePalestinian peoplePalestinian people.Palestinian people.Indonesia can play a significant roleIndonesia can play a significant role——and is in a and is in a

d itid iti t t ib t t th tt i tt t ib t t th tt i tgood positiongood position——to contribute to the attainment to contribute to the attainment of world peace. of world peace.


X. CONCLUSIONX. CONCLUSION


ConclusionConclusionIn conclusion, much has been achieved, but even more In conclusion, much has been achieved, but even more

i t b d Th t f h b t li t b d Th t f h b t l

Conclusion . . .Conclusion . . .

remains to be done. The past few years have been extremely remains to be done. The past few years have been extremely eventful for Indonesia. eventful for Indonesia. Following the maelstrom of political, economic and social Following the maelstrom of political, economic and social g p ,g p ,crises, economic stability has now returned though the crises, economic stability has now returned though the economy has not returned to the heady levels of the boom economy has not returned to the heady levels of the boom years.years.years. years. Most significantly of all, the country is charting new political Most significantly of all, the country is charting new political waters with a comprehensively amended constitution a waters with a comprehensively amended constitution a process that again marks a dramatic break from the pastprocess that again marks a dramatic break from the pastprocess that again marks a dramatic break from the past.process that again marks a dramatic break from the past.To overcome the challenges ahead, whether from political To overcome the challenges ahead, whether from political corruption, violent communal strife and terrorism in the name corruption, violent communal strife and terrorism in the name p ,p ,of God or external economic shocks, the new tools of of God or external economic shocks, the new tools of government and democratic governance will face their government and democratic governance will face their definitive test.definitive test.


definitive test.definitive test.

ConclusionConclusion

What is significant about Indonesia’s democracy that itWhat is significant about Indonesia’s democracy that it


What is significant about Indonesia s democracy, that it What is significant about Indonesia s democracy, that it is “homegrown”. is “homegrown”. Indonesia’s are adapting democratic models and values Indonesia’s are adapting democratic models and values do es a s a e adap g de o a ode s a d a uesdo es a s a e adap g de o a ode s a d a uesthat are universal in nature, but the democratization that are universal in nature, but the democratization process in Indonesia had been initiated and carried out process in Indonesia had been initiated and carried out by political forces within the countryby political forces within the countryby political forces within the country.by political forces within the country.In certain stages of process such as in implementing the In certain stages of process such as in implementing the general election, Indonesia receives foreign assistancegeneral election, Indonesia receives foreign assistancegeneral election, Indonesia receives foreign assistance general election, Indonesia receives foreign assistance such as in observations of the balloting, or such as in such as in observations of the balloting, or such as in Aceh, in foreign facilitation in peace negotiation. But in Aceh, in foreign facilitation in peace negotiation. But in the case of Indonesia democracy was not imposed bythe case of Indonesia democracy was not imposed bythe case of Indonesia democracy was not imposed by the case of Indonesia democracy was not imposed by foreign powers.foreign powers.


ConclusionConclusion

Indonesia still needs to strength its democratic foundations Indonesia still needs to strength its democratic foundations


and practices, which greater executive accountability to the and practices, which greater executive accountability to the law, to other branches of government, and to the public; a law, to other branches of government, and to the public; a reduction in the barriers to political participation and reduction in the barriers to political participation and

ffmobilization by marginal groups; decentralization of power to mobilization by marginal groups; decentralization of power to facilitate broader political access and accountability; vigorous facilitate broader political access and accountability; vigorous independent action by civil society; and more effective independent action by civil society; and more effective

f h l l d l h ff h l l d l h fprotection for the political and civil rights of citizens. protection for the political and civil rights of citizens. The fledging democracy still faces serious challenges, such The fledging democracy still faces serious challenges, such political corruption, the rule of law, as well as accelerating its political corruption, the rule of law, as well as accelerating its p p , , gp p , , geconomic reform and improving its governance to sustain economic reform and improving its governance to sustain growth and poverty reduction. However the course of the growth and poverty reduction. However the course of the country is heading into the right direction.country is heading into the right direction.The Indonesian experience, its successes and failures maybe The Indonesian experience, its successes and failures maybe worthy of some lessons to other, especially those who at the worthy of some lessons to other, especially those who at the stage of or entering the same “zone of transition”.stage of or entering the same “zone of transition”.


Thank youThank youyy


News & Politics

Democracy: the Indonesian Experience