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CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 1
INFLUENCES ON EMPLOYEE BEHAVIOR
Chapter 2
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 2
Learning Objectives
• Identify that influence employee behavior• Describe outcomes resulting from behavior and tell how
they influence future behavior• State how a supervisor’s leadership and expectations for employees can affect their behavior• Recognize the impact that coworkers and the organization itself have on employee behavior• Define motivation and describe the main approaches to understanding motivation at work• Discuss how knowledge, skill, ability, and attitudes
influence employee behavior
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 3
Goals of HRD
• Goal of Human Resources Development interventions is to assist employees and organizations in attaining their goals
• Ultimate objective of most, if not all, HRD programs is to improve organizational performance
• Major focus of most HRD interventions is an effort to change employee behavior
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 4
Model of Employee Behavior
EconomicConditions
LeadershipPerformanceExpectations
TechnologicalChanges
Labor MarketConditions
Factors in the External Environment
Supervision
Laws andRegulations
LaborUnions
RewardStructuresCultureJob Design
OrganizationMotivationAttitudesKnowledge,Skill, Ability
Employee
NormsGroupDynamicsTeamworkControl OverOutcomes
Coworkers
TaskPerformanceOrganizationalCitizenshipBehaviors
Behavior
PersonalOrganizational
Outcomes
Fig. 2-1
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 5
Major Categories Affecting Behavior
• External forces– Outside the organization– Inside the work environment
• Leadership• Coworkers• Outcomes of performance
• Internal Forces– Within employee
• Motivation• KSAs
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 6
Major Categories of Employee Behavior
• Individual performance is multidimensional• Most HRD focuses on “Task Performance”
– Behaviors central to doing one’s job
• Organizational citizenship behaviors– Critical to organizational effectiveness
• Not specific to any one task
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 7
External Influences
• General state of economy• Government intrusion• Global and technology issues
– In spite of excellent work and production, external influences can result in down-sizing to reduce costs
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 8
Workforce Investment
• Organizations invest a lot of time and money in their workforce
• They must maintain their investment, even when restructuring or downsizing
• Re-training “survivors” to do other work rather than laying them off– Coaching and mentoring– Individual development– Multi-rater feedback
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 9
Influences on Employee Behavior
• Factor– Outcomes– Supervision
– Organization
– Coworkers
(Table 2-1)
• Issues– Types– Effect on motivation– Leadership– Performance expectations– Reward structure– Organizational structure– Job design– Control of outcomes– Norms– Group Dynamics– Teamwork/Trust/Cohesiveness
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 10
Employee Perceptions Drive Behavior
– Expectancy Theory:• Workers will perform behaviors that they perceive
will bring valued outcomes• Better the outcome, better the work
– Equity Theory• Outcomes are evaluated by comparing them to the
outcomes received by others
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 11
Supervision and Leadership
• Immediate supervisor:– Delegates tasks and responsibilities– Sets expectations– Evaluates performance– Provides feedback– Rewards desirable behavior– Provides discipline
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 12
Supervisory Influences
• Self-fulfilling prophecy– Supervisor's expectations can influence
workers behavior
• Leadership:– Non-coercive influence to direct and
coordinate the activities of a group toward accomplishing a goal
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 13
Rewards Structure
• Focuses on:– Types of rewards used– How rewards are distributed– The criteria for rewards distribution
• Rewards are more than money or plaques– They can include recognition and acceptance
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 14
The Organizational Culture
• A set of values, beliefs, norms and patterns of behavior that are shared by organization members, and that guide their behavior
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 15
Job Design
• The development and alteration of the components of a job to improve productivity and the quality of an a employee’s life
• A job design can affect behavior and attitudes
• Altering the job may improve performance and attitudes
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 16
Influence of Coworkers
• They control some of the outcomes and therefore some of the behavior
• They may offer or withhold friendship and recognition
• Norms set the guidelines for behavior in the group
• Group dynamics influence the way an employee behaves when interacting with a group
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 17
Group Dynamic Characteristics
• Groupthink -- concerned with unanimity rather than making good decisions
• Social Loafing -- tendency for individuals to reduce level of effort as group becomes larger
• Teamwork: – Trust– Cohesiveness
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 18
Motivation
• One of the basic elements of human behavior
• Factors that cause the arousal, direction and persistence of voluntary actions that are goal directed
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 19
Factors to Consider
• Work motivation pertains to voluntary behavior
• Motivation focuses on– Energizing—The generation or mobilization of
effort– Direction—Applying effort to one behavior
over another– Persistence—Continuing (or ceasing) to
perform a behavior
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 20
Worker Motivation
• Based on the individual because of unique– Needs– Desires– Attitudes– Goals
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 21
The Need-Based Approach
• Underlying needs, such as the needs for safety or power, drive motivation
• Theories include:– Mazlow’s Needs
Hierarchy– Alderfer’s Existence,
Relatedness and Growth Theory
– Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 22
Cognitive Process Approach
• Motivation is a process controlled by conscious thoughts, beliefs and judgments
• Theories include:• Expectancy Theory• Goal-Setting Theory• Social Learning
Theory• Equity Theory
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 23
Non-Cognitive Approach
• Motivation is explained as an interaction between behavior and external events without appealing to internal thoughts or needs
• Theories include:– Reinforcement Theory
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 24
Needs-Based Approach
• Needs: deficiency states or imbalances, whether physiological or psychological, that energize and direct behavior
• Needs drive behavior through need activation and need satisfaction
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 25
The Need Activation-Need Satisfaction Process
Process Example
Need is activated
Tension is created
Yes
No
Layoff announced;Need for securityis activated
Tension expressed infear and worry
Improve performance?Politics?Job search?
Search for waysto reduce tension
Performance improvementleads management toremove employee'sname from layoff list
Perform behaviorsto reduce tension
Fear and worrysignificantly reduced
Tension eliminatedor significantlyreduced?
Need for securitysatisfied
Need satisfied;Need no longerdrives behavior
Fig. 2-2
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 26
Mazlow’s Need Hierarchy
• In Reverse Order of Importance– Self-actualization– Status and Esteem– Love– Safety and security– Physiological
• The item(s) below must be satisfied before those above can be satisfied
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 27
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
• Existence
• Relatedness
• Growth
• Basically reduces Mazlow’s five to three items
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 28
Deficiencies of Need-Based
• Difficult to test and apply
• Insufficient for explanation of motivation
• Some programs based on theories have been successful– Job enrichment– Achievement motivation
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 29
Cognitive Process Theories
• Expectancy theory– Assumes that motivation is a conscious
choice process– Employees
• believe they can perform successfully (high expectancy), and
• believe are connected (high instrumentality) to outcomes they desire (high valence) or
• believe will prevent (negative instrumentality) outcomes they want to avoid (negative valence)
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 30
Expectancy Theory and HRD
• Employees will not attend HRD sessions unless– They will learn something– It will increase their job performance– They will be rewarded for their efforts
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 31
Graphical Representation of Expectancy Theory
How likely is it thatI will reach my
performance goal?
Expectancy
Should Iexert effort?
How desirable orundesirable are
these outcomes?
Valence
Will I receive variousoutcomes if I reach
my performance goal?
Instrumentality
Fig. 2-3
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 32
Goal Setting Theory
• Goals can – Mobilize employee effort– Direct their attention– Increase their persistence– Affect strategies used to accomplish a task
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 33
Goal Setting
• Goals that are specific, difficult, and accepted by employees lead to better performance
• Feedback enhances effectiveness of goal setting
• Goals must be achievable
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 34
Social Learning Theory
• Outcome and self-efficacy expectations affect individual performance
• An Outcome Expectation– person’s belief that performing a given
behavior will lead to a given outcome
• Self Efficacy– “people’s judgments of their capabilities to
organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances”
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 35
Self-Efficacy and Performance
Performance historyModeling
PersuasionPhysiological/
emotional state
Attribution of performance history
Analysis of task
Assessment of constraints
Self-efficacy Performance
Feedback
Behavioraloutcomes
Fig. 2-4
SOURCE: ACADEMY OF MANAGEMENT REVIEW by Gist, M. E., Mitchell, T. R. Copyright 2005 by ACAD OF MGMT. Reproduced with permission of ACAD OF MGMT in the formal Textbook via Copyright Clearance Center.
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 36
Major Prediction of Social Learning Theory
• A person’s self-efficacy expectations will determine
• whether a behavior will be performed,• how much effort will be spent, and• how long the person will continue to perform the behavior
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 37
Equity Theory
• Motivation is strongly influenced by – People’s desire to be treated fairly– Perceptions about whether they have been
treated fairly
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 38
Basis of Equity Theory
• People develop beliefs about what is fair for them to receive in exchange for the contributions that they make to the organization
• People determine fairness by comparing their relevant returns and contributions to those of others
• People who believe they have been treated unfairly (called inequity) will experience tension, and they will be motivated to find ways to reduce it
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 39
Reducing Feelings of Inequity
• Cognitively distorting views of contributions or rewards (“She must be smarter than I thought.”)
• Influencing the perceived rival to change his or her contributions or rewards (e.g., convincing the person to be less productive)
• Changing one’s own contributions or rewards (either working harder or contributing less)
• Comparing oneself to a different person leaving the situation (requesting a transfer or quitting)
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 40
Equity Theory GraphicallyFig. 2-5
Outcomes/rewardsreceived by self
Perceivedinequity
Perceivedequity
Inputs of self
Outcomes/rewardsreceived by
relevant others
Motivationto correct or
reduce inequity
Motivation tomaintain present
equity relationships
Inputs of relevant others
Social comparisonof outcomes to inputs
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 41
Reinforcement Theory
• A non-cognitive theory• Based on “Law of Effect”
– Behavior that is followed by a pleasurable consequence will occur more frequently
• Process known as “reinforcement”
– Behavior that is followed by an adverse consequence will occur less frequently
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 42
Behavior Modification
• Positive reinforcement refers to increasing the frequency of a behavior by following the behavior with a pleasurable consequence
• Negative reinforcement increases the frequency of a behavior by removing something aversive after the behavior is performed
• Extinction seeks to decrease the frequency of a behavior by removing the consequence that is reinforcing it
• Punishment seeks to decrease the frequency of a behavior by introducing an aversive consequence immediately after the behavior
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 43
Integrating Theories in Practice
Desire to perform
Effort
Valence
Performance
SatisfactionInstrumentality
Accuracyof roleperceptions
Ability
Expectancy
Equityofrewards
• Fig. 2-6
SOURCE: Wagner, J. A., III, and Hollenbeck, J. R. (1995). Management of Organizational Behavior (2nd ed,). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 44
Attitudes
• Second major influence on work behavior
• Attitude: a person’s general feeling of favorableness or unfavorableness toward some stimulus object
• A combination of attitudes with perceived social pressure to behave in a certain manner influences an individual’s behavior
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 45
The Behavioral Intentions Model
• Fig 2-7
Beliefs aboutbehavior/outcome
relationships
Attitudetoward thebehavior
Beliefs aboutgroup/society
norms
Perceptionof norms
Perceived situationalor internal constraints
Intentions Behavior
SOURCE: From Organizational Behavior 5th edition by Hellriegel/Slocum/Woodman. © 1989. Reprinted with permission of South-Western, a division of Cengage Learning: [email protected]. Fax 800 730-2215.
CH-2 Copyright 2008, Werner et al 46
Knowledge, Skills and Abilities (KSAs)
• If employees lack the KSAs to perform a task or behavior, they will likely fail
• Abilities – general capacities related to the performance of a set of tasks
• Skills – combine abilities with capabilities that are developed as a result of training and experience
• Knowledge – an understanding of factors or principles related to a particular subject