ASAS PSIKOLOGI thinking, language and intelligence

Chapter 7: Thinking, Language, and Intelligence

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Thinking and Reasoning

Thinking– The manipulation of mental

representations of information

Mental images– Representations in the mind

in the form of object or event being represented


Categorizing the World

Concepts– Categorizations of objects,

events, or people that share common properties that enable us to organize complex phenomena into simpler cognitive categories

Prototypes– Typical, highly

representative examples of a concept

What is a tree?


Reasoning: Making Up Your Mind

Syllogistic reasoning– Formal reasoning in which

people draw a conclusion from a set of assumptions (or premises)

All men are mortal (premise)

Socrates is a man (premise)

Therefore, Socrates is mortal (conclusion)


Reasoning: Algorithms and Heuristics

Algorithm– A rule which, if applied

appropriately, guarantees a solution to a problem

Heuristic– A cognitive shortcut that may

lead to a solution Availability heuristic

– Involves judging the probability of an event by how easily the event can be recalled from memory


Preparation: Understanding and Diagnosing Problems

Well-defined problem– Both the nature of the

problem itself and the information needed to solve it are available and clear

Ill-defined problem– Both the specific nature of

the problem and the information to solve it are unclear

2 + 2 = ?


Kinds of Problems

Arrangement problems– Require that a group of

elements be rearranged or recombined in a way that will satisfy a certain criterion

Problems of inducing structure– Identify the relationships

that exist among the elements presented and construct a new relationship among them

14-24-34-44-54-64-?


Kinds of Problems

Transformation problem– Consist of an initial state, a goal state, and a series of

methods for changing the initial state into the goal state


Representing and Organizing the Problem

Our ability to represent the problem and the kind of solution we eventually come to is affected by the way a problem is phrased, or framed

Will it take a person the same amount of time in order to climb up 8 stories as it does to climb down 8 stories?



Production: Generating Solutions

Trial and Error– Most primitive means of

seeking a solution

Means-end analysis– Repeated testing for

differences between the desired outcome and what currently exists


Production: Generating Solutions

Subgoals– Dividing a problem into

intermediate steps, and solving each of those steps

Insight– A sudden awareness of the

relationships among various elements that had previously appeared to be unrelated to one another


Impediments to Solutions

Functional fixedness– The tendency to think of an

object only in terms of its typical use

Mental set– The tendency for old

patterns of problem solving to persist


Impediments to Solutions

Inaccurate evaluation of solutions

Confirmation bias– Initial hypotheses are

favored and contradictory information supporting alternative hypothesis or solutions is ignored


Creativity and Problem Solving

Creativity– The combining of responses

or ideas in novel ways Divergent thinking

– The ability to generate unusual, yet nonetheless appropriate, responses to problems or questions

Convergent thinking– Responses that are based

primarily on knowledge and logic

Cognitive complexity– The preference for

elaborate, intricate, and complex stimuli and thinking patterns


Language

The communication of information through symbols arranged according to systematic rules


Grammar: Language’s Language

Grammar– The system of rules that

determine how our thoughts can be expressed

Phonology– The study of the smallest

basic sound units, called phonemes that effect the meaning of speech


Grammar: Language’s Language

Syntax– The rules that indicate how

words and phrases can be combined to form sentences

Semantics– The rules governing the

meaning of words and sentences


Language Development

Babble– Speechlike but meaningless

sounds made by children from the ages of around 3 months through 1 year

Critical period– Time period where child is

particularly sensitive to language cues and where language is most easily acquired

Telegraphic speech– Sentences

that sound as if they were part of a telegram, in which words not critical to the message are left out


Language Development

Overgeneralization– The phenomenon where

children apply rules even when the application results in an error, e.g. “he runned”


Understanding Language Acquisition

Learning-theory approach– Language acquisition

follows the principles of reinforcement and conditioning

Universal grammar– All the world’s languages

share a similar underlying structure

Language-acquisition device– Neural system that permits

the understanding of language


The Influence of Language on Thinking

Linguistic-relativity hypothesis– The notion that language

shapes and, in fact, may determine the way people of a particular culture perceive and understand the world


Defining Intelligent Behavior

Intelligence– The capacity to understand

the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges

Intelligence tests– Tests that are developed in

order to identify a person’s level of intelligence


Measuring Intelligence

Mental age– The average age of individuals who achieve a

particular level of performance on a test Chronological age

– Physical age


Measuring Intelligence

IQ =MACA

X 100


IQ Tests: Gauging Intelligence

Stanford-Binet IV Wechsler Adult Intelligence

Scale – III (WAIS-III) Wechsler Intelligence Scale

for Children - III (WISC-III)


Achievement and Aptitude Tests

Achievement test– A test designed to

determine a person’s level of knowledge in a given subject area

Aptitude test– A test designed to predict a

person’s ability in a particular area or line of work


Reliability and Validity: Taking the Measure of a Test

Reliability– A tests ability to consistently

measure what they are trying to measure

Validity– The tests ability to measure

what it is supposed to measure

Norms– Standards of test

performance


Intelligence

G or G-factor– Early theory that proposed a

single, general factor underlying every aspect of intelligence

Fluid intelligence– Reflects information

processing capabilities, reasoning, and memory

Crystallized intelligence– Accumulation of information,

skills, and strategies that people have learned through experience


Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

Musical

Bodily Kinesthetic

Logical-mathematical

Linguistic

Spatial

Interpersonal

Intrapersonal


Intelligence

Practical intelligence– Intelligence related to overall

success in living

Emotional intelligence– Set of skills that underlie the

accurate assessment, evaluation, expression, and regulation of emotions



Variations in Intellectual Ability

Mental retardation– Significantly below-average

intellectual functioning, plus limitations in at least two areas of adaptive functioning involving

– Communication skills

– Self-care

– Ability to live independently

– Social skills

– Community involvement

– Self direction

– Health & safety

– Academics

– Leisure & work


Mental Retardation

Classification

Mild Retardation

IQ Range

Moderate Retardation

Profound Retardation

55 - 69

40 - 45

Below 25

Severe Retardation 25 -39


Identifying Roots of Mental Retardation

Biological causes– Down syndrome

Familial retardation Care and treatment

– Least restrictive environment

– Mainstreaming

– Full inclusion


Intellectually Gifted

2 to 4 % of the population have IQ scores greater than 130

Stereotypes


Individual Differences in Intelligence

Culture-fair IQ test– A test that does not

discriminate against members of any minority group

Heritability– A measure of the degree to

which a characteristic is related to genetic, inherited factors

The bell curve

Education

ASAS PSIKOLOGI thinking, language and intelligence