4.instructuional design theories

Instructional Design

for Dummies A short course that explains the basics of Instructional Design

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Session 4: Instructional Design Theories

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Topics Below are the topics covered in this session:

Bloom’s Taxonomy

Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction

Kirkpatrick's four levels of training evaluation

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Apply the following Instructional Design theories in your learning

design:

Bloom’s Taxonomy



Objectives

After completing this session you will be able to:

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Bloom’s Taxonomy



What is Blooms Taxonomy?

Hierarchy of educational objectives established byB. S. Bloom and his co-workers.

Attempts to divide cognitive objectives into subdivisions ranging from the simplest behavior to the most complex.

The divisions outlined are not absolutes and that other systems or hierarchies have been devised

However, Bloom's taxonomy is easily understood and widely applied

Cognitive Objectives

Knowledge

Comprehension

Application

Analysis

Synthesis

Evaluation

Attempts to divide cognitive objectives into subdivisions ranging from

the simplest behavior to the most complex.

Knowledge

Knowledge is defined as remembering previously learned material

This may involve recalling of a wide range of material, from specific facts to complete theories

All that is required is the bringing to mind of the appropriate information

Knowledge represents the lowest level of learning outcomes in the cognitive domain

Level Description Examples Verbs

Knowledge - Knowledge is defined as remembering previously learned material.

- This may involve recalling of a wide range of material, from specific facts to complete theories, but all that is required is the bringing to mind of the appropriate information.

- Knowledge represents the lowest level of learning outcomes in the cognitive domain.

• Know common terms, know specific facts, know methods and procedures, know basic concepts, know principles.

Observation and recall of information

Knowledge of dates, events, places

Knowledge of major ideas

Mastery of subject matter

Examples: - Recite a policy. - Quote prices from memory to a

customer. - Knows the safety rules.

list define tell describeidentify show label collect examinetabulate quote name who when where

Knowledge

Comprehension

Comprehension is defined as the ability to grasp the meaning of material

This may be shown by

Translating material from one form to another (words to numbers)

Interpreting material (explaining or summarizing)

Estimating future trends (predicting consequences or effects)

These learning outcomes go one step beyond the simple remembering of material

Comprehension - Comprehension is defined as the ability to grasp the meaning of material.

- This may be shown by

- Translating material from one form to another (words to numbers),

- Interpreting material (explaining or summarizing), and

- Estimating future trends (predicting consequences or effects).

-

- These learning outcomes go one step beyond the simple remembering of material, and represent the lowest level of understanding.

Understand facts and principles Interpret verbal material Interpret charts and graphs Translate verbal material to mathematical formulaeEstimate the future consequences implied in dataJustify methods and procedures.Understanding information Grasp meaning Translate knowledge into new context Interpret facts, compare, contrast order, group, infer causes Predict consequences

Examples: - Rewrites the principles of test

writing. - Explain in ones own words the

steps for performing a complex task.

- Translates an equation into a computer spreadsheet.

summarizedescribeinterpretcontrastpredictassociatedistinguishestimatedifferentiatediscuss extend


Comprehension

Application

Application refers to the ability to use learned material in new and concrete situations

This may include the application of such things as rules, methods, concepts, principles, laws, and theories

Learning outcomes in this area require a higher level of understanding than those under comprehension


Application -Application refers to the ability to

use learned material in new and

concrete situations.

-This may include the application of

such things as rules, methods,

concepts, principles, laws, and

theories.

-Learning outcomes in this area

require a higher level of

understanding than those under

comprehension.

Apply concepts and principles to new situations

Apply laws and theories to practical situations,

solve mathematical problems

Construct graphs and charts

Demonstrate the correct usage of a method or

procedure

Use information

Use methods, concepts, theories in new

situations

Solve problems using required skills or

knowledge

Examples:

- Use a manual to calculate an employee’s

vacation time.

- Apply laws of statistics to evaluate the reliability

of a written test.

apply

demonstrate

calculate

complete

illustrate

show

solve

examine

modify

relate

change

classify

experiment

discover

Application

Analysis

Analysis refers to the ability to break down material into its component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood

This may include the identification of parts, analysis of the relationship between parts, and recognition of the organizational principles involved

Learning outcomes here represent a higher intellectual level than comprehension and application because they require an understanding of both the content and the structural form of the material


Analysis Analysis refers to the ability to break down material into its component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood..This may include the identification of parts, analysis of the relationship between parts, and recognition of the organizational principles involved.

Learning outcomes here represent a higher intellectual level than comprehension and application because they require an understanding of both the content and the structural form of the material.

Recognize unstated assumptions, Recognizes logical fallacies in reasoning, Distinguish between facts and inferences, Evaluate the relevancy of data, Analyze the organizational structure of a work (art, music, and writing).Seeing patterns Organization of parts Recognition of hidden meanings Identification of components

Examples: - Troubleshoot a piece of equipment by

using logical deduction. - Recognize logical fallacies in reasoning.- Gathers information from a department

and selects the required tasks for training.

analyze separate order explain connect classify arrange divide compare select explain infer

Analysis

Synthesis

Synthesis refers to the ability to put parts together to form a new whole

This may involve the production of a unique communication - theme or speech, a plan of operations -research proposal, or a set of abstract relations - scheme for classifying information

Learning outcomes in this area stress creative behaviors, with major emphasis on the formulation of new patterns or structure


Synthesis Synthesis refers to the ability to put parts together to form

a new whole.

This may involve the production of a unique

communication - theme or speech, a plan of operations -

research proposal, or a set of abstract relations - scheme

for classifying information.

Learning outcomes in this area stress creative behaviors,

with major emphasis on the formulation of new patterns or

structure.

Write a well organized theme, give a well

organized speech, write a creative short

story (or poem or music), propose a

plan for an experiment, integrate

learning from different areas into a plan

for solving a problem, formulate a new

scheme for classifying objects (or

events, or ideas).

Use old ideas to create new ones

Generalize from given facts

Relate knowledge from several areas

Predict, draw conclusions

Examples:

- Write a company operations or process

manual.

- Design a machine to perform a specific

task.

- Integrates training from several sources

to solve a problem.

- Revises and processes to improve the

outcome.

Combine

integrate

modify rearrange

substitute

plan

create

design invent

what it?

compose

formulate

prepare

generalize

rewrite

Synthesis

Evaluation

Evaluation is concerned with the ability to judge the value of material (statement, novel, poem, research report) for a given purpose

The judgments are to be based on definite criteria

These may be internal criteria (organization) or external criteria (relevance to the purpose) and the student may determine the criteria or be given them

Learning outcomes in this area are highest in the cognitive hierarchy

It is because they contain elements of all the other categories, plus conscious value judgments based on clearly defined criteria

Evaluation Evaluation is concerned with the ability to judge the

value of material (statement, novel, poem, research

report) for a given purpose.

The judgments are to be based on definite criteria.

These may be internal criteria (organization) or

external criteria (relevance to the purpose) and the

student may determine the criteria or be given them.

Learning outcomes in this area are highest in the

cognitive hierarchy because they contain elements of

all the other categories, plus conscious value

judgments based on clearly defined criteria.

- Judge the logical consistency of

written material,

- Judge the adequacy with which

conclusions are supported by data,

- Judge the value of a work (art, music,

writing) by the use of internal criteria,

- Judge the value of a work (art, music,

and writing) by use of external

standards of excellence.

Compare and discriminate between

ideas

Assess value of theories,

presentations

Make choices based on reasoned

argument

Verify value of evidence

Recognize subjectivity

Examples:

- Select the most effective solution.

- Hire the most qualified candidate.

- Explain and justify a new budget.

assess

decide

rank

grade

test

measure

recommend

convince

select

judge

explain

discriminate

support

conclude

compare

summarize


Evaluation

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Bloom’s Taxonomy



Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction

9.Enhance retention

8.Assess performance

7.Provide feedback

6.Elicit performance

5.Provide "learning guidance"

4.Present the content

3.Recall of prior learning

2.Inform learners of objectives

1.Gain attention

Nine Events

In order for any learning to take place, you must first capture the attention of the student

A multimedia program that begins with an animated title screen sequence accompanied by sound effects or music startles the senses with auditory or visual stimuli

An even better way to capture students' attention is to start each lesson with a thought-provoking question or interesting fact

Curiosity motivates students to learn

Gain Attention

That is AWESOME!

Inform Learners of Objectives

Early in each lesson students should encounter a list of learning objectives

This initiates the internal process of expectancy and helps motivate the learner to complete the lesson

These objectives should form the basis for assessment and possible certification as well

Typically, learning objectives are presented in the form of "Upon completing this lesson you will be able to. . . ."

Stimulate Recall of Prior Learning

Associating new information with prior knowledge can facilitate the learning process

It is easier for learners to encode and store information in long-term memory when there are links to personal experience and knowledge

A simple way to stimulate recall is to ask questions about previous experiences, an understanding of previous concepts, or a body of content

Present the Content

This event of instruction is where the new content is actually presented to the learner

Content should be chunked and organized meaningfully, and typically is explained and then demonstrated

To appeal to different learning modalities, a variety of media should be used if possible, including text, graphics, audio narration, and video

Provide “Learning Guidance"

To help learners encode information for long-term storage, additional guidance should be provided along with the presentation of new content

Guidance strategies include the use of examples, non-examples, case studies, graphical representations, mnemonics, and analogies

Elicit performance (Practice)

In this event of instruction, the learner is required to practice the new skill or behavior

Eliciting performance provides an opportunity for learners to confirm their correct understanding, and the repetition further increases the likelihood of retention

Provide Feedback

As learners practice new behavior it is important to provide specific and immediate feedback of their performance

Unlike questions in a post-test, exercises within tutorials should be used for comprehension and encoding purposes, not for formal scoring

Additional guidance and answers provided at this stage are called formative feedback

AwesomeYou rock!

Assess Performance

Upon completing instructional modules, students should be given the opportunity to take (or be required to take) a post-test or final assessment

This assessment should be completed without the ability to receive additional coaching, feedback, or hints

Mastery of material, or certification, is typically granted after achieving a certain score or percent correct

A commonly accepted level of mastery is 80% to 90% correct

Enhance, Retention and Transfer to the Job

Determining whether or not the skills learned from a training program are ever applied back on the job often remains a mystery to training managers - and a source of consternation for senior executives

Effective training programs have a "performance" focus, incorporating design and media that facilitate retention and transfer to the job

The repetition of learned concepts is a tried and true means of aiding retention, although often disliked by students

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Bloom’s Taxonomy



Donald Kirkpatrick's Four Level Evaluation Model is one of the best known evaluation methodologies for judging learning processes

The model that was first published in a series of articles in 1959 in the Journal of American Society of Training Directors

Kirkpatrick's Four Levels of Training

Evaluation

The Levels

The Levels

Reaction: Evaluation Description and

Characteristics

Reaction evaluation is how the delegates felt, and their personal reactions to the training or learning experience, For example:

Did the trainees like and enjoy the training? Did they consider the training relevant? Was it a good use of their time? Did they like the venue, the style, timing, domestics, etc? Level of participation Ease and comfort of experience Level of effort required to make the most of the learning Perceived practicability and potential for applying the learning

Examples of Evaluation Tools and Methods

Some of the tools and methods are:

‘Happy sheets' or feedback forms based on subjective personal reaction to the training experience

Verbal reaction which can be noted and analysed

Post-training surveys or questionnaires

Online evaluation or grading by delegates

Subsequent verbal or written reports given by delegates to managers back at their jobs

Relevance and Practicability

Can be done immediately the training ends

Very easy to obtain reaction feedback

Feedback is not expensive to gather or to analyze for groups

Important to know that people were not upset or disappointed

Important that people give a positive impression when relating their experience to others who might be deciding whether to experience same

The Levels

Learning : Evaluation Description and

Characteristics

Learning evaluation is the measurement of the increase in knowledge or intellectual capability from before to after the learning experience:

Did the trainees learn what intended to be taught?

Did the trainee experience what was intended for them to experience?

What is the extent of advancement or change in the trainees after the training, in the direction or area that was intended?


Typically assessments or tests before and after the training

Interview or observation can be used before and after although this is time-consuming and can be inconsistent

Methods of assessment need to be closely related to the aims of the learning

Measurement and analysis is possible and easy on a group scale

Reliable, clear scoring and measurements need to be established, so as to limit the risk of inconsistent assessment

Hard-copy, electronic, online or interview style assessments are all possible


Relatively simple to set up, but more investment and thought required than reaction evaluation

Highly relevant and clear-cut for certain training such as quantifiable or technical skills

Less easy for more complex learning such as attitudinal development, which is famously difficult to assess

Cost escalates if systems are poorly designed, which increases work required to measure and analyze

The Levels

Behavior: Evaluation Description and

Characteristics

Behavior evaluation is the extent to which the trainees applied the learning and changed their behavior

This can be immediately and several months after the training, depending on the situation:

Did the trainees put their learning into effect when back on the job?

Were the relevant skills and knowledge used

Was there noticeable and measurable change in the activity and performance of the trainees when back in their roles?

Was the change in behavior and new level of knowledge sustained?

Would the trainee be able to transfer their learning to another person?

Is the trainee aware of their change in behavior, knowledge, skill level?

Examples of Evaluation Tools and MethodsObservation and interview over time are required to assess change, relevance of change,

and sustainability of change

Assessments need to be subtle and ongoing, and then transferred to a suitable analysis tool

Assessments need to be designed to reduce subjective judgment of the observer or interviewer, which is a variable factor that can affect reliability and consistency of measurements

The opinion of the trainee, which is a relevant indicator, is also subjective and unreliable, and so needs to be measured in a consistent defined way

360-degree feedback is useful method and need not be used before training, because respondents can make a judgment as to change after training, and this can be analyzed for groups of respondents and trainees

Assessments can be designed around relevant performance scenarios, and specific key performance indicators or criteria

Online and electronic assessments are more difficult to incorporate - assessments tend to be more successful when integrated within existing management and coaching protocols

Self-assessment can be useful, using carefully designed criteria and measurements

The Levels

Results : Evaluation Description and

Characteristics

Results evaluation is the effect on the business or environment resulting from the improved performance of the trainee - it is the acid test

Measures would typically be business or organizational key performance indicators, such as:

Volumes, values, percentages, timescales, return on investment

Other quantifiable aspects of organizational performance, for instance:

numbers of complaints, staff turnover, attrition, failures, wastage, non-compliance, quality ratings, achievement of standards and accreditations, growth, retention, etc.


It is possible that many of these measures are already in place via normal management systems and reporting

The challenge is to identify which and how relate to to the trainee's input and influence

Therefore it is important to identify and agree accountability and relevance with the trainee at the start of the training, so they understand what is to be measured

This process overlays normal good management practice - it simply needs linking to the training input

Failure to link to training input type and timing will greatly reduce the ease by which results can be attributed to the training

For senior people particularly, annual appraisals and ongoing agreement of key business objectives are integral to measuring business results derived from training


Individually, results evaluation is not particularly difficult

However, across an entire organization it becomes very much more challenging,

Reliance on line-management, and the frequency and scale of changing structures, responsibilities and roles, which complicates the process of attributing clear accountability

Also, external factors greatly affect organizational and business performance, which cloud the true cause of good or poor results

Summary

In this session we learned that:

Bloom’s taxonomy Attempts to divide cognitive objectives into subdivisions ranging from the simplest behavior to the most complex

These levels are knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, evaluation and synthesis

Robert Gagne created a nine-step process called the events of instruction, which correlate to and address the conditions of learning

These events are gain attention, inform leaner of the objective, recall of prior learning, present content, provide learning guidance, elicit performance, provide feedback, assess performance and enhance retention

Donald Kirkpatrick's Four Level Evaluation Model is one of the best known evaluation methodologies for judging learning processes

The four levels are reactions, learning, behavior and results

Thank You Shyamanta Baruah (Sam)

www.shyamantab.com

[email protected]

http://www.shyamantab.com/

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4.instructuional design theories