REVISED EDITION

USEFll. REf1NC fOR!

~

.

fiRCHITECTORfiL THEORIES OF DESIGN

BY: CiORGE: S. Slll.\JIIN i-1-A~~RES INTERIOR. DESIGNEJ!S

ARCHITECTURAL THEORY

OF DESIGN THE NEW LADDER

TYPE CURRICULUM

GEORGE SALINDA SALVAN ... fuap ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

College of Engineering and Architecture Baguio Colleges Foundation 1980-1988

First and lone graduate of B.S. Architecture, 1963 North of Manila, St. Louis University Baguio City

Former instructor 1965-1969 at St. louis University Recipient of various ACE certificates, Architects Continuing

Education Program A licensed Architect, active practitioner and

a licensed building constructor, inventor and a board topnotcher. Past president of United Architects Phils. Baguio Chapter 1982 and 1983 Elected National Director; UAP, Regional District. I for the year 1987. Conferred the title of " FELLOW" United Architects Phils.

College of Fellows, October, 1988

JMC PRESS INC. 388 Quezon Avenue, Quezon City

Philippine Copyright 1999 by: JMC PRESS, INC. and GEORGES. SALVAN

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be ~eproduced in any manner without permission of the publisher.

FIRST EDITION, 1986 SECOND EDITION, 1993 THIRD EDITION, 1999

ISBN: 971 -11 -1 027-X Published and Printed by: JMC PRESS, INC. 388 Quezon Avenue, Quezon City Tel. Nos.: 410-9534 781-9187 Telefax: 712-4929 E-mail Address: jmcpress@info.com.ph

Distributed by: GOODWILL BOOKSTORE 388 Quezon Avenue, Quezon City Tel. Nos.: 732-7433/36 410-6070 Fax No.: 7 41 -4289 E-mail Address: wholesale@gbs-one.com Web Site: http://www.goodwillbookstore.com

Dedicated to all future Architects

The hope for a functional, comfortable and convenient designs for better living.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The completion of this book was made into reality through the patient and hardworking artist and graduate of architecture, Mr. Jerry Jun Suyat who spent sleepless nights with the illustrations and all of the layouts of the dummy.

Special thanks and mention is also acknowledged to the artists who made all the illustrations notably, Clamor Lecitona from NU, who also prepared the cover, Johnny Camsol, Fermin Balangcod, Roy Pagador, Rey Puno, all from BCF and Reesa Angela Palaganas of SLU.

To those who lent unselfishly their books, like Architect Mike Caluza, Fe Oespabiladeras, Dean Avelino Cruz of BCF, and to the BCF library through Ms. Macabiog for understanding my late returns of borrowed books.

To Mr. Luis V. Canave who guided me on the complete process of publishing and printing of books and to Mr. Francisco C. Malicsi, Teresita G. Espinoza, Eduardo C. Villanueva and Enrico P. Gomez for their untiring cooperation in preparing the manuscripts typewritten by Thelma i. Villareal, in computerized typesetting. The many students of architecture whose curiosity about and interest in the Theory of Design and its realization in book form have been a source of inspiration.

v

PREFACE

The practice of Architecture involves both the conception of an idea and its ultimate expres-sion in building materials. The process of developing this idea to a point at which a solution of the problem at hand is reached is known as "Architectural Design". Design must concern itself with both the practical and the aesthetic. if the resulting structure is to be satisfactory to an individual or a community, the two must always be combined and not separated.

For some time, students of architecture throughout the country have felt the need for a book dealing with general ideas concerning the Theory of Design, a book that would be in every sense introductory, defining the various approaches. outlining the different technical prob-lems-and relating these two types of material to the creative side of art as well as to its uses in everyday life.

Contemporary principles are concerned with planning for human needs and are not confined to the field of architecture alone. Science, Sociology, and Economics also contribute to be successful design of a building. The Architect of Today must be conscious of the character of present-day culture and its effects upon the building which house the activities of this civilization . He must design in terms of his physical and social environment.

Since.this author has been teaching the Theory of Design subject. way back in 1965, there has oeen so many changes, notably new products in plastics and glass which gave us new conceptions of the extent of space, while the abili ty to heat and light our interiors more effi-ciently has imparted a different quality to the shelters in which we work. play and rest. All these innovations taken together have made possible the open, flexible plan, and thus architecture has changed in character.

Realizing this fast growing changes in Architectural Design as seen in the forms, shapes and images which respond to project needs, the Ministry of Education in cooperation with the United Architects Philippines met sometime in 1979 to revise the Architectural Curriculum to a 5-year step ladder course, and came up with a more relevant syllabus for The Theory of Architectural Design. Scanning the subject matters, the authors realized that not less than 30 books and different topics is needed for references. This is the reason that led to the author's compiling of notes to suit this new curriculum and infuse the new topics involved. Majority of the topics on architectural design are behavioral relations between man and building, ecological interactions between building and nature and the role of building in man's perception of and orientation to the cityscape.

VII

viii

Briefly, the aims of this book are as follows: To outline a number of approaches to Design (Physical, intellect~al, religious, symbolic, historical, etc.). To describe and characterize the different techniques or media in design with their respective limitations and advantages; to convey an idea of planning and designing of the art object and of the building . Other pur-poses of this book is to provide practitioners and students of designing and planning with a review of the new design methods and with examples of each. It may also be of interest to anyone outside the design professions who is concerned with creative behaviour and with technological change.

The chapters are arranged in sequence, Part I is for the first semester which deals mostly with forms and Part II is for the second semester which deals with spaces. Each topic is sum-marized in such a manner as to guide the instructor to finish and discuss all topics in the alloted time of more than 40 hours per semester.

LIST OF CONTENTS

-PART ONE-(FORMS- TWO-DIMENSION)

Chapter 1 INFLUENCE ON ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ................. ..... ..... 1 General Influence, 2 Influence of Nature, 3 Essentials of the Structure, 18 Invisible Structure, 18 Visible Structure, 19 Form, Surface, Texture, Tone and Color, 61

Chapter 2 CHROMATIC ENERGY OF ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN Psychological Effects of Color, 70 Color as an Expression Element of Design, 74

69

Chapter 3 PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION ..... .. .............................. .. ...... 79

Chapter

Chapter

Contrast, 86 Proportion and Antrhopometrics, 94 Scale, 125 Balance and Gravitational Curves, 129 Rhythm, 138 Unity and Hierarchy, 142 Character, 151

4 PLAN COMPOSITION ... ...... ........ .................................... ...... . 159 Scheme, 160 Secondary Principles, 162

5 VISUAL AOUITY AND PERCEPTION Spatial Perception, 160 Visual or Optical Illusions. 180 Monocular Cues to Depth, 189

165

Chapter 6 CONCEPTUALIZATION TECHNIQUES OF DESIGN ............... 197 Architectural Concepts, 198 Creativity, 205 Methodology' 210

Chapter 7 FUNCTIONAL GROUPING AND ZONING ... .......... ~ ........... ..... 215 Horizontal Disposition, 216 Activity Analysis .and Linkages, 2Z7

ix

-PARTTWO-(SPACES -THREE-DIMENSION)

Chapter 8 SPACE ARTICULA nON ...... ...... . ....... .. .. .. ...... ..................... .... 233 The Concept of Space, 234 The Process of Space Organization, 242 Spatial Qualities, 243 Space to Space Relationships, 245 Spatial Organization, 251 Space Articulation, 265 Kinesthetic Qualities of Space, 275

Chapter 9 GEOMETRY.............................................. .... .. ........ .. ..... .......... 28 Appearance of the Structure, 282 Forms and Image, 284 Circulation-Movement Through Space, 286 Stairs, 299 Semantics, 300 Signs, Signals and Symbols, 301 Visual Expression of Function, 314 Visual expression of Material Production, 322

Chapter 1 0 RESPONSE TO CONTEXT ........ ..... . . . . . . . . . .... .. .. . . ...... .... .. ... .. .. .. . 327 The Building Envelope, 328 Energy and Architectural Design, 336 Energy Consumption in Buildings, 336 Building Process, 337 Environmental Planning, 341 Site Selection, 342 Elements of Site Control, 343 Passive Solar Planning, 348 Building Design, Configuration, 359

Chapter 11 ENCLOSURE ..... ........................ ............ .......... .. ...................... 371 Qualities of Architectural Space, -372 Openings, Structure and Enclosing Planes, 373 Degree of Enclosure, Light and Views, 373

Chapter 12 SYSTEMS .. . .. .. .. .. ... .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 387

X

Environmental Concepts and the Interior, 388 Mechanical and Electrical Systems, 388 User Requirement Architectural System, 392 Handicapped Users, 399 Structural and Engeneering Concepts, 400 Construction Methods and Structures as

expression of Architectura I Design, 411

Chapter 13 ECONOMIC . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .............. ... . . . . . . . ......... .... 435 The Cost of the Building Structures, 436 First Costs, 436 Maintenance Related Design, 437 Architectural Safety, 437 Building Materials as Expression of Design, 438 Honesty of Expression, 438 Economy of Materials in Design, 439 Visual Expression of Material, 440 New Materials, 447 Biotechture and the Nature of Materials, 450 Indigenous Materials, 451

Chapter 14 HUMAN FACTORS .................................................................. 457 Socio-cultural Variables, 458 Psychological Considerations, 458 Personal Space, 460 Psychological and Social Space, 460 Territoriality, 464 Perceptual Quality of the Designed Environment, 465 Human -Architectural Interfaces, 466 Human Needs, 466 Value, Aspiration and Culture, 468 How Value Influence The Environment, 472 How Environment Influence Value, 473 Folk Beliefs in Architecture, 475 Vernacular Architecture and lndiginous Technology, 478 Feng Shui, 479 Bibliography, 496 Index, 497

xi

INFLUENCES ON ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

2

I. GENERAL INFLUENCES

NEEDS OF MAN

1. PHYSICAL NEEDS a. Self preservation . . . .

Food, shelter, clothing-basic add to this basic needs: power, water, transportation, ecological balance, education, sports, medical, livelihood

b. Reproduction-for the population to increase and continue in existence.

SHEL TEA . .. is something that covers, protects, or defends as a roof that shields one from the elements and changes.

The modern man's shelter shalf have:

1. Necessities-warm, dry house with glazed doors, windows, sanitation and permanency.

2. Conveniences - rooms shall be arranged economically. Circulations are studied according to functions, such as the kitchen for food preparation, bedroom for sleep and bathroom for cleanliness.

3. Comforts - this must contain the labor-saving devices which provide heat, ventilation, and instant communication. The furnishings are designed for comfort.

2. EMOTIONAL NEEDS The emotional reactions of man have to do with ~he instincts stirred by the forces of religion and art and with the desire to indulge in recreation . Art in its broadest interpretation, assumes the various familiar forms painting, sculpture, music, lite-rature.

3. INTELLECTUAL NEEDS Educat ion, science and government, demand a proper architectural setting. In-tellect or reason alone may erect a utilitarian building; emotion will endow it with beauty and interest.

ACTIVITIES OF MAN

If life is to exist and civilization is to develop, there are fundamental i~putses or desires' which must be satisfied. These forces may be called the stim~.Jii .~o action. Their effect upon life and architecture, may be designated as Resulting Manifestations: RM

1 . Desire for Preservation -in obtaining food, shelter, clothing and security, civilized rna n must have commerce, government and religion. These activities call for their accom-panying structures, or architecture.

2. Desire for Recognition -this is a desire for prestige, pride and ambition, social status, physical supremacy, intellectual attainment, personal or civic, result in the-struggle for position.

As a result, man build palaces, skyscrapers, or communities may erect cathedrals or public buildings and monuments.

3. Desire for Response - This arises from the gregarious nature of man, from his wish for love, friendship, and sociability.

In seeking the companionship of his fellow creatures, man congregates. His social instincts call for fraternal buildi f)QS and city clubs. His semi -public buildings must contain banquet halls and ball rooms; his home must have a living room to make human association possible.

4. Desire for Self-Expression-This is the urge of man to as,sert himself as an individual. To do things in his own particular way. This is responsible for aesthotic expression; for architecture in its highest forrn, whicfi result in building of theatres, museums, etc. To show that he is the b~ in sports or recreation, encouraged the building of stadia, bowling alleys, gymnasiums, etc.

II. INFLUENCES OF NATURE Climate and topography influence the life and habits of a nation. They decide what foods shall be grown and what occupations shall be followed. They determine what regions will develop farmers, 88 ilors or merchants. Climate aids in giving to races their own particular traits. These races in turn create architecture with local or national characteristics.

A. CLIMATE This affect the habits and temperaments of people. Those near the sea are quiet, taCiturn and bold people. They are easy going and care-free and produce an architecture different from people in the cold and forested areas, whose .people plan in advance. This requires in-itiative, patience and energy.

In the arctic, regions, civilization is less advanced as climatic conditions are so unprotective and absorb so much energy that the natives have little surplus with which to devek>p civiliza-tion or art.

In the temperate zones, people are energetic and progress is assured. Here, man may plan and may realize his ambitions without interference from droughts, mons~. blizzards, or tropical fevers .

3

4

EFFECT ON ARCHITECTURE

WARMER CLIMATES The buildings rnay be more flamboyant in their conception and usually a closer rela-tions exists between the works of man and nature where vegetation is more luxuriant, more attention is paid to the color and tex-ture of surface treatment. Plain wall areas give an opportunity for contrast with the colors of the foliage.

1. PLANS WARMER CLIMATES

The plans are more open and often include courts or patios.

oPEN COURT

![~\\ BREt:ZE

2. STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

f

COLDER CLIMATES The architecture is more severe and the de-signer depend less upon the landscape tor final effect. Colors are usually more sub dued.

COLDER CLIMATES More compact in arrangement. The severe cold winds is avoided by providing a cover from portion of the building to the other.

Ill!

In the past, walls were load bearing, wall thickness were thick, to carry the load of the floors and the roof and also to resist the extremes of temperature and to protect man from his enemies.

Today, modern man erects structures to protect his investment from depreciation and himself from the curiosity of his neighbors. Walls are no longer bearing walls. They no longer carry loads as thin as the material will permit. The development of in-sulation makes it possible to keep out the heat and the cold in a highly satisfactory manner.

Load is di!?triMed to the beam 1 1 1 l I ~ 1 I 1 l 1 L ~ i ... 5

v 1-ttload carried by columns Thirt wall

thin ~Nail 1 '7 ' Insulation

3. PROTECTIVE ELEMENTS

The roof protects the interior from the elements of climate like typhoon, heat of the sun, etc.

WARMER CLIMATE COLDER CLIMATES - In the Past-

The roofs are usually rather flat and colour-ful. As in the rich red and brown tile roof of Italy.

The roofs become steeper and less colour-ful. The necessity of shedding the rain and snow makes the greater pitch to the roofs more practical.

5

6

I Entrance porches are the result of the desire for protection. The driving rains and cold w inds made these porches a de.sirable adjunct to the entrances.

0 0 u 0 0

0 -Modern Developments-

However, with new inventions and innovations, steel and concrete construction. in-sulation, and modern drainage make almost any kind of utilitarian roof possible.

The roof may be flat even in cold countries and invisible from the ground. The roof has now become a terrace, and the accompanying fresh air and sunshine contribute to the health of a nation.

l -I

~

{ I

4. CIRCULATORY ELEMENTS Windows - permit the entrance of light and circulation of air Doors, 9tairs, corridor-circulation of human traffic and materials

- In the Past -WARMER CLIMATES

Windows are usually small in order not to admit too muct light, which produces ex-cessive heat and glare.

warm

COLDER Cll MATES Windows are usually large in order to cap-ture the greatest amount of light, and heat the interior.

----J

\ \~ cold

-Modern -In the architecture of the 20th Century, there has ceased to be the relation between windows and climate that existed in the past. We can now heat or cool our houses in a satisfactory manner with less reference to the sizes of openings and windows often simply contribute to the cheerfulness of the interior.

In the last few years, there has come a new conception of hygienic and therapeutic possibili-ties of the window. A type of glass has been devek>ped which does not filter out the ultra-violet rays of the sunshine; as does ordinary window glass.

Man also invented machines for air conditioning, heating, ventilating and this machine age brought about the suggestion of windowless buildings.

5. DECORATIVE ELEMENTS WARMER CLIMATES

With brilliant sunshine, pronounced mould-ings are unnecessary and undesirable. When mouldings are used, the curves should be f latter and more subtle.

COLDER CLIMATES Sculpture and mouldings are usually deep-ly cu rved and undercut to catch the max-imum amount of light.

7

8

Color is a decorative element which in warm countries assumes an importance rivaling that of carvings. Plain wall surfaces in white or light pastel tones, with their various textures catch the sunlight and allow an interesting play of shadows from projecting roots and adjoin-ing trees. Colored tiles are also conspicuous in the architecture in the mediterranean coun-tries.

B. TOPOGRAPHY In the earliest periods of civilization, the elements of topography-mountains, deserts and seas-constituted barriers to migration. This retarded the intermingling of people and the cross-fertilization of cultures. Ideas traveled slowly, and the customs and atts of different countries assumed definite national patterns.

However, as navigation became more of a science, the sea that had been a barrier became an aid to travel and communic_ation.

Topography, in its broadest sense, may mean the general terrain or contour of the surface of the entire country. If the country is small and the topography is uniform, there tends to be a similarity of character in the architecture. It may be nationalistic and may assume traits com-mon to the entire area .

MOUNTAIN REGIONS

In a setting of rocks and cliffs with violent changes in the direction of the contour of the site, the building should appear to grow out of its surroundings. The buildings should be 'informal'. The floor levels of the major parts should follow as far as is con-venient, the slope of the ground. If it crowns an eminence. its steep roofs with vertical effects may serve as a fitting term-ination to a commanding height.

LEVEL COUN-TRY

While an unsymmetrical or informal plan is possible on such a site. 'Formal' or balanced scheme is more satisfactory.

sJopiHg site in for-rna lity

0 0 0 0 D

Level Site Formality

C. MATERIALS The gifts of nature for the structures of man are limestone, marble, pine and mahogany, etc. (timber) clay for brick and ore for metals. In the past, certain materials have had a local use and have influenced the development of an indigenous architecture. Since there was lack of methods of conveyance. However, they have changed as new contacts were made and as new developments came into existence. Ideas were borrowed, commerce and industry grew and now modern transportation has made building materials international in distribution and use.

Ill. INFLUENCE OF MAN 1. SOCIAL CONDITIONS: Architecture, because it is the most permanent and cumulative-reflects the social structure of the period in which it is developed. The interests of the people dictate the type and ap-pearance of its buildings.

Stable government and improved social condition eliminate the necessity of many protective features such as high fences, shutters, wrought iron or steel railings tor doors aRd windows, broken glass and barbed wire on top of fences. Comfort and convenience now control archi-tecture.

Example: 1. Periods ... The different architectural characters in the different periods of ar-

chitecture is shown in the interests of man at that time as shown in their build ings.

In this 20th Century, our social structure has become so complex that confusion rather than simplicity is its chief characteristic. The automobile has made it pos-sible for us to live many miles from our work but has created a traffic problem.

The movies, radio, t.v. and transportation have brought us knowledge of foreign countries. Standardization is more prevalent than individualism.

9

10

Congestion, economic pressure requires proximity of allied f ields of endeavor and adds to the problems of the architect and city planner. This complexity of our social system is reflected in our architecture.

2. Man's Personality.

By his appearance, something is known of his interests from the type of house in which he lives. In a similar manner, it is possible to trace a comparison bet ween the personality of a nation as reflected in its clothing and its attitude toward architecture dS seen in its buildings. Clothes give an indication of the simplicity or complexity of the existence of its inhabitants which in turn controls the development of its architecture.

GREEK ... .. .. .... ....... ...... ...... ...... .... .. . ... ........ ...... .................. DIGNITY Scholarly and philosophical refinement was characteristic of the lives of people, we find the costume consisted of a simple, flowing robe. Much attention was paid to the body and to physical health. The existence of the Greeks was reduc-ed to the essentials, and this was reflected in their dress and architecture. They did not build on a grand scale, but rather sought for purity of detail and develop-ment of technical skill. Ornateness in dress had no place in their simple here ac-tivities.

FRENCH RENAISSANCE This was a period of multiplicity of detail in court life, in dress and in archi-tecture . Social etiquette was so complicated that all naturalness was aban-doned. Life was artificial and theatrical. and likewise the costumes of the period . Powdered wigs and brocaded coats made congruous the jeweled canes and lace frills . The furniture was colorful, but the chairs were often straight and uncomfortable. All this splendor would have been inappropri ate in a simple setting. The architecture had to be ornate in order to har-monize with the activities which it housed. Buildings were crowded with rococo details wl;lich hid structural lines and often prevented truth of ex-pression.

This elaborate architectu re lined wide avenues lavishly decorated with fountains and gardens-all designed for the purpose of being ostentatious.

VICTORIAN The flowing whiskers, beribboned bonnets, mutton- leg sleeves, and bustles were simply a reflection of the jig-saw ornament and sheet-metal cornices of the buildings of that period. Again, it was an ugly and drab variety, without the color of the French Renaissance.

CONTEMPORARY Although present-day civilization is complex, we have been blessed with simple attire for both men and women. The dress of today is probably due to the fact that the science of medicine and health has kept step with other developments, and our people have been impressed with the necessity of fresh air, sunshine, and exercise. These were difficult to obtain under the restrictions of the 19th C. The desire for freedom of movement and an interest in athletics is reflected in the contemporary movement in architecture, which, in seeking to inter-pret buildings in terms of the needs of the people, is placing the emphasis upon plain wall surfaces.

11

CONTEMPOAAAV

St. &Js1Is . Moscow, 10TH 0e11tury

Alc::a zar, Gegovia. 15TH

12

Ta.) Mal1al, Agr.a. 11TH amtury

6o111ic CatHedral. Reint?, 17TH cenrury

Alr force Cl1a~ Colorado ~~~ l90Z

3. Man's Interests.

It has been pointed out that the activities and .interests of man are directly responsible for the type of architecture which he develops. This is showl'l in the typical structures like the

house-which provides shelter for man during his hours of rest. factory -offers a place in which to work and to produce a commodity of

exchange. church - affords spiritual relaxation and opportunity for worship.

1. HOUSE - in the past, houses were small and compact, the hall was used as a workroom and dining room. When the scene changed from the farm to the city, wealth and servants, and large houses were easily maintained. This was the age of pretense and show. Plans were complicated and of various sizes, shapes, disorganized and unrelated to human needs. This was the Victorian House

The Contemporary house-is called a functional type and one of comfort, There is a desire to take full advantage of sunlight .and air. The walls are opened as much as possible, and the interior is related to the exterior terraces and gardens in a pleasing manner. Thus, the principle of comfort prevails In the 20th Century designs.

13

14

2. FACTORY -in the early days, man often worked at home, it was the age of craftsmanship, the period of individual effort. Those who created products required by their fellow men took pride in each article. Business was personal rather than impersonaL

When the industrial period arrived, with the last lialf of the 19 century, the small shops grew into factories, and little thought was given to efficient ar-rangements or pleasant working conditions. Labor was unorganized with few windows, light and air was insufficient and the result was gloom and in-effeciency.

The present century-an age of competition and mass production. There must be efficient operation in order to compare favorably in price and quality. Proper working conditions have been outgrowth of this kind of business life, and as a result, well-planned factories and pleasant surroundings are often typical of portions of our industrial cities.

3. CHURCH-in the past, people worshipped different gods and only the priests enter the temples. The exterior then received more attention. Then the chris-tian religion built churches to hold congregation to participate in the wor-shipping of God. For that reason the interior is in many respects more impor-tant than the exterior.

The medieaval churches was not only a place for worship but also a center of education for the masses who could not read or write. The carvings and sculpture of the exterior and interior furnished a chronology of biblical events.

When the people learned socially to read and write, especially with the inven-tion of the printing press,-sculpture became, instead of the pictorial, a stressed decorative quality. The preaching type of church was developed, causing an auditorium, to be included. This was a participation of mental rather than a physical one.

Modern churches now are designed to provide mental, physical, as well as spiritual relaxation. The modem church has now classrooms for educational work, halls and parlors for social gatherings and a gymnasium for the exer-cise of the body.

0 0 "

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ..

0 ..

0 .. 0 0 0 _., u 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 oj_ 0 0 .. "

0

cont-emporary church forms

20th CENTURY ARCHITECTURE

The present century has brought countless inventions and discoveries. Old standards of thought and living have been modified or abandoned. New activities have called for struc-tures to house them, and new materials and types of construction have made these build-ings possible.

a. TRANSPORTATION-made possible the carrying of all kind of building materials from one end of the earth to the other and has created structures unknown a few generations ago. The automobile has made necessary the garages, filling stations, and bus terminals. It has rendered almost obsolete our narrow streets designed for the horse and buggy. The airplane has brought about the develop-ment of airports, while new types of steamships with increased tonnage have given added importance to docks and warehouse. The expansion of the railroads has created the magnificent passenger and freight terminals and has made possible our large in.distrial centers.

b. COMMERCE- large, complex and taller buildings are constructed to house the new business activities like banking, finance, etc.

c. EDUCATION -with mass education, schools and colleges are scientifically planned, and their functions are numerous and involved. The newspaper is also a powerful agency in the attempt to keep people inform-ed upon the current affairs of the nations, and libraries and museums offer unlimited facilities to those who would read and study. In the past, museums were designed to resemble palaces with little thought to the education and comfort of the public. The modern museum is designed to display the art of the past and the present in order that it may be studied and ap-plied to contemporary needs. Simplicity of arrangement, satisfactory lighting, and ease of circulation are primary requirements.

d. REHABILITATION-labor-saving devices have brought about time for leisure and the need for recreation. There is a universal interest in sports and entertain-ment, both by spectators and participants. As a result, we have theatres and dance halls, arenas, ballparks, golf and city clubs.

15

16

ECONOMIC CONDITIONS: The social life of a nation and the resulting architecture are linked closely with the economic conditions under which people live. The nature of trade, commerce, industry and agriculture determines to a large extent the occupations and standards of living within a particular coun-try. These factors influence the types of buildings erected and the materials used. As nations modify their basic economic institutions through changes in manufacture, trans-portation, and communication, new modes of living come into existence, and new architec-ture must be developed to conform to these customs. We are interested, therefore, in the economic status of individuals as they constitute a nation , and not in their private finances. We are also interested in economy in architecture. Buildings may be so designed that thete is economy of space, of movement, and of materials. These factors control to a large extent the cost of an architectural project. During the present century the concentration of wealth in our cities has been responsible for our attitude toward certain types of architecture. Investments rule our lives, and the process of building must lend an attentive ear to the caprices of finance. We erect structures many stories in height, but mechanical devices render them obsolete in a few years and they must make way for those with later developments. True economy in architecture is not using inte-rior materials but the omission of useless decoration and the inclusion of sensible planning. Man's economic system remained unchanged for centuries-until the present industrial age. Previous to this age of machinery, power and energy were supplied by the hands of man or the backs to animals. Production was relatively slow, and the hours of labor were long. Now electrical or steam power is furnished in almost unlimited quantities, releasing man from the machine and creating new economic and social problems. Man can now work less and pro-duce more.

The future promises shorter hours of labor and longer hours of leisure. This increase in lei-sure suggests a changed mode of living, It will promote the erection of those buildings which have to do with recreation. relaxation and education. More time will be devoted to the reha-bilitation of the mind and body. This possible change in our economic structure may thus, have a profound effect upon our social life and our architecture.

A PREVIEW OF THE COMING OF THE 21st CENTURY At this time, man has already reached the moon, our transportation ~as brought us to space. Man has developed computers to solve in an instant what has been solved in the past for hours, days or even months. New an.d synthetic materials are being discovered and deve-loped in a fast pace. Thereby making the designs of our building more comfortable, and now comes skyscrapers that are built higher and higher. In the initial stages of the computers, man feeds information based from the clients needs, and a schematic sketch comes out of the computer. This can then be fed back to form a massing or a perspective. It can even be manipulated to show the shades and shadows at selected different times of the day. In another proble!T', for a subdivision planning, showing the contours of the lot, the computer can show the. different views.altogether. Other func-tions which it can do are showing the weak spots in a design for structural parts .of a building for the structural designer's guidance. The computer can also store w ith its software all data on materials, specifications, management, schedulings and so many other information that can aid the designer to produce a better, faster and more accurate solutions to designs.

FUTUREHOME by Elizabeth Pennisi For Portia Isaacson, a computer scientist, futurehome is a fantasy come true. The white, two storey, stucco, suburban Dallas home, will be an electronic showcase, but with spiral staircase, hot tub, art gallery and style. A quick call to-or from-a computer ensures that her hot tub will be warm when she arrives or informs her when her teenaged children have got-ten home from school. If a business meeting keeps her from getting home in time for her husband's birthday, a computer controlled scenario, complete with loving messages, ro-mantic lighting, favorite music and appropriate videos, will let him know he hasn't been for-gotten. Answering the door is obsolete. A camera shows who it is by sending a close-up view of newcomers to wherever Isaacson is in the house. Then she can open the door remotely. Can't find the keys or the husband? Via video cameras she can scan shelftops and table sur-faces. Motion censors track each person's room-to-room movements.

It will take 13 computers, 14 telephones, 26 tv monitors, 8 miles (13 kml of wiring, several video casette recorders for this future home. Isaacson has robots for pets, a sculpture of stereo and video components that seem to float in space, futuristic plant stands that are real-ly computer terminals, and a media " command center", that includes four (4) 25-inch (60 em.) tv's, a 40-inch (100 em.) tv projection screen, 2 VCFS, and compact and laser disc players. At futurehome, a master computer is in charge. It receives data from the rest of the house and sends out commands, dimming lights, changing thermostat setting, and switching tv channels and volumes. Using a text-to-speech converter, the computer can answer and make telephone calls. When someone- a housekeeper or tardy teenager, for instance pun-ches in their individualized codes to get into the front door, the computer can be cued to let Isaacson know, either where she is in the home or at work.

It can tell the condition of the house, not only can lights or favorite music be turned on as a person enters a room, a synthesized voice can welcome guests, remind a son to keep his feet off furniture or wake a husband in time for dinner. Heating and airconditioning are regulated electronically, and the computer tracks tempera-tures in each room so that the new occupants can assess airflow throughout the house. Once computerized, the entire house can be run from any one of 10 personal computers by pointing with .a light pen to a particular room pictured on the screen, and designating a task to be completed: lights on or off, specific music to be played, tv show to be recorded. Or "scripts" can be written that coordinate activities for emergencies, normal household maintenance, even family tends to take care of intruders, a security script: If a security sen-sor detects a break-in, the computer could be programmed to flash all the lights, blast the stereos, wake up and tell the residents where the stranger is lurking, perhaps even inform the burglars that they are being filmed.

The Interior looks like the tv series Star Trek. Instead of a wall-sized painting, an elec-tronic sculpture welcome visitors. THe black components of an audio ahd video systems are set into a glosSy, black metal wall on shelves not visible to viewers. Recessed lighting along the wall edges adds to the effect.

'SMART HOUSES' OF THE FUTURE (Turn to page456)

17

18

THE PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN ESSENTIALS OF THE STRUCTURE The various periods of historic developments have left to this age buildings which may be identified as temples, cathedrals, factories and bungalows. These have been built to house the activities of man, and to these structures has been given the name of architecture. Architecture may be a group of buildings or a profession. The term "architecture" is an in elusive one. lt may refer to the process of designing a building and supervising its erection. It may also be regarded as the procedure assisted with the conception of an idea and its realiza-tion in terms of building materials.

Architecture is represented by a building which meets in a satisfactory manner the require ments of logical function, sound construction . and beautiful composition. It is only when all of these qualities are present that good architecture can be said to exist. In its broader aspects, architecture is shelter, not only for man during the various hours of his daily exist-ence-work, recreation and sleep-but also to protect all the activities of human race.

Man begins to create shelter by surrounding space with the materials provided by nature and made usable by the ingenuity of civilized peoples. Space, in itself is indefinable and intangi-ble and has no limits. Yet when it is enclosed with stone and steel according to accepted rules of composition. the result may be called " architecture".

In providing shelter it is to be observed that buildings have walls and roofs, doors and wind-ows, and that these elements are assembled in a simple or complex manner. Whatever the type or character of the building, parts of it are more evident to the observer than others-the exterior is more readily seen and understood than is the arrangement of the rooms, which is called the plan. Thus, there exist the invisible and visible structures, or the plan pat-tern and the apparent volume.

THE INVISIBLE STRUCTURE The plan is the be~inning of a building. It is the foundation upon which the scheme of the structure rests. It relates the various units to each other. It is the most important element of volume and should receive early consideration . whenever the solution of a problem is at-tempted. "We should proceed from within to without" from a satisfactory arrangement of the plan units to the enclosing of these units by the shell which is called the exterior.

fi"ott1 Within to Wiii1out

THE VISIBLE STRUCTURE By enclosing space, volume or mass is created. If this space has. no relation to the activities of man, there exist only the simple geometric forms of the cube, the pyramid or the sphere. If the surfaces of these volumes and the enclosed interiors are treated so that the forms are related to human needs, then they may be regarded as architecture. Visible structure is com-posed of form and surface as follows:

1. FORM MASS or volume or evidence of the 3 dimension

direction -vertical or horizontal axis of the mass shape - geometric qualities

2. SURFACE AREA - surface with two dimensions as in a facade of a building

texture - surface treatment identified with materials whether rough or smooth tone - light and shade caused by openings, projections color - inherent or applied color caused by spectrum hues

FORM In an architectural discussion the accepted definition of form deals with shape and when the figure is three dimensional, it becomes mass.

In architectural composition, mass is more important than surface. In the design of a build-ing, "we should proceed from the general to the particular". from mass to detail. The approach to design should not be through the details of a style but rather through a consi-deration of the mass of the building which grows out of the function for which it is planned.

Ge11eral (Ma%}

part-iculai roof wlrtdows doors walls detai ls

MASS can be vigorous or weak; it can have vitality and strength, or it may be indecisive and faltering . If it is correctly composed in an arresting manner, mass alone will arouse a de-finite emotional reaction. It will stimulate the observer with the sense of its completeness. Ornament should simply enhance a building .

tn order that mass may be decisive, it should be directional. It should be either'horizontal or vertical. !

\

In architecture mass is usually volume, and the surfaces which enclose space have area.

19

Horizot1ta\ 'lertical

Simple rectsngular tnaS$

Ma JOI a11d two 111i11or horizo11tal$ (emphasi~ 011 tl1e ce11tre ut1it)

20

Domirtat1t vertical with l1orJzo11taiG

Major Horizontal , Two major 'lerticats Two t11i11or horizontals. (ThiS t?reaks up t11e purely horizontal quali-ty of the compositiott)

Major and rt1it1or hori-zontalS comt:Jined with a dominant ver-tical

Major and mittor ve::.tjcals

VOLUME; A plane extended in a direction other than its intrinsic direction becomes a volume. Con-ceptually, a volume has three dimensions: length, width and depth. All volumes can be ana-lyzed and understood to consist of:

21

22

- solid

l vertices) where several plat1es come together:

~-~---- planes (surfaces) ttte limits or

-lines

bour1daries of a volume.

(edges) where two planes meeT.

a vol~me can either be solid, space displaced by mass, or VOJd, space contained or enclosed by planes.

(void space)

FORM is the primary identifying characteristic of a volume, it is determined by the shapes and interrelationships of the planes that describe the boundaries of the volume.

1. VISUAL PROPERTIES OF FORM a. Shape: The principal identifying characteristic of form; shape results from

the specific configuration of a form's surfaces and edges.

form of .a tree circular lt1 shape

~ ~

b. Size:

c. Color :

light

0 D 0

Since our perception of a plane's shape is distorted in perspective, we see the true shape of a plane only when we view if frontally.

The real dimensions of form, its length, width and depth; while these dimensions determine the proportions of a form, its scale is determined by its size relative to other forms in its context.

The hue, intensity, and total value of a form's surface; color is the attribute that most clearly distinguishes a form from its environ-ment. It also affects the visual weight of a form .

darker dark

23

D

d. Texture:

e. Position:

The surface characteristic of a form; texture affects both tattile and light-reflective qualities of a form's surfaces.

A form's location relative to its environment or visual field.

left side of a river, left side of t+te road. rtgl1t side of a tree. front oF a hotel. Back of a warehouse.

24

at the tJac k cf the warehouse

TREIOS

f. Orientation:

OBJECT

.left side of the road, 20 ttl away in Front of the hotel

left side or the rNer or right side of tHe trees or t'efore the building or welcome sigt1

A form's position relative to the ground plane, the compass points or to the person viewing the form.

The cardinal points NESW have since remote times been given prime importance among the factors determining the structure of the world. The word orientation comes from "orient" the direction of sunrise. Christian churches were always oriented by the altar to-wards the East. The East as the origin of light is also the source of life. The west as the place Qf the setting sun is filled with all the ter-rors of the earth.

NORm AMIANAN - I~OCANO HllA6A - TA6AL06

WEST EAST ~----------~------------LAUD- ILOCAHO C\4YA- lLOCANO I

-"~"'~""-!.--J - ~-1_ -- Q_ ---- ------ Q_ __ ~>-"~~t.---,.LANE . FRONT t..EFT SlOE RIGHT SIDE JAJ.~

,.[ ' \

\ '

26

WORMS EYE

person viewing -+he form

N I

I ,/ '). :,/ .. , W -- --+--~-(-.--E .

I I s

RELATI\IE TO 5ROUND Pl.At-JE

/

BIRDS EYE

~'NE

. 90 atx>ve groo11d le\lel.

g. Visual Inertia: The degree of concentration and stability of a form; the visual iner-tia of a form depends on its geometry as well as its orientation rela-tive to the ground plane and our line of sight.

~ I

I I

I I

\ I .....

2. our distance from the form 3. lighting conditions 4. the visual field surrounding the form

SHAPE Shape is a plane's primary identifying characteristic. If refers to the edge contour of a plane or the silhouette of a volume. It is the primary means by which we recognize and identity the form of an object. Since it is seen as the line that separates a form from its background, our perception of a form's shape will depend on the degree of visual contrast between the form and its background.

SILHOUETTE 27

In Architecture, we are concerned with the shapes of:

1. planes (floor, walls, ceiling} that enclose space 2. openings (windows, doors) within a spatial enclosure 3. the silhouettes of building forms

PRIMARY SHAPES should be viewed as it is distorted in perspective.

a. t/Je circle: a series of points arranged equally and balanced about a point .

....... -- ......

/ ' I \ 1 \

I \ I ' / ........ __ ..,.

b. the triangle: a plane bounded by three sides, and having three angles.

c. the square: a plane figure having four equal sides and four right angles.

D D 28

CIRCLE: the circle is a centralized, introverted figure that is normally stable and self-centering in its environment, Placing a circle in the center of a field will rein-force its natural centrality.

0 0 0 \,~

~ 0

" 0 I:(' a~ o +-O

,;" ~ a J't'\ o

0 0 0

Placing an element along its circumference, can induce in it an apparent rotary motion.

' . I I \ I \ I ' /

.......... / ..... ___ .....

0000 stable

fixed in place

self-centered dynamic

29

TRIANGLE:

30

Composition of circles and circular segments

... signifies stability When resting on one of its sides, the triangle is an ex-tremely stable figure. When tipped.to stand on one of its vertices, however, it can either be balanced in a precarious state of equilibrium or be unstable and tend to fall over onto one of its sides.

PLAN

SECTION OF AN ART MUSEUM

SQUARE: ... represents the pure and the national. It is a static and neutral figure having no preferred direction. All other rectangles can be considered varia-tions of the square, deviations from the norm by the addition of height or width. Like the triangle, the square is stable when resting on one of its sides, and dynamic when standing on one of its corners.

stable

31

32

PLATONIC SOLIDS The primary shapes can be extended or rotated to generate volumes whose forms are dis-tinct, regular and easily recognizable. These forms are referred to as the platonic solids.

Circles generate spheres and cylinders; triangles generate cones and pyramids; squares generate cubes.

The SPHERE is a centralized and highly concentrated form. It is, like the circle from which is generated, self-centering and normally stable in its environment. It can be inclined toward a rotary motion when placed on a sloping plane. From any viewpoint, it retains its circular shape.

. .... ,

Project fOr a11 agriculture looge by : C. IedouX

-" -:_; .,;_~ chapel : MlSssac:;~wsetts Institute of TeeJ1MT~y'rJy : Eero saant1e11

The CYLINDER is a centralized about the axis defined by the centers of its two circular faces. It can be extended easily along this axis. The cylinder is a stable form, if it rests on one of its circular faces; it becomes unstable when its central axis is inclined.

r'"~ ~stable_Q_ (~0 ~'

Ut1stable "'-

The CONE is generated by rotating an equilateral triangle about its vertical axis. Like the cy-linder, the cone is a highly stable form when resting on its circular base, and unstable when its vertical axis is tipped or overturned. It can also be stood on its apex in a precarious state of balance.

UI1Stabfe

coHical ce11otaph by: E. f!outee

33

34

The PYRAMID . .. has properties similar to those of the cone. Because all of its surfaces are flat planes, however, the pyramid can rest in a stable manner on any of its faces. While the cone is a soft form, the pyramid is relatively hard and angular.

pyramid Of cheo~

The CUBE ... is a prismatic form that has six square faces of equal size, and twelve edges of equal length. Because of the equality of its dimensions, the cube is a static form that lacks apparent movement on direction. It is a stable form except when it stands on one of its edges or corners. Even through its angular profile is affected by our viewpoint, the cube re-mains a highly recognizable form.

e;table

a 110U5B

REGULAR FORMS Regular forms refer to those whose pa_rts are related to one another in a consistent and or-derly manner. They are generally .stable in nature and symmetrical about one or more axes. The platonic soli"s are prime examples of regular forms

OLD Forms can retain their regularity even when transformed dimensionally, or by and the addi-tion or subtraction of elements.

A ~' /J 0 IRREGULAR FORMS Irregular forms are those whose parts are dissimilar in nature and related to one another in an inconsistent manner. They are generally asymmetrical and more dynamic than regular forms. They can be regular forms from which irregular elements have been subtracted or an irregular composition of regular forms.

r---..-- ..._ ' --\ --7 \ / \ / \

35

36

Since we deal with both solids and voids in architecture, regular forms can be contained within irregular forms. Similarly, irregular forms can be enclosed by regular forms.

irregulzsr composi'tion oF r~ular fbr-ms .

..---

L regul2!r composrriot1 of regular fbnt1s

/~ 4 v~~'

d Irregular forms withiH a regular field

THE TRANSFORMATION OF FORM All other forms can be understood to be transformations of the platonic solids, variations that are generated by the manipulation of their dimensions, or by the subtraction or addition of elements.

1. DIMENSIONAL TRANSFORMATIONS: A form can be transformed by altering one or more of its dimensions and still retain

its family identity. A cube for example, can be transformed into other prismatic forms by altering its height, width, or length. It can be compressed into a planar form, or stretched Into a linear one.

::-::~~ I cr:.---1 I I I t I I t I I I t I ...... _ I _ _.,

- .... --~ .... , ......... ,.,.,..-

A spherical form can be transformed into any number of ovoid or ellipsoid forms by elongating it along an axis.

A pyramidal form can be transformed by altering the dimensions of its base, modifying the height of its apex, or by moving the apex off of its normal vertical axis.

I I

/ I

-----~

A cube can be transformed into other rectangular prismatic forms by shortening or elongating its height, width or depth.

37

38

--, ...... _-_-_-: .. -.-....... --- ,. __ -- .. _._ _ .... _ ,. _.,_--:

' '

' ~ ~ \ ;(' \ \ 0

' 0 ' I ' I

' ' I

0 0 0 l r

2. SUBTRACTIVE TRANSFORMATlONS:

. 0 . .

' r

A form can be transformed by subtracting a portion of its volume. Depending on the extent of the subtractive process, the form can retain its initial identity, or be transformed into a form of another family. For example, a cube can retain its identity as a cube even though a portion of it is removed, or be transformed slowly into a polyhedron approx-imating a sphere.

SUBTRACTIVE FORMS: We search for regularity and continuity in the forms we see within our field of vision.

If a platonic solid is partially hidden from our view, we tend to complete its form in a regu-lar manner, and visualize it as if it were whole. Similarly, when regular forms have frag-ments missing from their volumes, they can retain their formal identities if we perceive them as if they were whole and complete. We refer to these mutilated forms as sub-tractive forms.

\ I / ' I ' / I \ I I

__ .... ...__!' _ _/ ___ _ _ .L-J--...J--..1

Because they are highly recognizable, forms that are simple and geometrically regu-lar, such as the platonic solids, adapt readily to subtractive treatment. These forms will retain their formal identities if portions of their volumes are removed without deteriorating their edges, corners and overall profile.

Ambiguity regarding a form's original identity will result if the portion removed from its volume erodes its edges and drastically alters its profile.

In the series of figures below, at what point does the square figure with a corner portion removed become an "l" configuration of two rectangular planes

..-----.--,

' .

....----,---., l \ --~----, ----; ---- --1 l I I I

I I I l

J Volumes may be subtracted from a form to create recessed entrances, well-defined, pri-vate courtyard spaces, or window openings shaded by the vertical and horizontal sur-faces of the recesses.

39

I I I

40

3. ADDITIVE TRANSFORMATIONS:

A form can be transformed by the addition of elements to its volume. The nature of the additive process will determine whether the identity of the initial form is retained or altered.

IL REDE.NTORE vetrice 1577 -92 A11drea falladio

ADDITIVE FORMS: While a subtractive form results from the removal of a portion of its original volume,

an additive form is produced by the addition of another form of its volume.

+

FOUR {4) BASIC possibilities for two forms to group together are: 1. by SPATIAL TENSION -this type of relatiooship requires that the two forms be

relatively close to each other, or share a common visual trait such as shape, material of color.

2. by EDGE to EDGE CONTACT -in this type of relationship, two forms share a comn1on edge, and can pivot about that edge.

3. by FACE to FACE CONTACT -this type of relationship requires the tw,o forms to have flat, planar surfaces that are parallel to each other.

4. by INTERLOCKING VOLUMES-in this type of relationship, two forms interpe-netrate each other's space. These forms need not share any visual traits.

t< !> 41

.--1 I I I I '-- -

42

Additive fOfms, resulting from the accretion of elements to one another, can be charac-terized generally by their ability to grow and merge with other forms. For us to perceive additive groupings as unified compositions of form, as figures in our visual field , the com-ponent forms must be .related to one another in a coherent and close-knit manner.

In order to categorize additive forms according to the nature of the relationship that exist among the component forms as well as their overall configurations.

THERE ARE FIVE (51 DIAGRAMS as shown below. 1 .. CENTRALIZED FORMS - - -

r------, I I I I : I

Consist of a number of secondary forms clustered about dominant, central, parent forms.

l -~). ~

TEWAETTO,S ~ETRO IH ~.Rbm6 -- ~m aattrmtts

2. LINEAR FORMS-- -Consist of forms arranged sequentially in a row.

A linear form can result from a proportional change in a form's dimensions, or the arrangement of a series of forms along a line. In the latter case, the series of forms may be repetitive, or they may be dissimilar in nature and organized by a separate and distinct element such as a wall or path.

d------~J DDDDDDDDD

.._....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~

43

44

A linear form can be segmented or curvilinear to res-pond to conditions of its site such as topography, view, or vegetation.

a linear form can be used to front or define an edge of an exterior space, or de-fine a plane of entry to the spaces behind it.

A linear form can be manipulated to enclose space.

u A linear form can be oriented vertically as a tower element to fix a point in

space.

A linear form can act as an organizing element to which a variety of forms can be attached.

examples: row houses, tovv 1hous.~

- - - - - - - - - - - -+-

3. RADIAL FORMS-- -Are compositions of linear forms that extend out ward from central forms in

a radial manner.

45

46

A radial form. consists of linear forms that extend outward from a centrally located .core element in a radiating manner. It combines the aspects of centrality and linearity into a single composition .

The core is either the symbolic or functional cen~er of the organization. Its central position can be articulated with a visually dominant form, or it can merge with and become subservent to the radiating arms.

The radiating arms, having properties similar to those of linear forms, give a radial form its extroverted nature. They can reach-out and relate or attach them-selves to specific features of their site . They can expose their long surfaces to desirable conditions of sun, wind, view, or space.

Radial forms can grow into a network where several centers are linked by linear forms.

The organization of a radial form can best be seen and understood from an aeiral view. When it is viewed from ground level, its central core element may not be clearly visible, and the radiating patter~ of its linear arms may be obscured or distorted through perspective.

4."CLUSTEREO FORMS- - -Consist of forms that are grouped together by proximity or the sharing of a

common visual trait.

co& 0 00

While a centrali.ted organization has a strong geometrical basis for the order-ing of its forms, a clustered organization groups its forms according to functional requirements of size, shape or proximity. Lacking the introverted nature and geo-metrical regularity of centralized forms, a clustered organization is flexible enough to incorporate forms of various shapes, sizes, and orientations into its structure.

Considering the flexibility of clustered organizations, their forms may be or-ganized in the following ways:

1. They can be attached as appendages to a larger parent form or space.

2. They can be related by proximity alone to articulate and express their volumes as individual entities.

r.n ~

3. They can interlock their volumes and merge into a single form that has a variety of faces.

47

48

G.N. BLACI< HOtJ5E, ~KRA6SYDEP: Mat1cHeGter-by- tke-~ Ma5~acl1u~ett~ 1eez-93 ?Gatn:1y at1d :;tearHc;

5. GRID FORMS- - -Are modular forms whose relationships are regulated by three-dimensional

grids. A grid may be defined as two or more intersecting sets of regularly spaced

parallel lines. It generates a geometric pattern of regularly spaced points (where the grid line intersect) and regularly shaped fields.

The most common grid is based on the geometry of the square. Because of the equality of its dimensions e:md its bilateral symmetry, a square grid is essential-ly neutral, non-hierarchical, and non-directional. It can be used to break the scale of a surface down into measurable units and give it an even texture. It can be used to wrap several surfaces of a form and unify them with its repetitive and per-vasive geometry.

The square grid, when projected into the third dimension, generates a spatial network of reference points and lines, within this modular frame work, any num-ber of forms and spaces can be visually organized.

ROTATED GRIDS

ARTICULATION OF FORM Articulation refers to the manner in which the surfaces of a form come together to define its shape and volume. An articulated form clearly reveals the edges of its surfaces and the cor-ners at which they meet. Its surfaces appear as planes with distinct shapes; their overall con-figuration is legible and easily perceived. Similarly, an articulated gmup of forms accen-tuates the joints between its constituent forms to visually express their individuality. A form and its surface planes can be articulated by: FOUR WAYS

1. differentiating adjacent surfaces with a change in material, color. texture or pattern.

rougl1

49

50

2. developing the corner as a distinct linear element independent of the surfaces.

3. removing the corner to physically separate adjacent ptanes.

4. lighting the form to create sharp distinctions of light and dark at its corners.

In contrast to the above, the corners of a form can be rounded and smoothed over to em-phasize the continuity of its surfaces or a material , color, texture or pattern can be carried across a corner and the adjoining surfaces to de-emphasize the individuality of the surface planes and emphasize instead the volume of a form.

EDGES & CORNERS For a comer to be formally active in our visual field, there must be more than a slight devia-tion in the geometry of the adjoining planes. We search for regularity and continuity in the forms within our visual field, and we will tend, therefore, to regularize or smooth out slight ir-regularities in the forms we see. For example, a wall plane that is bent only slightly will ap-pear to be a single, f lat plane, perhaps w ith a surface imperfection. A corner could not be perceived.

... .... ---.... .... .

'":."

At what point do these formal deviations become an acute angle? A right angle?

LLL a segmented line 00 ........ .. ........ . . 00 ......... .... ....... 00 oo ... oo a straight line?

a circular segment? a change in lines contour?

t::::==---CORNERS define the meeting of two planes. If the two planes sil'(lply touch, and the corner remains unadorned, the appearance of the corner will depend on the visual treatment of the adjoining surfaces. This corner condition emphasizes the volume of a form .

51

52

FOUR WAYS A corner condition can be VISUALLY Reinforced 1. by introducing a separate and distinct element that is independent of the surfaces it

joins. This element articulates the corner as a linear condition, defines the edges of the adjoining planes, and becomes a positive feature of the form.

2. if an opening is introduced at the corner. one of the plane will appear to bypass the other. This opening de-emphasizes the corner, weakens the definition of the volume within the form, and emphasizes the planar qualities of the surfaces.

3. if neither plane is extended to define the corner, a volume of space is c~eated tore-place the corner. This corner condition deteriorates the form's volume, allows the in-terior space to leak outward and clearly reveals the surfaces as planes In space.

---r-,~-~-, I I I I I 1 1 I I I

----

4. Rounding off the corner emphasizes the continuity of a form's surfaces, the com-pactness of its volume, and softness of its contour. The scale of the radius is impor-tant . If too small , it becomes usually insignificant; if large, it affects the interior space it encloses and the exterior form it describes .

. \i i ,i I l

Tke cort1er co11ditio11 detailed ( defiHil1g ~ e')(pressi119 the rneefi11g of elemet1+5.

53

museum cor11er unadort1ed (volume of form rG empka-5i-zed)

ARTICULATED CORNERS-independent of the adjoining planes-strengthening the edges of a form.

54

I l 1 ]I ! ! II ! I I ; I i I i

J I l . l i

I

I ! t I I l

Ei11steht Tower

Rounded corners emphasizing continuity of surface, COMPACTNESS OF VOLUME AND SOFTNESS OF FORM.

PLAN CONFIGURATIONS

lshaped configuration of planes generates a field of space from its corner outward.

55

r

0

[]0 56

one of the corner can be articulated as an independ erit element that joins two linear forms together.

one of the arms can be a linear form that incor-porates the comer within its boundaries while the other arm is seen as an appendage to it.

a building can have an L-configuration to establish a corner of its site.

or enclose a field of outdoor space to which its interi-or spaces relate, or to shelter a portion of outdoor space.

L-configurations of planes are stable and self-sup-porting, and can stand alone in space. Because they are open-ended, they are flexible space-defining ele-ments. They can be used in combination with one another or with other elements of form to define a rich variety of spaces.

~L ~r r, c::JL L~ r

~5] }(ingo Housing Unit by: Jom Utx011 Dmurl'

I

GAROI:N

A BASIC UNIT

/..._ ' ' /' ';/7~ ' ',..--- ' / / ' < - ' / .

/ -- ' -- '

' ,.t

An L-configuratioo of rooms around an outdoor living space. Typically, one w ing contains the group living spaces while the other contains private , indivi-dual spaces. Usually occupy a corner position, or is string along the backside of one of the w ings.

The advantage of this type of layout is its provision of a private outdoor space, sheltered by the building form, and to which interior spaces can be d i-rectly related.

57

SASE PLANE

cr:: 58

parallel planes define a volume of space between them that is axially orienteo toward the open ends of the configuration.

To visually reinforce the spatial field, along the open ends of the configura-tion, the base plane is manipulated or overhead elements are added to the composition.

The spatial field can be visually expanded by ex-tending the base plane beyond the open ends of the configuration .

Openings in one or both of the planes will also in-troduce secondary axes to the field and modulate the directional quality of the space.

U-shaped configuration defines a field of space that has an in-ward focus as well as an outward orientation.

et1closed J and well-defitted ;V ---q;;~ rear- .._ ___ _,J ex: troverted

irt rtature

.! -------view I ----...

Secondary zones are created when openings are introduced.

I L5

The open end will remain the "primary face" and the plane oppposite will be the " principal element"

pri11cipal

I

\primary

the corners of the configurations can be seen to consist of linear forms. The corners can be articulated as independent elements. This U -configuration can be used iri building forms and organizations.

~ ~ ,.. ,.. OL JO _II __ _.J,._

AU-shaped building can define a forecourt for a building's approach as well as a recessed entrance within the volume of the building form itself.

59

60

Four planes-closure - since the field is completely -enclosed, its space is introverted.

-m 1

If openings are introduced at the corners of the space, the individual identity of the planes will be reinforced and encourage movement.

Openings provide continuity with adjacent space, they can begin to weaken the enclosure of the space, depending on their size, number and location .

.. .l .. I 1 I l l

u I u I I I .--- - -- -----

I I lb I c:==Jl I 1 I I I

I I l .., 1 I

l l 1 I I + ..

To achieve visual dominance within the space, or become its primary face, one of the en-closing planes can be differentiated f rom the others by its size, form, surface, articulation, or the nature of the openings within it.

pro-nary

SURFACE ..... . Architectural surface are Areas of materials which enclose a building and are of secondary importance to the masses which they create. But in order that a building may be wholly sa-tisfactory in its appeal, the necessary attention must be given to the Treatment and articula-tion of the exterior. The surfaces of a structure must have texture, tone, and color.

A. TEXTURE Refers to the quality of surface treatment. Texture is usually associated with materials. Lime-stone may be polished and reflect light in sparkling manner,

folished black graHite us~ a5. cmrtra5titf.9 color at1d textu~ wath limestot1e wan.

The tex11Jre Of a t)rJcl< wall; ttre diaper pattert1 with cort1ice, belt coor~e,ard an;:;Hes.

61

HorizOtJtal litte~ crea-ted l:7y siding . Whlfe wall$ witk ~tt~. Wood. brick, metal, al1d gl~.

or it may be rough and coarse

comparisot1 of textur~ of fietf stoHe, 5hi11Qle5. at1d lead dawf1-spout. lt1formality

and give to the building a_feeling of strength and simplicity. Stucco, with its various texture Of treatments to catch the sunlight, has played an important part in the design of homes which are mediterranean in character.

62

,

.,

~.

\J"oo

stucco walf6, ca# cot~ crete columt1~, and tile floor, RoPt1Gt ~implicity.

Surface covered with brick have a different character from those in which wood is emloyed. Thus, texture depends largely upon the choice and use of materials. The selection of a definite material fixes, to some extent, the character of the f inal effect , but the treatment which is given to that material often produces startling results. There should be a consistency in the selection of the texture of materials-a harmonious re-lationship between the various surfaces. Contrast and the variety must be present but the character and the quality of different textures should agree.

.... :: :;.- . : = ~

~::--~ .. --. __ ;_: .. ..::~,:-:.~.-:. .. :...~!!"~-~--~---::~~:.._~~ ::c, .. ..,:..::._;::_::::. . . . ,.:11,;;{:j\~-- ~ ~-; -,,_., .. -~- ; ' . ,. ..-

.' '.--:;.: : ~.::'iit:M ~'!~--~~~c..-.:~ .. Simplicit-y of co11tempor~ arcf1i1ecture p~uce~

le~~ tone. Restricted ro sfladowg of c:a11opy, mcised .,., li11e~ , and opettinqs. ,

63

64

Polished marble and bright chromium are symphathetic with each other but usually do not combine well with rough field stone or brick. The character of each particular type of room or building calls for a corresponding type of texture.

Texture can be used to destroy a form perception. The figure below showing the different texture on different sides of the cube cause the experience of form to be disturbed. We do not perceive a unit from here, but a fragment of a larger now destroyed form. The percep-tion of a room can also be destroyed in the same way.

Two ways in which the attributes of a sensation of grain may vary hard-soft, smooth-rough. Material examples of four extreme is shown in the figure below:

HARD smooth (glass) SOFT

smooth (silk)

HARD rough

brick, hollow block

SOFT rough (wool)

c&.; Building : NtNf York City 19'Z- 64- Eero Saarmew al'fd A~ciatQ!;

Linear patterns reinforcing the height or, length of a form, UNI-FYING its SURFACES and DE-FINING its TEXTURAL QUALITY.

\, I

JbdbdbJL II

Openings and cavities creating tex-tile with shadow patterns and inter-rupting the continuity of a form's surfaces.

The texture of a plane's surface, together with its color, will affect its visual weight., scale and light-reflective qualities.

D simple surface of opening articulated surface and opening

B. TONE Is a variety in the use of the gradations from black to white. Tone comes from the change of impressions carried to the eye as a result of the juxtaposition of dark and light areas. Tone, or the creation of light and shade, may be secured by the use of doors and windows, or by shadows cast by projecting parts of the building, or by mouldings.

65

Tone cau~ by p~oja;ting surfaces and by contrast1119 matenals of walls aHd roof ResideY!ce , Pasade11a.

8rilliat1cy a11d sparkle; 1~ accent by use of opet1ing Ca' .:f Oro, Venice.

66

JUXTA POSITION To put side by side or close together (to juxta-

pos~)-to pose for a painting or picture tak-ing, to put in position .

I

.. .

Tone gives interest to an exterior and if the results are to be entil"ely satisfactory, requires the same careful study that was devoted to the general massing. Poor arrangement of windows, plasters, and cornices can mar a powerful composition.

C. COLOR The warmer climates have usually produced the most colorful architecture, as in Spain and Italy with their walls o.f delicate hues, tile fountains and wainscots, and richly contrasting roofs, Color as distinguished from tone, results from the hues of the spectrum. It may be in-herent as in marble which is colored by nature, black or gray stones, white or cream stone, red clay bricks. It may use colored tiles or metals. It may also apply colored wallpapers.

Or it may apply or rather be applied, as in the case of surfaces which are painted or decor-ated by man.

l \

/ Color requires intelligent handling and a thorough knowledge of harmonies and values: The color scheme .of a building should be carefully studied, with an understand,ing of the character of the materials which are to produce the colors. Simple conventionalized ar-rangements in subdued tones are preferable to garish and bizarre effects.

The relationship between color and the character of a building results from the combining of warm and cool colors in the proper amounts.

67

68

the warm colors, the reds and the yellows, tend to advance toward the observer (usual-ly for wide roo.ms)

the cool colors. the blues and the greens, appear to recede, showing infinity, immensi-ty of space (usually for small compact rooms)

Also the more neutral colors should be used for the larger areas, reserving for the more brilliant accents those bright colors w hich overpower the composition unless sparingly used.

The visual weight of a plane can be increased or decreased by manipulating the tonal blue of its surface color.

PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF COLOR

70

Various colors have a strongly emotional effect on people. It ref lects the spirit of the people who create it Color is definitely related to the lives of the individuals and the material things with which they are associated. Spanish art which is gay and sparkling for example are pro-duced by a dashing, vibrant people.

RED - tends to produce rage or passion; it is exciting and stimulates the brain. It has an aggressive quality and is frequently associated with violence and excitement. (medium red) suggests health and vitality (bright red) often has amorous connotations.

YELLOW - denotes gayety; stimulating cheering - to the lazy, upsetting to the ner-vous. It is the most luminous color. Yellow also demands attention, and so it is used in dangerous locations, such as the edge of a subway plat-form to mark the hazard, while red used to be the color for firetrucks, yellow is now preferred.

ORANGE - has a stimulating effect and should usually be used in relatively small amounts. The occupant of an orange office, for instance will become ill at ease after a short time and will leave it at every opportunity.

BROWN - is restful and warming but should be combined with orange, yellow or gold because it could be depressing if used alone.

GRAY - suggests cold and is also depressing unless combined with at least one livelier color.

WHITE - is cheerful, particularly when used with warm colors like red, yellow and

PURPLE

BLUE

GREEN

orange.

- is sedative and soothing. It suggests a stately or melancholy atmos-phere. Cheerfulness or cowardice, cheapness.

- is peaceful and tranquil. It reduces excitability and therefore helps one to concentrate.

- has a cooling quality and it acts as a sedative.

This psychological use of color has been related to architecture for centuries. Theatres and circuses are gay and brilliant with banners, decorations and pageants. Bright colors stimulate the imagination and excite the senses to produce a feeling of joy and pleasure. While the funeral chapel is sombre in its color appeal. Garish hues would be an offense to those who come in a mood of respectful worship, whereas, subdued colors lend themselves to the spirit of the occasion. The color scheme of a restaurant for dining and dancing should be quite different from that of a library for reading and meditation. Color can be used functionally. We can make it maximize or minimize the size of objects. Color can be used to help express architectural forms - and -if carelessly used, it can destroy architectural form. Color on walls, floor, and ceiling is modified by other colors pre-sent in the same area. For instance, if three walls of a room are a warm gray and the fourth wall is a shade of yellow, the yellow will be reflected in the gray walls and will modify their appearance. Again, the pate green may look good in a room until a bright shade of green is used next to it. Suddenly the gray green looks gray and quite inadequate.

An enclosed room which is painted with warm colors makes those who work in it feel warm. Similarly, if a large, open, windowed space with a great deal of glass painted with coot col-ors, people who work in it .sometimes feel chilly.

One is 'prepared' "for a room's color if the entrance is painted a complimenta.y color. Deep colors always seem to make the walls of a room seem heavy, while pale pastel colors seem to make the walls light. If a room is long and narrow, its appearance can be modified by painting the end walls with warm colors-red, yellow, orange. Similarly in a small room, the walls can be made to recede by painting them with cool colors such as green and blue.

COLOR USAGE . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. .. . . . .. . .. . . . . . .. . .. .. .. . . . . . varies according to lo~ation

1. RESIDENTIAL Colors used within the home must be tolerated by the whole family. If members of a fami-ly have tastes which differ widely, they may be satisfied by selecting the colors of their own rooms.

The plan of living of a household group should be studied before any color selections are made. Someone engaged in a business which uses a great deal of energy shl"luld have a retreat at home-a room with a quietly harmonious color scheme. A person whose day is spent in a monotonous business, on the other hand, will probably enjoy color contrasts and bright colors.at t.ome.

2. COMMERCIAL The commercial institution is a home away from home for many people, and the inclina-tion to introduce some of the principles used in residential work is always present. But all the colors in such an installation must relate to each other and to a central scheme. and personal choice which conflicts with the appearance of the general scheme cannot be tolerated.

There are a number of reasons for such color ~ontrol, the main one being that there is usually a certain amount of circulation of personnel ; and everyone may have different col-or opinions. In most cases the walls of the lobby of a commercial building should be stimulating and exciting, and the corridors should be neutral, so that when the doors of the offices are open, harmony will be apparent. Individual offices may vary in color, texture and materials, but they must have a basic similarity.

The main objectives in determining the color scheme of a commercial installation are to provide colors which are rich, definite, and harmonious which will be easyto live with, and which will contribute to the efficiency and well-being of all who tenant the building. Colors should be subtle; for example, no brash greens or blues should be used unless compensating colors are used with them. Where offices are located upon an uninterest-ing interior court, the colors of such offices should be ''sunny" and brilliant.

3. INDUSTRIAL The kind of artif icial light must be taken into consideration in the design of industrial inte-riors. It will depend, to a large extent, upon the type of operation performed. It is equally important that the proper kind of light be used to avoid shadows and glare. For ease of seeing, it is generally wise to keep the wall color darker than the machines or work benches. If the space is small, the walls can be warm in color (yellow, orange, etc.)

71

\: , ,, /j~~!'if ~t~~~~J i\ p.t:pg!fc. ~Yf!~1 ~ t~ fi~1IO.-iiiW~~the walls ,~ 0 ~jifa~l~ , oe ~in~a(ioOl color. ~SJ9.qf the sjze,Qf th;SPaqer to ~ically assiSt the workers to bear the he,al. -.t .. ,.. ~,,... ....

Qeo

Information concerning safety condition: First aid

4. INSTITUTIONAL

Warning: If :>U Are risk

The interiors of institutions such as hospitals, youth detention centers, child care facilities, nursing homes, and mel)tal health facilities-are carefully studied in order to pro-vide the most favorable environment for patients, visitors and staff. The aim should be to provide an atmosphere that is friendly and inviting.

Color and illumination are probably the most important of the visual elements. While pastel colors are most often emplo')(ed in patient rooms, variety can be obtained by deep-ening the tone of the bed wall, painting the window wall plus an adjacent wall a deeper tone, or perhaps using a contrasting color on one or two of the other walls. If the room is an odd shape, the judicious use of the two tones of color can help visually improve its proportions. A dado of wood or other material is an additional tool for providing color variation. The use of pattern to provide visual relief should be taken Into consideration in the overall scheme of patient rooms as well on other areas.

Reception areas, dining rooms, day rooms, libraries, and chapels can provide patients, staff and visitorS with welcome relief from the functional areas. Colors, furnishings, and illumination can be varied to provide relaxing atmosphere.

Laboratories and specific examination areas such as X-ray, operating and other treament rooms may be attractively designed with cheerful coJors. The use of wall graph_jcs is often a good solution. There is no reason why an X-ray or radiology room cannot be treated in a decorative manner, despite the seriousness of the activity therO quite abstract graphic design on a wall, complementary to the color scheme, may provide just the right balance to the awesome equipment to remind both the patient and professional that they are not isolated from the real world. The use of colorful utility cabinets and other accessories can also be considered.

73

74

In rooms with plaster ceilings. perhaps decorative ceiling lighting fixtures can add the needed note of interest, or it the ceilings are high, they can be painted a color or other than white. Vinyl wall coverings should also be considered.

As with any other group of spaces, there should be a basic scheme to unify the whole, but the individual areas should each reflect their own personality.

Long corridors can be used as a tool to unify; the tack ot interest can be countered with art work and with colorful accents-unusual treatment of the ends of the corridors, of doors and frames, or periodical spaces, or of handrails, for examples. The flooring in corridors should also r.eceive careful attention, as it can be employed to good advantage to create areas of interest.

5. EDUCATIONAL Very young children prefer strQng colors, but when they grow older, their taste becomes more sophisticated and subtle. In most contemporary schools almost anything that can be colored is treated in a bright and brilliant way. Corridor walls, for instance, are sometimes yellow ; rooms facing cool north light are given warm tones, and those facing warm south light are given cool tones. The front wall of each classroom is often painted darker than the other walls of the room. Every effort should be made to select a color that will be of approximately the same value as the color of the chalkboard so as to minimize eye fatigue.

It colors are pastels. bright accents are employed for furniture and accessories- say bright blue, yellow, chinese red, or blue green. Doors and trim are usually darker than the walls in which. they are located, and painted doors can be given variation and additional interest by the use of various colors.

However, while a stimulating atmosphere is desirable in a teaching situation, care should be exercised to prevent overstimulation, which may produce restlessness, tension and fatigue. .

NOTE Establishments such as department stores and retail or specialty shops require special color treatments. By careful observation, one can be able to formulate guidelines similar to those given above. Each type of building has its own needs, and these must be analyzed before any color scheme is designed for a specific project .

COLOR AS AN EXPRESSION ELEMENT OF DESIGN

The uniform colour of the wall of a room.

When four {4) sides of wall was painted with four grey colours say c, e, g and i, c was almost white, i was dark grey while the other two colours were inserted between these extremes at similar intervals.

When the room was finished, it was impossible to distinQuish any difference in colour bet-ween the walls painted c and e, and the