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Criteria of Successful Intervention Programs
From The Essential Guide to Selecting and UsingCore Reading Programs
Dewitz, Leahy, Jones and Sullivan (2010)
According to the work of Wanzek and Vaughn (2007), early intervention programs that
begin in kindergarten or first grade are more successful than those geared for the later grades.
Programs that are successful work with students for more than five months and up to a year.
There was little evidence that short intervention programs yielded strong results. Intervention is
more effective when the size of the instructional group is smaller. One-on-one intervention is the
most potent, but Wanzek and Vaughn did not locate enough small-group studies to make a
meaningful comparison to one-on-one instruction. Finally, Wanzek and Vaughn compared
interventions that were quite standardized to those more under the day-to-day control of the
teacher and found that they have no important differences in their impact.
To look deeper into the characteristics of successful intervention programs, specifically
the instruction, we decided to look at the following criteria (Coyne, Kame’enui, & Simmons,
2001). These are informed opinions; the authors did not statistically compare different types of
interventions. Strong intervention programs exhibit the following characteristics:
Conspicuous instruction in strategies: It is not enough for students to know letter sounds; they must have a strategy or process to use that knowledge. Teachers must make these strategies clear and model them explicitly.
Mediated scaffolding: The student needs support when learning new skills or strategies. Sometimes the core reading program provides that support—easier letters and sounds are introduced before more difficult patterns—and sometimes the teacher provides that support. Through coaching, hints, and modeling, the teacher helps the student try out the new strategy.
Strategy integration: Students should always understand that the separate skills of reading are not isolated. Phonemic awareness needs to be taught alongside decoding so that students understand that segmenting and blending sounds leads to ease in recognizing words. Phonemic awareness and decoding need to be taught along with
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reading of connected text. Through this integration the whole process makes sense to the students.
• Primed background knowledge: Students with reading problems often have memory deficits, so previous knowledge and skills should be reviewed before new ideas are introduced. To spell, the student has to first segment the sounds in the word. Priming causes the student to think about segmenting before beginning to spell.
Judicious review: Students with reading problems need considerable review. Coyne et al. (2001) remind us that review needs to be distributed over time, cumulative, and varied. In a sense, we cannot simply assume mastery, drop a topic or skill, and move on.
• Well-paced instruction: In a good intervention the teacher is organized and several activities can be completed in a short amount of time. A well-paced lesson promotes students’ interest and attention.
Intervention Programs Available With Core Reading Programs
Starting in 2000 publishers began to offer intervention programs alongside core reading
programs. As far back as the 1980s Macmillan offered a second basal with its regular reading
program. This alternative basal essentially presented the same skills and strategies but the
students’ text was easier with readability levels half a year to a year below the main student
anthology. Houghton Mifflin developed two intervention programs, Early Success (1999),
designed for struggling first and second grade students, and Soar to Success (Cooper, 1999)
essentially a comprehension program for students who had adequate decoding but weak reading
comprehension. Soar to Success stressed both knowledge development and comprehension
strategy instruction (predicting, self-questioning, clarifying, and summarizing) through
reciprocal teaching (Palincsar & Brown, 1984). These two programs essentially stood apart from
the main core reading programs.
The Trophies (2003/2005) program developed by Harcourt also contained an intervention
program. The Intervention Reader included the same key vocabulary, but the selections that the
students read, while thematically compatible with the main anthology, were written at a lower
readability level. The lesson plans offered some options but typically the student listened to the
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teacher read the main story and then the teacher and the students worked with the Intervention
Reader. During the week they would work on decoding, increasing fluency, reading the
Intervention Reader, and engaging in the same comprehension strategies that were featured in the
main core reading program,. The phonics skills followed a relatively traditional sequence and
moved at a brisk pace; short- and long-a words were taught in the same lesson. The program did
not have a guide to gear the phonics instruction to the needs of the students.
The new core reading programs (those published after 2007) are all available with
intervention programs. Some of these programs are linked to the main core reading program, and
others stand alone. The publishers are positioning these programs as either Tier 2 or Tier 3
programs using the language of RTI. Treasures (Macmillan/McGraw-Hill, 2009) has an
accompanying intervention program that has its own student text and teacher’s edition called
Triumphs, but it also has a stand-alone intervention program. Storytown (Harcourt School
Publishers, 2008/2009) has available two intervention programs. The Strategic Intervention
Program (Grade K–6) is designed for students needing some extra support, and it largely teaches
the same comprehension and vocabulary skills taught in the core program. The Intervention
Station is for students who have more difficulty learning to read. The program consists of
decodable and leveled texts, a teacher’s guide, worksheets, and manipulatives. The teacher’s
guide is a large set of detailed lessons, almost a menu, for teachers to use to bolster their
instruction and students’ achievement. The teacher can determine how long to focus on a specific
skill. Finally, Scott Foresman offers two intervention programs that accompany its Reading
Street (2008) core reading program. The lowest level program, Early Intervention in Reading, is
a tightly scripted program for kindergarten and first-grade students who are having difficulty
with basic phonemic awareness, letter recognition, letter sounds, and word reading. My
Sidewalks on Reading Street continues the instruction from first grade up through sixth.
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How to Examine Intervention Programs
Our next goal is not to review each of these intervention programs, but rather to give you the
skills to reach your own judgments. We will, however, comment on the structure of these
programs in light of what is known about effective reading intervention. There are outside
resources that can help you to evaluate an intervention program you are considering. The Florida
Center for Reading Research (www.fcrr.org) has evaluated over 100 supplemental intervention
programs and those evaluations are available on their website. The What Works Clearinghouse
(http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/) has also evaluated a number of early reading intervention
programs. This site provides a measure of their effectiveness along with an estimation of the
extent and quality of the research that yielded those conclusions. Both websites are valuable, but
they have not yet evaluated most of the new interventions that accompany the core reading
programs.
To evaluate intervention programs you need to employ two kinds of criteria. First, you
need to examine the broad structural characteristics of intervention programs. These include the
grade level the programs address, the length of an instructional lesson, the full duration of the
program in weeks or month, the optimal group size of the instruction, and the training
requirements of the instructor (Wanzek & Vaughn, 2007). The second set of criteria takes you
deeper into the analysis and considers how the curriculum is organized and how the instruction is
delivered. We will concentrate on just a few of the intervention programs offered by the core
reading program publishers to illustrate how the evaluation process should be conducted. We
trust that these examples will help you when you decide to critique core reading programs
yourself. Our evaluation tool for looking at intervention programs (the Reading Guide to
Program Selection) can be found online at the website for this book at www.reading.org.
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My Sidewalks on Reading Street
My Sidewalks on Reading Street from Scott Foresman (Pearson Education, 2008), is designed
for students reading significantly below grade level. My Sidewalks is part of a three tiered
system with Reading Street, the basic core program, guiding Tier 1 instruction. Early Reading
Intervention (Simmons & Kame’enui, 2003b) provides Tier 2 intervention and My Sidewalks on
Reading Street provides Tier 3 intervention. The Early Reading Intervention program is designed
for struggling kindergarten and first-grade students. After that, Levels A–E of My Sidewalks are
designed for first through fifth grades. The program is intended to help students accelerate to
their grade level by the end of the school year. My Sidewalks can be used congruently with any
core reading program. Each level includes 150 lessons that provide 30 to 45 minutes of
instruction five days a week. The children are placed in small groups of two to five students. The
program may be used in a classroom setting or as a pull-out intervention program. The group
size, duration, and grade levels meet the criteria set out by Wanzek and Vaughn (2007). My
Sidewalks was also designed to assist ELLs. We need to point out that Sharon Vaughn is both a
researcher who studied the characteristics of effective intervention programs and one of the four
listed authors for My Sidewalks.
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Table 1. Evaluation of My Sidewalks
Criteria Instruction in My Sidewalks (Level D, Volume 1)
Conspicuous strategy
instruction
The program has defined strategies, but the process underlying the strategies is
not well explained. For example, the fourth-grade level of the program
introduces the multisyllabic word strategy, but does not explain how to
determine the number of chunks in a word or how the vowel patterns can be
used to do so. Summarizing is a prominent strategy for comprehension. The
program directs teachers to model summarizing, and the language of a good
summary is provided. The teacher is not directed to explain how that summary
was constructed.
Mediated scaffolding The program and the program directions, despite the labels, do not appear to
provide a great deal of scaffolding. For example, when sequencing is introduced
as a strategy, teachers are directed to ask comprehension questions after the
students finish reading, but the concept of sequencing and signal words is not
reviewed in the discussion of the text. The same pattern occurs with other
strategies. Word recognition strategies are scaffolded when first presented, but
the teachers are not given directions on how and when to correct students.
Strategy integration The teacher directions give limited evidence of strategy integration. Some
ongoing decoding strategies—the multisyllabic word strategy—are consistently
related to the new vocabulary words, but vocabulary words are not related to
text comprehension. The decoding patterns introduced in each week are not
related to the new vocabulary words.
Primed background
knowledge
There is little evidence that knowledge is primed when new ideas or strategies
are introduced. For example, when drawing conclusions is introduced the
concept of a strategy is not discussed, nor is drawing conclusions related to
other strategies the students are already using. When new phonics features are
introduced, like r-controlled vowels, older vowel patterns do not serve as a
springboard for these new patterns.
Judicious review The amount of judicious review in the program is mixed. The phonics skills are
practiced regularly during a week, but in the subsequent weeks the program
does not direct the teacher to review what was previously taught.
Comprehension skills and strategies are regularly reviewed across the weeks.
So drawing conclusions, which is introduced in the second week of the program,
is regularly reviewed over the next 12 to 14 weeks.
Well-paced instruction The lessons appear well paced. Each can be completed in 30 to 40 minutes and
the program provides the teachers with a time parameter for each segment of
the lesson.
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Our study of My Sidewalks on Reading Street is a demonstration and is not a
comprehensive review of the whole program. We examined one grade level, looking at three of
its six units (see Table 1). We do know from independent reviews that the first part of this
program, Early Reading Intervention (Simmons & Kame’enui, 2003b), received a favorable
review from the Florida Center for Reading Research Overall our demonstration review of My
Sidewalks suggests that it meets some, but not all, of the criteria of a strong intervention
program. Teachers can certainly use the program well, but they would need to provide more skill
review, link new strategies to old strategies, and more carefully scaffold students’ attempts to
apply the strategies. In My Sidewalks, it appears that students spend more time working on skills
and less time reading texts. This lack of balance my not be appropriate for some struggling
readers who also read less within core reading programs. It is not clear what kind of training is
provided with My Sidewalks.
Strategic Intervention Resource Kit
The Strategic Intervention Resource Kit (Harcourt, 2008) is part of the new Storytown
core reading program. It, too, is part of a three-tiered system. Storytown (Harcourt School
Publishers, 2008/2009) provides classroom instruction at Tier 1. The Strategic Intervention
Resource Kit provides the Tier 2 intervention and the Intervention Station provides the Tier 3
intervention. The program provides 30 weeks of lessons that can be used in conjunction with the
main core reading program or stand alone. The program consists of a student book (the
Interactive Reader), a practice book (worksheets), a teacher guide, and some other resources like
skill cards and vocabulary cards. The program is geared for small groups of 4–6 students, and
each of the lessons can be completed in 30 minutes. The lesson each day consists of four
segments—comprehension, vocabulary, spelling/decoding, and grammar and writing. Fluency
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practice is embedded throughout the program. The order of these segments changes from day to
day. We will now apply the criteria of Coyne et al. (2001) to the Strategic Intervention Resource
Kit in Table 2
Table 2. Evaluation of Strategic Intervention Kit (Harcourt, 2008)
Criteria Instruction in Strategic Intervention Kit (Level D, Volume 1)
Conspicuous strategy
instruction
The program seems to lack explicit strategy instruction. We did not have the
skills cards where strategies are described, so we were not fully able to
evaluate this portion of the program. Decoding skills are mentioned, there is a
strong focus on the phonics features, but not on strategies for decoding words.
In terms of comprehension the program lacks the language that the teacher
would need to explain how to draw a conclusion or use text structure to
understand cause and effect.
Mediated scaffolding There is some evidence of scaffolding in the lesson, mostly in the fact that skills
repeat over several lessons. However, the program generally lacks language
that would guide a student through the use of a specific comprehension or
decoding strategy.
Strategy integration There is little evidence of strategy integration. The program does not help the
teacher explain how decoding aids comprehension, or how decoding and
vocabulary knowledge can be linked together. Skills appear to be used in
isolation from each other.
Primed background
knowledge
The program does regularly prime background knowledge of content and
concepts, but not of strategies. When new phonics or structural analysis
features are introduced they are not discussed in relationship to older features
that have been previously taught. The students are reminded of what they
should know about a comprehension strategy, but strategies are not related to
each other.
Judicious review The program does not appear to have as explicit a cycle of review as struggling
readers might need. When a comprehension skill is introduce in a lesson, it will
receive some review on subsequent days, but often the program shifts to new
skills. Phonics patterns are studied for about a week, but there is little evidence
they are reviewed in the following weeks.
Well-paced instruction The lessons are well paced. Each lesson segment appears with small clock
faces that suggests time limits. Typically the program suggests that
comprehension, decoding, vocabulary and grammar /writing can be completed
in 30 minutes.
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The Harcourt Strategic Intervention Resource Kit lacks some of the criteria outlined by
Coyne et al. (2001). To use the program well a teacher would need to provide more review of the
skills and strategies and scaffold them more carefully. The teacher would also need to provide
more explanation of how these strategies are linked together. While using the program, a teacher
would discover if the four or five components recommended each day could be covered in the
allocated 30 minutes. When the Strategic Intervention Resource Kit is used in conjunction with
the core reading program, the sequence of instruction and review does not change but the
program does provide more support for modeling and scaffolding the skills. The Coyne et al.
criteria provide a very useful guide for examining intervention programs geared for Tier 2 and
Tie 3 instruction. Our evaluation was limited to one level of the program and schools should ask
for more components and conduct a more thorough evaluation on their own.
Effective criteria can be used to evaluate intervention programs that supplement core
reading programs. When the programs stand alone the criteria developed by Coyne et al. (2001)
are a useful guide in examining the intervention programs. These criteria, when used carefully,
can reveal if instruction is explicit, well-scaffolded, and accompanied by sufficient review. The
strongest example is Early Reading Intervention (Simmons & Kame’enui, 2003b). The singular
focus on phonemic awareness, letter sounds, and word reading make extensive review, strong
scaffolding, and quick pacing possible. Programs that are linked or integrated with the core
reading programs are more difficult to evaluate because the characteristics of their instruction are
dependent on the quality of those programs. The success of any of these programs depends not
only on their curriculum and instruction but on the knowledge of the teachers (Piasta, Connor,
Fishman, & Morrison, 2009).
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