PsychologyUnit: Memory and Learning

By Timothy D. Bradley, Jr.

Memory

• EQ 1: How do humans encode, store, and retrieve information from memory?• EQ 2: How can humans enhance memory?

EncodingStorageRetrievalSensory memorySemantic memory

Episodic MemoryProcedural MemoryRecallRecognition

Vocabulary

MemoryDefinition: The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.

Take out a piece of paper…..

•Name the seven dwarves…..

Now name them…..

Was it easy or hard?• It depends on

several things….• If you like Disney

movies?• When was the last

time you have seen the movie?• Are you having

difficulty concentrating?

Explicit Memories• the conscious, intentional recollection of previous

experiences and information. • People use explicit memory throughout the day,

such as remembering the time of an appointment or recollecting an event from years ago.• Episodic Memories – Specific Life Events

• Semantic Memories – Facts, Words, Concepts

Implicit Memories• a type of memory in which previous experiences aid

in the performance of a task without conscious awareness of these previous experiences• Procedural Memories• Conditioned Memories

The Memory ProcessThree step process….

1. Encoding: The processing of information into the memory system.

2. Storage: The retention of encoded material over time.

3. Retrieval: The process of getting the information out of memory storage.

Encoding

• Encoding is translating sensory information into a form in which it can be stored.• Visual coding enables information to be stored as

pictures. • Acoustic coding enables information to be stored • as sounds.• Semantic coding enables information to be stored as

meanings.

Storage

• Storage is the maintenance of encoded information over time.

• Storage is achieved through two types of rehearsal: –Maintenance rehearsal uses repetition to aid storage.– Elaborative rehearsal aids storage by fitting new information

into an organizational system (giving meaning).– Elaborative rehearsal is generally more secure than

maintenance rehearsal.

Retrieval• Retrieval is locating stored information and returning

it to conscious thought.• context-dependent: retrieved more readily when the

person is in a similar situation or environment as when the information was learned.• state-dependent: retrieved more readily when the

person is in a similar emotional state as when the information was learned.–Mood Congruence Effect

Recall Versus Recognition

Recall

• you must retrieve the information from your memory • fill-in-the blank or

essay tests

Recognition

• you must identify the target from possible targets• multiple-choice

tests

Memory Activity1 2 3 4 5

Nine Swap Cell Ring Lust

Plugs Lamp Apple Table Sway

Army Bank Fire Hold Worm

Clock Horse Color Baby Sword

Desk Hold Find Bird Rock

Assignment: Read for Understanding

• Read page 197 “The Primacy and Recency Effect”• Complete the Graphic Organizer under Serial Position

Effect.

Recalling Information• Serial Positioning Effect

• Primacy Effect

• Recency Effect

Learning Objectives• EQ 1: How do humans encode, store, and retrieve

information from memory?• EQ 2: How can humans enhance memory?

EncodingStorageRetrievalSensory memoryShort Term Memory

Long Term MemoryIconic MemoryMaintenance RehearsalElaborative RehearsalForgetting

Vocabulary

Three Box Model of Memory

Sensory Memory• A split second

holding tank for ALL sensory information

• Iconic Memory

• Echoic Memory

Short Term Memory• The stuff we encode

from the sensory goes to STM.• Events are encoded

visually, acoustically or semantically.• Holds about 7 +/- 2

items for about 20 seconds.• We recall digits

better than letters.Short Term Memory Activity

Interference Theory

• Retroactive Interference: new information blocks out old information.

Examples???

• Proactive Interference: old information blocks out new information.

Examples???

Ways to remember things in STM…so they go to LTM

• Chunking: Organizing items into familiar, manageable units.• Mnemonic devices• Storage is achieved through two types of

rehearsal• Maintenance rehearsal uses repetition to aid

storage.• Elaborative rehearsal aids storage by fitting new

information into an organizational system (giving meaning).• Elaborative rehearsal is generally more secure than

maintenance rehearsal.

1-4-9-2-1-7-7-6-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1

"Mary Very Easily Makes Jam Saturday Unless No Plums."

Long Term Memory• Unlimited

storehouse of information.• Explicit

(declarative) memories• Implicit (non-

declarative) memories

Three Box Model of Memory

Take out a piece of paper and name all the Presidents…

Spacing Effect

• DO NOT CRAM!!!!!!!!!!!!

• Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve

Forgetting

Storing MemoriesLong Term-Potentiation• long-lasting enhancement

in signal transmission between two neurons that results from stimulating them synchronously.• In other words…they learn

to fire together and get better at it…creating a memory.

Constructive Memory• Memories are not always what they seem.• Elizabeth Loftus• A constructed memory is a created

memory.• Misinformation effect

Classical Conditioning• EQ: How is behavior affected by classical and

operant conditioning?

• Learning• Unconditioned• Conditioned• Stimulus• Response• Generalization

• Extinction• Spontaneous Recovery• Higher-Order

Conditioning• Taste Aversion

Vocabulary

Learning The modification through experience of preexisting behavior and understanding

Habituation The process of adapting to stimuli that do not change.

Dishabituation The reappearance of your original response when a stimulus changes

Sensitization Increase in responsiveness to a stimuli

Define the Terms

Unconditioned Stimuli

Unconditioned Response

Neutral Stimuli

Conditioned Stimuli

Conditioned Response

Pavlov’s Experiment(Identify the Parts)

Unconditioned Stimuli

Unconditioned Response

Neutral Stimuli

Conditioned Stimuli

Conditioned Response

Pavlov’s Dog

Watson’s Experiment (Identify the Parts)

Unconditioned Stimuli

Unconditioned Response

Neutral Stimuli

Conditioned Stimuli

Conditioned Response

Generalization and Discrimination• Stimulus Generalization: A phenomenon in which a conditioned

response is elicited by stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus

• Stimulus Discrimination: A process through which individuals learn to differentiate among similar stimuli and respond appropriately to each one

In pairs, complete CTA-Steps in Classical Cond.

Unconditioned Stimuli

Unconditioned Response

Neutral Stimuli

Conditioned Stimuli

Conditioned Response

Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery

Garcia and Koelling Study

NS UCS Learned (CR)

Food, Light, & Clicker Shock Avoid Light (CS) and Clicker (CS)

Food, Light, & Clicker Radiation (nausea) Avoid Food (CS)

• Biological preparedness: tendency of animals to learn certain associations, such as taste and nausea with only a few pairings due to the survival value of the learning

• Disproved Pavlov’s ideas concerning one trial learning & equipotentiality.

Learned Taste Aversions

• When it comes to food being paired with sickness, the conditioning is incredible strong.

• Even when food and sickness are hours apart.

• Food must be salient (noticeable.)

Are there any foods that you cannot eat or could not eat at one time due to food poisoning or some other sickness that you had at the time?

Operant Conditioning

• EQ: How is behavior affected by classical and operant conditioning?

• Positive Reinforcement• Negative Reinforcement• Punishment• Discrimination• Shaping

• Chaining• Fixed Ratio• Variable Ratio• Fixed Interval• Variable Interval

Vocabulary

Edward Thorndike’s Puzzle Box

Law of Effect: If an action is followed by a pleasurable consequence , it will be repeated, and if followed by an unpleasant consequence, it will not be repeated.

Instrumental Conditioning: Responses are strengthened when they are instrumental in producing a reward

B.F. Skinner

Operant Conditioning: The focus is on the effect of consequences on voluntary (operant) behavior.

Reinforcement

Primary Reinforcer

Secondary Reinforcer(Token Economy)

Operant Conditionin

g

Reinforcement and Punishment

Find the Mistake

Operant Conditioning

• EQ: How is behavior affected by classical and operant conditioning?

• Positive Reinforcement• Negative Reinforcement• Punishment• Discrimination• Shaping

• Chaining• Fixed Ratio• Variable Ratio• Fixed Interval• Variable Interval

Vocabulary

Partial Reinforcement Schedule

FIXED VARIABLE

RATIO(# of Occurrences)

INTERVAL(Passage of Time)

Partial Reinforcement Schedule

Shaping and Chaining

• Shaping: the reinforcement of successive approximation (steps) to teach a specific behavior

• Chaining: Linking two learned behaviors together in a specific order.

Operant Conditioning at Work

Cognitive Factors in Learning• EQ: How is behavior affected by cognitive

learning? • EQ: What impact does the cognitive process have

on learning?

• Latent learning• Cognitive Map • (Mental Map)• Insight• Learned Helplessness

• Observational Learning• Albert Bandura• Edward Tolman• Wolfgang Kohler• Martin Seligman

Vocabulary

Activator

Other that through classical and operant conditioning, how else does one learn?

Cognitive Maps and Latent Learning• Edward Tolman’s Maze Study• Latent Learning: learning that remains hidden until its

application becomes useful• Challenged Skinner’s Theory (How?)• Cognitive/Mental Maps: Mental representations people

rely on to understand complex patters.• Examples???

Kohler’s Insight Learning

• How were the chimpanzees able to demonstrate insight?• Insight: a sudden

“coming together” of all elements of a problem in a kin of “aha” moment• Example of insight

learning

Cognitive Differences: Humans and Chimpanzees

According to the video, how does the learning behavior differ between human children and chimpanzees?

Learned Helplessness

• Martin Seligman’s (founder of positive psychology)• Dog Study: Original intent was to study escape or

avoidance learning• Related it to Depression

Definition: Failure to continue exerting effort for an outcome because all previous attempts have failed

Albert Bandura and Observational Learning

Observational Learning: learning new behavior by watching a model perform that behaviorModeled: imitated the behavior that was observed

Study for the Learning and Memory Exam

Lesson Activator

Any questions prior to the Learning and Memory Exam?