Psychology of MCMemory

Memory

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gqkQKZYDImM

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1w9ulhUrvZc

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4nNh3wAqzjM

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rJkdTXYhKXo

Memory- Ability of the CNS to store and use information about previous

experiences.

- Phases: - coding (encoding)- Storage (retention)- Retrieval (recall or recallection) - calling back the stored

information in response to some cue for use in a process or activity

Memory

Encoding

Information is stored to memory in various form – visual, acoustic, semantic.

Most benefitial: process experience using as much senses as possible – increased probability ot permanent encoding.

Example: small kids have the ability of eidetic image (image stored to memory) much better visual form (pexeso memory game).

Memory

Learning curve Shows improvement of learning (performance) or reduction of errors during learning process (or both) after repetitions. It shows that the beginning of learning process is slow then there is a steep acceleration of learning process and at the end the increments are small again.Placebo effect

Memory

Storage - retentionTo support retention the information about be organized in a logical whole. We can easily recall and reproduce information that are important for us. The importance is based on our motivation, personnal needs or connection to strong emotion.

Lack of attention - Attention plays a key role in storing information into long-term memory; without proper attention, the information might not be stored, making it impossible to be retrieved later.

Most benefitial: systematic, purposeful learning, connection with examples, practical training. Mechanic learning – short term, the info disappears soon.

Memory

Forgetting

Forgetting – apparent loss of information already encoded and stored in an individual's long term memory. It is a spontaneous or gradual process in which old memories are unable to be recalled from memory storage

Many different factors influence the actual process of forgetting. An example of one of these factors could be the amount of time the new information is stored in the memory. Events involved with forgetting can happen either before or after the actual memory process. The amount of time the information is stored in the memory, depending on the minutes hours or even days, can increase or decrease depending on how well the information is encoded. Studies show that retention improves the increased rehearsal. This improvement occurs because rehearsal helps to transfer information into long term memory.

Memory

Forgetting

Most people remember: 10 % out of what they read, 20 % out of what they hear, 30 % out of what they see, 50 % out of what they hear and see, 70 % out of what they say, 90 % out of what they do.

Memory

Herman Ebbinghaus – 1885 – research of processes of memory loss.

Hermann Ebbinghaus ran a limited, incomplete study on himself and published his hypothesis in 1885 as Über das Gedächtnis (later translated into English as Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology). Ebbinghaus studied the memorisation of nonsense syllables, such as "WID" and "ZOF" by repeatedly testing himself after various time periods and recording the results. He plotted these results on a graph creating what is now known as the "forgetting curve".

From his discovery regarding the "forgetting curve", Ebbinghaus came up with the effects of "overlearning". Essentially, if you practiced something more than what is usually necessary to memorize it, you would have effectively achieved overlearning. Overlearning ensures that information is more impervious to being lost or forgotten, and the forgetting curve for this overlearned material is shallower

Memory

Ebbinghaus hypothesized that the speed of forgetting depends on a number of factors such as the difficulty of the learned material (e.g. how meaningful it is), its representation and physiological factors such as stress and sleep. He further hypothesized that the basal forgetting rate differs little between individuals. He concluded that the difference in performance (e.g. at school) can be explained by mnemonic representation skills.

He went on to hypothesize that basic training in mnemonic techniques can help overcome those differences in part. He asserted that the best methods for increasing the strength of memory are:• better memory representation (e.g. with mnemonic techniques)• repetition based on active recall

Memory

His premise was that each repetition in learning increases the optimum interval before the next repetition is needed (for near-perfect retention, initial repetitions may need to be made within days, but later they can be made after years).

Later research suggested that, other than the two factors Ebbinghaus proposed, higher original learning would also produce slower forgetting

Ebbinghaus forgetting curve: we forget most within first hours after learning. The amount of forgotten information after 5 days and a month does not differ much.

Memory

Forgetting curve X axis – elapsed time since learning, Y axis - how much you remember from the total amount. We forget most during the first hour. To remember what you learn, you should recap it after an hour, than the next day and in a week. If you really have to store it permanently you should repeat it again in a month.

Memory

Memory

Ebbinghaus is also credited with discovering an optical illusion now known after its discoverer—the Ebbinghaus illusion, which is an illusion of relative size perception. In the best-known version of this illusion, two circles of identical size are placed near to each other and one is surrounded by large circles while the other is surrounded by small circles; the first central circle then appears smaller than the second central circle. This illusion is now used extensively in research in cognitive psychology, to find out more about the various perception pathways in our brain.

Memory experiment of Ebbinghaus

1 2 3 4 5 6 8 905

101520253035404550

Řada 1

Reduced number of repetitions

Memory

Retrieval

There are three main types of recall: • free recall• cued recall, and • serial recall.

Memory

Free recall

process in which a person is given a list of items to remember and then is tested by being asked to recall them in any order.

Free recall often displays evidence of primacy and recency effects.

Primacy effects - when the person recalls items presented at the beginning of the list earlier and more often. The recency effect - when the person recalls items presented at the end of the list earlier and more often.

Memory

Cued recall

Cues act as guides to what the person is supposed to remember. A cue can be virtually anything that may act as a reminder, e.g. a smell, song, color, place etc.

In contrast to free recall, the subject is prompted to remember a certain item on the list or remember the list in a certain order. Cued recall also plays into free recall because when cues are provided to a subject, they will remember items on the list that they did not originally recall without a cue.

Memory

Serial recall- ability to recall items or events in the order in which they occurred.

The ability of humans to store items in memory and recall them is important to the use of language.

- Serial-order also helps us remember the order of events in our lives, our autobiographical memories. Our memory of our past appears to exist on a continuum on which more recent events are more easily remembered in order.

Memory

Interference

One of the factors that influence retrieving.

Proactive interferenceProactive interference is the "forgetting due to interference from the traces of events or learning that occurred prior to the materials to be remembered.„Proactive interference occurs when in any given context, past memories inhibit an individual’s full potential to retain new memories.

Memory

Interference

Retroactive interference

Retroactive interference (RI) is a phenomenon that occurs when newly learned information interferes with and impedes the recall of previously learned information.

If compared to proactive interference, studies show that Retroactive interference can have larger effects because of the fact that there is not only competition involved, but also unlearning.

Memory

Plate number of a new car

Types of memorya) Based on the time the information is remembered• Sensoric• Short term• Mid-term• Long term

Memory

b) Based on how the information is stored

• Visual• Acoustic• Semantic (meaining of information)

Memory

c) How we store info• Mechanical – word by word• Logical – context, relations between subject, events

Memory

Senzory memory

Sensory memory holds sensory information for a few seconds or less after an item is perceived. The ability to look at an item, and remember what it looked like with just a second of observation, or memorisation, is an example of sensory memory. It is out of cognitive control and is an automatic response. This type of memory cannot be prolonged via rehearsal.

There are three types of sensory memories.

• Iconic memory is a fast decaying store of visual information, a type of sensory memory that briefly stores an image which has been perceived for a small duration.

• Echoic memory is a fast decaying store of auditory information, another type of sensory memory that briefly stores sounds that have been perceived for short durations.

• Haptic memory is a type of sensory memory that represents a database for touch stimuli.

Memory

Short term memory (working memory)

Short-term memory allows recall for a period of several seconds to a minute without rehearsal. Its capacity is also very limited

The store of short-term memory was 7±2 items, some modern estimates of the capacity of short-term memory are lower, typically of the order of 4–5 items

Memory capacity can be increased through a process called chunking.

A man just beginning to learn radio-telegraphic code hears each dit and dah as a separate chunk. Soon he is able to organize these sounds into letters and then he can deal with the letters as chunks. Then the letters organize themselves as words, which are still larger chunks, and he begins to hear whole phrases

Memory

Short term memory (working memory)

For example, in recalling a ten-digit telephone number, a person could chunk the digits into three groups: first, the area code (such as 123), then a three-digit chunk (456) and lastly a four-digit chunk (7890). This method of remembering telephone numbers is far more effective than attempting to remember a string of 10 digits; this is because we are able to chunk the information into meaningful groups of numbers. This may be reflected in some countries in the tendency to display telephone numbers as several chunks of two to four numbers.

Memory

Short-term memory

Short-term memory is believed to rely mostly on an acoustic code for storing information, and to a lesser extent a visual code.

1974 - the general concept of short term memory was replaced with an active maintenance of information in the short term storage.

In this model, working memory consists of three basic stores: the central executive, the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad.

Memory

Memory

Memory

Phonological loopAn auditory verbal information is assumed to enter automatically into the phonological store. Visually presented language can be transformed into phonological code by silent articulation and thereby be encoded into the phonological store. This transformation is facilitated by the articulatory control process. The phonological store acts as an "inner ear", remembering speech sounds in their temporal order, whilst the articulatory process acts as an "inner voice" and repeats the series of words (or other speech elements) on a loop to prevent them from decaying. The phonological loop may play a key role in the acquisition of vocabulary, particularly in the early childhood years. It may also be vital for learning a second language.

Memory

Visuospatial sketchpadThe visuospatial sketchpad is assumed to hold information about what we see. It is used in the temporary storage and manipulation of spatial and visual information, such as remembering shapes and colours, or the location or speed of objects in space. It is also involved in tasks which involve planning of spatial movements, like planning one's way through a complex building. The visuospatial sketchpad can be divided into separate visual, spatial and possibly kinaesthetic (movement) components. It is principally represented within the right hemisphere of the brain.

Memory

Central executiveThe central executive is a flexible system responsible for the control and regulation of cognitive processes. It has the following functions:• binding information from a number of sources into coherent

episodes• coordination of the slave systems• shifting between tasks or retrieval strategies• selective attention and inhibitionIt can be thought of as a supervisory system that controls cognitive processes and intervenes when they go astray.

Memory

Long term memory

• Relativelly passiv part of memory, unconscious• Hypothetically unlimited capacity• Stores important experiences we need to perform activities, tu

survive.

For example, given a random seven-digit number we may remember it for only a few seconds before forgetting, suggesting it was stored in our short-term memory. On the other hand, we can remember telephone numbers for many years through repetition; this information is said to be stored in long-term memory.

Memory

Long term memory

We easily remember logical information or experiences with emotions (those we retrieve easily, too). Such information is considered important by our memory and stores them long term.

Long-term memory: from 4 years of age

Memory

Long term memory

Declarative memory requires conscious recall, in that some conscious process must call back the information. It is sometimes called explicit memory, since it consists of information that is explicitly stored and retrieved.Declarative memory can be further sub-divided into • Semantic memory, which concerns facts taken independent of

context (Pythagoras rule);• Episodic memory, which concerns information specific to a

particular context, such as a time and place. • Semantic memory allows the encoding of abstract knowledge

about the world, such as "Paris is the capital of France". • Autobiographical memory - memory for particular events within

one's own life - is generally viewed as either equivalent to, or a subset of, episodic memory.

• Visual memory is part of memory preserving some characteristics of our senses pertaining to visual experience. One is able to place in memory information that resembles objects, places, animals or people in sort of a mental image.

Memory

Long term memory

Procedural memory (or implicit memory) is not based on the conscious recall of information, but on implicit learning. Procedural memory is primarily employed in learning motor skills and should be considered a subset of implicit memory. It is revealed when one does better in a given task due only to repetition - no new explicit memories have been formed, but one is unconsciously accessing aspects of those previous experiences.A characteristic of procedural memory is that the things that are remembered are automatically translated into actions, and thus sometimes difficult to describe. Some examples of procedural memory are the ability to ride a bike or tie shoelaces.

Memory

Long-term memory

Retrieval of information influenced by :

• External situation /environment/

• Internal context (mood, emotion). Retrieval is easier when we are in the same environment or emotional state as we were during encoding.

Memory

Short term memory Long term memory

Repetition, rehearsal

Loss

Memory

Mid-term memory

Stores information for about 20 minutes, in case of rehearsal, we may move the info to long-term memory.

b) Based on how the information is stored

• Visual• Acoustic• Semantic (meaining of information)

Memory

Memory

Visual memory

Visual memory is a form of memory which preserves some characteristics of our senses pertaining to visual experience. We are able to place in memory visual information which resembles objects, places, animals or people in a mental image. The experience of visual memory is also referred to as the mind's eye through which we can retrieve from our memory a mental image of original objects, places, animals or people. Visual memory is one of several cognitive systems, which are all interconnected parts that combine to form the human memory.

Text in the book,

Memory

Acoustic memory

Helps us to remember melodies, words, sentences – thanks to that we easily memorize poems, roles, foreign languages.

Memory

Spatial memorySpatial memory is a person’s knowledge of the space around them, and their whereabouts in it. It also encompasses all memories of areas and places, and how to get to and from them. Spatial memory is distinct from object memory and involves different parts of the brain. However many times both types of memory are used together, such as when trying to remember where you put a lost object.

Spatial memory is always being used whenever a person is moving any part of their body.

c) How we store :

• Mechanically – word by word• Logically

Memory

Memory

Logical memory – we remember logical context. Thanks to that we can induce, derive …. Usually this type of memory is selective – biological vs. Social science

Mechanical memory - we remember even if we do not understand. Mentally handicapped people sometimes have fhenomenal mechanic memory

Memory

• Logical memory: the efficiency of mechanical memory is reduced with age, the logical improves (learning languages when young)

Sleeping – necessity, brain needs thaz to consolidate (integrate the new into existing schemes)

Učení a zapomínání

• Test 2

Memory

Impact of emotions on memory

• We tend to remember more the things that evoke strong emotions

Memory

Memory

Impact of repetitions on memory

• We tend to remember more the information that we rehearsed/repeated several times• The repetition has to be spread over a certain period (better then learning and rehearsal in a short period of time)

Memory

Marketing

The advertisement has to evoke emotions, thanks to that people will remember it more.

The second goal is to remember the advertisement – it relates to frequency (how often we see it).

The advertisement however has to also call for action (makes us to buy) – AIDA

Memory

Lenght of advertisement

The longer the ad is the more time the brain has to absorb the information. Thus we better remember it.

Frequency

The more frequently we see the ad the more we remember it.

Memory

Memory test

http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/stm18.html

Memory

Souvislost s marketingem

Paměť levé a pravé hemisféry

Herbert Krugman: meření rozpoznání a vzpomenutí uvedl do souvislosti s činností hemisfér

Recall and recognition Rozpoznání je emocionální činnost, vzpomenutí je logická činnost. Rozpoznání – využívá pravou hemisféru, vzpomenutí levou (logické myšlení)

Tisková reklama je většinou logická, televizní emocionální. U televizní reklamy je proto správnou metodou rozpoznání (recognition), u tiskové reklamy vzpomenutí.

Vliv organizace materiálu na paměť

• Obecně platí, že člověk si mnohem lépe ty informace, které můžeinterpretovat v kontextu toho, co už zná

Memory

Lépe si zapamatujete studijní materiál, když si letmo projdete kapitolu a získáte přehled o hlavních bodech ještě před tím, než si začnete detailně číst. Je proto také výhodnou si před přednáškou přečíst příslušnou kapitolu, vaše mysl tak bude lépe připravená kódovat a pamatovat si informace prezentované na přednášce

Učení a zapomínání

Vliv hloubky zpracování na paměť

Člověk si mnohem lépe ty informace, na jejichž zpracování a analýzu vynaložil více času a úsilíČlověk si lépe pamatuje ta slova, u nichž musí přemýšlet o jejichvýznamu (sémantickém obsahu), než ta slova, která se musí pouzemechanicky naučit…

Entelechia….

Učení a zapomínání

Reklamy

• Hot body – fitness• Offroad• Vtipy• Globetrotter – Van Dam• Evian• Moudřejší se cestovat po skupinách• Axe• Sluchátka• Kondomy• I wanna fuck you• Navigace• Džem• Předplatné