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Gender Norms and Factor Analysis of Attitudes in Bangladesh and India (presented June 2014 at GIGA in Hamburg - Institute of Asian Studies research). Gender Norms and Factor Analysis: A Sociological Reinterpretation By Wendy Olsen with Nik Loynes Abstract Indian women are strongly at risk of domestic violence (one-third having experienced violence, and 9% having had sexual violence) and in Bangladesh violence against women is also common. Among the precursors to violence are the tensions both women and men feel about the contradictory expectations societies lay upon women: to be bearers of honour and modernity; and yet also to be traditional housewives. In this paper we analyse the attitudes for all-India and for Bangladesh, bringing into direct comparison attitudes about the justifiability of wife-beating (a private matter? Indians being more accepting of it, overall), and attitudes toward household decision making (Bangladesh residents being more pro-women or egalitarian in their views). We find these attitudes diverse, showing that not all individuals agree with the social norms, and in turn more egalitarian attitudes are associated with women engaging in modern, salaried, or causal labouring on a commercial (paid) basis. Other women, working in the home or farm, tend to have more traditional attitudes. In conclusion the social norms affect economic activity rates. Background The research presented here is funded by the Economic and Social Research Council of the UK and the Department for International Development (DFID) UK. The project is titled Gender Norms and Labour Supply in Rural India and Bangladesh, 2014-2016. We plan primary data collection in 3 Indian rural areas and in rural Bangladesh in 2015. Meanwhile we are analysing secondary data on women’s labour supply and the attitudes people have about women and work. I acknowledge the help of Nik Loynes in data analysis- thanks Nik.
Citation preview
'Gender Norms and Factor Analysis: A Sociological Reinterpretation'
2014 Wendy Olsen and Nik Loynes
University of Manchester
Women’s Labour Force Participation Fell in India By All Measures 2004-2010.
A stylized fact about India not Bangladesh: INDIA EPW 2012
Gender Norms and Labour Supply in Comparative Context
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Content of Briefing
1. general approaches to measuring attitudes Norms, roles, attitudes, beliefs, desires Agent orientations vs. structures
2. specific issues of gender roles An illustration using sociology
3. Findings: attitudes and employment Comparison DHS 2007 vs. NFHS 2006)
4. Change over time in S. Asian contexts Context-dependent attitude measures Findings for Bangladesh DHS 2006/7
Vs. India NFHS 2005/6
5. Linking change to employment Logistic regression results
Gender Norms and Labour Supply in Comparative Context
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General approaches to measuring attitudesThree Broad Schools of Thought
Norms, roles, attitudes, beliefs, desires
Agent orientations
Gender Norms and Labour Supply in Comparative Context
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A Famous Theory
The theory places India in a particular ‘place’ due to broad social norm tendencies.
India is strong on conservative values but also strong on the self-enhancement impulse that is often (elsewhere) associated with individualism.
ROCCAS, S., SCHWARTZ, S. H. & AMIT, A. 2010. Personal Value Priorities and National Identification. Political Psychology, 31, 393-419.
SCHWARTZ, S. H., MELECH, G., LEHMANN, A., BURGESS, S., HARRIS, M. & OWENS, V. 2001. Extending the cross-cultural validity of the theory of basic human values with a different method of measurement. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 32, 519-542.
SCHWARTZ, S. H. & RUBEL, T. 2005. Sex differences in value priorities: Cross-cultural and multimethod studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 1010-1028.
SCHWARTZ, S. H., SAGIV, L. & BOEHNKE, K. 2000. Worries and values. Journal of Personality, 68, 309-346.
SCHWARTZ, S. H. & TESSLER, R. C. 1972. TEST OF A MODEL FOR REDUCING MEASURED ATTITUDE-BEHAVIOR DISCREPANCIES. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24,225-&.
Gender Norms and Labour Supply in Comparative Context
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Three Broad Schools of Thought
First school: problem of universalistic reductive individualism
Second school: a mixed and confusing terrain, allowing for diversity within the society
Third school: may include GAD, WID, and qualitative…
Norms, roles, attitudes, beliefs, desires
1) idealised psychometric approaches, e.g. Schwartz, see the World Values Survey
(The alternative is a realist approach, capabilities school and Bourdieuvian ‘domains’ with habitus and doxa in each domain, creating tensions – here we need to test for class-based or ethnic-based differences of the measurement model parameters (group test)
2) eclectic approaches which allow for agency ie freedom of choice and action
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LACKS SOCIAL DIFFERENTIA-TION BY CLASS, GENDER
By contrast, other authors in the ‘gender & development’ school stress gender & inter-class differentiation, contrasts, and inequality. Example:
SUNDARAM, A. & VANNEMAN, R. 2008. Gender differentials in literacy in India: The intriguing relationship with women's labor force participation. World Development, 36, 128-143.
Gender Norms and Labour Supply in Comparative Context
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Intriguing…
CONSERVATIVE VALUES
Poor India low on
“consistency”
SELF-
ENHANCEMENT
VALUES
9
Low Differentials of Attitude by Age in These Two Countries (Small Sample Size)
A single regression was used here. The dependent variable from World Values Survey was how strongly do you agree with the statement that “Housewifery is as fulfilling as working for pay’.
+ Country dummy and country interaction effects for age, education and being single. The graph shows the net impact of direct and indirect associations.
Source: World Values Survey Bdesh 2002 and India 2006
Gender Norms and Labour Supply in Comparative Context
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23
20 40 60 80 100 20 40 60 80 100
Bangladesh India H
ou
sew
ifery
is n
ot a
s F
ulfi
llin
g a
s W
ork
for
Pa
y
ageGraphs by country
More tendency to criticise the
role of housewife.
Gender Norms and Labour Supply in Comparative Context
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Comparing Bangladesh / IndiaBangladesh 2007
Source: Report on the Demographic and Health Survey, Bangladesh, 2007.
Gender Norms and Labour Supply in Comparative Context
Comparing / India
11
India NFHS 2005-6 (All women adults – not only married women)
Change in Con-tent
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Attitudes about the justifiability of beating the wife – Bangladesh, married women only
Source: Report on the Demographic and Health Survey, Bangladesh, 2007.
PERCENT OF WOMEN SAID YESFreq Percent
Beating a wife can be justified if…… Wife goes out without telling the husband 6105.4 20%… Wife neglects children 5189.59 17%… Wife argues with husband 7326.48 24%… Wife refuses to have sex with husband 3357.97 11%
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Attitudes about the justifiability of beating the wife – India – there is more acceptance of the justifiability of wife-beating in India overall than in the Bangladesh sample
Source: women age 16-49 in the National Family and Health Survey of India, 2005-6
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Comparing Germany?Use World Values Survey IBER, P., HUPFELD, J. & MEIER, L. L. 2008.
Personal Values and Relational Models. European Journal of Personality, 22, 609-628. – German data.
BOER, D. & FISCHER, R. 2013. How and When Do Personal Values Guide Our Attitudes and Sociality? Explaining Cross-Cultural Variability in Attitude-Value Linkages.Psychological Bulletin, 139, 1113-1147.
This is nationalistic in orientation and universalistic in its ontology.
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The sociological approach
Norms, roles, attitudes, beliefs, desires
Agent orientations: Agents have strategies.
It is usual to notice that beliefs and desires are influenced by one’s personal experience
Sociologists and economists assume / assert that norms are cultural and historically developed, creating a dominant, sub-dominant and deviant group norms
Norms are not strict rules, but bulkheads to notice.
Agents have strategies…
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General approaches to measuring attitudes
Norms, roles, attitudes, beliefs, desires
From a Realist Heterodox School of Thought
We notice indiv. Variation
We measure social norms
We expect to see tension and deviations/deviance
We use qual+quant
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2. specific issues of gender roles
Occupational rigidity and gender stereotyping create labour-market rigidities…e.g. poor women do farming and livestock work but not ‘jobs’
Inside the home there are also gender issues about the right to equal safety and equal voice
A. If labour market is flexible, then adjust the practices to suit the agent’s strategy.
B. If labour market is inflexible, then no adjustment. Sex-stereotyping is a form of inflexibility of the labour market.
Testing this with seasonal change in our new rural survey in 3 areas of N. India and rural areas of B’desh
Which women are the exceptions?
New project! Gender Norms
& Labour in Comparative
Context! Bangladesh & India
compared!
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IndiaPercent Who Disagree
Bangladesh Percent Who Disagree
PUBLIC SPHEREWhen jobs are scarce: Men should have more right to a job than women C001 (disagree = 1, agree or other=0)
PRIVATE SPHEREChild needs a home with a father and a mother D018 (disagree=1, agree or other =0)
1990 46%1995 40%2001 36%2006 20%
1990 3% 1995 15%2001 5%2006 10%
1996 23%2002 17%
1996 2%2002 1%
Table 1: Percentage Disagreeing with Traditional Patriarchal ValuesSource: World Values Survey, various dates.
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In CFA, the Likert scale is taken as a linear measure. Each variable gets a single parameter.
In MPLUS, the Likert scale components each get a separate threshold. This is more flexible.
Either way, the ‘justifiability of wife-beating’ variables do not fit with the ‘attitude to decision making’ variables.
Four Variables Used in a Factor Analysis for Bangladesh DHS 2007
…to estimate the social norm that women and men can equally participate in the economy. This variable has four components.
Who Has: The final say on own health care The final say on making large household
purchases The final say on making household
purchases for daily needs The final say on visits to family or
relatives If respondent (wife) then the indicator takes the value 3.
(19% in 2007 for the last item shown above) If respondent and husband decide together, it takes
value 2 (42%) If respondent and another person (which is rare), it takes
value 1. (7%) If any other decision maker, e.g. husband alone (27% in
2007), or someone else (rare), it takes value 0.
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A policy issue
Low productivity is a concern
Waste?
Our project explores the ‘wide’ definition of labour-market participation, which includes farming and informal sector work,
Vs. the narrow definition focused upon employment = SALARIED + CASUAL.
Joining in the ‘narrow’ part of the market is a progressive step for a woman, and involves more human capital and productivity;
Also more modernity, as it is a role which Western women take up, and Service sector women take up.
Vs. cottage industries where women are hidden indoors, which is in the WIDE but not NARROW labour market.
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3. Attitudes And Employment
SEM approach
Equation 1: Woman’s Labour Supply as a Probit or Logit Outcome.
Equation 2: The Confirmatory Factor Analysis.
The factor for traditional vs. egalitarian (modern) norms existing at social level about women’s appropriate roles goes into Eq. 1.
DHS variables Bangladesh 2007 [and 2011] India NFHS 2005/6 [later, we get 2011
in 2014]
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WVS shows no clear trend over time. But clear countrywise aggregate differences.
Components which are binary at origin and/or when recoded here
India Bangladesh
Jobs scarce: Men should have more right to a job than women (disagree = 1, agree or other=0)
Child needs a home with a father and a mother D018 (disagree=1)*
Marriage is an out-dated institution D022 (agree or it depends = 1, vs. disagree=0; binary indicator)*
1990 46%1995 40%2001 36%2006 20%
1990 3% **1995 15%2001 5%2006 10%
1990 4%1995 23%2001 18%2006 17%
1996 23%2002 17%
1996 2%2002 1%
1996 12%2002 5%
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Regression results Using B’Desh DHS 2007
Model 1: Dep var = Logit of work status. Indep vars = age, age2, educ, rural/urban
Model 2: adds the attitude factor as an indep variable
GOF Tests of whole model Nested model test
Model 3: tests for group difference between countries. (To follow)
Model 4: tests for group difference within countries. (To follow)
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D I S C
E
R
N
M
E
N
T ! Model should fit the reality.
Two types of LFP.
Who Has: The final say on own health care The final say on making large purchases The final say on making household purchases The final say on visits to family
Dep Vars Labour Force Participation Logits
Wide participation – stating that they worked at all – Having any occupation. 33%.
Narrow participation, construed here (due to constraints in the data) as Formal-sector labour market participation; here, formal-sector occupational groups-- In total this group comprised 5.5% of women in 2007. It is a rare event.
Informal-sector labour market participation. This is how about 28% of the Bangladesh women
work.
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Table 1: Descriptives, Bangladesh Women, DHS 2007
DEP VARS workerwide 33% of wives workerhigh 7% of wives workerinformal 28% of wives
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Table 1: Descriptives, Bangladesh Women, DHS 2007
mean s.d. Lowest highest INDEP VARS Age 35 yrs 8.601504 15 49 Wealth index -6613 94185.19 -110680
382304 hindu .08 .2727044 0 1 rural .65 .4758562 0 1 widow .06 .2303986 0 1 edyears 3.21 3.949377 0
16 ATTITUDE VARS egalatt 0 .69 -1.13 1.16 beatatt 0 .26 -.68 .15
There are 30,527 cases in the data.
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Table 1: Logit regression of women only, Bangladesh 2007Key: egalatt = egalitarian attitudes to decision making about spending in/by the householdworkerwide = all forms of remunerated work in the labour market (1=yes, 0=no)
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Table 2: Logit regression of women only, Salaried Work, Bangladesh 2007Key: egalatt = egalitarian attitudes to decision making about spendingWorkerhigh = the salaried and service-sector work in the labour market (1=yes, 0=no)
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Informal sector=Distress labouring.
Table 3: The informal sector labour supply equation has an inverse education “effect”
Gender Norms and Labour Supply in Comparative Context
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Findings (1b): Discernment Through Clarity of Dependent Variable Construction
LFP=labour force participation
How good is the fit?
What is the education effect on LFP?
How strong is the association of LFP with attitudes?
Does education interact with attitudes?
WIDE LFP Pseudo 4%*no wealth effect
Small Direct association of Egalitarian Attitudes with LFP is large
“No interaction effect.” – a misunderstanding, epiphenomenal evidence.
FORMAL LFP Pseudo 8%*no wealth effect
Positive Directly small; It reinforces the apparent impact of education &vv
INFORMAL LFP Pseudo 10%
It is a poverty effect: woman joining in the labour market more in desperation.
Negative Directly large; It reverses the negative association of education with LFP
Based on DHS Bangladesh 2007
31
Hypotheses of New Project
The declining labour participation rate of Indian women is not explicable by rising modern, or egalitarian, attitudes, nor by education. LFP rising/ falling in rural areas?
It could only be explained by another driver, likely to be either household wealth or the partner’s earnings. Another possibility is caring for the ill husband.
From N. Indrani Mazumdar, EPW 2011, XLVI 43: page 119.
Gender Norms and Labour Supply in Comparative Context
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Findings (1) Bangladesh 2007 In Bangladesh, two distinct factors exist – one for
attitudes thought to be general about wife-beating; and one about how equal men’s and women’s roles in decision making are.
As factors they each fit well. Their cross-correlation is very low. Egalitarian decision making about spending is, in turn,
positively correlated 0.12 *** with egalitarian attitudes about women’s roles. We use only one of these.
Egalitarian personal attitudes are associated with a higher likelihood of working, and/or those in the labour force (in DHS terms) have more egalitarian personal attitudes. Same for attitudes about wife-beating. The explanatory power added is about 2% on 8% in DHS.
Gender Norms and Labour Supply in Comparative Context
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Findings (2) Comparative In Bangladesh, overall female participation in the labour market
is, according to the WVS, lower than India on comparable measures.
In both countries, the egalitarian attitude to housewifery is associated with working informally, but is neither determining nor particularly strongly co-associated with work for those working fulltime.
WVS shows that in both Bangladesh and India, age (an inverted U curve) and education are the main factors associated with working fulltime. Those with more education are more likely to be PARTICIPATING.
Explanatory power when ‘attitudes’ or social norms about gender is the dependent variable is low in both Bangladesh and India in the WVS, with r-squared of 5% or less, and low or no correlation among attitude measures!