Technical Information Handbook
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Georgia Power would like to acknowledge the contributions ofCarrier Complete Systems. CCS provided information on HVACenergy requirements and heat recovery technologies.
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Table of ContentsRates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Electric Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Ratcheted Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Time of Use Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2Marginal Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Customer Choice in Georgia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5Customer Choice Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
kWh vs. Therm Costs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6Conversions between Fuel Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
HVAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8Recommended Systems by Building Type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8Cost Comparisons for System Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Typical EFLH for Buildings, Atlanta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10City Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Typical Heating and Cooling Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11Heat Gain from Typical Electric Motors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13Typical Equipment Energy Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14EER Rating to kW Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Psychrometric Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Heat Recovery Opportunities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Building Envelope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Sustainable Building Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Basic R-value information and calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Ceiling Insulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19Wall Insulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19Glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Slab Floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Insulating Values for Common Building Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Basic Passive Solar Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22Water Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Water Heating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23Water Heating Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24Water Use Charts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27System Wattages for Typical
Lamp/Ballast Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27Light Level Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28Reflectance Values of Different Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29The Effect of Lighting on Cooling Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30Annual Cost for Lighting Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Outdoor Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31Cooking Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
How to Evaluate Energy Cost. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37Equipment Input, Diversity, and Preheat Times. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Cooking Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38Ventilation Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39Equipment Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39Typical Equipment List Prices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Refrigerants and Chillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41Common Refrigerants, Applications, and Current Status. . . . . . . . . . 41Chiller Types, Applications, Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Motors and Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42Motor Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42Motor Cost Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43Recommendation Chart for Motor Replacement/New Installation . 45Heat Gain From Typical Electric Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45Motor Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46Affinity Laws for Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Fans and Ducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47Fan Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47Criteria for Fan Selection:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47Duct Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Rectangular Equivalent of Round Ducts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48Industrial Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Compressed Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49Typical Compressor Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49Leakage Rate from Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Process Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51Saturated Steam: Pressure Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52Steam Loss from Leaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53Combustion Heat Losses, Gas Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Industrial Process Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54Industrial Heating and Curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55Emitters and Applications of IR Radiant Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57Typical Oven Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58Properties of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
On-Site Generation and Power Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63Standby Generation Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63Uninterruptible Power Supply/Power Conditioning Systems. . . . . . . 63Alternative Energy Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Electrical Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66Useful Electrical Formulae for Determining Amperes,
Horsepower, Kilowatts and kVa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67Estimating Loads From kWh Meter Clocking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67Effects From Voltage Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67Percent of Rated Heater Watts at Reduced Voltage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68Motor Wattages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68Ohm's Law Made Easy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68BTUH—kW—Amperes Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69Transformer Types and Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70Requirements For Service Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72Motor Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Miscellaneous. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74Diversity Factors for EFLH calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Design Criteria for Room Loudness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75Room Sones – dBA Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Typical Weather Data for Metro Atlanta Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81Climatic Conditions for Georgia Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81Wind Effect on Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88Useful Web Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
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Rates
Electric Rates
Electric rates for commercial and industrial customers cangenerally be categorized into three types:
• Ratcheted, demand-based rates
• Time of use rates
• Marginal rates, including Real Time Pricing (RTP)
They differ in critical ways when it comes to calculations.
Ratcheted Rates
How to Recognize:
Ratcheted rates will have language in the tariff(s) like:
• Hours use of demand
• Billing demand
• Tiered pricing structure (first block of kWh at one rate,second block at another rate, etc.)
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How to Calculate Pricing for Racheted Rates:
1. Determine Billing Demand by applying ratchet rules of thetariff/rider
2. Determine Hours Use Demand (HUD); HUD = kWh/BillingDemand
3. Apply tariff prices according to blocks and any breakswithin each block
4. Apply other applicable tariffs such as ECCR, FF, FCR, etc.and appropriate taxes
Time of Use Rates
How to Recognize:
Time of use rates will have language in the tariff(s) like:
• On-Peak, Off-Peak, Shoulder kWh and kW
• Timed (or block) pricing structure
• NOTE: there are market-based time of use rates that are real-time.In Georgia Power, these are called real-time pricing. The pricesare confidential and are provided to the customer the day beforeor hour before the price takes effect, depending on the contract.In these cases, you will have to contact the utility to get blendedaverages (see pricing calculation worksheet)
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How to Calculate Pricing for Time of Use Rates:
1. Obtain (or estimate) the on-peak, off-peak and shoulder (ifapplicable) kWhs and kW
2. Determine if Economy Demand charges are applicable(summer months only)
3. Apply appropriate tariff prices
4. Apply other applicable tariffs such as EECR, FF, FCR, etc.and appropriate taxes
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Marginal Rates
How to Recognize:
Marginal rates will have language in the tariff(s) like:
• Hourly Prices
• Customer Baseline Load (CBL)
• Interval Data
• Incremental kWhs
• Demonstration
How to Calculate Marginal Rates:
RTP Bills will have both a standard or CBL bill and an RTP(incremental energy) bill
1. To calculate the standard or CBL bill, use the appropriateratcheted or TOU steps as outlined previously
2. The RTP bill is calculated by multiplying the hourly kWhconsumption by the hourly RTP price; repeat step for all hours ofthe month. (It is not as simple as multiplying the total kWhs bythe average RTP price due to varying consumptionamounts/weighting)
3. Apply other applicable tariffs such as ECCR, FF, FCR, etc. andappropriate taxes
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Customer Choice in GeorgiaUnder the Territorial Act of 1973, many customers over 900 kW whoare outside of municipal limits may choose their electric supplier. Thisis a one-time, irrevocable choice.
Customer Choice Considerations
Price Stability Since your choice is for the life of the building, it iscritical to evaluate your long-term costs.Beware of short-term fixed prices that escalatesharply after the first few years. Georgia Power’srates are regulated by the Public ServiceCommission. Municipal authority and cooperativerates are not.
Service The cost of one outage can far outweigh anyReliability apparent price savings, depending on the
customer. When evaluating overall price, outagecosts should be included.
Generation Does the supplier have bricks and mortar Capability generation? Or is it buying power on the open
market? A supplier with a large percentage of bricks and mortar generation is better able to meet its customers’ electricity needs cost-effectively over the long term than a supplier who must buy on the open market.
Ancillary What other knowledge/assistance will theServices customer need? Georgia Power offers a host of
technical and other energy services to its customers.
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* Please refer to Page 91 for graph notations.
Conversions between Fuel Types
Gas:
1 Therm = 100,000 Btu = 100 CCF
1 cubic foot = 1,000 Btu
1 MCF = 1,000,000 Btu = 10 therms
Electricity:
1 kWh = 3,413 Btu
Liquid Gas (Propane):
1 cubic foot = 2,500 Btu
1 pound = 21,500 Btu
1 gallon = 91,160 Btu
Oil:
1 gallon = 140,000 Btu
Coal:
1 ton = 25 Million Btu
1 pound = 12,500 Btu
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Rate
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HVACRecommended Systems by Building TypeBuilding Type System #1 System #2
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Chillers, VAV, roomcontrol. Energy recoveryventilators on operatingrooms. Heat pumpwater heater inkitchen/laundry.
—Hospitals
Water source heatpump with coolingtower and boiler; splitsystem for offices;package unit forauditorium. Heat pumpwater heater in kitchen.Small electric waterheater in teachers’lounge.
Through-the-wall unitsin classroom.
Schools
Rooftop package heatpumps. Heat pumpwater heater in kitchen.
Split system heat pump.Heat pump water inheater kitchen.
Restaurants
Split system heat pump.Point of use waterheater.
Small-tank waterheater.
SmallOffices/Retail
Through-the-wall heatpump.
Heat pump water heaterin laundry, ductingcooling to lobby.
Hotels (small)
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Recommended Systems by Building Type (cont.)
Building Type System #1 System #2
Cost Comparisons for System Types:A quick and easy way to estimate costs for different systems, EFLHanalysis is not as accurate as building modeling. This analysisgenerally gives reasonable estimates for operating costs however.
Annual cost = EFLH *City Factor * kW * $/kWh + 12 * kWd * $/kWAnnual cost = EFLH * Btuh * $/therm /100000
Where:EFLH = taken from table (on following page)City Factor = Degree-day factoring to adjust EFLHkW = Connected kW of equipmentkWd = Diversified kW (takes cycling into account, see
miscellaneous section for table)Btuh = Rated Btu input of equipment
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Water source heatpumps with coolingtower and boiler. Heatpump water heater inkitchen and indoor pool.
Two-pipe system withfan-coil units, chillers,electric resistanceheat.
Hotels (large)
Through-the-wall heatpumps. Gas waterheater withrecirculating pump.
—Motels
Weekend only:Electric heat.
Weekday/schoolbuildings: Package unitheat pumps.
Churches
Ground source heatpumps.
—Historic Buildings
Typical EFLH for Buildings, Atlanta
Type Business EFLH, Air Conditioning EFLH, Heating
Small Retail 0-25 M ft2 2000 800Medium Retail 2200 700Large Retail 2400 500Small Office 1500 800Medium Office 1800 800Large Office 2000 800Convenience Stores 2500 800Supermarkets 2500 500Hotels/Motels 1600 800Fast Food 3000 1500Restaurants 1800 8009 Month Schools 1000 80012 Month Schools 2000 800Healthcare (drs.’ offices, etc.) 2000 800Churches 600 400Services 1500 800Warehouses 1500 800
City FactorsCity Cooling Factor Heating Factor
Alma 1.37 .61Brunswick 1.48 .53Macon 1.33 .75Rome .96 1.03
To find your city factor:City factor, cooling = Cooling degree days for the city/1670City factor, heating = Heating degree days for the city/3021
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Typical Heating and Cooling RequirementsType of Bldg. Btuh/SF, SF/ton, Btu/SF, Supply
Cooling Cooling Heating CFM/SFApartments 24 500 21 0.8Audit. & Theater 40 300/19* 38 1.3Banks 49 245 48 1.6Barber Shops 46 260 44 1.5Bars & Taverns 120 100/10* 114 4.0Beauty Parlors 63 190 60 2.1Bowling Alleys 38 315 37 1.3Churches 35 340/21* 33 1.2 Cocktail Lounges 65 185 63 1.6Comp. Rooms 141 85 20 4.7Dental Offices 50 240 49 1.7Dept. Stores –Basement 33 360 32 1.1Dept. Stores –Main Floor 39 310 38 1.3Dept. Stores –Upper Floors 29 410 28 1.0 Dormitory, Rooms 38 320 35 1.3Dormitory, Corridors 20 600 18 0.7Dress Shops 40 300 39 1.3Drug Stores 77 155 75 2.6Factories 39 310 38 1.3High Rise Office –Ext. Rooms 43 280 41 1.4High Rise Office –Int. Rooms 35 340 33 1.2Hospitals 69 175 67 2.3Hotel, Guest rooms 35 345 35 1.2Hotel, Corridors 28 425 27 0.9
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Typical Heating and Cooling Requirements (cont.)Type of Bldg. Btuh/SF SF/ton Btu/SF Supply
Cooling Cooling Heating CFM/SFHotel, Public Spaces 51 235 48 1.7Industrial Plants,Offices 35 345 34 1.2General Offices 33 360 32 1.1Plant Areas 38 315 37 1.3Libraries 43 280 40 1.4 Low Rise Office,Ext. Rooms 39 310 32 1.3Low Rise Office,Int. Rooms 33 365 32 1.1Medical Centers 35 340 33 1.2Motels 29 420 27 1.0Office (small suite) 40 300 38 1.3Post Office,Ind. Office 40 300 39 1.3Post Office,Central Area 43 280 41 1.4Residences 20 600 20 0.7Restaurants 60 200 60 2.0Schools & Colleges 42 285 40 1.4Shoe Stores 53 225 52 1.8Shopping Centers,Supermarkets 30 400 28 1.0Retail Stores 32 370 31 1.1 Specialty Stores 57 210 57 1.9Schools, Elem. 36 335 32 1.2Schools, Middle 36 335 32 1.2Schools, High 33 365 32 1.1Schools, Vo-Tech 22 550 20 0.8* People/Ton12,000 Btu = 1 ton of air conditioning
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0.25 Split Ph. 1750 54 1,180 640 540
0.33 Split Ph. 1750 56 1,500 840 660
0.50 Split Ph. 1750 60 2,120 1,270 850
0.75 3-Ph. 1750 72 2,650 1,900 740
1 3-Ph. 1750 75 3,390 2,550 850
1 3-Ph. 1750 77 4,960 3,820 1,140
2 3-Ph. 1750 79 6,440 5,090 1,350
3 3-Ph. 1750 81 9,430 7,640 1,790
5 3-Ph. 1750 82 15,500 12,700 2,790
7,5 3-Ph. 1750 84 22,700 19,100 3,640
10 3-Ph. 1750 85 29,900 24,500 4,490
15 3-Ph. 1750 86 44,400 38,200 6,210
20 3-Ph. 1750 87 58,500 50,900 7,610
25 3-Ph. 1750 88 72,300 63,600 8,680
30 3-Ph. 1750 89 85,700 76,300 9,440
40 3-Ph. 1750 89 114,000 102,000 12,600
50 3-Ph. 1750 89 143,000 127,000 15,700
60 3-Ph. 1750 89 172,000 153,000 18,900
75 3-Ph. 1750 90 212,000 191,000 21,200
100 3-Ph. 1750 90 283,000 255,000 28,300
125 3-Ph. 1750 90 353,000 318,000 35,300
150 3-Ph. 1750 91 420,000 382,000 37,800
200 3-Ph. 1750 91 569,000 509,000 50,300
250 3-Ph. 1750 91 699,000 636,000 62,900
Heat Gain from Typical Electric Motors†MotorName-plate orRatedHorse-power
MotorType
Nominalrpm
Full LoadMotor
Efficiencyin
Percent
Motor In,DrivenEquip-ment inSpaceBtuh
Motor Out,DrivenEquip-ment inSpaceBtuh
Motor andDrivenEquip-
ment Outof Space
Btuh
†Copyright 1989, American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.www.ashrae.org. Reprinted by permission from 1989 ASHRAE Handbook “Fundamentals”.
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Typical Equipment Energy RequirementsHeating System Heating System
System kW/ton, Efficiency EfficiencyType Cooling (electric) (gas)
Rooftoppackage unit 0.9-1.3 0.95 0.75-0.77Water-sourceheat pumpwith coolingtower and boiler 0.86-1.1 2.0 1.8-1.94-pipe system,chilled water,boiler, air handlers 0.8-1.3 0.8 0.6-0.72-pipe system,chilled water, boiler,air handlers 0.75-1.1 0.82 0.6-0.7Split-system,residential 1.0-1.2 0.95 0.7-0.92Split-system,commercial 0.7-1.3 0.95 0.75-0.77Heat pump,split-system 1.0-1.2 2.3 N/AHeat pump, package 0.9-1.3 2.3 N/AGround watersource heat pump 0.38-0.5 2.8 N/ANote: the heating efficiency considers heat exchanger losses, fan requirements,pump power, and other losses.
EER Rating to kW Conversions
EER Rating kW, Cooling6.0 2.06.5 1.857.0 1.717.5 1.608.0 1.508.5 1.419.0 1.33
EER Rating kW, Cooling9.5 1.26
10.0 1.2010.5 1.1511.0 1.0912.0 1.013.0 0.9214.0 0.86
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16
Heat Recovery Opportunities
Heat WheelThis system involves a motor-driven wheel packed with heatabsorbing material, installed directly in the ventilation air system, withoutdoor and exhaust air kept separate. This system transfers heatfrom a warmer stream to a cooler one and some systems can serveboth in the heating and air conditioning mode.
Runaround SystemWhen the outdoor air intake and exhaust air duct are not in closeproximity, heat transfer can be accomplished by circulating anethylene glycol solution. One finned tube heat exchanger is located inthe outdoor air stream, one in the exhaust air stream, with the two beingconnected by a pipe loop. A pump circulates the liquid for heat transfer.
Air-to-Air Heat ExchangerIn contrast to the aforementioned techniques, the air-to-air heatexchanger has no moving parts but conveys heat between exhaustand outdoor air streams by means of a counterflow technique. Theheat exchanger is an open-ended steel box compartmented into manynarrow passages. Energy is transferred by conduction through the wallsof the passages so that contamination of the makeup air cannot occur.
Heat PipeA heat pipe is a sealed, static tube in which a refrigerant transfers heatfrom one end of the device to the opposite end. The device is installedthrough adjacent walls of inlet and exhaust ducts with their oppositeends projecting into each air stream. A temperature differencebetween the ends of the pipe causes the refrigerant to migrate bycapillary action to the warmer end where it evaporates and absorbsheat. It then returns to the cooler end, condenses, and gives up the heat.
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EconomizerReducing the amount of air conditioning needed by utilizing thecooling potential of outdoor air can be accomplished by the use of“economizer” systems. A mixed air temperature controller regulatesthe proportion of outside air admitted, opening the outdoor airdampers as the mixed air temperature increases. The most effectivesystems, called enthalpy controllers, take into account the humiditycontrol of the air as well as the dry bulb temperature.
Peak Demand ControllerThis device is programmed to cycle electricity consumption by limitingtotal demand during on-peak hours. This technique is popular inconjunction with closed loop water source heat pump systems and isused to achieve higher savings with a minimum of interruption.
Off-Peak Thermal StorageThroughout a 24-hour period, the demand for electric power, in mostservice areas, fluctuates widely. Typically, it is lowest at night. Often itis advantageous, not just for the utility but for the customer, to shiftsome electrical usage from on-peak to off-peak operations, as utilityrates are based on the cost to serve the customer. Heating and coolingloads can be shifted through thermal storage. Heat captured frominternal sources can be saved and/or heat generated at night can bestored for later use. With cooling there is little energy savings, butdemand load can be shifted and demand charges reduced. By runningchillers at night and storing cool water or ice, the size of chillers canbe reduced. Closed water source heat pump systems lend themselvesto achieve savings through thermal storage and captured heat for useduring off-peak hours.
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18
Building EnvelopeSustainable Building Design
There’s more of a focus now on “sustainable buildings.” This term isused for buildings that have considerably lower impact on theenvironment during both construction and long-term operation than atypical building of similar size and location. It’s very important to takelocal conditions (economic and environmental) into account whendesigning a low-impact building.
There aren’t rules of thumb available yet. The most active groups inthis movement recommend modeling the building to assess theenergy-using features.
Basic R-value information and calculations
Total heat flow = U * TD * Area
Where:U = 1/RTD = Design temperature differenceArea = Total area of space with that R value
To estimate total R value of a series of material, add the values ofeach together.
To Compare Annual Cost:Use EFLH Calculation (described above) as follows:
Annual cost = Tons/1000 SF * Area (SF)/1000 * Equipment kW/ton *EFLH * $/kWh + Tons/1000 SF * Area (SF)/1000 * Equipment kW/ton *12 * $/kW
Heating is analogous. If comparing with gas, remember to use efficiency.See following page for Tons/1000 SF and Equipment kW/ton.
Building Envelope
19
Ceiling Insulation
Wall Insulation
RoofType
FlatSteel
Insulation
No
UFactor
.64
TD(Cool)
80
Btu/hr/1000 SF
51200
Tons/1000 SF
4.26
TD(Heat)
48
Btu/hr/1000 SF
30720
kW/1000SF
9.0
4” FaceBrick–Cavity–8”ConcreteBlock
Noinsulation .30 22 6600 0.55 48 14400 4.22
1”insulation(R-5/inch inCavity)
.11 22 2420 0.20 48 5280 1.55
2”insulation(R-5/inch inCavity)
.07 22 1540 0.128 48 3360 0.98
Deck,NoCeiling
1” insulation(R-3 or R-4/inch)
.23 80 18400 1.53 48 11040 3.23
3” insulation(R-3 or R-4/inch)
.10 80 8000 0.67 48 4800 1.41
FrameRoofing,Attic,Ceiling
Noinsulation .15 55 8250 0.69 48 7200 2.11
R-11insulation .07 55 3850 0.32 48 3360 0.98
R-19insulation .04 55 2200 0.18 48 1920 0.56
WallType Insulation U
FactorTD
(Cool)Btu/hr/1000 SF
Tons/1000 SF
TD(Heat)
Btu/hr/1000 SF
kW/1000SF
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Glass (transmission losses/gains only–does not include radiation!)
Slab Floor
Insulating Values for Common Building MaterialsMaterials R Value U Value*Air Space, 3/4" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.91 . . . . . . 1.098Batt or Blanket Insulation—1" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7 . . . . . . . 0.27Batt or Blanket Insulation—2" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 . . . . . . . 0.135Batt or Blanket Insulation—3 5/8" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.4 . . . . . . . 0.075Batt or Blanket Insulation—6" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.0 . . . . . . . 0.053Batt or Blanket Insulation—6 1/2" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.0 . . . . . . . 0.045Brick, common—4" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.44 . . . . . . 2.27Beadboard Plastic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.0 . . . . . . . 0.25Built-up Roofing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.0 . . . . . . . 0.333
Building Envelope
Single 1.06
GlassType
UFactor
14
TD(Cool)
1484
Btu/hr/1000SF
0.124
Tons/1000SF
48
TD(Heat)
5424
Btu/hr/1000SF
1.589
No Insulation 0.81 – – – 48 3888 1.14
1" Insulation(R-5 /inch) 0.41 – – – 48 2968 0.58
2" Insulation(R-5 /inch) 0.21 – – – 48 1008 0.30
Double, 1/4”air space 0.61 14 854 .071 48 3120 0.914
kW/1000SF
Insulation UFactor
TD(Cool)
Btu/hr/100LF
Tons/100LF
TD(Heat)
Btu/hr/1000LF
kW/100LF
Prime +StormWindow
0.54 14 756 .063 48 2688 0.788
21
Insulating Values for Common Building Materials (cont.)Materials R Value U Value*Cellulose Fiber Blown In—3 1/2" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.0 . . . . . . . 0.077Concrete, Block—8" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.11 . . . . . . 0.900Concrete, Block (Cores filled with vermiculite)—8" . 1.94 . . . . . . 0.515Concrete, Poured—10" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 . . . . . . . 1.0Expanded Polyurethane—1". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.25 . . . . . . 0.16Expanded Polyurethane—2". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5 . . . . . . . 0.08Extruded Styrofoam—1" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 . . . . . . . 0.185Flexicore—4", 8", 10" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.89 . . . . . . 1.124Glass Block. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.38 . . . . . . 0.42Gypsum Board—1/2" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.45 . . . . . . 2.222Insulation Board—1/2". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.52 . . . . . . 0.657Plaster with metal lath—3/4" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.23 . . . . . . 4.347Plywood—3/8" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.47 . . . . . . 2.127Roof Deck—1" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.78 . . . . . . 0.36Sheathing and flooring—3/4" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.92 . . . . . . 1.086Shingles, asbestos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.21 . . . . . . 4.76Shingles, wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.78 . . . . . . 1.282Siding, drop—3/4" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.28 . . . . . . 0.781Steel Doors: 1 3/4" mineral fiber core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7 . . . . . . . 0.59
1 3/4" urethane foam core with thermal break . . . 5.26 . . . . . . 0.191 3/4" polystyrene core with thermal break. . . . . . 2.13 . . . . . . 0.47
Siding, lap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.78 . . . . . . 1.282Surface, inside (air film). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.68 . . . . . . 1.47Surface, outside (15 mile per hour wind). . . . . . . . . . . 0.17 . . . . . . 5.882Windows: Single glass, outdoor exposure . . . . . . . . . 0.88 . . . . . . 1.136
Double glass, 1/4" apart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.54 . . . . . . 0.649Double glass, 1/2" apart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.72 . . . . . . 0.581Triple glass, 1/4" apart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13 . . . . . . 0.469
Wood: Hardwoods (Maple, Oak, etc.)—1" . . . . . . . . . 0.91 . . . . . . 1.099Softwoods (Pine, Fir, Cedar, etc.)—1". . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.25 . . . . . . 0.8Wood Doors—1 1/2" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.04 . . . . . . 0.49Wood Doors—1 1/2" w/Storms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7 . . . . . . . 0.27
1*U=RU x Temperature Difference = heat loss in watts per square foot.
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Basic Passive Solar Techniques
Technique What it Does
Overhang on South-facing Reduces summer cooling load whilewindows letting in natural light; reduces glare.
In winter, allows solar gain.
Heavy ceramic tile or stone Absorbs heat during the day andfloors in lobbies with large releases at night. This reduces peakexpanse of glass cooling load and helps maintain
wintertime temperatures.
Water tubes in areas with Absorbs heat during the day, andlarge glass expanse can be connected to potable water
to reduce water heating costs.
Water boxes on roof Absorbs heat during the day topreheat potable water.
Reflective roof coatings Reduces heat absorption, lowering cooling requirements.
Low-emissivity glass Reduces glare and cooling load.
Natural light/light tubes Reduces lighting energy requirement; can improve employee performance.
Building Envelope
23
Water HeatingWater Heating SystemsSystemType Application Considerations
Tank-Style Typical potablewater requirements:small office areas,retail, etc.
Easy to use, install, maintain.Familiar to most customers.
Boiler Large process waterheat requirements(laundries, kitchens,space heat).
Relatively easy to use, install,maintain. Electric will loseelements if water quality notmonitored properly. Gas willlose efficiency and havelong-term maintenanceissues if water quality notmonitored.
Point-of-Use Small medicaloffices, remotewashrooms.
Removes need for circulatingpump. Can reduce overallplumbing costs (only need onepiping run instead of two).
ThermalStorage
Hospitals, industrialsites, schools.
Heats water during off-peakin sealed storage tank.Potable water is run throughheat exchanger to tap heat intank as needed. Can take alot of room (although theycan be placed outside).
Heat PumpWater Heater
Laundries, kitchens,pools.
Provides dehumidification aswell. Must be sized to meeteither cooling or waterheating load.
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Water Heating Calculations
Recovery4.1 x Wattage = GPH at 100° Rise
1,0001 kWh will raise the temperature of 4.1 gallons of water 100°F at100% efficiency in one hour.
Figuring Load Required to Heat WaterkW = Gallons x 8.34 {Wt. of Gal. of Water} x Degrees F. Rise
3,413 {Btu Content} x Time in Hours x Efficiency {0.98-1.0}
Estimating Water Heating Electrical Energy UsekWh = Gallons Per Time Period x 8.34 x Average Degree F. Rise
3,413 x Efficiency {0.98-1.0}
Booster Heater Sizing (Rule of Thumb)G.P.H. {Gals. Per Hr.} ÷ 10 = kW Required {40°F Temp. Rise}Rinse Water Temperature 180°-Standard Set by U.S. Department ofHealth
PER MEAL kWh ESTIMATES-WATER HEATING FORRESTAURANTS
Total Use Dishwasher Booster***Full Meal Restaurantsand Cafeterias 0.6 kWh 0.2 kWh
Drive-in Snack Shops 0.2 kWh 0.04 kWh
***Booster Use is Included in Total Use Figures
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Water Use ChartsType of Maximum Maximum Average
Building Hourly Daily DailyMen’sDormitories 3.8 gal/student 22.0 gal/student 13.1 gal/studentWomen’sDormitories 5.0 gal/student 26.5 gal/student 12.3 gal/studentMotels:No. of Units20 or less 6.0 gal/unit 35.0 gal/unit 20.0 gal/unit60 5.0 gal/unit 25.0 gal/unit 14.0 gal/unit100 or more 4.0 gal/unit 15.0 gal/unit 10.0 gal/unitNursing Homes 4.5 gal/bed 30.0 gal/bed 18.4 gal/bedOfficeBuildings 0.4 gal/person 2.0 gal/person 1.0 gal/personFood ServiceEstablishments 1.5 gal/maximum 11.0 gal/maximum 2.4 gal/average*Type A-Full Meal meals/hours meals/hour meals/dayRestaurants& CafeteriasType B-Drive-ins, Grilles,Luncheonettes, 0.7 gal/maximum 6.0 gal/maximum 0.7 gal/average*Sandwich & meals/hour meals/hour meals/daySnack ShopsApartment Houses:No. of Apartments20 or less 12.0 gal/apt. 80.0 gal/apt. 42.0 gal/apt.50 10.0 gal/apt. 73.0 gal/apt. 40.0 gal/apt.75 8.5 gal/apt. 66.0 gal/apt. 38.0 gal/apt.100 7.0 gal/apt. 60.0 gal/apt. 37.0 gal/apt.200 or more 5.0 gal/apt. 50.0 gal/apt. 35.0 gal/apt.ElementarySchools 0.6 gal/student 1.5 gal/student 0.6 gal/student*Junior &Senior High 1.0 gal/student 3.6 gal/student 1.8 gal/studentSchools*per day of operationThe hourly and daily hot water demands listed represent the maximum flowsmetered in each type of building.Copyright 1999, American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.www.ashrae.org. Reprinted by permission from 1999 ASHRAE Handbook “Applications”.
Wat
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Food Service Hot Water ConsumptionUse Gallons Per HourVegetable Sink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Single Compartment Sink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Double Compartment Sink. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40Triple Compartment Sink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60Pre-Rinse for Dishes-Shower Head Type (Hand Operated) . . . . . . . 45Pre-Scraper for Dishes (Salvajor Type) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180Pre-Scraper for Dishes (Conveyor Type) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250Bar Sink (Three Compartment). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Bar Sink (Four Compartment) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25Chemical Sanitizing Glasswasher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60Lavatory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5Service Sink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Cook Sink. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109-12 Pound Washers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4516 Pound Washers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60Shower. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Required Water Temperatures*Dishmachine Final Rinse (At Manifold) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180°Chemical Sanitizing Dishwasher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140°General Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140°Bar Sinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125°Lavatories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125°Chemical Sanitizing Glasswasher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75°
*From “Guideline for Hot Water Generating Systems for Food ServiceEstablishments.” Michigan Department of Public Health.
NSF—Dishwasher Rinse Water Requirements180° Rinse Water Demands
(Pressure at Washer—20 psi)1. 16" x 16" Single Tank, Stationary Rack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Gals/Hr.2. 18" x 18" Single Tank, Stationary Rack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Gals/Hr.3. 20" x 20" Single Tank, Stationary Rack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Gals/Hr.4. Multiple Tank, Conveyor, Flat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 Gals/Hr.5. Multiple Tank, Conveyor, Inclined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Gals/Hr.6. Single Tank, Conveyor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416 Gals/Hr.
Water H
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Lighting
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
127
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Syst
em W
atta
ges
for T
ypic
al L
amp/
Balla
st C
ombi
natio
nsBa
llast
Typ
e (N
o.)
No.
of L
amps
Stan
dard
(1) 1
-Lam
pEn
ergy
Eff.
(1) 1
-La
mp
Elec
troni
c (1
)1-
Lam
pEl
ectro
nic
(1)*
1-La
mp
Stan
dard
(1) 2
-Lam
pEn
ergy
Eff.
(1)
2-La
mp
Elec
troni
c (1
)2-
Lam
pEl
ectro
nic
(1)*
2-La
mp
Stan
dard
(2)
3-La
mp
Ener
gy E
ff. (2
)3-
Lam
pEl
ectro
nic
(1)
3-La
mp
Elec
troni
c (1
)*3-
Lam
pSt
anda
rd (2
)4-
Lam
pEn
ergy
Eff.
(2)
4-La
mp
Elec
troni
c (1
)4-
Lam
pEl
ectro
nic
(1)*
4-La
mp
40 W
att T
12
49 52 35 96 86 69 148
134
108
192
172
142
34 W
att T
1232
Wat
t T6
F96/
75W
/SL
F96/
60W
/SL
F96/
59W
/T8
F96/
110W
/HO
F96/
215W
/VHO
F96/
215W
/VHO
F96/
185W
/VHO
Lam
p Ty
pe
41 44 28 79 70 57 109
90 158
140
114
37 34 32 70 62 51 107
88 75 140
108
95
98 86 175
158
134
83 138
123
105
118
102
135
125
230
200
257
219
440
375
199
160
237
194
All w
atta
ges
are
+/- 4
Wat
ts. T
he a
ctua
l wat
tage
s de
pend
on
the
spec
ific
man
ufac
ture
r's la
mp
and
balla
st c
ombi
natio
ns.
Lum
en o
utpu
t als
o va
ries
with
lam
p/ba
llast
com
bina
tions
.
Actu
al li
ght o
utpu
t is
depe
nden
t on
the
balla
st fa
ctor
.
*The
se b
alla
sts
are
low
pow
er b
alla
sts.
In a
dditi
on to
con
sum
ing
less
ene
rgy,
they
will
resu
lt in
redu
ced
light
out
put.
Ligh
ting
28
Light Level RecommendationsThe Illuminating Engineers’ Society of North America (IESNA) hasrecently changed its focus on lighting levels. They have made adramatic shift from considering the lighting quantity only to considerthe quality of lighting. For full details, consult chapter 10 of their manual(available at www.iesna.org).
Efficacy Comparison Chart
LIGHT SOURCE
Incandescent
Mercury Vapor
Fluorescent
Metal Halide
High Pressure Sodium
Low Pressure Sodium
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Lumens per WattLighting
29
Reflectance Values of Different Surfaces
Material Category Description Reflectance (%)Glass Clear or Tinted 5-10
Reflective 20-30
Masonry Brick, Red 10-20Cement, Gray 20-30Granite 20-25Limestone 35-60Marble, Polished 30-70Plaster, White 90-92Sandstone 20-40
Metals Aluminum, Brushed 55-58Aluminum, Etched 70-85Aluminum, Polished 60-70Stainless Steel 50-60Tin 67-72
Paint White 70-90
Wood Light Birch 35-50Mahogany 6-12Oak, Dark 10-15Oak, Light 25-35Walnut 5-10
Ligh
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The Effect of Lighting on Cooling Load
SystemInitial Lamp kW per Ton-hoursLumens/ Hours 1,000,000 Btu Cooling
Source Watt Life Lumens Input* Required*
Incandescent GE100A A-19/F 17.5 750 57.1 194882 16.24Quartz GEQ1000T3/CL 21.5 2,000 46.51 158749 13.23FluorescentStandard BallastF40CW 71.6 20,000 13.9 47680 3.97FluorescentStandard BallastF40LW/RS/WMII 76.5 20,000 13.08 44642 3.72FluorescentMax Miser I Ballastf40CWIRS/WMII 85.4 20,000 11.71 39966 3.33FluorescentOptimiser SystemFM28KW 87.9 15,000+ 11.37 38806 3.23Mercury-Regulator(CW) BallastHR400DX33 48.9 24,000 20.44 69762 5.81Metal HalideAuto Regulator(Peak Lead) BallastMVR400/VBV 86.0 20,000 11.625 39676 3.31High PressureSodium 102.9 20,000 9.72 33174 2.76
*Assumes 2500 Hours Use of the Lighting System Annually, 1,000,000 Lumen Output
Lighting
31
Annual Cost for Lighting SystemsAnnual cost = demand charge + energy charge, whereDemand charge = (Number of fixtures* W/fixture * $/kW * 12)/(1000)Energy charge = (Number of fixtures * W/fixture*Annual burn hours *$/kWh)/1000
Outdoor LightingFor Improved
—Safety—Security
—Appearance—Merchandising
Rule of Thumb Guides1. Use efficient light sources (high pressure sodium, metal halide high
intensity discharge lamps) that will produce maximum light output for the lowest use of energy and cost. Specify high power factor ballasts (minimum .90 P.F.)
2. "Positive Cutoff" fixtures on poles or buildings are preferred to reduce distracting glare for more attractive surveillance of premises.
3. Spacing to mounting height ratios between poles are preferred at a 3 to 1 ratio and not greater than a 4 to 1 ratio.
4. High reflectance materials and/or light paint for all possible vertical and horizontal surfaces will lighten dark areas, walkways, aisles, entrances, exits. Higher reflectances will help to quickly identify possible intruders.
5. Improve parking lot visibility and identification by applying two-foot white or yellow paint (thermal plastic) parking guidelines between cars. This technique will improve reflected light between cars on asphalt surfaces.
Out
door
Lig
htin
g
32
6. Perimeter lighting (75 feet or more when possible in front of buildings) will act as a light barrier deterrent to would-be intruders.
7. Floodlighting should not be directed out from a building more than twice the mounting height of the equipment above the ground. This avoids the problem of extreme light and dark areas in addition to the distracting glare problem.
8. Recommend installation of photocell and/or time switch controlled for maximum customer benefit.
Outdoor Lighting Levels
Building Exteriors MinimumEntrances Footcandles
Active (pedestrian and/or conveyance) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5Inactive (normally locked, infrequently used) . . . . . . . . . . 1
Building FloodlightingBright surroundings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Dark surroundings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Building Surroundings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Parking AreasSelf-Parking Area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Attendant Parking Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Vital Locations or Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5O
utdoor Lighting
33
Ligh
t Sys
tem
Sel
ectio
n
Lam
p Ta
ble
Burn
ing
(b) I
nitia
lLa
mp
& B
alla
st(c
)(d
)(e
)Li
ght S
ourc
ePo
sitio
n(a
) Lam
p Li
feLu
men
sW
atta
geEf
ficac
yLL
Dx
LDD
=LL
F
High
Pre
ssur
e So
dium
Lam
ps (C
lear
)10
00W
Any
24,0
0014
0,00
01,
100
127
.83
x.6
5=
.54
400W
Any
24,0
0050
,000
465
108
.83
x.7
0=
.58
310W
Any
24,0
0037
,000
380
97.8
2x
.70
=.5
725
0WAn
y24
,000
30,0
0030
598
.83
x.7
0=
.58
200W
Any
24,0
0022
,000
250
88.8
2x
.70
=.5
715
0WAn
y24
,000
16,0
0020
080
.83
x.7
0=
.58
100W
Any
24,0
009,
500
135
70.8
3x
.70
=.5
870
WAn
y24
,000
6,30
095
66.8
3x
.70
=.5
850
WAn
y24
,000
4,00
063
64.8
3x
.70
=.5
835
WAn
y24
,000
2,25
045
50.8
3x
.70
=.5
8
Met
al H
alid
e La
mps
(Cle
ar)
1500
WVe
rt.3,
000
155,
000
1,62
595
.84
x.6
5=
.55
1000
W(I)
Vert.
(j)
12,0
0011
5,00
01,
050
110
.73
x.6
5=
.48
1000
WVe
rt.12
,000
110,
000
1,05
010
5.7
3x
.65
=.4
840
0W(I)
Vert.
(j)
20,0
0040
,000
460
87.6
8x
.70
=.4
840
0WVe
rt.20
,000
(f)
36,0
0046
078
.68
x.7
0=
.48
250W
Vert.
10,0
0019
,500
300
65.7
6x
.70
=.5
325
0W(l)
Horz
. (k)
10,0
0023
,000
300
77.7
6x
.70
=.5
317
5WVe
rt.10
,000
(g)
14,0
0021
067
.67
x.7
0=
.47
175W
(l)Ho
rz. (
k)6,
000
12,0
0021
071
.67
x.7
0=
.47
Out
door
Lig
htin
g
34
Lam
p Ta
ble
(con
t.)
Burn
ing
(b) I
nitia
lLa
mp
& B
alla
st(c
)(d
)(e
)Li
ght S
ourc
ePo
sitio
n(a
) Lam
p Li
feLu
men
sW
atta
geEf
ficac
yLL
Dx
LDD
=LL
F
Mer
cury
Lam
ps (D
elux
e W
hite
)10
00W
Vert.
24,0
00 +
63,0
001,
060
59.5
0x
.65
=.3
240
0WVe
rt.24
,000
+22
,500
450
50.7
1x
.70
=.5
025
0WVe
rt.24
,000
+12
,100
300
40.7
4x
.70
=.5
217
5WVe
rt.24
,000
+8,
600
210
41.7
8x
.70
=.5
510
0WVe
rt.24
,000
+4,
200
120
38.6
7x
.70
=.4
775
WVe
rt.16
,000
+2,
800
9932
.68
x.7
0=
.48
50W
Vert.
16,0
00 +
1,57
574
21.6
8x
.70
=.4
840
WVe
rt.16
,000
+1,
140
6119
.68
x.7
0=
.48
Fluo
resc
ent L
amps
PL5
(or e
quiv.
)10
,000
(h)
250
831
.70(
i)x
.65
=.4
6PL
7 (o
r equ
iv.)
10,0
00 (h
)40
010
40.7
0(i)
x.6
5=
.46
PL9
(or e
quiv.
)10
,000
(h)
600
1250
.70(
i)x
.65
=.4
6PL
13 (o
r equ
iv.)
10,0
00 (h
)90
016
56.7
0(i)
x.6
5=
.46
F40C
WRS
20,0
00+(
h)3,
150
4866
.83
x.6
5=
.54
(M)F
40LW
/RS/
II20
,000
(h)
2,92
540
73.8
3x
.65
=.5
4F4
0SP3
0/RS
(or e
quiv.
)15
,000
(h)
3,35
048
67.8
3x
.65
=.5
4(M
)F40
SP30
/RS
(or e
quiv.
)20
,000
(h)
2,90
040
72.8
3x
.65
=.5
4F4
0SP3
5/RS
(or e
quiv.
)20
,000
+(h)
3,25
048
66.8
3x
.65
=.5
4(M
)F40
SP35
/RS
(or e
quiv.
)20
,000
(h)
2,90
040
72.8
3x
.65
=.5
4F4
0SP4
1/RS
(or e
quiv.
)20
,000
+(h)
3,25
048
67.8
3x
.65
=.5
4
Outdoor Lighting
35
Lam
p Ta
ble
(con
t.)
Burn
ing
(b) I
nitia
lLa
mp
& B
alla
st(c
)(d
)(e
)Li
ght S
ourc
ePo
sitio
n(a
) Lam
p Li
feLu
men
sW
atta
geEf
ficac
yLL
Dx
LDD
=LL
F
Fluo
resc
ent L
amps
(Con
t.)(M
)F40
SP41
/RS
(or e
quiv.
)20
,000
(h)
2,90
040
71.8
3x
.65
=.5
4F4
0SPX
30/R
S (o
r equ
iv.)
20,0
00+(
h)3,
275
4868
.83
x.6
5=
.54
(M)F
40SP
X30/
RS (o
r equ
iv.)
20,0
00 (h
)2,
900
4071
.83
x.6
5=
.54
F40S
PX35
/RS
(or e
quiv.
)20
,000
+(h)
3,27
548
67.8
3x
.65
=.5
4(M
)F40
SPX3
5/RS
(or e
quiv.
)20
,000
(h)
2,90
040
71.8
3x
.65
=.5
4F9
6T12
/CW
(Slim
line)
18,0
006,
300
8673
.89
x.6
5=
.58
(M)F
96T1
2/LW
(Slim
line)
18,0
006,
000
7184
.89
x.6
5=
.58
F96T
12/C
W/H
O (8
00M
A)18
,000
9,20
012
176
.82
x.6
5=
.53
(M)F
96T1
2/CW
.HO
(800
MA)
18,0
008,
300
106
78.8
2x
.65
=.5
3F9
6T12
/CW
/VHO
(150
0MA)
12,5
0014
,000
222
63.6
7x
.60
=.4
0(M
)F96
T12/
LW/V
HO (1
500M
A)11
,250
13,8
0019
670
.67
x.6
0=
.40
F96P
G17/
CW (1
500M
A)15
,000
16,0
0022
571
.67
x.6
0=
.40
(M)F
96PG
17/L
W (1
500M
A)15
,000
14,9
0019
676
.67
x.6
0=
.40
Quar
tz T
ungs
ten
Halo
gen
Lam
ps15
00W
T-3
Horz
. (n)
2,00
035
,800
1500
24.9
5x
.65
=.6
210
00W
T-3
Horz
. (n)
2,00
021
,500
1000
22.9
5x
.65
=.6
250
0W T
-3Ho
rz. (
n)2,
000
11,1
0050
022
.95
x.6
5=
.62
200W
T-3
Horz
. (n)
1,50
03,
350
200
17.9
5x
.65
=.6
2
Out
door
Lig
htin
g
36
Lam
p Ta
ble
(con
t.)
Burn
ing
(b) I
nitia
lLa
mp
& B
alla
st(c
)(d
)(e
)Li
ght S
ourc
ePo
sitio
n(a
) Lam
p Li
feLu
men
sW
atta
geEf
ficac
yLL
Dx
LDD
=LL
F
Low
Pre
ssur
e So
dium
Lam
ps18
0W T
-21
18,0
0033
,000
220
150
1.00
x.6
5=
.65
135W
T-2
118
,000
22,5
0017
812
61.
00x
.65
=.6
590
W T
-21
18,0
0013
,500
125
108
1.00
x.6
5=
.65
55W
T-1
718
,000
8,00
080
100
1.00
x.6
5=
.65
35W
T-1
718
,000
4,80
068
711.
00x
.65
=.6
518
W T
-17
10,0
001,
800
3060
1.00
x.6
5=
.65
(a)
Lam
p lif
e ba
sed:
10
hour
s pe
r sta
rt fo
r HID
lam
psan
d 12
hou
rs p
er s
tart
for f
luor
esce
nt u
nles
sot
herw
ise
note
d.(b
)In
itial
lum
ens
(afte
r 100
hou
rs).
(c)
Lam
p lu
men
dep
reci
atio
n at
70%
rate
life
(LLD
).(d
)Lu
min
ary
dirt
depr
ecia
tion
(LDD
). Fo
r out
door
lum
inar
ies
only
.(e
)Li
ght l
oss
fact
or (L
LF).
For o
utdo
or lu
min
arie
s on
ly.
(f)Av
erag
e ra
te li
fe 2
0,00
0 ho
urs
(whe
n op
erat
edve
rtica
l ± 3
0).
All o
ther
bur
ning
pos
ition
s15
,000
hou
rs.
(g)
Aver
age
rate
d lif
e 10
,000
hou
rs (w
hen
oper
ated
verti
cal ±
30)
. All
othe
r bur
ning
pos
ition
s 6,
000
hour
s.
(h)
Aver
age
rate
d lif
e at
3 h
ours
per
sta
rt.(i)
Estim
ated
.(j)
Lam
p m
ust b
e op
erat
ed w
ithin
± 1
5° o
f ver
tical
.(k
)La
mp
mus
t be
oper
ated
with
in ±
15°
of h
orizo
ntal
.Re
quire
s sp
ecia
l soc
ket t
o ac
cept
pos
ition
orie
nted
bas
e.(l)
High
out
put l
amps
.(m
)Ene
rgy
effic
ient
lam
ps.
(n)
Lam
p m
ust b
e op
erat
ed w
ithin
± 4
° of v
ertic
al.
Outdoor Lighting
37
Cooking EquipmentHow to Evaluate Energy Cost
Electric Cost/yr = Nameplate rating (kW) * Diversity Factor (default of .25)* 12 * $/kW + kW * Diversity Factor * Hours per year * $/kWh
-OR-
To estimate further (this is a reasonable estimate, since cooking willbe a flat load throughout the year):
Electric Cost/yr = kW * Diversity Factor * Hours per year * Average$/kWh (from Table below)
Gas Cost/yr = Nameplate rating (Btuh) * Diversity Factor (default of .35)* Hours per year * $/therm /100000 Btu per therm
Equipment Input, Diversity, and Preheat Times
Fryer(conventional), 45# .20 .39 14 120000 5-8 8-12Griddle, 3' .20 .40 9 90000 7-12 10-15Deck Oven, 2-pan 5' .20 .39 10 75000 20-36 45-60Convection Oven,Single Full-Size .18 .35 11 55000 9-10 20-30Conveyor Oven, 36" .25 .45 18 120000 20-40 30-40Tilting Skillet, 40 gal. .20 .39 18 100000 8-13 5-9Solid Top Range, 3' .30 .80 8 80000 7-15 10-30Range Oven, 1 pan .20 .39 5 35000 20-36 20-30Radiant Broiler, 3' .60 .95 12 50000 5-10 15-20Charbroiler, 3' .60 .95 12 50000 8-11 20Steam JacketedKettle, 40 gal. .20 .45 18 110000 10-20 10-20Note that diversity is different between electric and gas because of reheat,thermal efficiency, and operational differences.
Equipment TypeDiversity (Elec/Gas)
Electric Gas Electric(kW)
Gas(Btuh) Electric Gas
Typical Input Preheat Time, min.
Cook
ing
Equi
pmen
t
38
Typical Electric Costs Typical Gas CostsBusiness Type ($/kWh) ($/therm)Fast Food .085 1.35Full Service .095 1.4Cafeteria .095 1.4Church/Synagogue .1 1.45Large Office Building .05 1.25School (K-12) .085 1.2College/University .08 1.3Healthcare .085 1.2
Effective 10/2002. Check [email protected] for updated information.
Cooking EfficiencyEquipment Electric GasBroiler, over fired .52 .22Charbroiler .65 .16Fryer, conventional .78 .28Fryer, pressure .83 .3Griddle, grooved .71 .51Kettle, jacketed .73 .42Open range burner .73 .38Oven, convection .62 .28Oven, deck .55 .24Oven, range .45 .13Skillet, tilting .79 .52Steamer, convection .23 .13Steamer, pressure .39 .19Note: This represents the energy that is put into the food (as opposed to the kitchen orup the flue). Source: “Comparative gas/electric foodservice equipment energyconsumption ratio study”, University of Minnesota, 3/3/83, p. 12. O.P. Snyder, D.R.Thompson, J.F. Norwig.
Cooking Equipment
39
Ventilation Requirements (CFM per SF of Cooking Surface)
Equipment Electric GasOvens, Steamers, Kettles 20 25Fryers 35 60Griddles and Ranges 35 40Hot Top Ranges 85 100Salamanders, High Broilers 60 70Grooved Griddles 65 75Char-Broilers 75 150For every 250 CFM reduction, AC load is reduced by 1.1 tons and heating requirementis reduced by 13,200 Btuh.
Equipment Considerations
Typical Foodservice Budgets Burger Chains Family RestaurantFood Sales 100% 100%
FOOD COST 33.3 31.5LABOR COST, BENEFITS 24 29.1Pretax Profits 24 29.1Rent, Property Tax, Insurance 8 7.9Administration, General 6 6.5Advertising, Promotion 4.8 2.6UTILITIES 3.6 0.48Supplies 4 3.2Repair, Maintenance, Int. 3.1 2.6Depreciation 2.8 2.8
Utilities represent less than 5% of a restaurant's operating budget.
Cook
ing
Equi
pmen
t
40
Electric foodservice equipment has the following advantages:Savings in Food Savings in Labor1. Less shrinkage in meat roasting 1. No pilot lights to relight2. Significant savings in frying fat 2. Less scrubbing of pots and pans3. Less spoilage due to overcooking 3. Fast recovery speeds production4. Less spoilage due to uneven heating 4. Watching of food is minimized5. Longer holding of food is possible 5. Requires less skilled help6. Larger servings from the griddle 6. Minimum of supervision7. Elimination of crippled baking runs 7. Compact layout saves space
Other savings provided by electric cooking1. The cooking process is energy efficient only 50% of typical gas BTUs2. This results in cooler kitchens, less or no A/C, more efficient employees3. The equipment lasts longer4. Does not require a flue5. It is easier to balance the building’s air flow6. Ovens are insulated on all six sides to conserve energy7. Electricity is clean, providing for lower building maintenance costs8. Water vapor and resulting humidity (bacteria, molds) are reduced9. Equipment does not lose its efficiency with age
10. Kitchen design is easier and more flexible
Typical Equipment List PricesEquipment Electric GasBraising Pan, 40 gal. $20,223 $24,270Charbroiler $4,908 $5,152Griddle, 3' $4,910 $5,260Fryer, 45 lb. $5,485 $5,977Kettle, 40 gal. $19,563 $25,743Oven, Combination $26,129 $33,578Oven, Double Convection $20,695 $22,575Pasta Cooker $12,308 $14,000Range $8,588 $5,726Steamer, 5-pan $11,449 $16,679As of 4/1/2008 Per autoquotes manufacturers suggested retail price (msrp)
Cooking Equipment
41
Refrigerants and ChillersCommon Refrigerants, Applications, and Current StatusNo. Name Application Status11 Trichlorofluoromethane Chillers (old) No longer
manufactured,still available
12 Dichlorodifluoromethane Chillers (old) No longermanufactured,still available
22 Chlorodifluoromethane Small equipment, Phaseout scheduledheat pumps, A/C for 2010units, cars
123 Dichlorotrifluoroethane New chillers Current134a Tetrafluoroethane New chillers, Current
cars, heat pumps717 Ammonia Food processing, Current
low-temperatureapplications
410a R32/R125 (50/50 blend), Small equipment, Currentmarketed as Puron heat pumps, A/C
units, cars407c R32/R125/R134a Chillers Current
(23/25/52 blend)
Chiller Types, Applications, ConsiderationsType Application ConsiderationsCentrifugal, High-rises; large Are most efficient run at fullWater-cooled applications (150t+) load; lose efficiency rapidly
at partial loadingReciprocating 100-120 t. Lower capital expense; less
efficient than most alternativesScrew, 75-300 t. Good efficiency at partialWater-cooled loading; can be noisyAbsorption Industrial, 800-1000 t. Not generally economic unless
free steam is available.Reciprocating and 100-300 t. Lower upfront cost, lowerscroll, air-cooled installation, doesn’t require
building space, less efficientthan water-cooled
Refr
iger
ants
& C
hille
rs
42
Motors and PumpsMotor BasicsThere are several terms used in motor applications. These include slip,motor efficiency, torque, and synchronous speed. The definitions ofthese terms are included in the glossary.
Within the AC motor category, there are 2 main categories:
• Single phase• 3-phase
Single phase motors are typically used in applications of 1 horsepoweror less. Three-phase motors are used for larger applications that don’trequire a DC motor. The allowable slip for the three-phase motorsvaries depending on the application. The speed listed on the motor istypically the actual speed (which takes slip into account). NEMAcategorizes motors based on torque; we show the applications below:
NEMA Design B C DLocked Rotor Torque Medium High Very High
Breakdown Torque High Medium Low
% slip, max. 5% 5% 5% or more
Applications Constant load Constant load Variable loadspeed, low speed, high speed, high inertiainertia starts. inertia starts starts. Hoists,Fans, Flywheels, elevators, somecompressors, large industrialconveyors, etc. blowers, etc. equipment
(punches,some presses).
Motors &
Pumps
43
Code Letter kVa/hp Code Letter kVa/hpA 0.0 - 3.15 L 9.0 - 10.0B 3.15 - 3.55 M 10.0 - 11.2C 3.55 - 4.0 N 11.2 - 12.5D 4.0 - 5.0 P 12.5 - 14.0E 4.5 - 5.0 R 14.0 - 16.0F 5.0 - 5.6 S 16.0 - 18.0G 5.6 - 6.3 T 18.0 - 20.0H 6.3 - 7.1 U 20.0 - 22.4J 7.1 - 8.0 V 22.4 and upK 8.0 - 9.0
The nameplate code rating is a good indication of the starting current themotor will draw. A code letter at the beginning of the alphabet indicates a lowstarting current and a letter at the end of the alphabet indicates a high startingcurrent. Starting current can be calculated using the following formula:
Starting current = (1000 x hp x kVa/hp)/(1.73 x Volts)
Motor Cost ComparisonChoosing the right motor is an important part of the design process.There is no “rule of thumb” for all motor types. To determine the annualoperating cost and the best choice, you need to consider:
• Annual hours of operation• Loading• Electric rate• Capital cost of the various options
The formula for the total cost would be:Demand cost = hp under loading * 0.746 kW/hp* $/kW-month *12 months/year / Efficiency
Energy cost = % loading * number of hours of operation * hp *0.746 kW/hp * $/kWh / Efficiency
Total cost = demand cost + energy cost
Mot
ors
& P
umps
44
Motors &
Pumps
45
Recommendation Chart for Motor Replacement/NewInstallation3
5 hp 10 hp 15 hp 20 hp 30 hp1000 hpy Rewind/Std. Rewind/Std. Rewind/Std. Rewind/Std. Rewind/Std.
Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency3000 Rewind/High Install New Install New Install New Install New
Eff. High Eff. High Eff. High Eff. High Eff.5000 Rewind/High Install New Install New Install New Install New
Eff. High Eff. High Eff. High Eff. High Eff.7000 Install New Install New Install New Install New Install New
High Eff. High Eff. High Eff. High Eff. High Eff.8760 Install New Install New Install New Install New Install New
High Eff. High Eff. High Eff. High Eff. High Eff.3 Assumes small business tax rate, 15% discount rate, PLM rate schedule, standard and high
efficiency as observed in supply catalogs, standard market prices. For any extensive motorreplacements/installations, please contact Georgia Power to find the best customized decision
Heat Gain from Typical Electric MotorsMotor Motor Motor
Insider; Outside; Inside;Rated Motor Nominal Full-load Equipment Equipment Equipment
hp Type rpm Eff. % Inside (Btuh) Inside (Btuh) Outside (Btuh)
0.5 Split-phase1750 60 2120 1270 8500.75 3-phase 1750 72 2650 1900 7401 3-phase 1750 75 3390 2550 8501 3-phase 1750 77 4960 3820 11402 3-phase 1750 79 6440 5090 13503 3-phase 1750 81 9430 7640 17905 3-phase 1750 82 15500 12700 27907 3-phase 1750 84 22700 19100 364010 3-phase 1750 85 29900 24500 449015 3-phase 1750 86 44400 38200 621020 3-phase 1750 87 58500 50900 761025 3-phase 1750 88 72300 63600 868030 3-phase 1750 89 85700 76300 944040 3-phase 1750 89 114000 102000 12600
Mot
ors
& P
umps
46
Heat Gain from Typical Electric Motors (cont.)Motor Motor Motor
Insider; Outside; Inside;Rated Motor Nominal Full-load Equipment Equipment Equipment
hp Type rpm Eff. % Inside (Btuh) Inside (Btuh) Outside (Btuh)50 3-phase 1750 89 143000 127000 1570060 3-phase 1750 89 172000 153000 1890075 3-phase 1750 90 212000 191000 21200100 3-phase 1750 90 283000 255000 28300125 3-phase 1750 90 353000 318000 35300150 3-phase 1750 91 420000 382000 37800200 3-phase 1750 91 569000 509000 50300250 3-phase 1750 91 699000 636000 62900
Copyright 2001, American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.www.ashrae.org. Reprinted by permission from 2001 ASHRAE Handbook “Fundamentals”.
Motor FormulaeTorque (lb-ft) = hp * 5250/RPMHp = Volts * Amps * Efficiency/746% slip = (Synchronous RPM – Full-load RPM)*100/Synchronous RPM
Affinity Laws for Pumps
Copyright 1987, American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers,Inc. www.ashrae.org. Reprinted by permission from 1987 ASHRAE Pocket Handbook.
ImpellerDiameter Speed
SpecificGravity (SG)
To Correctfor
Multiply by
Flow New SpeedOld Speed
New SpeedOld Speed
New SpeedOld Speed
New DiameterOld DiameterNew DiameterOld DiameterNew DiameterOld Diameter
New SGOld SG
( )Head ( )BHP
(or kW) ( )Flow ( )Head ( )BHP
(or kW) ( )BHP
(or kW)
Constant
Constant
Variable
Variable Constant
Constant Constant
Constant Variable
2
3
2
3
Motors &
Pumps
47
Fans and DuctsFan Laws
CFM1/CFM2 = RPM1/RPM2SP1/SP2 = (RPM1/RPM2)2
HP1/HP2 = (RPM1/RPM2)3
Criteria for Fan Selection:To get the best fan for a particular application, the designer mustconsider these aspects:
• Required air volume and static pressure• Application type (temperature of discharge, corrosive vapors, etc.)• Available space• Noise criteria• Location of discharge• Motor position• Air density (particularly important in South Georgia)
Fans
& D
ucts
48
Duct Design
Rectangular Equivalent of Round Ducts
Fans & D
ucts
49
Industrial Applications
Compressed Air
Existing compressor capacity:
C = V(P2-P1)*60/(14.7*time)
Where:C = capacity of compressor in cfmV = receiver and piping volume in cu. ft.P2 = final cutout pressure (absolute, psia)P1 = initial pressure (absolute, psia)Time = pump up time, in seconds
Additional Air Required = Existing Capacity * Desired Pressure/Existing Pressure
Typical Compressor Capacity:
Type of Compressor Piston, Two Stage Rotary ScrewCFM per hp 3.5 4.0
Indu
stri
al A
pplic
atio
ns
50
Leak
age
Rate
from
Hol
esAi
r Flo
w T
hrou
gh O
rific
es
25
1015
2030
4050
6080
100
125
150
200
Gaug
e Pr
essu
re in
Rec
eive
r (po
unds
)Di
a. o
fOr
ifice
(in.)
1/64
0.04
0.06
20.
077
0.10
50.
123
0.15
80.
194
0.23
0.26
70.
335
0.04
060.
494
0.58
30.
751/
320.
158
0.24
80.
311
0.42
00.
491
0.63
30.
774
0.91
61.
061.
341.
621.
982.
233.
183/
640.
356
0.56
80.
712
0.94
41.
101.
421.
752.
062.
383.
03.
664.
445.
256.
861/
160.
633
0.99
31.
241.
681.
962.
533.
103.
664.
235.
366.
497.
909.
112
.17
3/32
1.43
2.23
2.80
3.78
4.41
5.69
78.
259.
512
.014
.617
.820
.927
.35
1/8
2.53
3.97
4.98
6.72
7.86
10.1
12.4
14.7
16.9
21.4
26.0
31.6
37.3
48.7
3/16
5.7
8.93
11.2
15.2
17.6
522
.828
.033
.038
48.3
58.5
71.0
8410
9.6
1/4
10.1
15.9
19.9
26.9
31.4
40.5
49.6
58.6
67.6
85.7
104
126
149.
319
53/
822
.835
.744
.760
.570
.791
.111
213
215
219
323
428
433
643
81/
240
.563
.579
.610
812
616
219
823
527
134
341
550
659
677
75/
863
.03
99.3
124.
516
819
625
331
036
642
353
664
979
093
212
163/
491
.214
317
9.2
242
283
365
446
528
609
771
934
1138
1340
1750
7/8
124
195
244.
232
938
549
660
771
882
810
5012
7215
4918
2523
821
162
254
318.
243
050
364
879
393
810
8213
7116
6120
2323
8531
121-
1/18
205
321
402.
554
463
782
010
0411
8713
7017
3421
0125
6030
2039
401-
1/4
253
397
498
672
784
1019
1240
1464
1693
2144
2596
3160
3725
4860
1-3/
830
748
260
481
695
412
3015
0517
8020
5426
0731
5338
4045
2559
101-
1/2
364
572
716
968
1132
1460
1783
2112
2335
3081
3734
4550
5360
7000
1-3/
449
678
097
213
1815
4019
8524
2928
7533
1042
0050
8561
9573
0095
302
648
1015
1274
1720
2120
2594
3173
3752
4330
5480
6650
8100
9540
1245
0N
ote:
For
wel
l-rou
nded
ent
ranc
e, m
u8lti
ply
valu
es b
y 0.
97; f
or s
harp
-edg
ed o
rific
es, m
ultip
ly b
y 0.
65
Industrial Applications
Proc
ess
Stea
mSa
tura
ted
Stea
m: P
ress
ure
Tabl
eAb
s.Pr
ess.
(psi
)
p
Tem
p(F
) t
Sat.
Liqu
id
v f
Evap
.
v fg
Sat.
Vapo
r
v g
Sat.
Liqu
id
h f
Evap
.
h fg
Sat.
Vapo
r
h g
Sat.
Liqu
id
s f
Evap
.
s fg
Sat.
Vapo
r
s g
Spec
ific
Volu
me
Enth
alpy
Entro
pyAb
s.Pr
ess.
(psi
)p
0.08
865
32.0
180.
0160
2233
02.4
3302
.40.
0003
1075
.510
75.5
0.00
002.
1872
2.18
720.
8865
0.25
59.3
230.
0160
3212
35.5
1235
.527
.382
1060
.110
87.4
0.05
422.
0425
2.09
670.
250.
579
.586
0.01
6071
641.
564
1.5
47.6
2310
48.6
1096
.30.
0925
1.94
462.
0370
0.5
1.0
101.
740.
0163
633
3.59
333.
669
.73
1036
.111
05.8
0.13
261.
8455
1.97
811.
05.
016
2.24
0.01
6407
73.5
1573
.532
130.
210
00.9
1131
.10.
2349
1.60
941.
8443
5.0
10.0
193.
210.
0165
9238
.404
38.4
2016
1.26
982.
111
43.3
0.28
361.
5043
1.78
7910
.014
.696
212.
000.
0167
1926
.782
26.7
9918
0.17
970.
311
50.5
0.31
211.
4447
1.75
6814
.696
15.0
213.
030.
0167
2626
.274
26.2
9018
1.21
969.
711
50.9
0.31
371.
4415
1.75
5215
.0
20.0
227.
960.
0168
3420
.070
20.0
8719
6.27
960.
111
56.3
0.33
581.
3962
1.73
2020
.030
.025
0.34
0.01
7009
13.7
266
13.7
436
218.
994
5.2
1164
.10.
3682
1.33
131.
6995
30.0
40.0
267.
250.
0171
5110
.479
410
.496
523
6.1
933.
611
69.8
0.39
211.
2844
1.67
6540
.050
.028
1.02
0.01
7274
8.49
678.
5140
250.
292
3.9
1174
.10.
4122
1.24
741.
6586
50.0
60.0
292.
710.
0173
837.
1562
7.17
3626
2.2
915.
411
77.6
0.42
731.
2167
1.64
4060
.070
.030
2.93
0.01
7482
6.18
756.
2050
272.
790
7.8
1180
.60.
4411
1.19
051.
6316
70.0
80.0
312.
040.
0175
735.
4536
5.47
1128
2.1
900.
911
83.1
0.45
341.
1675
1.62
0880
.090
.032
0.28
0.01
7659
4.87
794.
8953
290.
789
4.6
1185
.30.
4643
1.14
701.
6113
90.0
100.
032
7.82
0.01
7740
4.41
334.
4310
298.
588
8.6
1187
.20
0.47
431.
1284
1.60
2710
0.0
110.
033
4.79
0.01
782
4.03
064.
0484
305.
888
3.1
1188
.90.
4834
1.11
151.
5950
110.
012
0.0
341.
270.
0178
93.
7097
3.72
7531
2.6
877.
811
90.4
0.49
191.
0960
1.58
7912
0.0
130.
034
7.33
0.01
796
3.43
643.
4544
319.
087
2.8
1191
.70.
4998
1.08
151.
5813
130.
014
0.0
353.
040.
0180
33.
2010
3.21
9032
5.0
868.
811
93.0
0.50
711.
0681
1.57
5214
0.0
51
Indu
stri
al A
pplic
atio
ns
52
Satu
rate
d St
eam
: Pre
ssur
e Ta
ble
(con
t.)
Abs.
Pres
s.(p
si)
p
Tem
p(F
) t
Sat.
Liqu
id
v f
Evap
.
v fg
Sat.
Vapo
r
v g
Sat.
Liqu
id
h f
Evap
.
h fg
Sat.
Vapo
r
h g
Sat.
Liqu
id
s f
Evap
.
s fg
Sat.
Vapo
r
s g
Spec
ific
Volu
me
Enth
alpy
Entro
pyAb
s.Pr
ess.
(psi
)p
150.
035
8.43
0.01
809
2.99
583.
0139
330.
686
3.4
1194
.10.
5141
1.05
541.
5695
150.
016
0.0
363.
550.
0181
52.
8155
2.83
3633
6.1
859.
011
95.1
0.52
061.
0435
1.56
4116
0.0
170.
036
8.42
0.01
821
2.65
562.
6738
341.
285
4.8
1196
.00.
5269
1.03
221.
5591
170.
018
0.0
373.
080.
0182
72.
5129
2.53
1234
6.2
850.
711
96.9
0.53
281.
0215
1.55
4318
0.0
190.
037
7.53
0.01
833
2.38
472.
4030
350.
984
6.7
1197
.60.
5384
1.01
131.
5498
190.
0
200.
038
1.80
0.01
839
2.26
892.
2873
355.
584
2.8
1198
.30.
5438
1.00
161.
5454
200.
021
0.0
385.
910.
0184
42.
1637
32.
1821
735
9.9
839.
111
99.0
0.54
900.
9923
1.54
1321
0.0
220.
038
9.88
0.01
850
2.06
779
2.08
629
364.
283
5.4
1199
.60.
5540
0.98
341.
5374
220.
023
0.0
393.
700.
0185
51.
9799
11.
9984
636
8.3
831.
812
00.1
0.55
880.
9748
1.53
6623
0.0
240.
039
7.39
0.01
860
1.89
909
1.91
769
372.
382
8.4
1200
.60.
5634
0.96
651.
5299
240.
025
0.0
400.
970.
0186
51.
8245
21.
8431
737
6.1
825.
012
01.1
0.56
790.
9585
1.52
6425
0.0
260.
040
4.44
0.01
870
1.75
548
1.77
418
379.
982
1.6
1201
.50.
5722
0.95
081.
5230
260.
027
0.0
407.
800.
0187
51.
6913
71.
7101
338
3.6
818.
312
01.9
0.57
640.
9433
1.51
9727
0.0
280.
041
1.07
0.01
880
1.63
169
1.65
049
387.
181
5.1
1202
.30.
5805
0.93
611.
5166
280.
029
0.0
414.
250.
0188
51.
5759
71.
5948
239
0.6
812.
012
02.6
0.58
440.
9291
1.51
3529
0.0
300.
041
7.35
0.01
889
1.52
384
1.54
274
394.
080
8.9
1202
.90.
5882
0.92
231.
5105
300.
035
0.0
431.
730.
0191
21.
3064
21.
3255
440
9.8
794.
212
04.0
0.60
590.
8909
1.49
6835
0.0
400.
044
4.60
0.01
934
1.14
162
1.16
095
424.
278
0.4
1204
.60.
6217
0.86
301.
4847
100.
0Industrial Applications
53
Steam Loss from Leaks*
Combustion Heat Losses, Gas Boilers
Indu
stri
al A
pplic
atio
ns
Trap OrificeDiameter (inches)
Pressure (psi)
15 100 150 3001/32 0.85 3.3 4.8 9.81/16 3.4 13.2 18.9 36.21/8 13.7 52.8 75.8 145.03/16 30.7 119.0 170.0 326.01/4 54.7 211.0 303.0 579.03/8 123.0 475.0 682.0 1303.0
*in lb/hr.A typical plant has a steam value of $5/1000 lbs. steam
54
Industrial Process TechnologiesTechnology Applications ConsiderationsUltraviolet Coatings on heat Fast curing.
sensitive substrates. No VOCs.Disinfection in water/ Low maintenance.sewage treatment.
Induction Electrically conductive work Best for symmetricpieces – high frequency shapes and highfor surface hardening, productivity applications. low for through heating.
Plasma Arc Cutting, welding, melting, More accurate and fasterincineration, vitrification. than mechanical cutting
Radio Frequency Rapid drying of non- Best for difficult drying conductive materials. applications, boundAdhesive curing. moisture removalPlastics welding.
Microwave Cooking and final drying New microwaveof foods. technologies allow webRubber vulcanization. drying applications. BestSintering ceramics. for high value-added
products (high capitalcost).
Infrared Comfort heating. Great in areas with highProcess heating. ventilation (comfort
application); increasesdrying speed – increasingproductivity (process).
Powder Coating Painting. No VOCs. Higher quality.Good application forIR curing.
Ozonation Laundry brightening. No bleach required. Water disinfection.
Electrode Boilers Steam, hot water production. Rapid startup. High capacity.Small footprint.No exhaust flue. Highefficiency. Low noise.Precise control.
Industrial Applications
55
Industrial Heating and Curing
Typical Energy Requirements (kWh/ton)St
ainl
ess
Non
-St
ainl
ess
Proc
ess
Stee
lM
agne
ticM
agne
ticN
icke
lTi
tani
umCo
pper
Bras
sAl
umin
um
Mel
ting
500
550
550
500
400
370
350
450
Heat
For
ging
400
375
430
450
375
350
325
300
Hard
enin
g/So
lutio
nTr
eatin
g25
026
0N
/A30
032
535
030
030
0
Anne
alin
g25
021
037
540
030
0N
/A25
026
0
War
mFo
rmin
g17
5N
/A25
024
0N
/AN
/AN
/AN
/A
Stre
ss R
elie
f15
015
020
025
022
520
020
021
0
Tem
perin
g/Ag
ing
7070
100
120
110
N/A
N/A
N/A
Curin
g50
5075
9080
N/A
7012
5
Indu
stri
al A
pplic
atio
ns
56
Information to Assess Induction Feasibility
Average Induction Heating System Efficiency
CharacteristicMaterials Electrically conductive (typically metallic)
Coatings Don’t require long residence time for curing
Production High volume/high speed
Heat Control Requires ability to control temperature and depth of heating precisely
Scrap Material that oxidizes readily (e.g. aluminum); inductionallows control of atmosphere, moisture, and temperature —can reduce scrap rate from 7-8% to 1%
Floor Space Little available square footage
Energy Costs Moderate to high gas prices/moderate to low electric prices
System Efficiency Processes that require sporadic heating; induction can cyclewhereas gas convection cannot — result is lower energyuse for induction
Product Shape Simple, symmetric, regular
Capital Cost Less important to customer; induction tends to cost moreupfront, but can have rapid payback depending on application
Labor Cost High labor costs; induction lends itself to automation whichcan reduce labor requirements in a plant
Good Induction Application
Type Frequency System EfficiencyLine Voltage 60 Hz 65%Solid State 60 to 200 kHz 70%
Radio Frequency 200 to 450 kHz 50%
Industrial Applications
For help assessing induction for your customer, contact [email protected]
57
Emitters and Applications of IR Radiant Heating
Type ofEmitter
TypicalApplications
Tungsten filamentlamps
T-3 quartz lamps
Coil or wire inunsealed quartz,silicon tubes, or
panels
Metal radiant tubes
Metal ribbon emitters
Ceramic emitters
Glass panels
Vitrified ceramicpanels
Curing paintedsurfaces
Curing powdercoatings
Polymerization oforganic coatings
on cooking utensils
Gelling PVCcoatings on fabric
Drying iron oxide onrecording tapes
Production of TVtubes
Drying porcelainand ceramics
Drying and productionof glass-plastic
composites
Curing paintedsurfaces
Curing powdercoatings
Drying/heat settingfabrics after dyeing
or printing
Supplemental heaterfor paper drying
Drying inks in printingor silkscreening
Preheating plastic
Preheating woodenpanels prior to
coating
Curing coatings onwooden panels
Curing the varnishor paints on mirror
backs
Activating adhesives
Drying textiles
Animal care inagriculture
Printed circuit boardprocessing
Drying silkscreen inks
Preheating plastic
Preheating embossingrollers
Drying paints andlacquers
SHORT WAVE(High Intensity) MEDIUM WAVE LONG WAVE
(High Intensity)
Indu
stri
al A
pplic
atio
ns
58
Typical Oven Comparison
ELECTRIC GAS CONVECTIONFloor space (conveyer
length needed)
Warm-up time
Cure time
Efficiency
Product temperaturerange
Operational advantages
Ease of installation
25 to 30 feet
1 to 90 seconds
1 second to 10 minutes
45 to 60%
0 to 1000°F.
Can be turned off orreduced to 5-10% powerwith no parts in the oven
Preassembled, moveinto position
300 to 350 feet
30 minutes
20 to 35 minutes
15 to 25%
0 to 450°F.
Runs all the time
Erect on site
Industrial Applications
Met
als
Prop
ertie
s of
Sol
ids
Ther
mal
Line
ar C
oeffi
cien
tM
eltin
gCo
nduc
tivity
of T
herm
alSp
ecifi
cHe
at o
fPo
int
Dens
ityBt
u/hr
/ft2
Expa
nsio
nSu
bsta
nce
Heat
Btu
/lb/F
Fusi
on B
tu/lb
(low
est)
°Flb
/ft3
lb/in
3°F
per °
F x
100
Alum
inum
110
0.2
416
911
9016
9.0
9812
813
.1Al
umin
um 2
024
.24
167
935
173
.100
112
12.9
Alum
inum
300
3.2
416
711
9017
0.0
9911
212
.9An
timon
y.0
5269
1166
423
.245
10.9
4.7-
6.0
Bism
uth
.031
2352
061
0.3
534.
97.
4Br
ass
(70%
Cu.
30%
Zn)
.10
—17
00±
525
.304
5611
.1Co
pper
.10
9119
8155
0.3
1822
49.
2Go
ld.0
3029
1945
1203
.697
169
7.9
Inco
loy
800
.12
—24
7550
1.2
908.
17.
9In
colo
y 60
0.1
1—
2470
525
.304
9.1
7.4
Inva
r.1
3—
2600
508
.294
6.1
0.6
Iron,
cas
t.1
3—
2300
±45
0.2
6033
6.5
Iron,
wro
ught
.12
—28
00±
480
.278
366.
5Le
ad, s
olid
.031
1062
171
0.4
1120
16.3
Lead
, mel
ted
.04
——
665
.385
——
Mag
nesi
um.2
3216
012
0210
9.0
6391
14M
onel
400
.11
—23
7055
1.3
1914
7.7
Nic
kel 2
00.1
113
326
1555
4.3
2139
7.4
Nic
hrom
e (8
0% N
i; 20
% C
r).1
1—
2550
524
.303
8.7
7.3
Plat
inum
.032
4932
2413
38.7
7541
4.9
Silv
er.0
5738
1761
655
.379
242
10.9
Sold
er (5
0% P
b; 5
0% S
n).0
417
415
580
.336
2613
.1St
eel,
mild
car
bon
.12
—25
5±49
0.2
8438
6.7
Stee
l, st
ainl
ess,
304
.11
—25
5048
8.2
828.
89.
6St
eel,
stai
nles
s, 4
30.1
1—
2650
475
.275
12.5
6.0
Tant
alum
.036
—54
2510
36.6
0031
3.6
Tin,
sol
id.0
5625
450
455
.263
3613
Tin,
mel
ted
.064
——
437
.253
18—
Tita
nium
.126
—33
0028
3.1
649.
34.
7Ty
pe M
etal
(85%
Pb;
15%
Sb)
.040
1550
067
0.3
88—
—Zi
nc.0
9551
787
445
.258
659.
4-22
Indu
stri
al A
pplic
atio
ns
59
60
Solid
Non
-Met
als
Prop
ertie
s of
Sol
ids
Th
erm
alLi
near
Coe
ffici
ent
Mel
ting
Cond
uctiv
ityof
The
rmal
Spec
ific
Heat
of
Poin
tDe
nsity
Btu/
hr/ft
2Ex
pans
ion
Subs
tanc
eHe
at B
tu/lb
/FFu
sion
Btu
/lb(lo
wes
t) °F
.lb
/ft3
lb/in
3°F
per °
F x
100
Asbe
stos
.25
——
36.0
28.0
87—
Asph
alt
.40
4025
0±65
.038
–—
Bees
wax
—
7514
460
.035
–—
Bric
kwor
k &
Mas
onry
.22
——
140
.081
.38
3–6
Carb
on.2
04—
6700
—.0
8013
.8.3
–2.4
Glas
s.2
0—
2200
±16
5.0
96.4
55
Grap
hite
.20
——
130
.075
.104
—Ic
e.4
6—
—57
.033
1.28
—M
agne
sium
Oxi
debe
fore
com
pact
ion
.21
——
——
.3co
mpa
cted
.21
——
—.1
121.
27.
7M
arin
ite-3
6 @
600
F.3
1—
—36
.021
.068
1.3
Mic
a.2
0—
——
.102
.25
18pa
per
.45
——
58.0
34.0
68—
Para
ffin
.70
6313
356
.032
.13
—Pi
tch,
har
d
—
—30
0±83
.048
–—
Plas
tics AB
S.3
-.4—
——
.036
.11–
.19
32–7
2Ce
llulo
sic
.3-.5
——
—.0
48.1
0–.2
055
–83
Epox
y.2
5—
——
.045
.10–
.12
25–3
6Fl
uoro
plas
tic.2
8—
——
.077
.14
46–5
8N
ylon
.4—
——
.040
.14
.44
Phen
olic
.3-.4
——
—.0
48.0
85.3
8Po
lyet
hyle
ne.5
5—
——
.033
.19–
.29
55–1
11Po
lyst
yren
e.3
2—
——
.037
.03–
.08
17–1
11Vi
nyl
.2-.3
——
—.0
50.0
7–.1
728
–139
Quar
tz.2
1—
3150
138
.080
.80
.30
Rubb
er.4
0—
—95
±.0
55±
.087
340
Soil
dry
.44
——
100
.058
.035
±
—
Stea
tite
.20
——
—.0
941.
75
Suga
r.3
0—
320
105
.061
—
Sulfu
r.2
0317
230
125
.072
.15
36Ta
llow
—
—90
±60
.035
—
Woo
d-oa
k.4
5±
——
50.0
29.1
2–.2
0
—W
ood-
pine
.45
±—
—34
.020
.06–
.14
—
Industrial Applications
61
Properties of LiquidsSpecific
Heat Heat of Boiling DensityBtu/lb/ Vaporization Point
Substance °F Btu/lb °F lb/ft3 lb/galAcetic acid .472 153 245 66 8.82Alcohol .65 365 172 55 7.35Benzine .45 166 175 56 7.49Brine
(25% NACI) .81 730± 220± 74 9.89Caustic soda
(18% NaOH) .84 800± 220± 75 10.03Dowtherm A
(at 450°F) .518 42 495 55 7.35Ether .503 160 95 46 6.15Freon 12
(Saturated liquid) .24 62 -20 78.5 10.50Glycerine .58 — 554 79 10.58Mercury .033 117 675 845 112.97Oil, cotton seed .47 — — 60 8.02Oil, olive .47 — 570± 58 7.75Oil, petroleum .51 — — 56 7.49Paraffin, melted .71 — 750± 56 7.49Potassium
(at 1000°F) .18 893 1400 44.6 5.96Sodium
(at 1000°F) .3 1810 1638 51.2 6.84Sulfur, melted .234 652 601 — —Therminol FR-1
(at 450°F) .36 — 650± 73.5 9.83Turpentine .41 133 319 54 7.22Water 1.0 965 212 62.5 8.34
Source: Chromalox (5)
Indu
stri
al A
pplic
atio
ns
62
Properties of Gases and VaporsSpecific Density at Thermal
Heat at Constant 70°F and Conductivity at 32°F andPressure Atmospheric Atmospheric Pressure
Substance Btu/lb/°F Pressure lb/ft3 Btu/hr/ft2/°F
Acetylene .35 .073 .0108Air .237 .08 .014Ammonia .520 .048 .0175Argon .124 .1037 .00912Carbon dioxide .203 .123 .0085Carbon monoxide .243 .078 .0135Chlorine .125 .2 .0043Ethylene .4 .0728 .0101Helium 1.25 .0104 .0802Hydrogen 3.41 .0056 .0917Methane .6 .0447 .0175Methyl chloride .24 .1309 .0053Nitric Oxide .231 .0779 .0138Nitrogen .245 .078 .014Oxygen .218 .09 .0142Sulphur dioxide .155 .179 .005Water vapor (212°F) .451 .0372 .0145
Source: Chromalox (5)
Industrial Applications
63
On-Site Generation and Power QualityStandby Generation ConsiderationsGenset Fuel Fuel Cost/kW Tank? Considerations
Diesel $250 24-hour If more than 500 kWstandard generator, musthave dykes to contain spill inamount of largest deliverytanker compartment.
Propane <100 kW, $200 Tank not Burns vapor, not liquid.>100 kW, $400 furnished Need a much larger
tank to provide therequired pressure.
Natural Gas <100 kW, $200 Not Must purchase firm gas>100 kW, $400 required contract if for backup
of critical systems.
Uninterruptible Power Supply/Power ConditioningSystemsSolution Protection SizeType Time Range Comments
Uninterruptible 5-10 minutes 650 VA Provides for proper operationPower System typical to of protected equipment for(UPS): Battery protection 750 kVA outages up to several minutes(long term) with longer or seamless transfer to
battery times generator or orderly shutdownavailable of protected equipment before
the battery power expires.
On-
Site
Gen
erat
ion
& P
ower
Qua
lity
64
Uninterruptible Power Supply/Power ConditioningSystems (cont.)
Solution Protection SizeType Time Range Comments
UPS: Flywheel 13 seconds to 100 kVA Provides for orderly shutdown2 minutes to of protected equipment forbased on 750 kVA short duration outages orpower provides seamless transferrequirements to generator.of theprotected system.
UPS: Battery 30 seconds at 313 kVA Provides for orderly shutdown(short-term) 100% load and to of protected equipment for
up to 60 2500 kVA short duration outages orseconds at provides seamless transferpartial load to generator.
Dynamic Sag Sag correction- 250 VA Protects against 92% ofCorrector 2 seconds to voltage events.
maximum 3000 kVAMomentaryoutages up to12 cycles
Surge Protection N/A N/A Surge capacity and optionsvary with model. Protectssystems from transientvoltages such as lightning,switching transients andover-voltages.
On-Site G
eneration & Pow
er Quality
65
Alternative Energy SourcesPotential
Type In SE Cost/kW Cost/kWh Comments
Fuel Cell High $5000 Cost of Works by convertingfuel/efficiency natural gas to hydrogen.
Micro- High $1000 Must evaluate Cost/kW at fully ratedturbine (standard); system capacity. Cannot use
$1400 efficiency. this capacity for cost (combined At 2002 gas calculations – mustheat and prices, about derate for temperaturepower). $0.10/kWh.
Wind- Low $1000-1200 Free, except land Only a few mountainpower and maintenance ridges in N. Ga provide
cost. any wind potential.
Active Low $1000-1200 Free, except land SE US listed by DOE asSolar (13% (if applicable) low potential location.
of energy anddelivered) maintenance cost
Waste-to Med- Location & Fuel-specific Industrial application. Energy High size specific, Requires extensive
$200/kW. permitting and design.Best applications havefuel with no retail valueand steam requirementsin plant.
On-
Site
Gen
erat
ion
& P
ower
Qua
lity
66
Electrical DistributionFor single-phase light and powerbranch circuits.
Single-phase, 3-wire
Transformersecondary
For three-phase power circuits and single-phase light and power branch circuits.
Three-phase, 4-wire delta with one phasecenter tapped and grounded. (Three-phase, 3-wire delta for power loads is usedwith a separate single phase supply forlighting.
For three-phase power circuits and single-phase light and power branchcircuits.
Three-phase, 4-wire wye (or star) with grounded neutral rated 120/208 volts.
For three-phase power circuits and lighting circuits using 277-volt ballasts.120-volt lighting and receptacle loads are fed from this system through single-phase transformers rated 480/-120 240 volts or three-phase transformersrated 480/120-208 volts.
Three-phase, 4-wire wye (or star) with grounded neutral rated 277/480 volts.
Electrical Distribution
67
Useful Electrical Formulas for Determining Amperes,Horsepower, Kilowatts, and kVa
Direct ALTERNATING CURRENTTo Find Current Single Phase Three PhaseAmperes when Hp. x 746 Hp. x 746 Hp. x 746Horsepower E x Eff. E x Eff. x P.F. 1.73 x E x Eff. x P.F.is known
Amperes when kW x 1000 kW x 1000 kW x 1000Kilowatts is known E E x P.F. 1.73 x E x P.F.
Amperes when kVA x 1000 kVA x 1000kVa is known E 1.73 x E
Kilowatts I x E I x E x P.F. I x E x 1.73 x P.F.1000 1000 1000
kVA I x E I x E x 1.731000 1000
Horsepower— I x E x Eff. I x E x Eff. X P.F. I x E x 1.73 x Eff. x P.F.(output) 746 746 746I = Amperes; E = Volts; Eff. = Efficiency expressed as decimal; P.F. = Power Factor;kW = Kilowatts; kVA = Kilovolt-amperes; Hp = Horsepower
Estimating Loads From kWh Meter ClockingkW = No. of Revolutions x 3600 x Kh x C.T. Ratio
1000 x Time in Seconds
Kh = Meter Constant; C.T. Ratio = Multiplier, if used
Effects From Voltage Variations % of Rated VoltageMotor Characteristics 90% 110% 120%Torque -19% +21% +44%F. L. R. P. M. -11/2% +1% +1.5%F.L. Efficiency -2 Points +1/2 Point +1 PointF.L. Amps +11% -7% -.11%Starting Amps -10% +10% +.25%F.L. Temperature +11% -6% 9%Noise Level -Slight +Slight +NoticeableMax. Overloaded Capacity -19% +21% +44%
Elec
tric
al D
istr
ibut
ion
68
Percent of Rated Heater Watts at Reduced Voltage240 Volt Heater on 230 Volts—92%240 Volt Heater on 220 Volts—84%240 Volt Heater on 208 Volts—75%480 Volt Heater on 440 Volts—84%480 Volt Heater on 277 Volts—33%
Motor Wattages1/6 hp = 250 W 1/2 hp = 680 W1/4 hp = 350 W 3/4 hp = 980 W1/3 hp = 460 W 1 hp = 1200 W
Ohm’s Law Made Easy
ER W
E
E2
RI2 x R
E x I
WI I x R
WI2
E2
W
EI
WR
W x R
I
R
W
E√
√Electrical D
istribution
BTUH—kW
—Am
peres Chart120V
208V240V
277V480V
BTUHkW
1010
3010
3010
1030
3,4131
8.34.8
2.84.2
2.43.6
2.11.2
6,8262
16.79.6
5.58.3
4.87.2
4.22.4
10,2393
25.014.4
8.312.5
7.210.8
6.23.6
13,6524
33.319.2
11.116.6
9.614.4
8.34.8
17,0655
41.724.0
13.920.8
12.018.1
10.46.0
20,4786
50.028.9
16.625.0
14.421.7
12.57.2
23,8917
58.333.7
19.429.1
16.825.3
14.68.4
27,3048
66.638.5
22.233.3
19.228.9
16.69.6
30,7179
75.043.5
24.937.4
21.632.5
18.710.8
34,13010
83.348.1
27.741.6
24.036.1
20.812.0
51,19515
125.072.1
41.662.4
36.054.2
31.218.6
68,26020
166.696.2
55.483.2
48.072.2
41.624.0
85,32525
208.3120.2
69.3104.0
60.090.3
52.030.0
102,39030
250.0144.3
83.1124.8
72.0108.3
62.436.0
119,45535
291.7168.4
97.0145.6
84.0126.4
72.842.0
136,52040
333.3192.4
110.8166.4
96.0144.4
83.248.0
153,58545
375.0216.5
124.7187.2
108.0162.5
93.654.0
170,65050
416.6240.5
138.5208.0
120.0180.5
104.060.0
Formula for Calculating Line Currents
AMPERES = SIN
GLE PHASE WATTS
AMPERES = THREE PHASE W
ATTSLIN
E VOLTAGE LINE VOLTAGE X 1.73
TO CONVERT “kW
” TO WATTS M
ULTIPLY “kW” BY 1,000
69
Elec
tric
al D
istr
ibut
ion
70
Transformer Types and Requirements
Maximum Size PadmountedService Voltage Transformer (kVA)120/240V, single-phase,three-wire 167120/240V delta, three-phase,four-wire Overhead transformer service only120/208V grounded wye,three-phase, four-wire 1000277/480V grounded wye,three-phase, four-wire 2500
If the expected demand will exceed the maximum size transformer,you are asked to design a split bus/panel arrangement to acceptservice from more than one transformer.
Georgia Power Company must approve location of padmountedtransformers before final design. The following requirements must bemet:1
• The selected location must be conducive to the installation ofunderground primary electrical cables.
• The edge of the concrete pad nearest the building shall be:�No closer than 14 ft. from doorways�No closer than 10 ft. from building wall, windows or other
openings. If the building is 3 stories or less, the 10-ft.clearance is measured from the edge of any overhang orcanopy. Fire escapes, outside stairs, and covered walkwaysattached to or between buildings shall be considered part ofthe building.
1As of 10/02. See [email protected] for most current information.
Electrical Distribution
71
• Any exceptions to the above requirements must be approved bythe local fire marshal or the jurisdiction having authority. Beforeseeking approval, contact Georgia Power Company to evaluatethe feasibility of the exceptions. Written approval must beprovided to Georgia Power Company.
• Transformers shall be located such that:� The front of the transformer faces away from the building� There are 10 ft. of clearance in front of the transformer doors� They are easily accessible by personnel and heavy
equipment during construction and after project completion� If more than one padmounted transformer is required, the
minimum spacing between transformers (including coolingfins) is 5 ft.
� There is unrestricted air flow for cooling requirements. Trees,shrubs, and other similar vegetation must be kept at least10 ft. from all sides of the transformer.
Item Provided by Comments/Restrictions
Overhead Service Georgia Power From transformer toConductors customer’s weatherhead
Single-phase Georgia Power Residential customers mustunderground pay a flat fee to receiveservice conductors underground service
Three-phase Customerunderground servicefrom padmountedtransformers
Three-phase Georgia Power If LESS than 600A serviceunderground servicefrom overheadtransformers
Elec
tric
al D
istr
ibut
ion
72
Item Provided by Comments/Restrictions
Three-phase Customer If MORE than 600A serviceunderground servicefrom overheadtransformers
Service conductor Georgia Powerconnections inpadmountedtransformers, atweatherheads, andat metering equipment
Concrete transformer Georgia Power GPC will furnish and install.pads (contact Georgia Customer’s service conduitsPower for dimensional must be designed to fitdetails) within the secondary side
of the pad opening
Requirements for Service Conductors• All three-phase services from padmounted transformers must be
4-wire, grounded wye service• The customer’s service ground may NOT be terminated in the
padmounted transformer compartment• Three-phase services should have no more than 12 conductors per
phase. If more than 12 are required, contact Georgia Power Companyto discuss the feasibility of exceptions.
Electrical Distribution
73
Motor Starting
Who LimitsStarting Voltage
Type of Service Drop CommentsSingle Phase Georgia Power Responsible for both customer
side and system sideAny customer with Customer Must design and install motorwelding machines starting technology to limit
starting voltage drop to theestablished acceptable valueson both the customer’s andsystem’s side.
Three-Phase Customer Must design and install motorstarting technology to limitstarting voltage drop to theestablished acceptable valueson both the customer’s andsystem’s side.
Other• Available fault current depends on the size transformer and that
transformer’s impedance. Register your project at [email protected] to get the available fault current forthat location.
• Consult Georgia Power Company’s current Electrical Service and Metering Installations for detailed information on metering and serviceinstallation requirements.
Elec
tric
al D
istr
ibut
ion
74
MiscellaneousDiversity Factors for EFLH calculations
Equipment Diversity Multiplier (demand)
Compressors 1(air conditioning)
Fans, air handlers 1
Lighting, interior 0.9
Lighting, exterior 0 (if before the meter)
Space heating 0.65
Cooking 0.35 (see cooking tables for specific items)
Water heating 0.5
Refrigeration 0.8
Miscellaneous 0.25
This chart can be used to calculate the demand charges for various types ofequipment. Demand seen by meter = Rated kW * Diversity.Remember to apply only during the months that the equipment would run!
Miscellaneous
75
Noise
Design Criteria for Room LoudnessRoom Type Sones Room Type Sones
AuditoriumsConcert and opera halls 1.0 to 3Stage theaters 1.5 to 5Movie theaters 2.0 to 6Semi-outdooramphitheaters 2.0 to 6Lecture halls 2.0 to 6Multi-purpose 1.5 to 5Courtrooms 3.0 to 9Auditorium lobbies 4.0 to 12TV audience studios 2.0 to 6
Churches and schoolsSanctuaries 1.7 to 5Schools and classrooms 2.5 to 8Recreation halls 4.0 to 12Kitchens 6.0 to 18Libraries 2.0 to 6Laboratories 4.0 to 12Corridors and halls 5.0 to 15
Hospitals and clinicsPrivate rooms 1.7 to 5Wards 2.5 to 8Laboratories 4.0 to 12Operating rooms 2.5 to 8Lobbies & waiting rooms 4.0 to 12Halls and corridors 4.0 to 12
Indoor sports activitiesGymnasiums 4 to 12Coliseums 3 to 9Swimming pools 7 to 21Bowling alleys 4 to 12Gambling casinos 4 to 12
Manufacturing areasHeavy machinery 25 to 60Foundries 20 to 60Light machinery 12 to 36Assembly lines 12 to 36Machine shops 15 to 50Plating shops 20 to 50Punch press shops 50 to 60Tool maintenance 7 to 21Foreman’s office 50 to 15General storage 10 to 30
OfficesExecutive 2 to 6Supervisor 3 to 9General open offices 4 to 12Tabulation/computation 6 to 18Drafting 4 to 12Professional offices 3 to 9Conference rooms 1.7 to 5Board of Directors 1 to 3Halls and corridors 5 to 15
Note: Values shown above are room loudness in sones and are not fan sone ratings.For additional detail see AMCA publication 302 — Application of Sone Rating.
Mis
cella
neou
s
76
Noise
Design Criteria for Room Loudness (cont.)Room Type Sones Room Type Sones
HotelsLobbies 4.0 to 12Banquet rooms 8.0 to 24Ballrooms 3.0 to 9Individual rooms/suites 2.0 to 6Kitchens and laundries 7.0 to 12Halls and corridors 4.0 to 12Garages 6.0 to 18
ResidencesTwo & three family units 3 to 9Apartment houses 3 to 9Private homes (urban) 3 to 9Private homes(rural and suburban 1.3 to 4
RestaurantsRestaurants 4 to 12Cafeterias 6 to 8Cocktail lounges 5 to 15Social clubs 3 to 9Night clubs 4 to 12Banquet room 8 to 24
MiscellaneousReception rooms 3 to 9Washrooms and toilets 5 to 15Studios for soundreproduction 1 to 3Other studios 4 to 12
Public buildingsMuseums 3 to 9Planetariums 2 to 6Post offices 4 to 12Courthouses 4 to 12Public libraries 2 to 6Banks 4 to 12Lobbies and corridors 4 to 12
Retail storesSupermarkets 7 to 21Department stores(main floor) 6 to 18Department stores(upper floor) 4 to 12Small retail stores 6 to 18Clothing stores 4 to 12
Transportation (rail, bus, plane)Waiting rooms 5 to 15Ticket sales office 4 to 12Control rooms & towers 6 to 12Lounges 5 to 15Retail shops 6 to 18
Note: Values shown above are room loudness in sones and are not fan sone ratings.For additional detail see AMCA publication 302 — Application of Sone Rating.
Miscellaneous
77
Room Sones – dBA Correlation
Copyright 1972, American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.www.ashrae.org. Reprinted by permission from 1972 ASHRAE Handbook “Fundamentals”.
Mis
cella
neou
s
78
ATLA
NTA
/HAR
TSFI
ELD,
GEO
RGIA
Lat.
33 3
9N
L
ong.
84
26W
Ele
v. 1
,010
ft.
Mea
n Fr
eque
ncy
of O
ccur
renc
e of
Dry
Bul
b Te
mpe
ratu
re (d
egre
es F.
) with
Mea
n Co
inci
dent
Wet
Bul
b (M
CWB)
Tem
pera
ture
(deg
rees
F.) f
or E
ach
Dry
Bulb
Tem
pera
ture
Ran
ge
Tem
p-er
atur
eRa
nge
Obsn
Hour
Gp
01 to 08
09 to 16
17 to 24
Tota
lOb
sn
M C W B
MAY
Obsn
Hour
Gp
01 to 08
09 to 16
17 to 24
Tota
lOb
sn
M C W B
JUN
EOb
snHo
ur G
p01 to 08
09 to 16
17 to 24
Tota
lOb
sn
M C W B
JULY
Obsn
Hour
Gp
01 to 08
09 to 16
17 to 24
Tota
lOb
sn
M C W B
AUGU
STOb
snHo
ur G
p01 to 08
09 to 16
17 to 24
Tota
lOb
sn
M C W B
SEPT
EMBE
ROb
snHo
ur G
p01 to 08
09 to 16
17 to 24
Tota
lOb
sn
M C W B
OCTO
BER
100/
104
00
771
01
720
076
95/9
94
15
745
16
746
17
742
02
720
074
90/9
44
15
7029
1039
7430
1040
7430
939
749
211
711
01
7385
/89
3313
4669
052
2577
720
6130
9174
7233
105
7331
1142
713
14
7080
/84
053
2881
675
6544
114
715
8157
143
733
7658
137
720
6031
9170
164
2068
75/7
93
5746
106
6631
5062
143
6946
5174
171
7247
4276
165
718
5753
118
681
4214
5764
70/7
432
4762
141
6493
2864
185
6814
718
6923
470
133
1959
211
6972
4371
186
678
5234
9463
65/6
994
3052
176
6282
1128
121
6446
27
5566
543
1168
6582
2140
143
6328
5354
135
6060
/64
5915
2610
058
231
428
595
01
660
100
111
6049
1423
8659
5139
5914
957
55/5
930
715
5253
51
17
550
056
222
630
5460
2340
123
52
50/5
419
15
2548
10
149
61
18
4951
1224
8748
45/4
98
01
944
00
441
01
4528
411
4343
40/4
43
00
340
00
4214
24
2039
35/3
97
01
833
30/3
42
02
29
Miscellaneous
79
Tem
p-er
atur
eRa
nge
Obsn
Hour
Gp
01 to 08
09 to 16
17 to 24
Tota
lOb
sn
M C W B
Obsn
Hour
Gp
01 to 08
09 to 16
17 to 24
Tota
lOb
sn
M C W B
NOV
EMBE
RDE
CEM
BER
Obsn
Hour
Gp
01 to 08
09 to 16
17 to 24
Tota
lOb
sn
M C W B
JAN
UARY
Obsn
Hour
Gp
01 to 08
09 to 16
17 to 24
Tota
lOb
sn
M C W B
FEBR
UARY
Obsn
Hour
Gp
01 to 08
09 to 16
17 to 24
Tota
lOb
sn
M C W B
MAR
CHOb
snHo
ur G
p01 to 08
09 to 16
17 to 24
Tota
lOb
sn
M C W B
APRI
LOb
snHo
ur G
p01 to 08
09 to 16
17 to 24
Tota
lOb
sn
M C W B
ANN
UAL
TOTA
L
100/
104
10
173
95/9
917
320
7490
/94
103
213
574
85/8
92
02
640
254
113
367
7280
/84
10
167
10
164
177
2464
1337
022
961
270
75/7
95
16
640
064
20
263
94
1362
3820
5862
136
353
350
839
6970
/74
020
525
603
03
604
15
638
311
600
189
2759
241
3679
6148
730
141
312
0167
65/6
95
3217
5459
113
519
602
115
1860
216
1028
575
2724
5657
2243
4811
359
423
262
301
986
6260
/64
1839
3592
569
2216
4757
919
1947
577
2520
5255
1634
3484
5455
4048
143
5631
124
828
684
557
55/5
928
4043
111
5113
2622
6152
1729
2369
5317
3233
8251
3045
4211
750
5429
3812
152
276
234
263
773
52
50/5
434
3841
113
4717
3633
8647
2134
3489
4726
3437
9747
3840
4412
247
4217
2281
4625
521
324
170
947
45/4
945
3042
117
4229
4441
114
4225
4239
106
4332
3737
106
4244
3437
115
4231
914
5442
243
200
222
665
4240
/44
4420
3094
3839
4453
136
3836
3843
117
3843
3035
108
3848
2130
9938
223
631
3824
915
820
160
838
35/3
935
916
6033
5529
3712
134
4637
4012
334
4121
2587
3434
1215
6133
100
111
3422
810
813
547
134
30/3
420
47
3129
4319
2587
2945
1828
9129
2910
1453
2925
66
3729
22
2916
657
8030
329
25/2
98
13
1225
237
1141
2428
99
4624
155
626
245
13
925
7923
3213
424
20/2
43
00
321
132
318
209
44
1720
72
211
191
01
220
338
1051
2015
/19
10
12
143
11
515
51
39
153
12
615
10
116
133
723
1510
/14
00
00
102
10
311
31
04
112
00
211
00
011
72
09
115/
90
00
60
00
05
00
00
61
01
61
00
16
0/4
00
31
01
10
00
01
01
1-5
/-10
00
-30
00
-3
Mis
cella
neou
s
80
Cool
ing
and
Dehu
mid
ifica
tion
Desi
gn C
ondi
tions
for G
eorg
ia
Loca
tion
Cool
ing
DB/M
WB
Evap
orat
ion
WB/
MDB
Dehu
mid
ifica
tion
DP/M
DB/H
R0.
4%1%
DBM
WB
2%0.
4%1%
2%0.
4%1%
2%DB
MW
BDB
MW
BW
BM
DBW
BM
DBW
BM
DBDP
HRM
DBDP
HRM
DBDP
HRM
DB
Rangeof DB
Alba
ny96
7695
7693
7579
9078
8978
8877
141
8376
136
8275
133
8119
.8At
hens
9475
9275
9074
7889
7787
7686
7513
382
7412
981
7312
580
18.4
Atla
nta
9375
9174
8873
7788
7687
7585
7413
382
7312
881
7212
480
17.3
Augu
sta
9676
9476
9275
7991
7889
7788
7613
584
7513
083
7412
782
20.2
Brun
swic
k93
7891
7988
7881
8980
8879
8778
147
8678
144
8577
141
8414
.4Co
lum
bus,
9576
9375
9175
7989
7888
7787
7613
982
7513
482
7413
081
18.0
Met
ro A
irpor
tM
acon
9676
9475
9275
7991
7889
7788
7613
683
7513
282
7412
982
19.3
M
arie
tta,
9474
9174
8974
7788
7687
7586
7413
482
7313
081
7212
379
17.1
Dobb
ins
AFB
Rom
e96
7494
7491
7478
9077
8976
8875
134
8374
130
8373
127
8320
.7Sa
vann
ah95
7793
7691
7679
9078
8978
8777
139
8476
135
8375
132
8217
.5Va
ldos
ta,
9577
9476
9276
8090
7989
7888
7714
483
7613
982
7613
682
19.4
Regi
onal
Airp
ort
Way
cros
s96
7694
7693
7578
9178
9077
8975
134
8475
130
8374
127
8320
.3
Miscellaneous
81
Typical Weather Data for Metro Atlanta AreaAverage Heating Heating Cooling Cooling
Temp. Degree Days % Use Degree Days (65°F) % UseJanuary 42 716 24 0 0February 45 563 19 0 0March 52 400 13 12 1April 62 133 3 37 2May 69 37 1 170 10June 76 5 0 329 20July 79 0 0 422 25August 78 0 0 409 25September 73 7 0 247 15October 62 130 4 44 2November 52 394 13 0 0December 44 636 22 0 0YEAR 61 3021 100 1670 100
Climatic Conditions for Georgia CitiesWINTER SUMMERHeating Cooling
City Degree Days Degree Days (65°F)ALMA 1835 2289BRUNSWICK 1611 2487MACON 2279 2217ROME 3122 1601For more detail on climatic data for selected Georgia cities, refer to Climatic Data Base publishedby the Cooperative Committee of GAAIA/Georgia Power Company.
Wind Effect on Temperature*Wind ACTUAL THERMOMETER READING (°F.)Speed 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40(mph) EQUIVALENT TEMPERATURE WITH WINDcalm 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40
5 27 16 6 -5 -15 -26 -36 -4710 16 4 -9 -21 -33 -46 -58 -7015 9 -5 -18 -36 -45 -58 -72 -8520 4 -10 -25 -39 -53 -67 -82 -9625 0 -15 -29 -44 -59 -74 -88 -10430 -2 -18 -33 -48 -63 -79 -94 -10935 -4 -20 -35 -49 -67 -82 -98 -11340 -6 -21 -37 -53 -69 -85 -100 -116
*Per Army Medical Research
Mis
cella
neou
s
82
Formulae
Formulae
83
Geometric Formulae
PLANE SOLID
TriangleArea A = 1/2bh
Sum of AngleMeasures
A + B + C = 180°
Right TrianglePythogorean Theorem
a2 + b2 = c2
ParallelogramArea A = bh
TrapezoidArea A =
1/2h(a + b)
CircleArea A = πr2
CircumferenceC = πD or 2πr
(22/7 and 3.14 aredifferent
approximations for π)
CubeVolume: V = s3
Right Circular CylinderVolume: V = πr2h
Lateral Surface Area:L = 2πrh
Total Surface Area:S = 2πrh + 2πr2
Right Circular ConeVolume: V = 1/3πr2h
Lateral Surface Area:L = πrs
Slant Height:S = r2 + h2√
SphereVolume V = 4/3πr 2
Surface Area S = 4πr 2
Form
ulae
84
Formulae for Solving Right Triangles
Formulae
85
Curve Formulae
Form
ulae
86
Unit ConversionsMetric and English Measures
Linear Measure1 centimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3937 inch1 inch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.54 centimeters1 foot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.048 decimeters1 yard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.9144 meter1 meter. . . . . . . . . . . . 39.37 in. 1.0936 yds.1 kilometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.62137 mile1 mile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6093 kilometers
Square Measure1 sq. centimeter . . . . . . . . . 0.1550 sq. inch1 sq. inch. . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.452 centimeters1 sq. ft. . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2903 sq. decimeters1 sq. meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.196 sq. yds.1 sq. yd. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.8361 sq. meter1 acre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4840 sq. yds.1 sq. kilometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.386 mile1 sq. mile . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.59 sq. kilometers
Measure of Volume1 cu. centimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.061 cu. in.1 cu. in. . . . . . . . . . . . 16.39 cu. centimeters1 cu. ft. . . . . . . . . . . . 28.317 cu. decimeters1 cu. meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.308 cu. yards1 cu. yard . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.7646 cu. meter1 liter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0567 qts. liquid1 qt. liquid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.9463 liter1 gallon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.785 liters
Weights1 gram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.03527 ounce1 ounce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.35 grams1 kilogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2046 pounds1 pound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.4536 kilogram1 metric ton . . . . . . . . . 1.1023 English tons1 English ton . . . . . . . . . . 0.9072 metric ton
Approximate Metric Equivalents1 liter . . . . . . . . . 1.06 qts. liquid, 0.9 qt. dry 1 kilogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1.5 lbs.1 meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 yards 1 metric ton. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 pounds1 kilometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/8 of a mile
Miscellaneous Data1 Ton Refrigeration. . . . . . . . = 12,000 Btu/hr.; 200 Btu/min.1 Btu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 6.65 grains (latent heat water vapor); 0.293 watt hours1 Grain (water) . . . . . . . . . . . = 0.15 Btu (latent heat)1 Pound. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 7,000 grains1 Pound (air) . . . . . . . . . . . . . = .24 Btu; sensible heat per (°F.); 2.0416" Hg (64°F.)1 lb./sq. in. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 2.309" Hg (64°F.)1 atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . = 14.7 lbs./sq. in.1 watt hour. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 3.415 Btu1 kilowatt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 1.34 horsepower; 56.92 Btu/min.1 Horsepower . . . . . . . . . . . . = 0.746 kilowatts; 42.44 Btu/min.1 Boiler H. P.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 33,523 Btu/hr.; 10 kW; 34.5 lbs./hr.1 Gallon (US) . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 231 cu. in.; 8.34 lbs. (water 60°F.)1 Cu. Ft. (water). . . . . . . . . . . = 62.37 lbs.
Conversions
87
Pressure1 oz. per sq. in. = 1.73 in. water1 in. mercury = 7.85 oz. per sq. in.1 in. mercury = 13.6 in. water1 in. water column = 0.578 oz. per sq. in.1 oz. per sq. in. - 0.127 in. mercury1 in. water = 0.0735 in. mercury1 lb. per sq. in. = 16 oz. per sq. in. = 2.036 in. mercury = 27.7 in. water1 atmosphere = 14.7 lbs. per sq. in. = 760 mm mercury = 2992 in. mercury
Conv
ersi
ons
88
DefinitionsA.F.U.E.—Annual Fuel Utilization Efficiency. The annual seasonalefficiency which accounts for part load operation, cyclic operation,standby and flue losses in a fossil fuel heating system.
AMPACITY—The current carrying capacity of a conductor.
BTU—(British Thermal Unit). The amount of heat energy required toraise the temperature of one pound of water, one degree fahrenheit.
BTUH HEAT LOSS—the amount of heat that escapes, from warmerto colder areas, through walls, ceilings, floors, windows, doors andby infiltration in one hour’s time.
CIRCUIT—A conductor or a system of conductors through which anelectric current flows.
CIRCUIT BREAKER or FUSE—A load limiting device that automaticallyinterrupts an electric circuit if an overload condition occurs.
COOLING TON—A measure of cooling capacity equal to 12,000 BTUper hour.
C.O.P.—(Coefficient of Performance). The ratio of the rate of heatdelivered versus the rate of energy input, in consistent units, of acomplete, operating heat pump system under designated operatingconditions.
CYCLE—Frequency of alternating current expressed in hertz. 60cycles per second = 60 hertz.
DEGREE DAY—A unit that represents one degree of declination froma given point (as 65°F) in the mean outdoor temperature of one dayand is often used in estimating fuel requirements of buildings.
E.E.R.—Energy Efficiency Ratio. Used in the efficiency rating of roomand central air conditioners. E.E.R. = BTU ÷ watts.
Definitions
89
E.F.L.H.—Equivalent Full Load Hours. Annual hours used to estimateenergy consumption of end use equipment.
HEAT PUMP—A space conditioning unit that provides both heatingand cooling. By means of a compressor and reversing valve system,a heat transfer liquid is pumped between the indoor and outdoorunits, moving that heat into a building during cold weather and out ofit during warm weather.
HERTZ—The number of cycles of alternating current per second,such as 60Hz.
KILOWATT—A unit of electrical power equal to 1,000 watts.
KILOWATT HOUR—Represents the use of 1,000 watts of electricityfor one full hour.
LOAD FACTOR—The ratio of the average load in kilowatts supplied,during a designated period, to the peak load occurring during thatperiod.Load Factor = kWh supplied in period
Peak kW in period x hours in periodLoad factor is a measure of efficiency. 100% efficiency would requirethe continuous use of a given amount of load for every hour of themonth.
OHM’s LAW—In a given circuit, the amount of current in amperes isequal to the pressure in volts divided by the resistance in ohms.Current = (Pressure) Volts or I = E
(Resistance) Ohms R
POWER FACTOR—It is the ratio of actual power being used in acircuit, expressed in watts or kilowatts (kw), to the power which isapparently being drawn from the line, expressed in voltamperes orkilovoltamperes.
Def
initi
ons
90
What does this mean in the practice of effective energy managementand energy cost control? With both values being equal (kW = kVA) aration of 1 could exist or a power factor of 100%. But if a loaddemands 2kVA while the actual productive power potential is 1kW,the power factor would be 50%. This means that in using only half ofthe power supplied to you, the utility still must supply the other halfwhich you are using but not directly paying for—to supply what isknown as wattless power or reactive power which is expressed invars or kilovars (kvar). Low power factor penalties may be a part ofrate schedules.
RELATIVE HUMIDITY—The ratio between the actual water vaporcontent and the total amount of water vapor content possible underthe same conditions of temperature and pressure.
S.E.E.R.—Seasonal Energy Efficient Ratio. The total cooling of acentral air conditioner BTU’s during its normal usage period forcooling (not to exceed 12 months) divided by the total electric energyinput in watt-hours during the same period.
S.P.F.—Seasonal Performance Factor. The ratio of seasonal kWhsused by heat pumps versus the seasonal kWhs used by resistanceelectric heat for the same space under the same conditions.
SINGLE PHASE—A circuit energized by a single alternating voltage.
THERM—A measurement of gas containing 100,000 BTU. As thereare approximately 1,000 BTU per cubic foot, there are approximately100 cubic feet of gas per therm.
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY VALUES• U Factor—The rate of heat flow through one square foot of
completed structural sections, such as wall, glass, ceiling, etc. inone hour with a temperature difference of one degree betweenthe inside and outside surfaces.
Definitions
91
Note: To convert to watts/sq. ft. (W)W = U Factor x Temperature Difference ÷ 3.413
K Factor—The rate of heat flow in Btuh through one square feet ofbuilding material, one-inch thick, in one hour with a temperaturedifference of one degree between the two surfaces.
C Factor—The definition is the same as for K Factor except that CFactors are used for materials other than those that are one-inchthick, such as one-half inch gypsum board or eight-inch concreteblock.
R Factor—The rate at which insulation, building material or abuilding structure resists the passage of heat in any direction.
Note: The U, K, and C Factors should be kept as low as possibleand the R factor as high as possible.
THREE PHASE—Three separate sources of alternating currentarranged so that the peaks of voltage follow each other in a regularrepeating pattern.
VOLT—The push that moves electrical current through a conductor.
WATT—The rate of flow of electrical energy. One watt equals theflow of one ampere at a pressure of one volts. (Watts = Volts xAmperes).
Def
initi
ons
* Graph instructions for Page 6:
92
Useful Web Addresses
Georgia Power Company, A&E Sitehttp://www.georgiapower.com/AandE
Georgia Powerhttp://www.georgiapower.com
Southern Companyhttp://www.southerncompany.com
Georgia Public Service Commissionhttp://www.psc.state.ga.us/
U.S. Green Building Council (LEED)http://www.usgbc.org/
U.S. Dept. of Energy (EREN)http://www.eren.doe.gov/
ASHRAEhttp://www.ashrae.org
Illuminating Engineers’ Societyhttp://www.iesna.org
AIA, Georgia Chapterhttp://www.aiaga.org
Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institutehttp://www.ari.org
American Council of Engineering Companies, Georgiahttp://www.acecga.org
The Georgia Engineerhttp://www.thegeorgiaengineer.org
Useful W
eb Addresses