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Technical Information Handbook

As an architect or engineer you’re always faced with tight time frames and last-minute changes. That’s why, with Georgia Power’s Architects and Engineers Program, you receive responsive support from pre-planning through commissioning. You’ll have one knowledgeable account executive who provides access to all the technical expertise, troubleshooting and design assistance you need to meet your deadlines. If you’re ready for a partnership that works this hard for you, call 1-888-655-5888 or visit georgiapower.com/AandE.

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© 2002 Southern Company. All rights reserved.

This handbook has been developed to help you. However, wecannot be held liable for inaccuracies or any damages causedby using this for engineering or other design or analysis.

Georgia Power would like to acknowledge the contributions ofCarrier Complete Systems. CCS provided information on HVACenergy requirements and heat recovery technologies.

To learn more about Georgia Power rates, products and services,call your Georgia Power representative or call the Business CallCenter at 1-888-655-5888.

Table of ContentsRates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Electric Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Ratcheted Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Time of Use Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2Marginal Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Customer Choice in Georgia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5Customer Choice Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

kWh vs. Therm Costs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6Conversions between Fuel Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

HVAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8Recommended Systems by Building Type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8Cost Comparisons for System Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Typical EFLH for Buildings, Atlanta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10City Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Typical Heating and Cooling Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11Heat Gain from Typical Electric Motors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13Typical Equipment Energy Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14EER Rating to kW Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Psychrometric Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Heat Recovery Opportunities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Building Envelope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Sustainable Building Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Basic R-value information and calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Ceiling Insulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19Wall Insulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19Glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Slab Floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Insulating Values for Common Building Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Basic Passive Solar Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22Water Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Water Heating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23Water Heating Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24Water Use Charts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27System Wattages for Typical

Lamp/Ballast Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27Light Level Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28Reflectance Values of Different Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29The Effect of Lighting on Cooling Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30Annual Cost for Lighting Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Outdoor Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31Cooking Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

How to Evaluate Energy Cost. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37Equipment Input, Diversity, and Preheat Times. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Cooking Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38Ventilation Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39Equipment Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39Typical Equipment List Prices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Refrigerants and Chillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41Common Refrigerants, Applications, and Current Status. . . . . . . . . . 41Chiller Types, Applications, Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Motors and Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42Motor Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42Motor Cost Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43Recommendation Chart for Motor Replacement/New Installation . 45Heat Gain From Typical Electric Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45Motor Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46Affinity Laws for Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Fans and Ducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47Fan Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47Criteria for Fan Selection:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47Duct Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Rectangular Equivalent of Round Ducts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48Industrial Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Compressed Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49Typical Compressor Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49Leakage Rate from Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Process Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51Saturated Steam: Pressure Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52Steam Loss from Leaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53Combustion Heat Losses, Gas Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Industrial Process Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54Industrial Heating and Curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55Emitters and Applications of IR Radiant Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57Typical Oven Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58Properties of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

On-Site Generation and Power Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63Standby Generation Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63Uninterruptible Power Supply/Power Conditioning Systems. . . . . . . 63Alternative Energy Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Electrical Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66Useful Electrical Formulae for Determining Amperes,

Horsepower, Kilowatts and kVa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67Estimating Loads From kWh Meter Clocking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67Effects From Voltage Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67Percent of Rated Heater Watts at Reduced Voltage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68Motor Wattages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68Ohm's Law Made Easy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68BTUH—kW—Amperes Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69Transformer Types and Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70Requirements For Service Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72Motor Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Miscellaneous. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74Diversity Factors for EFLH calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Design Criteria for Room Loudness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75Room Sones – dBA Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Typical Weather Data for Metro Atlanta Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81Climatic Conditions for Georgia Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81Wind Effect on Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88Useful Web Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

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Rates

Electric Rates

Electric rates for commercial and industrial customers cangenerally be categorized into three types:

• Ratcheted, demand-based rates

• Time of use rates

• Marginal rates, including Real Time Pricing (RTP)

They differ in critical ways when it comes to calculations.

Ratcheted Rates

How to Recognize:

Ratcheted rates will have language in the tariff(s) like:

• Hours use of demand

• Billing demand

• Tiered pricing structure (first block of kWh at one rate,second block at another rate, etc.)

Rate

s

2

How to Calculate Pricing for Racheted Rates:

1. Determine Billing Demand by applying ratchet rules of thetariff/rider

2. Determine Hours Use Demand (HUD); HUD = kWh/BillingDemand

3. Apply tariff prices according to blocks and any breakswithin each block

4. Apply other applicable tariffs such as ECCR, FF, FCR, etc.and appropriate taxes

Time of Use Rates

How to Recognize:

Time of use rates will have language in the tariff(s) like:

• On-Peak, Off-Peak, Shoulder kWh and kW

• Timed (or block) pricing structure

• NOTE: there are market-based time of use rates that are real-time.In Georgia Power, these are called real-time pricing. The pricesare confidential and are provided to the customer the day beforeor hour before the price takes effect, depending on the contract.In these cases, you will have to contact the utility to get blendedaverages (see pricing calculation worksheet)

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How to Calculate Pricing for Time of Use Rates:

1. Obtain (or estimate) the on-peak, off-peak and shoulder (ifapplicable) kWhs and kW

2. Determine if Economy Demand charges are applicable(summer months only)

3. Apply appropriate tariff prices

4. Apply other applicable tariffs such as EECR, FF, FCR, etc.and appropriate taxes

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Marginal Rates

How to Recognize:

Marginal rates will have language in the tariff(s) like:

• Hourly Prices

• Customer Baseline Load (CBL)

• Interval Data

• Incremental kWhs

• Demonstration

How to Calculate Marginal Rates:

RTP Bills will have both a standard or CBL bill and an RTP(incremental energy) bill

1. To calculate the standard or CBL bill, use the appropriateratcheted or TOU steps as outlined previously

2. The RTP bill is calculated by multiplying the hourly kWhconsumption by the hourly RTP price; repeat step for all hours ofthe month. (It is not as simple as multiplying the total kWhs bythe average RTP price due to varying consumptionamounts/weighting)

3. Apply other applicable tariffs such as ECCR, FF, FCR, etc. andappropriate taxes

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Customer Choice in GeorgiaUnder the Territorial Act of 1973, many customers over 900 kW whoare outside of municipal limits may choose their electric supplier. Thisis a one-time, irrevocable choice.

Customer Choice Considerations

Price Stability Since your choice is for the life of the building, it iscritical to evaluate your long-term costs.Beware of short-term fixed prices that escalatesharply after the first few years. Georgia Power’srates are regulated by the Public ServiceCommission. Municipal authority and cooperativerates are not.

Service The cost of one outage can far outweigh anyReliability apparent price savings, depending on the

customer. When evaluating overall price, outagecosts should be included.

Generation Does the supplier have bricks and mortar Capability generation? Or is it buying power on the open

market? A supplier with a large percentage of bricks and mortar generation is better able to meet its customers’ electricity needs cost-effectively over the long term than a supplier who must buy on the open market.

Ancillary What other knowledge/assistance will theServices customer need? Georgia Power offers a host of

technical and other energy services to its customers.

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* Please refer to Page 91 for graph notations.

Conversions between Fuel Types

Gas:

1 Therm = 100,000 Btu = 100 CCF

1 cubic foot = 1,000 Btu

1 MCF = 1,000,000 Btu = 10 therms

Electricity:

1 kWh = 3,413 Btu

Liquid Gas (Propane):

1 cubic foot = 2,500 Btu

1 pound = 21,500 Btu

1 gallon = 91,160 Btu

Oil:

1 gallon = 140,000 Btu

Coal:

1 ton = 25 Million Btu

1 pound = 12,500 Btu

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Rate

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HVACRecommended Systems by Building TypeBuilding Type System #1 System #2

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Chillers, VAV, roomcontrol. Energy recoveryventilators on operatingrooms. Heat pumpwater heater inkitchen/laundry.

—Hospitals

Water source heatpump with coolingtower and boiler; splitsystem for offices;package unit forauditorium. Heat pumpwater heater in kitchen.Small electric waterheater in teachers’lounge.

Through-the-wall unitsin classroom.

Schools

Rooftop package heatpumps. Heat pumpwater heater in kitchen.

Split system heat pump.Heat pump water inheater kitchen.

Restaurants

Split system heat pump.Point of use waterheater.

Small-tank waterheater.

SmallOffices/Retail

Through-the-wall heatpump.

Heat pump water heaterin laundry, ductingcooling to lobby.

Hotels (small)

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Recommended Systems by Building Type (cont.)

Building Type System #1 System #2

Cost Comparisons for System Types:A quick and easy way to estimate costs for different systems, EFLHanalysis is not as accurate as building modeling. This analysisgenerally gives reasonable estimates for operating costs however.

Annual cost = EFLH *City Factor * kW * $/kWh + 12 * kWd * $/kWAnnual cost = EFLH * Btuh * $/therm /100000

Where:EFLH = taken from table (on following page)City Factor = Degree-day factoring to adjust EFLHkW = Connected kW of equipmentkWd = Diversified kW (takes cycling into account, see

miscellaneous section for table)Btuh = Rated Btu input of equipment

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Water source heatpumps with coolingtower and boiler. Heatpump water heater inkitchen and indoor pool.

Two-pipe system withfan-coil units, chillers,electric resistanceheat.

Hotels (large)

Through-the-wall heatpumps. Gas waterheater withrecirculating pump.

—Motels

Weekend only:Electric heat.

Weekday/schoolbuildings: Package unitheat pumps.

Churches

Ground source heatpumps.

—Historic Buildings

Typical EFLH for Buildings, Atlanta

Type Business EFLH, Air Conditioning EFLH, Heating

Small Retail 0-25 M ft2 2000 800Medium Retail 2200 700Large Retail 2400 500Small Office 1500 800Medium Office 1800 800Large Office 2000 800Convenience Stores 2500 800Supermarkets 2500 500Hotels/Motels 1600 800Fast Food 3000 1500Restaurants 1800 8009 Month Schools 1000 80012 Month Schools 2000 800Healthcare (drs.’ offices, etc.) 2000 800Churches 600 400Services 1500 800Warehouses 1500 800

City FactorsCity Cooling Factor Heating Factor

Alma 1.37 .61Brunswick 1.48 .53Macon 1.33 .75Rome .96 1.03

To find your city factor:City factor, cooling = Cooling degree days for the city/1670City factor, heating = Heating degree days for the city/3021

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Typical Heating and Cooling RequirementsType of Bldg. Btuh/SF, SF/ton, Btu/SF, Supply

Cooling Cooling Heating CFM/SFApartments 24 500 21 0.8Audit. & Theater 40 300/19* 38 1.3Banks 49 245 48 1.6Barber Shops 46 260 44 1.5Bars & Taverns 120 100/10* 114 4.0Beauty Parlors 63 190 60 2.1Bowling Alleys 38 315 37 1.3Churches 35 340/21* 33 1.2 Cocktail Lounges 65 185 63 1.6Comp. Rooms 141 85 20 4.7Dental Offices 50 240 49 1.7Dept. Stores –Basement 33 360 32 1.1Dept. Stores –Main Floor 39 310 38 1.3Dept. Stores –Upper Floors 29 410 28 1.0 Dormitory, Rooms 38 320 35 1.3Dormitory, Corridors 20 600 18 0.7Dress Shops 40 300 39 1.3Drug Stores 77 155 75 2.6Factories 39 310 38 1.3High Rise Office –Ext. Rooms 43 280 41 1.4High Rise Office –Int. Rooms 35 340 33 1.2Hospitals 69 175 67 2.3Hotel, Guest rooms 35 345 35 1.2Hotel, Corridors 28 425 27 0.9

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Typical Heating and Cooling Requirements (cont.)Type of Bldg. Btuh/SF SF/ton Btu/SF Supply

Cooling Cooling Heating CFM/SFHotel, Public Spaces 51 235 48 1.7Industrial Plants,Offices 35 345 34 1.2General Offices 33 360 32 1.1Plant Areas 38 315 37 1.3Libraries 43 280 40 1.4 Low Rise Office,Ext. Rooms 39 310 32 1.3Low Rise Office,Int. Rooms 33 365 32 1.1Medical Centers 35 340 33 1.2Motels 29 420 27 1.0Office (small suite) 40 300 38 1.3Post Office,Ind. Office 40 300 39 1.3Post Office,Central Area 43 280 41 1.4Residences 20 600 20 0.7Restaurants 60 200 60 2.0Schools & Colleges 42 285 40 1.4Shoe Stores 53 225 52 1.8Shopping Centers,Supermarkets 30 400 28 1.0Retail Stores 32 370 31 1.1 Specialty Stores 57 210 57 1.9Schools, Elem. 36 335 32 1.2Schools, Middle 36 335 32 1.2Schools, High 33 365 32 1.1Schools, Vo-Tech 22 550 20 0.8* People/Ton12,000 Btu = 1 ton of air conditioning

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0.25 Split Ph. 1750 54 1,180 640 540

0.33 Split Ph. 1750 56 1,500 840 660

0.50 Split Ph. 1750 60 2,120 1,270 850

0.75 3-Ph. 1750 72 2,650 1,900 740

1 3-Ph. 1750 75 3,390 2,550 850

1 3-Ph. 1750 77 4,960 3,820 1,140

2 3-Ph. 1750 79 6,440 5,090 1,350

3 3-Ph. 1750 81 9,430 7,640 1,790

5 3-Ph. 1750 82 15,500 12,700 2,790

7,5 3-Ph. 1750 84 22,700 19,100 3,640

10 3-Ph. 1750 85 29,900 24,500 4,490

15 3-Ph. 1750 86 44,400 38,200 6,210

20 3-Ph. 1750 87 58,500 50,900 7,610

25 3-Ph. 1750 88 72,300 63,600 8,680

30 3-Ph. 1750 89 85,700 76,300 9,440

40 3-Ph. 1750 89 114,000 102,000 12,600

50 3-Ph. 1750 89 143,000 127,000 15,700

60 3-Ph. 1750 89 172,000 153,000 18,900

75 3-Ph. 1750 90 212,000 191,000 21,200

100 3-Ph. 1750 90 283,000 255,000 28,300

125 3-Ph. 1750 90 353,000 318,000 35,300

150 3-Ph. 1750 91 420,000 382,000 37,800

200 3-Ph. 1750 91 569,000 509,000 50,300

250 3-Ph. 1750 91 699,000 636,000 62,900

Heat Gain from Typical Electric Motors†MotorName-plate orRatedHorse-power

MotorType

Nominalrpm

Full LoadMotor

Efficiencyin

Percent

Motor In,DrivenEquip-ment inSpaceBtuh

Motor Out,DrivenEquip-ment inSpaceBtuh

Motor andDrivenEquip-

ment Outof Space

Btuh

†Copyright 1989, American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.www.ashrae.org. Reprinted by permission from 1989 ASHRAE Handbook “Fundamentals”.

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Typical Equipment Energy RequirementsHeating System Heating System

System kW/ton, Efficiency EfficiencyType Cooling (electric) (gas)

Rooftoppackage unit 0.9-1.3 0.95 0.75-0.77Water-sourceheat pumpwith coolingtower and boiler 0.86-1.1 2.0 1.8-1.94-pipe system,chilled water,boiler, air handlers 0.8-1.3 0.8 0.6-0.72-pipe system,chilled water, boiler,air handlers 0.75-1.1 0.82 0.6-0.7Split-system,residential 1.0-1.2 0.95 0.7-0.92Split-system,commercial 0.7-1.3 0.95 0.75-0.77Heat pump,split-system 1.0-1.2 2.3 N/AHeat pump, package 0.9-1.3 2.3 N/AGround watersource heat pump 0.38-0.5 2.8 N/ANote: the heating efficiency considers heat exchanger losses, fan requirements,pump power, and other losses.

EER Rating to kW Conversions

EER Rating kW, Cooling6.0 2.06.5 1.857.0 1.717.5 1.608.0 1.508.5 1.419.0 1.33

EER Rating kW, Cooling9.5 1.26

10.0 1.2010.5 1.1511.0 1.0912.0 1.013.0 0.9214.0 0.86

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16

Heat Recovery Opportunities

Heat WheelThis system involves a motor-driven wheel packed with heatabsorbing material, installed directly in the ventilation air system, withoutdoor and exhaust air kept separate. This system transfers heatfrom a warmer stream to a cooler one and some systems can serveboth in the heating and air conditioning mode.

Runaround SystemWhen the outdoor air intake and exhaust air duct are not in closeproximity, heat transfer can be accomplished by circulating anethylene glycol solution. One finned tube heat exchanger is located inthe outdoor air stream, one in the exhaust air stream, with the two beingconnected by a pipe loop. A pump circulates the liquid for heat transfer.

Air-to-Air Heat ExchangerIn contrast to the aforementioned techniques, the air-to-air heatexchanger has no moving parts but conveys heat between exhaustand outdoor air streams by means of a counterflow technique. Theheat exchanger is an open-ended steel box compartmented into manynarrow passages. Energy is transferred by conduction through the wallsof the passages so that contamination of the makeup air cannot occur.

Heat PipeA heat pipe is a sealed, static tube in which a refrigerant transfers heatfrom one end of the device to the opposite end. The device is installedthrough adjacent walls of inlet and exhaust ducts with their oppositeends projecting into each air stream. A temperature differencebetween the ends of the pipe causes the refrigerant to migrate bycapillary action to the warmer end where it evaporates and absorbsheat. It then returns to the cooler end, condenses, and gives up the heat.

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17

EconomizerReducing the amount of air conditioning needed by utilizing thecooling potential of outdoor air can be accomplished by the use of“economizer” systems. A mixed air temperature controller regulatesthe proportion of outside air admitted, opening the outdoor airdampers as the mixed air temperature increases. The most effectivesystems, called enthalpy controllers, take into account the humiditycontrol of the air as well as the dry bulb temperature.

Peak Demand ControllerThis device is programmed to cycle electricity consumption by limitingtotal demand during on-peak hours. This technique is popular inconjunction with closed loop water source heat pump systems and isused to achieve higher savings with a minimum of interruption.

Off-Peak Thermal StorageThroughout a 24-hour period, the demand for electric power, in mostservice areas, fluctuates widely. Typically, it is lowest at night. Often itis advantageous, not just for the utility but for the customer, to shiftsome electrical usage from on-peak to off-peak operations, as utilityrates are based on the cost to serve the customer. Heating and coolingloads can be shifted through thermal storage. Heat captured frominternal sources can be saved and/or heat generated at night can bestored for later use. With cooling there is little energy savings, butdemand load can be shifted and demand charges reduced. By runningchillers at night and storing cool water or ice, the size of chillers canbe reduced. Closed water source heat pump systems lend themselvesto achieve savings through thermal storage and captured heat for useduring off-peak hours.

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18

Building EnvelopeSustainable Building Design

There’s more of a focus now on “sustainable buildings.” This term isused for buildings that have considerably lower impact on theenvironment during both construction and long-term operation than atypical building of similar size and location. It’s very important to takelocal conditions (economic and environmental) into account whendesigning a low-impact building.

There aren’t rules of thumb available yet. The most active groups inthis movement recommend modeling the building to assess theenergy-using features.

Basic R-value information and calculations

Total heat flow = U * TD * Area

Where:U = 1/RTD = Design temperature differenceArea = Total area of space with that R value

To estimate total R value of a series of material, add the values ofeach together.

To Compare Annual Cost:Use EFLH Calculation (described above) as follows:

Annual cost = Tons/1000 SF * Area (SF)/1000 * Equipment kW/ton *EFLH * $/kWh + Tons/1000 SF * Area (SF)/1000 * Equipment kW/ton *12 * $/kW

Heating is analogous. If comparing with gas, remember to use efficiency.See following page for Tons/1000 SF and Equipment kW/ton.

Building Envelope

19

Ceiling Insulation

Wall Insulation

RoofType

FlatSteel

Insulation

No

UFactor

.64

TD(Cool)

80

Btu/hr/1000 SF

51200

Tons/1000 SF

4.26

TD(Heat)

48

Btu/hr/1000 SF

30720

kW/1000SF

9.0

4” FaceBrick–Cavity–8”ConcreteBlock

Noinsulation .30 22 6600 0.55 48 14400 4.22

1”insulation(R-5/inch inCavity)

.11 22 2420 0.20 48 5280 1.55

2”insulation(R-5/inch inCavity)

.07 22 1540 0.128 48 3360 0.98

Deck,NoCeiling

1” insulation(R-3 or R-4/inch)

.23 80 18400 1.53 48 11040 3.23

3” insulation(R-3 or R-4/inch)

.10 80 8000 0.67 48 4800 1.41

FrameRoofing,Attic,Ceiling

Noinsulation .15 55 8250 0.69 48 7200 2.11

R-11insulation .07 55 3850 0.32 48 3360 0.98

R-19insulation .04 55 2200 0.18 48 1920 0.56

WallType Insulation U

FactorTD

(Cool)Btu/hr/1000 SF

Tons/1000 SF

TD(Heat)

Btu/hr/1000 SF

kW/1000SF

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Glass (transmission losses/gains only–does not include radiation!)

Slab Floor

Insulating Values for Common Building MaterialsMaterials R Value U Value*Air Space, 3/4" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.91 . . . . . . 1.098Batt or Blanket Insulation—1" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7 . . . . . . . 0.27Batt or Blanket Insulation—2" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 . . . . . . . 0.135Batt or Blanket Insulation—3 5/8" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.4 . . . . . . . 0.075Batt or Blanket Insulation—6" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.0 . . . . . . . 0.053Batt or Blanket Insulation—6 1/2" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.0 . . . . . . . 0.045Brick, common—4" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.44 . . . . . . 2.27Beadboard Plastic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.0 . . . . . . . 0.25Built-up Roofing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.0 . . . . . . . 0.333

Building Envelope

Single 1.06

GlassType

UFactor

14

TD(Cool)

1484

Btu/hr/1000SF

0.124

Tons/1000SF

48

TD(Heat)

5424

Btu/hr/1000SF

1.589

No Insulation 0.81 – – – 48 3888 1.14

1" Insulation(R-5 /inch) 0.41 – – – 48 2968 0.58

2" Insulation(R-5 /inch) 0.21 – – – 48 1008 0.30

Double, 1/4”air space 0.61 14 854 .071 48 3120 0.914

kW/1000SF

Insulation UFactor

TD(Cool)

Btu/hr/100LF

Tons/100LF

TD(Heat)

Btu/hr/1000LF

kW/100LF

Prime +StormWindow

0.54 14 756 .063 48 2688 0.788

21

Insulating Values for Common Building Materials (cont.)Materials R Value U Value*Cellulose Fiber Blown In—3 1/2" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.0 . . . . . . . 0.077Concrete, Block—8" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.11 . . . . . . 0.900Concrete, Block (Cores filled with vermiculite)—8" . 1.94 . . . . . . 0.515Concrete, Poured—10" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 . . . . . . . 1.0Expanded Polyurethane—1". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.25 . . . . . . 0.16Expanded Polyurethane—2". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5 . . . . . . . 0.08Extruded Styrofoam—1" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 . . . . . . . 0.185Flexicore—4", 8", 10" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.89 . . . . . . 1.124Glass Block. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.38 . . . . . . 0.42Gypsum Board—1/2" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.45 . . . . . . 2.222Insulation Board—1/2". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.52 . . . . . . 0.657Plaster with metal lath—3/4" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.23 . . . . . . 4.347Plywood—3/8" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.47 . . . . . . 2.127Roof Deck—1" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.78 . . . . . . 0.36Sheathing and flooring—3/4" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.92 . . . . . . 1.086Shingles, asbestos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.21 . . . . . . 4.76Shingles, wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.78 . . . . . . 1.282Siding, drop—3/4" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.28 . . . . . . 0.781Steel Doors: 1 3/4" mineral fiber core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7 . . . . . . . 0.59

1 3/4" urethane foam core with thermal break . . . 5.26 . . . . . . 0.191 3/4" polystyrene core with thermal break. . . . . . 2.13 . . . . . . 0.47

Siding, lap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.78 . . . . . . 1.282Surface, inside (air film). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.68 . . . . . . 1.47Surface, outside (15 mile per hour wind). . . . . . . . . . . 0.17 . . . . . . 5.882Windows: Single glass, outdoor exposure . . . . . . . . . 0.88 . . . . . . 1.136

Double glass, 1/4" apart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.54 . . . . . . 0.649Double glass, 1/2" apart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.72 . . . . . . 0.581Triple glass, 1/4" apart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13 . . . . . . 0.469

Wood: Hardwoods (Maple, Oak, etc.)—1" . . . . . . . . . 0.91 . . . . . . 1.099Softwoods (Pine, Fir, Cedar, etc.)—1". . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.25 . . . . . . 0.8Wood Doors—1 1/2" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.04 . . . . . . 0.49Wood Doors—1 1/2" w/Storms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7 . . . . . . . 0.27

1*U=RU x Temperature Difference = heat loss in watts per square foot.

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Basic Passive Solar Techniques

Technique What it Does

Overhang on South-facing Reduces summer cooling load whilewindows letting in natural light; reduces glare.

In winter, allows solar gain.

Heavy ceramic tile or stone Absorbs heat during the day andfloors in lobbies with large releases at night. This reduces peakexpanse of glass cooling load and helps maintain

wintertime temperatures.

Water tubes in areas with Absorbs heat during the day, andlarge glass expanse can be connected to potable water

to reduce water heating costs.

Water boxes on roof Absorbs heat during the day topreheat potable water.

Reflective roof coatings Reduces heat absorption, lowering cooling requirements.

Low-emissivity glass Reduces glare and cooling load.

Natural light/light tubes Reduces lighting energy requirement; can improve employee performance.

Building Envelope

23

Water HeatingWater Heating SystemsSystemType Application Considerations

Tank-Style Typical potablewater requirements:small office areas,retail, etc.

Easy to use, install, maintain.Familiar to most customers.

Boiler Large process waterheat requirements(laundries, kitchens,space heat).

Relatively easy to use, install,maintain. Electric will loseelements if water quality notmonitored properly. Gas willlose efficiency and havelong-term maintenanceissues if water quality notmonitored.

Point-of-Use Small medicaloffices, remotewashrooms.

Removes need for circulatingpump. Can reduce overallplumbing costs (only need onepiping run instead of two).

ThermalStorage

Hospitals, industrialsites, schools.

Heats water during off-peakin sealed storage tank.Potable water is run throughheat exchanger to tap heat intank as needed. Can take alot of room (although theycan be placed outside).

Heat PumpWater Heater

Laundries, kitchens,pools.

Provides dehumidification aswell. Must be sized to meeteither cooling or waterheating load.

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Water Heating Calculations

Recovery4.1 x Wattage = GPH at 100° Rise

1,0001 kWh will raise the temperature of 4.1 gallons of water 100°F at100% efficiency in one hour.

Figuring Load Required to Heat WaterkW = Gallons x 8.34 {Wt. of Gal. of Water} x Degrees F. Rise

3,413 {Btu Content} x Time in Hours x Efficiency {0.98-1.0}

Estimating Water Heating Electrical Energy UsekWh = Gallons Per Time Period x 8.34 x Average Degree F. Rise

3,413 x Efficiency {0.98-1.0}

Booster Heater Sizing (Rule of Thumb)G.P.H. {Gals. Per Hr.} ÷ 10 = kW Required {40°F Temp. Rise}Rinse Water Temperature 180°-Standard Set by U.S. Department ofHealth

PER MEAL kWh ESTIMATES-WATER HEATING FORRESTAURANTS

Total Use Dishwasher Booster***Full Meal Restaurantsand Cafeterias 0.6 kWh 0.2 kWh

Drive-in Snack Shops 0.2 kWh 0.04 kWh

***Booster Use is Included in Total Use Figures

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25

Water Use ChartsType of Maximum Maximum Average

Building Hourly Daily DailyMen’sDormitories 3.8 gal/student 22.0 gal/student 13.1 gal/studentWomen’sDormitories 5.0 gal/student 26.5 gal/student 12.3 gal/studentMotels:No. of Units20 or less 6.0 gal/unit 35.0 gal/unit 20.0 gal/unit60 5.0 gal/unit 25.0 gal/unit 14.0 gal/unit100 or more 4.0 gal/unit 15.0 gal/unit 10.0 gal/unitNursing Homes 4.5 gal/bed 30.0 gal/bed 18.4 gal/bedOfficeBuildings 0.4 gal/person 2.0 gal/person 1.0 gal/personFood ServiceEstablishments 1.5 gal/maximum 11.0 gal/maximum 2.4 gal/average*Type A-Full Meal meals/hours meals/hour meals/dayRestaurants& CafeteriasType B-Drive-ins, Grilles,Luncheonettes, 0.7 gal/maximum 6.0 gal/maximum 0.7 gal/average*Sandwich & meals/hour meals/hour meals/daySnack ShopsApartment Houses:No. of Apartments20 or less 12.0 gal/apt. 80.0 gal/apt. 42.0 gal/apt.50 10.0 gal/apt. 73.0 gal/apt. 40.0 gal/apt.75 8.5 gal/apt. 66.0 gal/apt. 38.0 gal/apt.100 7.0 gal/apt. 60.0 gal/apt. 37.0 gal/apt.200 or more 5.0 gal/apt. 50.0 gal/apt. 35.0 gal/apt.ElementarySchools 0.6 gal/student 1.5 gal/student 0.6 gal/student*Junior &Senior High 1.0 gal/student 3.6 gal/student 1.8 gal/studentSchools*per day of operationThe hourly and daily hot water demands listed represent the maximum flowsmetered in each type of building.Copyright 1999, American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.www.ashrae.org. Reprinted by permission from 1999 ASHRAE Handbook “Applications”.

Wat

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Food Service Hot Water ConsumptionUse Gallons Per HourVegetable Sink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Single Compartment Sink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Double Compartment Sink. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40Triple Compartment Sink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60Pre-Rinse for Dishes-Shower Head Type (Hand Operated) . . . . . . . 45Pre-Scraper for Dishes (Salvajor Type) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180Pre-Scraper for Dishes (Conveyor Type) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250Bar Sink (Three Compartment). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Bar Sink (Four Compartment) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25Chemical Sanitizing Glasswasher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60Lavatory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5Service Sink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Cook Sink. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109-12 Pound Washers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4516 Pound Washers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60Shower. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Required Water Temperatures*Dishmachine Final Rinse (At Manifold) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180°Chemical Sanitizing Dishwasher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140°General Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140°Bar Sinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125°Lavatories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125°Chemical Sanitizing Glasswasher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75°

*From “Guideline for Hot Water Generating Systems for Food ServiceEstablishments.” Michigan Department of Public Health.

NSF—Dishwasher Rinse Water Requirements180° Rinse Water Demands

(Pressure at Washer—20 psi)1. 16" x 16" Single Tank, Stationary Rack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Gals/Hr.2. 18" x 18" Single Tank, Stationary Rack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Gals/Hr.3. 20" x 20" Single Tank, Stationary Rack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Gals/Hr.4. Multiple Tank, Conveyor, Flat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 Gals/Hr.5. Multiple Tank, Conveyor, Inclined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Gals/Hr.6. Single Tank, Conveyor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416 Gals/Hr.

Water H

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27

Lighting

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

127

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

Syst

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40 W

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49 52 35 96 86 69 148

134

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172

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F96/

60W

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59W

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110W

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F96/

215W

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F96/

215W

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F96/

185W

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Lam

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41 44 28 79 70 57 109

90 158

140

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37 34 32 70 62 51 107

88 75 140

108

95

98 86 175

158

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123

105

118

102

135

125

230

200

257

219

440

375

199

160

237

194

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28

Light Level RecommendationsThe Illuminating Engineers’ Society of North America (IESNA) hasrecently changed its focus on lighting levels. They have made adramatic shift from considering the lighting quantity only to considerthe quality of lighting. For full details, consult chapter 10 of their manual(available at www.iesna.org).

Efficacy Comparison Chart

LIGHT SOURCE

Incandescent

Mercury Vapor

Fluorescent

Metal Halide

High Pressure Sodium

Low Pressure Sodium

0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200

Lumens per WattLighting

29

Reflectance Values of Different Surfaces

Material Category Description Reflectance (%)Glass Clear or Tinted 5-10

Reflective 20-30

Masonry Brick, Red 10-20Cement, Gray 20-30Granite 20-25Limestone 35-60Marble, Polished 30-70Plaster, White 90-92Sandstone 20-40

Metals Aluminum, Brushed 55-58Aluminum, Etched 70-85Aluminum, Polished 60-70Stainless Steel 50-60Tin 67-72

Paint White 70-90

Wood Light Birch 35-50Mahogany 6-12Oak, Dark 10-15Oak, Light 25-35Walnut 5-10

Ligh

ting

30

The Effect of Lighting on Cooling Load

SystemInitial Lamp kW per Ton-hoursLumens/ Hours 1,000,000 Btu Cooling

Source Watt Life Lumens Input* Required*

Incandescent GE100A A-19/F 17.5 750 57.1 194882 16.24Quartz GEQ1000T3/CL 21.5 2,000 46.51 158749 13.23FluorescentStandard BallastF40CW 71.6 20,000 13.9 47680 3.97FluorescentStandard BallastF40LW/RS/WMII 76.5 20,000 13.08 44642 3.72FluorescentMax Miser I Ballastf40CWIRS/WMII 85.4 20,000 11.71 39966 3.33FluorescentOptimiser SystemFM28KW 87.9 15,000+ 11.37 38806 3.23Mercury-Regulator(CW) BallastHR400DX33 48.9 24,000 20.44 69762 5.81Metal HalideAuto Regulator(Peak Lead) BallastMVR400/VBV 86.0 20,000 11.625 39676 3.31High PressureSodium 102.9 20,000 9.72 33174 2.76

*Assumes 2500 Hours Use of the Lighting System Annually, 1,000,000 Lumen Output

Lighting

31

Annual Cost for Lighting SystemsAnnual cost = demand charge + energy charge, whereDemand charge = (Number of fixtures* W/fixture * $/kW * 12)/(1000)Energy charge = (Number of fixtures * W/fixture*Annual burn hours *$/kWh)/1000

Outdoor LightingFor Improved

—Safety—Security

—Appearance—Merchandising

Rule of Thumb Guides1. Use efficient light sources (high pressure sodium, metal halide high

intensity discharge lamps) that will produce maximum light output for the lowest use of energy and cost. Specify high power factor ballasts (minimum .90 P.F.)

2. "Positive Cutoff" fixtures on poles or buildings are preferred to reduce distracting glare for more attractive surveillance of premises.

3. Spacing to mounting height ratios between poles are preferred at a 3 to 1 ratio and not greater than a 4 to 1 ratio.

4. High reflectance materials and/or light paint for all possible vertical and horizontal surfaces will lighten dark areas, walkways, aisles, entrances, exits. Higher reflectances will help to quickly identify possible intruders.

5. Improve parking lot visibility and identification by applying two-foot white or yellow paint (thermal plastic) parking guidelines between cars. This technique will improve reflected light between cars on asphalt surfaces.

Out

door

Lig

htin

g

32

6. Perimeter lighting (75 feet or more when possible in front of buildings) will act as a light barrier deterrent to would-be intruders.

7. Floodlighting should not be directed out from a building more than twice the mounting height of the equipment above the ground. This avoids the problem of extreme light and dark areas in addition to the distracting glare problem.

8. Recommend installation of photocell and/or time switch controlled for maximum customer benefit.

Outdoor Lighting Levels

Building Exteriors MinimumEntrances Footcandles

Active (pedestrian and/or conveyance) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5Inactive (normally locked, infrequently used) . . . . . . . . . . 1

Building FloodlightingBright surroundings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Dark surroundings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Building Surroundings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Parking AreasSelf-Parking Area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Attendant Parking Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Vital Locations or Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5O

utdoor Lighting

33

Ligh

t Sys

tem

Sel

ectio

n

Lam

p Ta

ble

Burn

ing

(b) I

nitia

lLa

mp

& B

alla

st(c

)(d

)(e

)Li

ght S

ourc

ePo

sitio

n(a

) Lam

p Li

feLu

men

sW

atta

geEf

ficac

yLL

Dx

LDD

=LL

F

High

Pre

ssur

e So

dium

Lam

ps (C

lear

)10

00W

Any

24,0

0014

0,00

01,

100

127

.83

x.6

5=

.54

400W

Any

24,0

0050

,000

465

108

.83

x.7

0=

.58

310W

Any

24,0

0037

,000

380

97.8

2x

.70

=.5

725

0WAn

y24

,000

30,0

0030

598

.83

x.7

0=

.58

200W

Any

24,0

0022

,000

250

88.8

2x

.70

=.5

715

0WAn

y24

,000

16,0

0020

080

.83

x.7

0=

.58

100W

Any

24,0

009,

500

135

70.8

3x

.70

=.5

870

WAn

y24

,000

6,30

095

66.8

3x

.70

=.5

850

WAn

y24

,000

4,00

063

64.8

3x

.70

=.5

835

WAn

y24

,000

2,25

045

50.8

3x

.70

=.5

8

Met

al H

alid

e La

mps

(Cle

ar)

1500

WVe

rt.3,

000

155,

000

1,62

595

.84

x.6

5=

.55

1000

W(I)

Vert.

(j)

12,0

0011

5,00

01,

050

110

.73

x.6

5=

.48

1000

WVe

rt.12

,000

110,

000

1,05

010

5.7

3x

.65

=.4

840

0W(I)

Vert.

(j)

20,0

0040

,000

460

87.6

8x

.70

=.4

840

0WVe

rt.20

,000

(f)

36,0

0046

078

.68

x.7

0=

.48

250W

Vert.

10,0

0019

,500

300

65.7

6x

.70

=.5

325

0W(l)

Horz

. (k)

10,0

0023

,000

300

77.7

6x

.70

=.5

317

5WVe

rt.10

,000

(g)

14,0

0021

067

.67

x.7

0=

.47

175W

(l)Ho

rz. (

k)6,

000

12,0

0021

071

.67

x.7

0=

.47

Out

door

Lig

htin

g

34

Lam

p Ta

ble

(con

t.)

Burn

ing

(b) I

nitia

lLa

mp

& B

alla

st(c

)(d

)(e

)Li

ght S

ourc

ePo

sitio

n(a

) Lam

p Li

feLu

men

sW

atta

geEf

ficac

yLL

Dx

LDD

=LL

F

Mer

cury

Lam

ps (D

elux

e W

hite

)10

00W

Vert.

24,0

00 +

63,0

001,

060

59.5

0x

.65

=.3

240

0WVe

rt.24

,000

+22

,500

450

50.7

1x

.70

=.5

025

0WVe

rt.24

,000

+12

,100

300

40.7

4x

.70

=.5

217

5WVe

rt.24

,000

+8,

600

210

41.7

8x

.70

=.5

510

0WVe

rt.24

,000

+4,

200

120

38.6

7x

.70

=.4

775

WVe

rt.16

,000

+2,

800

9932

.68

x.7

0=

.48

50W

Vert.

16,0

00 +

1,57

574

21.6

8x

.70

=.4

840

WVe

rt.16

,000

+1,

140

6119

.68

x.7

0=

.48

Fluo

resc

ent L

amps

PL5

(or e

quiv.

)10

,000

(h)

250

831

.70(

i)x

.65

=.4

6PL

7 (o

r equ

iv.)

10,0

00 (h

)40

010

40.7

0(i)

x.6

5=

.46

PL9

(or e

quiv.

)10

,000

(h)

600

1250

.70(

i)x

.65

=.4

6PL

13 (o

r equ

iv.)

10,0

00 (h

)90

016

56.7

0(i)

x.6

5=

.46

F40C

WRS

20,0

00+(

h)3,

150

4866

.83

x.6

5=

.54

(M)F

40LW

/RS/

II20

,000

(h)

2,92

540

73.8

3x

.65

=.5

4F4

0SP3

0/RS

(or e

quiv.

)15

,000

(h)

3,35

048

67.8

3x

.65

=.5

4(M

)F40

SP30

/RS

(or e

quiv.

)20

,000

(h)

2,90

040

72.8

3x

.65

=.5

4F4

0SP3

5/RS

(or e

quiv.

)20

,000

+(h)

3,25

048

66.8

3x

.65

=.5

4(M

)F40

SP35

/RS

(or e

quiv.

)20

,000

(h)

2,90

040

72.8

3x

.65

=.5

4F4

0SP4

1/RS

(or e

quiv.

)20

,000

+(h)

3,25

048

67.8

3x

.65

=.5

4

Outdoor Lighting

35

Lam

p Ta

ble

(con

t.)

Burn

ing

(b) I

nitia

lLa

mp

& B

alla

st(c

)(d

)(e

)Li

ght S

ourc

ePo

sitio

n(a

) Lam

p Li

feLu

men

sW

atta

geEf

ficac

yLL

Dx

LDD

=LL

F

Fluo

resc

ent L

amps

(Con

t.)(M

)F40

SP41

/RS

(or e

quiv.

)20

,000

(h)

2,90

040

71.8

3x

.65

=.5

4F4

0SPX

30/R

S (o

r equ

iv.)

20,0

00+(

h)3,

275

4868

.83

x.6

5=

.54

(M)F

40SP

X30/

RS (o

r equ

iv.)

20,0

00 (h

)2,

900

4071

.83

x.6

5=

.54

F40S

PX35

/RS

(or e

quiv.

)20

,000

+(h)

3,27

548

67.8

3x

.65

=.5

4(M

)F40

SPX3

5/RS

(or e

quiv.

)20

,000

(h)

2,90

040

71.8

3x

.65

=.5

4F9

6T12

/CW

(Slim

line)

18,0

006,

300

8673

.89

x.6

5=

.58

(M)F

96T1

2/LW

(Slim

line)

18,0

006,

000

7184

.89

x.6

5=

.58

F96T

12/C

W/H

O (8

00M

A)18

,000

9,20

012

176

.82

x.6

5=

.53

(M)F

96T1

2/CW

.HO

(800

MA)

18,0

008,

300

106

78.8

2x

.65

=.5

3F9

6T12

/CW

/VHO

(150

0MA)

12,5

0014

,000

222

63.6

7x

.60

=.4

0(M

)F96

T12/

LW/V

HO (1

500M

A)11

,250

13,8

0019

670

.67

x.6

0=

.40

F96P

G17/

CW (1

500M

A)15

,000

16,0

0022

571

.67

x.6

0=

.40

(M)F

96PG

17/L

W (1

500M

A)15

,000

14,9

0019

676

.67

x.6

0=

.40

Quar

tz T

ungs

ten

Halo

gen

Lam

ps15

00W

T-3

Horz

. (n)

2,00

035

,800

1500

24.9

5x

.65

=.6

210

00W

T-3

Horz

. (n)

2,00

021

,500

1000

22.9

5x

.65

=.6

250

0W T

-3Ho

rz. (

n)2,

000

11,1

0050

022

.95

x.6

5=

.62

200W

T-3

Horz

. (n)

1,50

03,

350

200

17.9

5x

.65

=.6

2

Out

door

Lig

htin

g

36

Lam

p Ta

ble

(con

t.)

Burn

ing

(b) I

nitia

lLa

mp

& B

alla

st(c

)(d

)(e

)Li

ght S

ourc

ePo

sitio

n(a

) Lam

p Li

feLu

men

sW

atta

geEf

ficac

yLL

Dx

LDD

=LL

F

Low

Pre

ssur

e So

dium

Lam

ps18

0W T

-21

18,0

0033

,000

220

150

1.00

x.6

5=

.65

135W

T-2

118

,000

22,5

0017

812

61.

00x

.65

=.6

590

W T

-21

18,0

0013

,500

125

108

1.00

x.6

5=

.65

55W

T-1

718

,000

8,00

080

100

1.00

x.6

5=

.65

35W

T-1

718

,000

4,80

068

711.

00x

.65

=.6

518

W T

-17

10,0

001,

800

3060

1.00

x.6

5=

.65

(a)

Lam

p lif

e ba

sed:

10

hour

s pe

r sta

rt fo

r HID

lam

psan

d 12

hou

rs p

er s

tart

for f

luor

esce

nt u

nles

sot

herw

ise

note

d.(b

)In

itial

lum

ens

(afte

r 100

hou

rs).

(c)

Lam

p lu

men

dep

reci

atio

n at

70%

rate

life

(LLD

).(d

)Lu

min

ary

dirt

depr

ecia

tion

(LDD

). Fo

r out

door

lum

inar

ies

only

.(e

)Li

ght l

oss

fact

or (L

LF).

For o

utdo

or lu

min

arie

s on

ly.

(f)Av

erag

e ra

te li

fe 2

0,00

0 ho

urs

(whe

n op

erat

edve

rtica

l ± 3

0).

All o

ther

bur

ning

pos

ition

s15

,000

hou

rs.

(g)

Aver

age

rate

d lif

e 10

,000

hou

rs (w

hen

oper

ated

verti

cal ±

30)

. All

othe

r bur

ning

pos

ition

s 6,

000

hour

s.

(h)

Aver

age

rate

d lif

e at

3 h

ours

per

sta

rt.(i)

Estim

ated

.(j)

Lam

p m

ust b

e op

erat

ed w

ithin

± 1

5° o

f ver

tical

.(k

)La

mp

mus

t be

oper

ated

with

in ±

15°

of h

orizo

ntal

.Re

quire

s sp

ecia

l soc

ket t

o ac

cept

pos

ition

orie

nted

bas

e.(l)

High

out

put l

amps

.(m

)Ene

rgy

effic

ient

lam

ps.

(n)

Lam

p m

ust b

e op

erat

ed w

ithin

± 4

° of v

ertic

al.

Outdoor Lighting

37

Cooking EquipmentHow to Evaluate Energy Cost

Electric Cost/yr = Nameplate rating (kW) * Diversity Factor (default of .25)* 12 * $/kW + kW * Diversity Factor * Hours per year * $/kWh

-OR-

To estimate further (this is a reasonable estimate, since cooking willbe a flat load throughout the year):

Electric Cost/yr = kW * Diversity Factor * Hours per year * Average$/kWh (from Table below)

Gas Cost/yr = Nameplate rating (Btuh) * Diversity Factor (default of .35)* Hours per year * $/therm /100000 Btu per therm

Equipment Input, Diversity, and Preheat Times

Fryer(conventional), 45# .20 .39 14 120000 5-8 8-12Griddle, 3' .20 .40 9 90000 7-12 10-15Deck Oven, 2-pan 5' .20 .39 10 75000 20-36 45-60Convection Oven,Single Full-Size .18 .35 11 55000 9-10 20-30Conveyor Oven, 36" .25 .45 18 120000 20-40 30-40Tilting Skillet, 40 gal. .20 .39 18 100000 8-13 5-9Solid Top Range, 3' .30 .80 8 80000 7-15 10-30Range Oven, 1 pan .20 .39 5 35000 20-36 20-30Radiant Broiler, 3' .60 .95 12 50000 5-10 15-20Charbroiler, 3' .60 .95 12 50000 8-11 20Steam JacketedKettle, 40 gal. .20 .45 18 110000 10-20 10-20Note that diversity is different between electric and gas because of reheat,thermal efficiency, and operational differences.

Equipment TypeDiversity (Elec/Gas)

Electric Gas Electric(kW)

Gas(Btuh) Electric Gas

Typical Input Preheat Time, min.

Cook

ing

Equi

pmen

t

38

Typical Electric Costs Typical Gas CostsBusiness Type ($/kWh) ($/therm)Fast Food .085 1.35Full Service .095 1.4Cafeteria .095 1.4Church/Synagogue .1 1.45Large Office Building .05 1.25School (K-12) .085 1.2College/University .08 1.3Healthcare .085 1.2

Effective 10/2002. Check [email protected] for updated information.

Cooking EfficiencyEquipment Electric GasBroiler, over fired .52 .22Charbroiler .65 .16Fryer, conventional .78 .28Fryer, pressure .83 .3Griddle, grooved .71 .51Kettle, jacketed .73 .42Open range burner .73 .38Oven, convection .62 .28Oven, deck .55 .24Oven, range .45 .13Skillet, tilting .79 .52Steamer, convection .23 .13Steamer, pressure .39 .19Note: This represents the energy that is put into the food (as opposed to the kitchen orup the flue). Source: “Comparative gas/electric foodservice equipment energyconsumption ratio study”, University of Minnesota, 3/3/83, p. 12. O.P. Snyder, D.R.Thompson, J.F. Norwig.

Cooking Equipment

39

Ventilation Requirements (CFM per SF of Cooking Surface)

Equipment Electric GasOvens, Steamers, Kettles 20 25Fryers 35 60Griddles and Ranges 35 40Hot Top Ranges 85 100Salamanders, High Broilers 60 70Grooved Griddles 65 75Char-Broilers 75 150For every 250 CFM reduction, AC load is reduced by 1.1 tons and heating requirementis reduced by 13,200 Btuh.

Equipment Considerations

Typical Foodservice Budgets Burger Chains Family RestaurantFood Sales 100% 100%

FOOD COST 33.3 31.5LABOR COST, BENEFITS 24 29.1Pretax Profits 24 29.1Rent, Property Tax, Insurance 8 7.9Administration, General 6 6.5Advertising, Promotion 4.8 2.6UTILITIES 3.6 0.48Supplies 4 3.2Repair, Maintenance, Int. 3.1 2.6Depreciation 2.8 2.8

Utilities represent less than 5% of a restaurant's operating budget.

Cook

ing

Equi

pmen

t

40

Electric foodservice equipment has the following advantages:Savings in Food Savings in Labor1. Less shrinkage in meat roasting 1. No pilot lights to relight2. Significant savings in frying fat 2. Less scrubbing of pots and pans3. Less spoilage due to overcooking 3. Fast recovery speeds production4. Less spoilage due to uneven heating 4. Watching of food is minimized5. Longer holding of food is possible 5. Requires less skilled help6. Larger servings from the griddle 6. Minimum of supervision7. Elimination of crippled baking runs 7. Compact layout saves space

Other savings provided by electric cooking1. The cooking process is energy efficient only 50% of typical gas BTUs2. This results in cooler kitchens, less or no A/C, more efficient employees3. The equipment lasts longer4. Does not require a flue5. It is easier to balance the building’s air flow6. Ovens are insulated on all six sides to conserve energy7. Electricity is clean, providing for lower building maintenance costs8. Water vapor and resulting humidity (bacteria, molds) are reduced9. Equipment does not lose its efficiency with age

10. Kitchen design is easier and more flexible

Typical Equipment List PricesEquipment Electric GasBraising Pan, 40 gal. $20,223 $24,270Charbroiler $4,908 $5,152Griddle, 3' $4,910 $5,260Fryer, 45 lb. $5,485 $5,977Kettle, 40 gal. $19,563 $25,743Oven, Combination $26,129 $33,578Oven, Double Convection $20,695 $22,575Pasta Cooker $12,308 $14,000Range $8,588 $5,726Steamer, 5-pan $11,449 $16,679As of 4/1/2008 Per autoquotes manufacturers suggested retail price (msrp)

Cooking Equipment

41

Refrigerants and ChillersCommon Refrigerants, Applications, and Current StatusNo. Name Application Status11 Trichlorofluoromethane Chillers (old) No longer

manufactured,still available

12 Dichlorodifluoromethane Chillers (old) No longermanufactured,still available

22 Chlorodifluoromethane Small equipment, Phaseout scheduledheat pumps, A/C for 2010units, cars

123 Dichlorotrifluoroethane New chillers Current134a Tetrafluoroethane New chillers, Current

cars, heat pumps717 Ammonia Food processing, Current

low-temperatureapplications

410a R32/R125 (50/50 blend), Small equipment, Currentmarketed as Puron heat pumps, A/C

units, cars407c R32/R125/R134a Chillers Current

(23/25/52 blend)

Chiller Types, Applications, ConsiderationsType Application ConsiderationsCentrifugal, High-rises; large Are most efficient run at fullWater-cooled applications (150t+) load; lose efficiency rapidly

at partial loadingReciprocating 100-120 t. Lower capital expense; less

efficient than most alternativesScrew, 75-300 t. Good efficiency at partialWater-cooled loading; can be noisyAbsorption Industrial, 800-1000 t. Not generally economic unless

free steam is available.Reciprocating and 100-300 t. Lower upfront cost, lowerscroll, air-cooled installation, doesn’t require

building space, less efficientthan water-cooled

Refr

iger

ants

& C

hille

rs

42

Motors and PumpsMotor BasicsThere are several terms used in motor applications. These include slip,motor efficiency, torque, and synchronous speed. The definitions ofthese terms are included in the glossary.

Within the AC motor category, there are 2 main categories:

• Single phase• 3-phase

Single phase motors are typically used in applications of 1 horsepoweror less. Three-phase motors are used for larger applications that don’trequire a DC motor. The allowable slip for the three-phase motorsvaries depending on the application. The speed listed on the motor istypically the actual speed (which takes slip into account). NEMAcategorizes motors based on torque; we show the applications below:

NEMA Design B C DLocked Rotor Torque Medium High Very High

Breakdown Torque High Medium Low

% slip, max. 5% 5% 5% or more

Applications Constant load Constant load Variable loadspeed, low speed, high speed, high inertiainertia starts. inertia starts starts. Hoists,Fans, Flywheels, elevators, somecompressors, large industrialconveyors, etc. blowers, etc. equipment

(punches,some presses).

Motors &

Pumps

43

Code Letter kVa/hp Code Letter kVa/hpA 0.0 - 3.15 L 9.0 - 10.0B 3.15 - 3.55 M 10.0 - 11.2C 3.55 - 4.0 N 11.2 - 12.5D 4.0 - 5.0 P 12.5 - 14.0E 4.5 - 5.0 R 14.0 - 16.0F 5.0 - 5.6 S 16.0 - 18.0G 5.6 - 6.3 T 18.0 - 20.0H 6.3 - 7.1 U 20.0 - 22.4J 7.1 - 8.0 V 22.4 and upK 8.0 - 9.0

The nameplate code rating is a good indication of the starting current themotor will draw. A code letter at the beginning of the alphabet indicates a lowstarting current and a letter at the end of the alphabet indicates a high startingcurrent. Starting current can be calculated using the following formula:

Starting current = (1000 x hp x kVa/hp)/(1.73 x Volts)

Motor Cost ComparisonChoosing the right motor is an important part of the design process.There is no “rule of thumb” for all motor types. To determine the annualoperating cost and the best choice, you need to consider:

• Annual hours of operation• Loading• Electric rate• Capital cost of the various options

The formula for the total cost would be:Demand cost = hp under loading * 0.746 kW/hp* $/kW-month *12 months/year / Efficiency

Energy cost = % loading * number of hours of operation * hp *0.746 kW/hp * $/kWh / Efficiency

Total cost = demand cost + energy cost

Mot

ors

& P

umps

44

Motors &

Pumps

45

Recommendation Chart for Motor Replacement/NewInstallation3

5 hp 10 hp 15 hp 20 hp 30 hp1000 hpy Rewind/Std. Rewind/Std. Rewind/Std. Rewind/Std. Rewind/Std.

Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency3000 Rewind/High Install New Install New Install New Install New

Eff. High Eff. High Eff. High Eff. High Eff.5000 Rewind/High Install New Install New Install New Install New

Eff. High Eff. High Eff. High Eff. High Eff.7000 Install New Install New Install New Install New Install New

High Eff. High Eff. High Eff. High Eff. High Eff.8760 Install New Install New Install New Install New Install New

High Eff. High Eff. High Eff. High Eff. High Eff.3 Assumes small business tax rate, 15% discount rate, PLM rate schedule, standard and high

efficiency as observed in supply catalogs, standard market prices. For any extensive motorreplacements/installations, please contact Georgia Power to find the best customized decision

Heat Gain from Typical Electric MotorsMotor Motor Motor

Insider; Outside; Inside;Rated Motor Nominal Full-load Equipment Equipment Equipment

hp Type rpm Eff. % Inside (Btuh) Inside (Btuh) Outside (Btuh)

0.5 Split-phase1750 60 2120 1270 8500.75 3-phase 1750 72 2650 1900 7401 3-phase 1750 75 3390 2550 8501 3-phase 1750 77 4960 3820 11402 3-phase 1750 79 6440 5090 13503 3-phase 1750 81 9430 7640 17905 3-phase 1750 82 15500 12700 27907 3-phase 1750 84 22700 19100 364010 3-phase 1750 85 29900 24500 449015 3-phase 1750 86 44400 38200 621020 3-phase 1750 87 58500 50900 761025 3-phase 1750 88 72300 63600 868030 3-phase 1750 89 85700 76300 944040 3-phase 1750 89 114000 102000 12600

Mot

ors

& P

umps

46

Heat Gain from Typical Electric Motors (cont.)Motor Motor Motor

Insider; Outside; Inside;Rated Motor Nominal Full-load Equipment Equipment Equipment

hp Type rpm Eff. % Inside (Btuh) Inside (Btuh) Outside (Btuh)50 3-phase 1750 89 143000 127000 1570060 3-phase 1750 89 172000 153000 1890075 3-phase 1750 90 212000 191000 21200100 3-phase 1750 90 283000 255000 28300125 3-phase 1750 90 353000 318000 35300150 3-phase 1750 91 420000 382000 37800200 3-phase 1750 91 569000 509000 50300250 3-phase 1750 91 699000 636000 62900

Copyright 2001, American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.www.ashrae.org. Reprinted by permission from 2001 ASHRAE Handbook “Fundamentals”.

Motor FormulaeTorque (lb-ft) = hp * 5250/RPMHp = Volts * Amps * Efficiency/746% slip = (Synchronous RPM – Full-load RPM)*100/Synchronous RPM

Affinity Laws for Pumps

Copyright 1987, American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers,Inc. www.ashrae.org. Reprinted by permission from 1987 ASHRAE Pocket Handbook.

ImpellerDiameter Speed

SpecificGravity (SG)

To Correctfor

Multiply by

Flow New SpeedOld Speed

New SpeedOld Speed

New SpeedOld Speed

New DiameterOld DiameterNew DiameterOld DiameterNew DiameterOld Diameter

New SGOld SG

( )Head ( )BHP

(or kW) ( )Flow ( )Head ( )BHP

(or kW) ( )BHP

(or kW)

Constant

Constant

Variable

Variable Constant

Constant Constant

Constant Variable

2

3

2

3

Motors &

Pumps

47

Fans and DuctsFan Laws

CFM1/CFM2 = RPM1/RPM2SP1/SP2 = (RPM1/RPM2)2

HP1/HP2 = (RPM1/RPM2)3

Criteria for Fan Selection:To get the best fan for a particular application, the designer mustconsider these aspects:

• Required air volume and static pressure• Application type (temperature of discharge, corrosive vapors, etc.)• Available space• Noise criteria• Location of discharge• Motor position• Air density (particularly important in South Georgia)

Fans

& D

ucts

48

Duct Design

Rectangular Equivalent of Round Ducts

Fans & D

ucts

49

Industrial Applications

Compressed Air

Existing compressor capacity:

C = V(P2-P1)*60/(14.7*time)

Where:C = capacity of compressor in cfmV = receiver and piping volume in cu. ft.P2 = final cutout pressure (absolute, psia)P1 = initial pressure (absolute, psia)Time = pump up time, in seconds

Additional Air Required = Existing Capacity * Desired Pressure/Existing Pressure

Typical Compressor Capacity:

Type of Compressor Piston, Two Stage Rotary ScrewCFM per hp 3.5 4.0

Indu

stri

al A

pplic

atio

ns

50

Leak

age

Rate

from

Hol

esAi

r Flo

w T

hrou

gh O

rific

es

25

1015

2030

4050

6080

100

125

150

200

Gaug

e Pr

essu

re in

Rec

eive

r (po

unds

)Di

a. o

fOr

ifice

(in.)

1/64

0.04

0.06

20.

077

0.10

50.

123

0.15

80.

194

0.23

0.26

70.

335

0.04

060.

494

0.58

30.

751/

320.

158

0.24

80.

311

0.42

00.

491

0.63

30.

774

0.91

61.

061.

341.

621.

982.

233.

183/

640.

356

0.56

80.

712

0.94

41.

101.

421.

752.

062.

383.

03.

664.

445.

256.

861/

160.

633

0.99

31.

241.

681.

962.

533.

103.

664.

235.

366.

497.

909.

112

.17

3/32

1.43

2.23

2.80

3.78

4.41

5.69

78.

259.

512

.014

.617

.820

.927

.35

1/8

2.53

3.97

4.98

6.72

7.86

10.1

12.4

14.7

16.9

21.4

26.0

31.6

37.3

48.7

3/16

5.7

8.93

11.2

15.2

17.6

522

.828

.033

.038

48.3

58.5

71.0

8410

9.6

1/4

10.1

15.9

19.9

26.9

31.4

40.5

49.6

58.6

67.6

85.7

104

126

149.

319

53/

822

.835

.744

.760

.570

.791

.111

213

215

219

323

428

433

643

81/

240

.563

.579

.610

812

616

219

823

527

134

341

550

659

677

75/

863

.03

99.3

124.

516

819

625

331

036

642

353

664

979

093

212

163/

491

.214

317

9.2

242

283

365

446

528

609

771

934

1138

1340

1750

7/8

124

195

244.

232

938

549

660

771

882

810

5012

7215

4918

2523

821

162

254

318.

243

050

364

879

393

810

8213

7116

6120

2323

8531

121-

1/18

205

321

402.

554

463

782

010

0411

8713

7017

3421

0125

6030

2039

401-

1/4

253

397

498

672

784

1019

1240

1464

1693

2144

2596

3160

3725

4860

1-3/

830

748

260

481

695

412

3015

0517

8020

5426

0731

5338

4045

2559

101-

1/2

364

572

716

968

1132

1460

1783

2112

2335

3081

3734

4550

5360

7000

1-3/

449

678

097

213

1815

4019

8524

2928

7533

1042

0050

8561

9573

0095

302

648

1015

1274

1720

2120

2594

3173

3752

4330

5480

6650

8100

9540

1245

0N

ote:

For

wel

l-rou

nded

ent

ranc

e, m

u8lti

ply

valu

es b

y 0.

97; f

or s

harp

-edg

ed o

rific

es, m

ultip

ly b

y 0.

65


Proc

ess

Stea

mSa

tura

ted

Stea

m: P

ress

ure

Tabl

eAb

s.Pr

ess.

(psi

)

p

Tem

p(F

) t

Sat.

Liqu

id

v f

Evap

.

v fg

Sat.

Vapo

r

v g

Sat.

Liqu

id

h f

Evap

.

h fg

Sat.

Vapo

r

h g

Sat.

Liqu

id

s f

Evap

.

s fg

Sat.

Vapo

r

s g

Spec

ific

Volu

me

Enth

alpy

Entro

pyAb

s.Pr

ess.

(psi

)p

0.08

865

32.0

180.

0160

2233

02.4

3302

.40.

0003

1075

.510

75.5

0.00

002.

1872

2.18

720.

8865

0.25

59.3

230.

0160

3212

35.5

1235

.527

.382

1060

.110

87.4

0.05

422.

0425

2.09

670.

250.

579

.586

0.01

6071

641.

564

1.5

47.6

2310

48.6

1096

.30.

0925

1.94

462.

0370

0.5

1.0

101.

740.

0163

633

3.59

333.

669

.73

1036

.111

05.8

0.13

261.

8455

1.97

811.

05.

016

2.24

0.01

6407

73.5

1573

.532

130.

210

00.9

1131

.10.

2349

1.60

941.

8443

5.0

10.0

193.

210.

0165

9238

.404

38.4

2016

1.26

982.

111

43.3

0.28

361.

5043

1.78

7910

.014

.696

212.

000.

0167

1926

.782

26.7

9918

0.17

970.

311

50.5

0.31

211.

4447

1.75

6814

.696

15.0

213.

030.

0167

2626

.274

26.2

9018

1.21

969.

711

50.9

0.31

371.

4415

1.75

5215

.0

20.0

227.

960.

0168

3420

.070

20.0

8719

6.27

960.

111

56.3

0.33

581.

3962

1.73

2020

.030

.025

0.34

0.01

7009

13.7

266

13.7

436

218.

994

5.2

1164

.10.

3682

1.33

131.

6995

30.0

40.0

267.

250.

0171

5110

.479

410

.496

523

6.1

933.

611

69.8

0.39

211.

2844

1.67

6540

.050

.028

1.02

0.01

7274

8.49

678.

5140

250.

292

3.9

1174

.10.

4122

1.24

741.

6586

50.0

60.0

292.

710.

0173

837.

1562

7.17

3626

2.2

915.

411

77.6

0.42

731.

2167

1.64

4060

.070

.030

2.93

0.01

7482

6.18

756.

2050

272.

790

7.8

1180

.60.

4411

1.19

051.

6316

70.0

80.0

312.

040.

0175

735.

4536

5.47

1128

2.1

900.

911

83.1

0.45

341.

1675

1.62

0880

.090

.032

0.28

0.01

7659

4.87

794.

8953

290.

789

4.6

1185

.30.

4643

1.14

701.

6113

90.0

100.

032

7.82

0.01

7740

4.41

334.

4310

298.

588

8.6

1187

.20

0.47

431.

1284

1.60

2710

0.0

110.

033

4.79

0.01

782

4.03

064.

0484

305.

888

3.1

1188

.90.

4834

1.11

151.

5950

110.

012

0.0

341.

270.

0178

93.

7097

3.72

7531

2.6

877.

811

90.4

0.49

191.

0960

1.58

7912

0.0

130.

034

7.33

0.01

796

3.43

643.

4544

319.

087

2.8

1191

.70.

4998

1.08

151.

5813

130.

014

0.0

353.

040.

0180

33.

2010

3.21

9032

5.0

868.

811

93.0

0.50

711.

0681

1.57

5214

0.0

51

Indu

stri

al A

pplic

atio

ns

52

Satu

rate

d St

eam

: Pre

ssur

e Ta

ble

(con

t.)

Abs.

Pres

s.(p

si)

p

Tem

p(F

) t

Sat.

Liqu

id

v f

Evap

.

v fg

Sat.

Vapo

r

v g

Sat.

Liqu

id

h f

Evap

.

h fg

Sat.

Vapo

r

h g

Sat.

Liqu

id

s f

Evap

.

s fg

Sat.

Vapo

r

s g

Spec

ific

Volu

me

Enth

alpy

Entro

pyAb

s.Pr

ess.

(psi

)p

150.

035

8.43

0.01

809

2.99

583.

0139

330.

686

3.4

1194

.10.

5141

1.05

541.

5695

150.

016

0.0

363.

550.

0181

52.

8155

2.83

3633

6.1

859.

011

95.1

0.52

061.

0435

1.56

4116

0.0

170.

036

8.42

0.01

821

2.65

562.

6738

341.

285

4.8

1196

.00.

5269

1.03

221.

5591

170.

018

0.0

373.

080.

0182

72.

5129

2.53

1234

6.2

850.

711

96.9

0.53

281.

0215

1.55

4318

0.0

190.

037

7.53

0.01

833

2.38

472.

4030

350.

984

6.7

1197

.60.

5384

1.01

131.

5498

190.

0

200.

038

1.80

0.01

839

2.26

892.

2873

355.

584

2.8

1198

.30.

5438

1.00

161.

5454

200.

021

0.0

385.

910.

0184

42.

1637

32.

1821

735

9.9

839.

111

99.0

0.54

900.

9923

1.54

1321

0.0

220.

038

9.88

0.01

850

2.06

779

2.08

629

364.

283

5.4

1199

.60.

5540

0.98

341.

5374

220.

023

0.0

393.

700.

0185

51.

9799

11.

9984

636

8.3

831.

812

00.1

0.55

880.

9748

1.53

6623

0.0

240.

039

7.39

0.01

860

1.89

909

1.91

769

372.

382

8.4

1200

.60.

5634

0.96

651.

5299

240.

025

0.0

400.

970.

0186

51.

8245

21.

8431

737

6.1

825.

012

01.1

0.56

790.

9585

1.52

6425

0.0

260.

040

4.44

0.01

870

1.75

548

1.77

418

379.

982

1.6

1201

.50.

5722

0.95

081.

5230

260.

027

0.0

407.

800.

0187

51.

6913

71.

7101

338

3.6

818.

312

01.9

0.57

640.

9433

1.51

9727

0.0

280.

041

1.07

0.01

880

1.63

169

1.65

049

387.

181

5.1

1202

.30.

5805

0.93

611.

5166

280.

029

0.0

414.

250.

0188

51.

5759

71.

5948

239

0.6

812.

012

02.6

0.58

440.

9291

1.51

3529

0.0

300.

041

7.35

0.01

889

1.52

384

1.54

274

394.

080

8.9

1202

.90.

5882

0.92

231.

5105

300.

035

0.0

431.

730.

0191

21.

3064

21.

3255

440

9.8

794.

212

04.0

0.60

590.

8909

1.49

6835

0.0

400.

044

4.60

0.01

934

1.14

162

1.16

095

424.

278

0.4

1204

.60.

6217

0.86

301.

4847

100.

0Industrial Applications

53

Steam Loss from Leaks*

Combustion Heat Losses, Gas Boilers

Indu

stri

al A

pplic

atio

ns

Trap OrificeDiameter (inches)

Pressure (psi)

15 100 150 3001/32 0.85 3.3 4.8 9.81/16 3.4 13.2 18.9 36.21/8 13.7 52.8 75.8 145.03/16 30.7 119.0 170.0 326.01/4 54.7 211.0 303.0 579.03/8 123.0 475.0 682.0 1303.0

*in lb/hr.A typical plant has a steam value of $5/1000 lbs. steam

54

Industrial Process TechnologiesTechnology Applications ConsiderationsUltraviolet Coatings on heat Fast curing.

sensitive substrates. No VOCs.Disinfection in water/ Low maintenance.sewage treatment.

Induction Electrically conductive work Best for symmetricpieces – high frequency shapes and highfor surface hardening, productivity applications. low for through heating.

Plasma Arc Cutting, welding, melting, More accurate and fasterincineration, vitrification. than mechanical cutting

Radio Frequency Rapid drying of non- Best for difficult drying conductive materials. applications, boundAdhesive curing. moisture removalPlastics welding.

Microwave Cooking and final drying New microwaveof foods. technologies allow webRubber vulcanization. drying applications. BestSintering ceramics. for high value-added

products (high capitalcost).

Infrared Comfort heating. Great in areas with highProcess heating. ventilation (comfort

application); increasesdrying speed – increasingproductivity (process).

Powder Coating Painting. No VOCs. Higher quality.Good application forIR curing.

Ozonation Laundry brightening. No bleach required. Water disinfection.

Electrode Boilers Steam, hot water production. Rapid startup. High capacity.Small footprint.No exhaust flue. Highefficiency. Low noise.Precise control.


55

Industrial Heating and Curing

Typical Energy Requirements (kWh/ton)St

ainl

ess

Non

-St

ainl

ess

Proc

ess

Stee

lM

agne

ticM

agne

ticN

icke

lTi

tani

umCo

pper

Bras

sAl

umin

um

Mel

ting

500

550

550

500

400

370

350

450

Heat

For

ging

400

375

430

450

375

350

325

300

Hard

enin

g/So

lutio

nTr

eatin

g25

026

0N

/A30

032

535

030

030

0

Anne

alin

g25

021

037

540

030

0N

/A25

026

0

War

mFo

rmin

g17

5N

/A25

024

0N

/AN

/AN

/AN

/A

Stre

ss R

elie

f15

015

020

025

022

520

020

021

0

Tem

perin

g/Ag

ing

7070

100

120

110

N/A

N/A

N/A

Curin

g50

5075

9080

N/A

7012

5

Indu

stri

al A

pplic

atio

ns

56

Information to Assess Induction Feasibility

Average Induction Heating System Efficiency

CharacteristicMaterials Electrically conductive (typically metallic)

Coatings Don’t require long residence time for curing

Production High volume/high speed

Heat Control Requires ability to control temperature and depth of heating precisely

Scrap Material that oxidizes readily (e.g. aluminum); inductionallows control of atmosphere, moisture, and temperature —can reduce scrap rate from 7-8% to 1%

Floor Space Little available square footage

Energy Costs Moderate to high gas prices/moderate to low electric prices

System Efficiency Processes that require sporadic heating; induction can cyclewhereas gas convection cannot — result is lower energyuse for induction

Product Shape Simple, symmetric, regular

Capital Cost Less important to customer; induction tends to cost moreupfront, but can have rapid payback depending on application

Labor Cost High labor costs; induction lends itself to automation whichcan reduce labor requirements in a plant

Good Induction Application

Type Frequency System EfficiencyLine Voltage 60 Hz 65%Solid State 60 to 200 kHz 70%

Radio Frequency 200 to 450 kHz 50%


For help assessing induction for your customer, contact [email protected]

57

Emitters and Applications of IR Radiant Heating

Type ofEmitter

TypicalApplications

Tungsten filamentlamps

T-3 quartz lamps

Coil or wire inunsealed quartz,silicon tubes, or

panels

Metal radiant tubes

Metal ribbon emitters

Ceramic emitters

Glass panels

Vitrified ceramicpanels

Curing paintedsurfaces

Curing powdercoatings

Polymerization oforganic coatings

on cooking utensils

Gelling PVCcoatings on fabric

Drying iron oxide onrecording tapes

Production of TVtubes

Drying porcelainand ceramics

Drying and productionof glass-plastic

composites

Curing paintedsurfaces

Curing powdercoatings

Drying/heat settingfabrics after dyeing

or printing

Supplemental heaterfor paper drying

Drying inks in printingor silkscreening

Preheating plastic

Preheating woodenpanels prior to

coating

Curing coatings onwooden panels

Curing the varnishor paints on mirror

backs

Activating adhesives

Drying textiles

Animal care inagriculture

Printed circuit boardprocessing

Drying silkscreen inks

Preheating plastic

Preheating embossingrollers

Drying paints andlacquers

SHORT WAVE(High Intensity) MEDIUM WAVE LONG WAVE

(High Intensity)

Indu

stri

al A

pplic

atio

ns

58

Typical Oven Comparison

ELECTRIC GAS CONVECTIONFloor space (conveyer

length needed)

Warm-up time

Cure time

Efficiency

Product temperaturerange

Operational advantages

Ease of installation

25 to 30 feet

1 to 90 seconds

1 second to 10 minutes

45 to 60%

0 to 1000°F.

Can be turned off orreduced to 5-10% powerwith no parts in the oven

Preassembled, moveinto position

300 to 350 feet

30 minutes

20 to 35 minutes

15 to 25%

0 to 450°F.

Runs all the time

Erect on site


Met

als

Prop

ertie

s of

Sol

ids

Ther

mal

Line

ar C

oeffi

cien

tM

eltin

gCo

nduc

tivity

of T

herm

alSp

ecifi

cHe

at o

fPo

int

Dens

ityBt

u/hr

/ft2

Expa

nsio

nSu

bsta

nce

Heat

Btu

/lb/F

Fusi

on B

tu/lb

(low

est)

°Flb

/ft3

lb/in

3°F

per °

F x

100

Alum

inum

110

0.2

416

911

9016

9.0

9812

813

.1Al

umin

um 2

024

.24

167

935

173

.100

112

12.9

Alum

inum

300

3.2

416

711

9017

0.0

9911

212

.9An

timon

y.0

5269

1166

423

.245

10.9

4.7-

6.0

Bism

uth

.031

2352

061

0.3

534.

97.

4Br

ass

(70%

Cu.

30%

Zn)

.10

—17

00±

525

.304

5611

.1Co

pper

.10

9119

8155

0.3

1822

49.

2Go

ld.0

3029

1945

1203

.697

169

7.9

Inco

loy

800

.12

—24

7550

1.2

908.

17.

9In

colo

y 60

0.1

1—

2470

525

.304

9.1

7.4

Inva

r.1

3—

2600

508

.294

6.1

0.6

Iron,

cas

t.1

3—

2300

±45

0.2

6033

6.5

Iron,

wro

ught

.12

—28

00±

480

.278

366.

5Le

ad, s

olid

.031

1062

171

0.4

1120

16.3

Lead

, mel

ted

.04

——

665

.385

——

Mag

nesi

um.2

3216

012

0210

9.0

6391

14M

onel

400

.11

—23

7055

1.3

1914

7.7

Nic

kel 2

00.1

113

326

1555

4.3

2139

7.4

Nic

hrom

e (8

0% N

i; 20

% C

r).1

1—

2550

524

.303

8.7

7.3

Plat

inum

.032

4932

2413

38.7

7541

4.9

Silv

er.0

5738

1761

655

.379

242

10.9

Sold

er (5

0% P

b; 5

0% S

n).0

417

415

580

.336

2613

.1St

eel,

mild

car

bon

.12

—25

5±49

0.2

8438

6.7

Stee

l, st

ainl

ess,

304

.11

—25

5048

8.2

828.

89.

6St

eel,

stai

nles

s, 4

30.1

1—

2650

475

.275

12.5

6.0

Tant

alum

.036

—54

2510

36.6

0031

3.6

Tin,

sol

id.0

5625

450

455

.263

3613

Tin,

mel

ted

.064

——

437

.253

18—

Tita

nium

.126

—33

0028

3.1

649.

34.

7Ty

pe M

etal

(85%

Pb;

15%

Sb)

.040

1550

067

0.3

88—

—Zi

nc.0

9551

787

445

.258

659.

4-22

Indu

stri

al A

pplic

atio

ns

59

60

Solid

Non

-Met

als

Prop

ertie

s of

Sol

ids

Th

erm

alLi

near

Coe

ffici

ent

Mel

ting

Cond

uctiv

ityof

The

rmal

Spec

ific

Heat

of

Poin

tDe

nsity

Btu/

hr/ft

2Ex

pans

ion

Subs

tanc

eHe

at B

tu/lb

/FFu

sion

Btu

/lb(lo

wes

t) °F

.lb

/ft3

lb/in

3°F

per °

F x

100

Asbe

stos

.25

——

36.0

28.0

87—

Asph

alt

.40

4025

0±65

.038

–—

Bees

wax

—

7514

460

.035

–—

Bric

kwor

k &

Mas

onry

.22

——

140

.081

.38

3–6

Carb

on.2

04—

6700

—.0

8013

.8.3

–2.4

Glas

s.2

0—

2200

±16

5.0

96.4

55

Grap

hite

.20

——

130

.075

.104

—Ic

e.4

6—

—57

.033

1.28

—M

agne

sium

Oxi

debe

fore

com

pact

ion

.21

——

——

.3co

mpa

cted

.21

——

—.1

121.

27.

7M

arin

ite-3

6 @

600

F.3

1—

—36

.021

.068

1.3

Mic

a.2

0—

——

.102

.25

18pa

per

.45

——

58.0

34.0

68—

Para

ffin

.70

6313

356

.032

.13

—Pi

tch,

har

d

—

—30

0±83

.048

–—

Plas

tics AB

S.3

-.4—

——

.036

.11–

.19

32–7

2Ce

llulo

sic

.3-.5

——

—.0

48.1

0–.2

055

–83

Epox

y.2

5—

——

.045

.10–

.12

25–3

6Fl

uoro

plas

tic.2

8—

——

.077

.14

46–5

8N

ylon

.4—

——

.040

.14

.44

Phen

olic

.3-.4

——

—.0

48.0

85.3

8Po

lyet

hyle

ne.5

5—

——

.033

.19–

.29

55–1

11Po

lyst

yren

e.3

2—

——

.037

.03–

.08

17–1

11Vi

nyl

.2-.3

——

—.0

50.0

7–.1

728

–139

Quar

tz.2

1—

3150

138

.080

.80

.30

Rubb

er.4

0—

—95

±.0

55±

.087

340

Soil

dry

.44

——

100

.058

.035

±

—

Stea

tite

.20

——

—.0

941.

75

Suga

r.3

0—

320

105

.061

—

Sulfu

r.2

0317

230

125

.072

.15

36Ta

llow

—

—90

±60

.035

—

Woo

d-oa

k.4

5±

——

50.0

29.1

2–.2

0

—W

ood-

pine

.45

±—

—34

.020

.06–

.14

—


61

Properties of LiquidsSpecific

Heat Heat of Boiling DensityBtu/lb/ Vaporization Point

Substance °F Btu/lb °F lb/ft3 lb/galAcetic acid .472 153 245 66 8.82Alcohol .65 365 172 55 7.35Benzine .45 166 175 56 7.49Brine

(25% NACI) .81 730± 220± 74 9.89Caustic soda

(18% NaOH) .84 800± 220± 75 10.03Dowtherm A

(at 450°F) .518 42 495 55 7.35Ether .503 160 95 46 6.15Freon 12

(Saturated liquid) .24 62 -20 78.5 10.50Glycerine .58 — 554 79 10.58Mercury .033 117 675 845 112.97Oil, cotton seed .47 — — 60 8.02Oil, olive .47 — 570± 58 7.75Oil, petroleum .51 — — 56 7.49Paraffin, melted .71 — 750± 56 7.49Potassium

(at 1000°F) .18 893 1400 44.6 5.96Sodium

(at 1000°F) .3 1810 1638 51.2 6.84Sulfur, melted .234 652 601 — —Therminol FR-1

(at 450°F) .36 — 650± 73.5 9.83Turpentine .41 133 319 54 7.22Water 1.0 965 212 62.5 8.34

Source: Chromalox (5)

Indu

stri

al A

pplic

atio

ns

62

Properties of Gases and VaporsSpecific Density at Thermal

Heat at Constant 70°F and Conductivity at 32°F andPressure Atmospheric Atmospheric Pressure

Substance Btu/lb/°F Pressure lb/ft3 Btu/hr/ft2/°F

Acetylene .35 .073 .0108Air .237 .08 .014Ammonia .520 .048 .0175Argon .124 .1037 .00912Carbon dioxide .203 .123 .0085Carbon monoxide .243 .078 .0135Chlorine .125 .2 .0043Ethylene .4 .0728 .0101Helium 1.25 .0104 .0802Hydrogen 3.41 .0056 .0917Methane .6 .0447 .0175Methyl chloride .24 .1309 .0053Nitric Oxide .231 .0779 .0138Nitrogen .245 .078 .014Oxygen .218 .09 .0142Sulphur dioxide .155 .179 .005Water vapor (212°F) .451 .0372 .0145

Source: Chromalox (5)


63

On-Site Generation and Power QualityStandby Generation ConsiderationsGenset Fuel Fuel Cost/kW Tank? Considerations

Diesel $250 24-hour If more than 500 kWstandard generator, musthave dykes to contain spill inamount of largest deliverytanker compartment.

Propane <100 kW, $200 Tank not Burns vapor, not liquid.>100 kW, $400 furnished Need a much larger

tank to provide therequired pressure.

Natural Gas <100 kW, $200 Not Must purchase firm gas>100 kW, $400 required contract if for backup

of critical systems.

Uninterruptible Power Supply/Power ConditioningSystemsSolution Protection SizeType Time Range Comments

Uninterruptible 5-10 minutes 650 VA Provides for proper operationPower System typical to of protected equipment for(UPS): Battery protection 750 kVA outages up to several minutes(long term) with longer or seamless transfer to

battery times generator or orderly shutdownavailable of protected equipment before

the battery power expires.

On-

Site

Gen

erat

ion

& P

ower

Qua

lity

64

Uninterruptible Power Supply/Power ConditioningSystems (cont.)

Solution Protection SizeType Time Range Comments

UPS: Flywheel 13 seconds to 100 kVA Provides for orderly shutdown2 minutes to of protected equipment forbased on 750 kVA short duration outages orpower provides seamless transferrequirements to generator.of theprotected system.

UPS: Battery 30 seconds at 313 kVA Provides for orderly shutdown(short-term) 100% load and to of protected equipment for

up to 60 2500 kVA short duration outages orseconds at provides seamless transferpartial load to generator.

Dynamic Sag Sag correction- 250 VA Protects against 92% ofCorrector 2 seconds to voltage events.

maximum 3000 kVAMomentaryoutages up to12 cycles

Surge Protection N/A N/A Surge capacity and optionsvary with model. Protectssystems from transientvoltages such as lightning,switching transients andover-voltages.

On-Site G

eneration & Pow

er Quality

65

Alternative Energy SourcesPotential

Type In SE Cost/kW Cost/kWh Comments

Fuel Cell High $5000 Cost of Works by convertingfuel/efficiency natural gas to hydrogen.

Micro- High $1000 Must evaluate Cost/kW at fully ratedturbine (standard); system capacity. Cannot use

$1400 efficiency. this capacity for cost (combined At 2002 gas calculations – mustheat and prices, about derate for temperaturepower). $0.10/kWh.

Wind- Low $1000-1200 Free, except land Only a few mountainpower and maintenance ridges in N. Ga provide

cost. any wind potential.

Active Low $1000-1200 Free, except land SE US listed by DOE asSolar (13% (if applicable) low potential location.

of energy anddelivered) maintenance cost

Waste-to Med- Location & Fuel-specific Industrial application. Energy High size specific, Requires extensive

$200/kW. permitting and design.Best applications havefuel with no retail valueand steam requirementsin plant.

On-

Site

Gen

erat

ion

& P

ower

Qua

lity

66

Electrical DistributionFor single-phase light and powerbranch circuits.

Single-phase, 3-wire

Transformersecondary

For three-phase power circuits and single-phase light and power branch circuits.

Three-phase, 4-wire delta with one phasecenter tapped and grounded. (Three-phase, 3-wire delta for power loads is usedwith a separate single phase supply forlighting.

For three-phase power circuits and single-phase light and power branchcircuits.

Three-phase, 4-wire wye (or star) with grounded neutral rated 120/208 volts.

For three-phase power circuits and lighting circuits using 277-volt ballasts.120-volt lighting and receptacle loads are fed from this system through single-phase transformers rated 480/-120 240 volts or three-phase transformersrated 480/120-208 volts.

Three-phase, 4-wire wye (or star) with grounded neutral rated 277/480 volts.

Electrical Distribution

67

Useful Electrical Formulas for Determining Amperes,Horsepower, Kilowatts, and kVa

Direct ALTERNATING CURRENTTo Find Current Single Phase Three PhaseAmperes when Hp. x 746 Hp. x 746 Hp. x 746Horsepower E x Eff. E x Eff. x P.F. 1.73 x E x Eff. x P.F.is known

Amperes when kW x 1000 kW x 1000 kW x 1000Kilowatts is known E E x P.F. 1.73 x E x P.F.

Amperes when kVA x 1000 kVA x 1000kVa is known E 1.73 x E

Kilowatts I x E I x E x P.F. I x E x 1.73 x P.F.1000 1000 1000

kVA I x E I x E x 1.731000 1000

Horsepower— I x E x Eff. I x E x Eff. X P.F. I x E x 1.73 x Eff. x P.F.(output) 746 746 746I = Amperes; E = Volts; Eff. = Efficiency expressed as decimal; P.F. = Power Factor;kW = Kilowatts; kVA = Kilovolt-amperes; Hp = Horsepower

Estimating Loads From kWh Meter ClockingkW = No. of Revolutions x 3600 x Kh x C.T. Ratio

1000 x Time in Seconds

Kh = Meter Constant; C.T. Ratio = Multiplier, if used

Effects From Voltage Variations % of Rated VoltageMotor Characteristics 90% 110% 120%Torque -19% +21% +44%F. L. R. P. M. -11/2% +1% +1.5%F.L. Efficiency -2 Points +1/2 Point +1 PointF.L. Amps +11% -7% -.11%Starting Amps -10% +10% +.25%F.L. Temperature +11% -6% 9%Noise Level -Slight +Slight +NoticeableMax. Overloaded Capacity -19% +21% +44%

Elec

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68

Percent of Rated Heater Watts at Reduced Voltage240 Volt Heater on 230 Volts—92%240 Volt Heater on 220 Volts—84%240 Volt Heater on 208 Volts—75%480 Volt Heater on 440 Volts—84%480 Volt Heater on 277 Volts—33%

Motor Wattages1/6 hp = 250 W 1/2 hp = 680 W1/4 hp = 350 W 3/4 hp = 980 W1/3 hp = 460 W 1 hp = 1200 W

Ohm’s Law Made Easy

ER W

E

E2

RI2 x R

E x I

WI I x R

WI2

E2

W

EI

WR

W x R

I

R

W

E√

√Electrical D

istribution

BTUH—kW

—Am

peres Chart120V

208V240V

277V480V

BTUHkW

1010

3010

3010

1030

3,4131

8.34.8

2.84.2

2.43.6

2.11.2

6,8262

16.79.6

5.58.3

4.87.2

4.22.4

10,2393

25.014.4

8.312.5

7.210.8

6.23.6

13,6524

33.319.2

11.116.6

9.614.4

8.34.8

17,0655

41.724.0

13.920.8

12.018.1

10.46.0

20,4786

50.028.9

16.625.0

14.421.7

12.57.2

23,8917

58.333.7

19.429.1

16.825.3

14.68.4

27,3048

66.638.5

22.233.3

19.228.9

16.69.6

30,7179

75.043.5

24.937.4

21.632.5

18.710.8

34,13010

83.348.1

27.741.6

24.036.1

20.812.0

51,19515

125.072.1

41.662.4

36.054.2

31.218.6

68,26020

166.696.2

55.483.2

48.072.2

41.624.0

85,32525

208.3120.2

69.3104.0

60.090.3

52.030.0

102,39030

250.0144.3

83.1124.8

72.0108.3

62.436.0

119,45535

291.7168.4

97.0145.6

84.0126.4

72.842.0

136,52040

333.3192.4

110.8166.4

96.0144.4

83.248.0

153,58545

375.0216.5

124.7187.2

108.0162.5

93.654.0

170,65050

416.6240.5

138.5208.0

120.0180.5

104.060.0

Formula for Calculating Line Currents

AMPERES = SIN

GLE PHASE WATTS

AMPERES = THREE PHASE W

ATTSLIN

E VOLTAGE LINE VOLTAGE X 1.73

TO CONVERT “kW

” TO WATTS M

ULTIPLY “kW” BY 1,000

69

Elec

tric

al D

istr

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ion

70

Transformer Types and Requirements

Maximum Size PadmountedService Voltage Transformer (kVA)120/240V, single-phase,three-wire 167120/240V delta, three-phase,four-wire Overhead transformer service only120/208V grounded wye,three-phase, four-wire 1000277/480V grounded wye,three-phase, four-wire 2500

If the expected demand will exceed the maximum size transformer,you are asked to design a split bus/panel arrangement to acceptservice from more than one transformer.

Georgia Power Company must approve location of padmountedtransformers before final design. The following requirements must bemet:1

• The selected location must be conducive to the installation ofunderground primary electrical cables.

• The edge of the concrete pad nearest the building shall be:�No closer than 14 ft. from doorways�No closer than 10 ft. from building wall, windows or other

openings. If the building is 3 stories or less, the 10-ft.clearance is measured from the edge of any overhang orcanopy. Fire escapes, outside stairs, and covered walkwaysattached to or between buildings shall be considered part ofthe building.

1As of 10/02. See [email protected] for most current information.


71

• Any exceptions to the above requirements must be approved bythe local fire marshal or the jurisdiction having authority. Beforeseeking approval, contact Georgia Power Company to evaluatethe feasibility of the exceptions. Written approval must beprovided to Georgia Power Company.

• Transformers shall be located such that:� The front of the transformer faces away from the building� There are 10 ft. of clearance in front of the transformer doors� They are easily accessible by personnel and heavy

equipment during construction and after project completion� If more than one padmounted transformer is required, the

minimum spacing between transformers (including coolingfins) is 5 ft.

� There is unrestricted air flow for cooling requirements. Trees,shrubs, and other similar vegetation must be kept at least10 ft. from all sides of the transformer.

Item Provided by Comments/Restrictions

Overhead Service Georgia Power From transformer toConductors customer’s weatherhead

Single-phase Georgia Power Residential customers mustunderground pay a flat fee to receiveservice conductors underground service

Three-phase Customerunderground servicefrom padmountedtransformers

Three-phase Georgia Power If LESS than 600A serviceunderground servicefrom overheadtransformers

Elec

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72

Item Provided by Comments/Restrictions

Three-phase Customer If MORE than 600A serviceunderground servicefrom overheadtransformers

Service conductor Georgia Powerconnections inpadmountedtransformers, atweatherheads, andat metering equipment

Concrete transformer Georgia Power GPC will furnish and install.pads (contact Georgia Customer’s service conduitsPower for dimensional must be designed to fitdetails) within the secondary side

of the pad opening

Requirements for Service Conductors• All three-phase services from padmounted transformers must be

4-wire, grounded wye service• The customer’s service ground may NOT be terminated in the

padmounted transformer compartment• Three-phase services should have no more than 12 conductors per

phase. If more than 12 are required, contact Georgia Power Companyto discuss the feasibility of exceptions.


73

Motor Starting

Who LimitsStarting Voltage

Type of Service Drop CommentsSingle Phase Georgia Power Responsible for both customer

side and system sideAny customer with Customer Must design and install motorwelding machines starting technology to limit

starting voltage drop to theestablished acceptable valueson both the customer’s andsystem’s side.

Three-Phase Customer Must design and install motorstarting technology to limitstarting voltage drop to theestablished acceptable valueson both the customer’s andsystem’s side.

Other• Available fault current depends on the size transformer and that

transformer’s impedance. Register your project at [email protected] to get the available fault current forthat location.

• Consult Georgia Power Company’s current Electrical Service and Metering Installations for detailed information on metering and serviceinstallation requirements.

Elec

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74

MiscellaneousDiversity Factors for EFLH calculations

Equipment Diversity Multiplier (demand)

Compressors 1(air conditioning)

Fans, air handlers 1

Lighting, interior 0.9

Lighting, exterior 0 (if before the meter)

Space heating 0.65

Cooking 0.35 (see cooking tables for specific items)

Water heating 0.5

Refrigeration 0.8

Miscellaneous 0.25

This chart can be used to calculate the demand charges for various types ofequipment. Demand seen by meter = Rated kW * Diversity.Remember to apply only during the months that the equipment would run!

Miscellaneous

75

Noise

Design Criteria for Room LoudnessRoom Type Sones Room Type Sones

AuditoriumsConcert and opera halls 1.0 to 3Stage theaters 1.5 to 5Movie theaters 2.0 to 6Semi-outdooramphitheaters 2.0 to 6Lecture halls 2.0 to 6Multi-purpose 1.5 to 5Courtrooms 3.0 to 9Auditorium lobbies 4.0 to 12TV audience studios 2.0 to 6

Churches and schoolsSanctuaries 1.7 to 5Schools and classrooms 2.5 to 8Recreation halls 4.0 to 12Kitchens 6.0 to 18Libraries 2.0 to 6Laboratories 4.0 to 12Corridors and halls 5.0 to 15

Hospitals and clinicsPrivate rooms 1.7 to 5Wards 2.5 to 8Laboratories 4.0 to 12Operating rooms 2.5 to 8Lobbies & waiting rooms 4.0 to 12Halls and corridors 4.0 to 12

Indoor sports activitiesGymnasiums 4 to 12Coliseums 3 to 9Swimming pools 7 to 21Bowling alleys 4 to 12Gambling casinos 4 to 12

Manufacturing areasHeavy machinery 25 to 60Foundries 20 to 60Light machinery 12 to 36Assembly lines 12 to 36Machine shops 15 to 50Plating shops 20 to 50Punch press shops 50 to 60Tool maintenance 7 to 21Foreman’s office 50 to 15General storage 10 to 30

OfficesExecutive 2 to 6Supervisor 3 to 9General open offices 4 to 12Tabulation/computation 6 to 18Drafting 4 to 12Professional offices 3 to 9Conference rooms 1.7 to 5Board of Directors 1 to 3Halls and corridors 5 to 15

Note: Values shown above are room loudness in sones and are not fan sone ratings.For additional detail see AMCA publication 302 — Application of Sone Rating.

Mis

cella

neou

s

76

Noise

Design Criteria for Room Loudness (cont.)Room Type Sones Room Type Sones

HotelsLobbies 4.0 to 12Banquet rooms 8.0 to 24Ballrooms 3.0 to 9Individual rooms/suites 2.0 to 6Kitchens and laundries 7.0 to 12Halls and corridors 4.0 to 12Garages 6.0 to 18

ResidencesTwo & three family units 3 to 9Apartment houses 3 to 9Private homes (urban) 3 to 9Private homes(rural and suburban 1.3 to 4

RestaurantsRestaurants 4 to 12Cafeterias 6 to 8Cocktail lounges 5 to 15Social clubs 3 to 9Night clubs 4 to 12Banquet room 8 to 24

MiscellaneousReception rooms 3 to 9Washrooms and toilets 5 to 15Studios for soundreproduction 1 to 3Other studios 4 to 12

Public buildingsMuseums 3 to 9Planetariums 2 to 6Post offices 4 to 12Courthouses 4 to 12Public libraries 2 to 6Banks 4 to 12Lobbies and corridors 4 to 12

Retail storesSupermarkets 7 to 21Department stores(main floor) 6 to 18Department stores(upper floor) 4 to 12Small retail stores 6 to 18Clothing stores 4 to 12

Transportation (rail, bus, plane)Waiting rooms 5 to 15Ticket sales office 4 to 12Control rooms & towers 6 to 12Lounges 5 to 15Retail shops 6 to 18

Note: Values shown above are room loudness in sones and are not fan sone ratings.For additional detail see AMCA publication 302 — Application of Sone Rating.

Miscellaneous

77

Room Sones – dBA Correlation

Copyright 1972, American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.www.ashrae.org. Reprinted by permission from 1972 ASHRAE Handbook “Fundamentals”.

Mis

cella

neou

s

78

ATLA

NTA

/HAR

TSFI

ELD,

GEO

RGIA

Lat.

33 3

9N

L

ong.

84

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ach

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ge

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MAY

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09 to 16

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lOb

sn

M C W B

JUN

EOb

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p01 to 08

09 to 16

17 to 24

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M C W B

JULY

Obsn

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09 to 16

17 to 24

Tota

lOb

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M C W B

AUGU

STOb

snHo

ur G

p01 to 08

09 to 16

17 to 24

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lOb

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M C W B

SEPT

EMBE

ROb

snHo

ur G

p01 to 08

09 to 16

17 to 24

Tota

lOb

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M C W B

OCTO

BER

100/

104

00

771

01

720

076

95/9

94

15

745

16

746

17

742

02

720

074

90/9

44

15

7029

1039

7430

1040

7430

939

749

211

711

01

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4669

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2577

720

6130

9174

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105

7331

1142

713

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7080

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675

6544

114

715

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143

733

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720

6031

9170

164

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75/7

93

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106

6631

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6946

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171

7247

4276

165

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118

681

4214

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6493

2864

185

6814

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6923

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1959

211

6972

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3052

176

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543

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6328

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6060

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5915

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595

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660

100

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550

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40/4

43

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340

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97

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29

Miscellaneous

79

Tem

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09 to 16

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sn

M C W B

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BER

Obsn

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M C W B

JAN

UARY

Obsn

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09 to 16

17 to 24

Tota

lOb

sn

M C W B

FEBR

UARY

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MAR

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p01 to 08

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lOb

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M C W B

APRI

LOb

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p01 to 08

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M C W B

ANN

UAL

TOTA

L

100/

104

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173

95/9

917

320

7490

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103

213

574

85/8

92

02

640

254

113

367

7280

/84

10

167

10

164

177

2464

1337

022

961

270

75/7

95

16

640

064

20

263

94

1362

3820

5862

136

353

350

839

6970

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020

525

603

03

604

15

638

311

600

189

2759

241

3679

6148

730

141

312

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65/6

95

3217

5459

113

519

602

115

1860

216

1028

575

2724

5657

2243

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359

423

262

301

986

6260

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3592

569

2216

4757

919

1947

577

2520

5255

1634

3484

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4048

143

5631

124

828

684

557

55/5

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111

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6152

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2369

5317

3233

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750

5429

3812

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276

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263

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52

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8647

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3489

4726

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247

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820

160

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5529

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334

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100

111

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813

547

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98

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Miscellaneous

81

Typical Weather Data for Metro Atlanta AreaAverage Heating Heating Cooling Cooling

Temp. Degree Days % Use Degree Days (65°F) % UseJanuary 42 716 24 0 0February 45 563 19 0 0March 52 400 13 12 1April 62 133 3 37 2May 69 37 1 170 10June 76 5 0 329 20July 79 0 0 422 25August 78 0 0 409 25September 73 7 0 247 15October 62 130 4 44 2November 52 394 13 0 0December 44 636 22 0 0YEAR 61 3021 100 1670 100

Climatic Conditions for Georgia CitiesWINTER SUMMERHeating Cooling

City Degree Days Degree Days (65°F)ALMA 1835 2289BRUNSWICK 1611 2487MACON 2279 2217ROME 3122 1601For more detail on climatic data for selected Georgia cities, refer to Climatic Data Base publishedby the Cooperative Committee of GAAIA/Georgia Power Company.

Wind Effect on Temperature*Wind ACTUAL THERMOMETER READING (°F.)Speed 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40(mph) EQUIVALENT TEMPERATURE WITH WINDcalm 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40

5 27 16 6 -5 -15 -26 -36 -4710 16 4 -9 -21 -33 -46 -58 -7015 9 -5 -18 -36 -45 -58 -72 -8520 4 -10 -25 -39 -53 -67 -82 -9625 0 -15 -29 -44 -59 -74 -88 -10430 -2 -18 -33 -48 -63 -79 -94 -10935 -4 -20 -35 -49 -67 -82 -98 -11340 -6 -21 -37 -53 -69 -85 -100 -116

*Per Army Medical Research

Mis

cella

neou

s

82

Formulae

Formulae

83

Geometric Formulae

PLANE SOLID

TriangleArea A = 1/2bh

Sum of AngleMeasures

A + B + C = 180°

Right TrianglePythogorean Theorem

a2 + b2 = c2

ParallelogramArea A = bh

TrapezoidArea A =

1/2h(a + b)

CircleArea A = πr2

CircumferenceC = πD or 2πr

(22/7 and 3.14 aredifferent

approximations for π)

CubeVolume: V = s3

Right Circular CylinderVolume: V = πr2h

Lateral Surface Area:L = 2πrh

Total Surface Area:S = 2πrh + 2πr2

Right Circular ConeVolume: V = 1/3πr2h

Lateral Surface Area:L = πrs

Slant Height:S = r2 + h2√

SphereVolume V = 4/3πr 2

Surface Area S = 4πr 2

Form

ulae

84

Formulae for Solving Right Triangles

Formulae

85

Curve Formulae

Form

ulae

86

Unit ConversionsMetric and English Measures

Linear Measure1 centimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3937 inch1 inch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.54 centimeters1 foot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.048 decimeters1 yard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.9144 meter1 meter. . . . . . . . . . . . 39.37 in. 1.0936 yds.1 kilometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.62137 mile1 mile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6093 kilometers

Square Measure1 sq. centimeter . . . . . . . . . 0.1550 sq. inch1 sq. inch. . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.452 centimeters1 sq. ft. . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2903 sq. decimeters1 sq. meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.196 sq. yds.1 sq. yd. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.8361 sq. meter1 acre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4840 sq. yds.1 sq. kilometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.386 mile1 sq. mile . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.59 sq. kilometers

Measure of Volume1 cu. centimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.061 cu. in.1 cu. in. . . . . . . . . . . . 16.39 cu. centimeters1 cu. ft. . . . . . . . . . . . 28.317 cu. decimeters1 cu. meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.308 cu. yards1 cu. yard . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.7646 cu. meter1 liter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0567 qts. liquid1 qt. liquid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.9463 liter1 gallon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.785 liters

Weights1 gram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.03527 ounce1 ounce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.35 grams1 kilogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2046 pounds1 pound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.4536 kilogram1 metric ton . . . . . . . . . 1.1023 English tons1 English ton . . . . . . . . . . 0.9072 metric ton

Approximate Metric Equivalents1 liter . . . . . . . . . 1.06 qts. liquid, 0.9 qt. dry 1 kilogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1.5 lbs.1 meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 yards 1 metric ton. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 pounds1 kilometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/8 of a mile

Miscellaneous Data1 Ton Refrigeration. . . . . . . . = 12,000 Btu/hr.; 200 Btu/min.1 Btu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 6.65 grains (latent heat water vapor); 0.293 watt hours1 Grain (water) . . . . . . . . . . . = 0.15 Btu (latent heat)1 Pound. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 7,000 grains1 Pound (air) . . . . . . . . . . . . . = .24 Btu; sensible heat per (°F.); 2.0416" Hg (64°F.)1 lb./sq. in. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 2.309" Hg (64°F.)1 atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . = 14.7 lbs./sq. in.1 watt hour. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 3.415 Btu1 kilowatt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 1.34 horsepower; 56.92 Btu/min.1 Horsepower . . . . . . . . . . . . = 0.746 kilowatts; 42.44 Btu/min.1 Boiler H. P.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 33,523 Btu/hr.; 10 kW; 34.5 lbs./hr.1 Gallon (US) . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 231 cu. in.; 8.34 lbs. (water 60°F.)1 Cu. Ft. (water). . . . . . . . . . . = 62.37 lbs.

Conversions

87

Pressure1 oz. per sq. in. = 1.73 in. water1 in. mercury = 7.85 oz. per sq. in.1 in. mercury = 13.6 in. water1 in. water column = 0.578 oz. per sq. in.1 oz. per sq. in. - 0.127 in. mercury1 in. water = 0.0735 in. mercury1 lb. per sq. in. = 16 oz. per sq. in. = 2.036 in. mercury = 27.7 in. water1 atmosphere = 14.7 lbs. per sq. in. = 760 mm mercury = 2992 in. mercury

Conv

ersi

ons

88

DefinitionsA.F.U.E.—Annual Fuel Utilization Efficiency. The annual seasonalefficiency which accounts for part load operation, cyclic operation,standby and flue losses in a fossil fuel heating system.

AMPACITY—The current carrying capacity of a conductor.

BTU—(British Thermal Unit). The amount of heat energy required toraise the temperature of one pound of water, one degree fahrenheit.

BTUH HEAT LOSS—the amount of heat that escapes, from warmerto colder areas, through walls, ceilings, floors, windows, doors andby infiltration in one hour’s time.

CIRCUIT—A conductor or a system of conductors through which anelectric current flows.

CIRCUIT BREAKER or FUSE—A load limiting device that automaticallyinterrupts an electric circuit if an overload condition occurs.

COOLING TON—A measure of cooling capacity equal to 12,000 BTUper hour.

C.O.P.—(Coefficient of Performance). The ratio of the rate of heatdelivered versus the rate of energy input, in consistent units, of acomplete, operating heat pump system under designated operatingconditions.

CYCLE—Frequency of alternating current expressed in hertz. 60cycles per second = 60 hertz.

DEGREE DAY—A unit that represents one degree of declination froma given point (as 65°F) in the mean outdoor temperature of one dayand is often used in estimating fuel requirements of buildings.

E.E.R.—Energy Efficiency Ratio. Used in the efficiency rating of roomand central air conditioners. E.E.R. = BTU ÷ watts.

Definitions

89

E.F.L.H.—Equivalent Full Load Hours. Annual hours used to estimateenergy consumption of end use equipment.

HEAT PUMP—A space conditioning unit that provides both heatingand cooling. By means of a compressor and reversing valve system,a heat transfer liquid is pumped between the indoor and outdoorunits, moving that heat into a building during cold weather and out ofit during warm weather.

HERTZ—The number of cycles of alternating current per second,such as 60Hz.

KILOWATT—A unit of electrical power equal to 1,000 watts.

KILOWATT HOUR—Represents the use of 1,000 watts of electricityfor one full hour.

LOAD FACTOR—The ratio of the average load in kilowatts supplied,during a designated period, to the peak load occurring during thatperiod.Load Factor = kWh supplied in period

Peak kW in period x hours in periodLoad factor is a measure of efficiency. 100% efficiency would requirethe continuous use of a given amount of load for every hour of themonth.

OHM’s LAW—In a given circuit, the amount of current in amperes isequal to the pressure in volts divided by the resistance in ohms.Current = (Pressure) Volts or I = E

(Resistance) Ohms R

POWER FACTOR—It is the ratio of actual power being used in acircuit, expressed in watts or kilowatts (kw), to the power which isapparently being drawn from the line, expressed in voltamperes orkilovoltamperes.

Def

initi

ons

90

What does this mean in the practice of effective energy managementand energy cost control? With both values being equal (kW = kVA) aration of 1 could exist or a power factor of 100%. But if a loaddemands 2kVA while the actual productive power potential is 1kW,the power factor would be 50%. This means that in using only half ofthe power supplied to you, the utility still must supply the other halfwhich you are using but not directly paying for—to supply what isknown as wattless power or reactive power which is expressed invars or kilovars (kvar). Low power factor penalties may be a part ofrate schedules.

RELATIVE HUMIDITY—The ratio between the actual water vaporcontent and the total amount of water vapor content possible underthe same conditions of temperature and pressure.

S.E.E.R.—Seasonal Energy Efficient Ratio. The total cooling of acentral air conditioner BTU’s during its normal usage period forcooling (not to exceed 12 months) divided by the total electric energyinput in watt-hours during the same period.

S.P.F.—Seasonal Performance Factor. The ratio of seasonal kWhsused by heat pumps versus the seasonal kWhs used by resistanceelectric heat for the same space under the same conditions.

SINGLE PHASE—A circuit energized by a single alternating voltage.

THERM—A measurement of gas containing 100,000 BTU. As thereare approximately 1,000 BTU per cubic foot, there are approximately100 cubic feet of gas per therm.

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY VALUES• U Factor—The rate of heat flow through one square foot of

completed structural sections, such as wall, glass, ceiling, etc. inone hour with a temperature difference of one degree betweenthe inside and outside surfaces.

Definitions

91

Note: To convert to watts/sq. ft. (W)W = U Factor x Temperature Difference ÷ 3.413

K Factor—The rate of heat flow in Btuh through one square feet ofbuilding material, one-inch thick, in one hour with a temperaturedifference of one degree between the two surfaces.

C Factor—The definition is the same as for K Factor except that CFactors are used for materials other than those that are one-inchthick, such as one-half inch gypsum board or eight-inch concreteblock.

R Factor—The rate at which insulation, building material or abuilding structure resists the passage of heat in any direction.

Note: The U, K, and C Factors should be kept as low as possibleand the R factor as high as possible.

THREE PHASE—Three separate sources of alternating currentarranged so that the peaks of voltage follow each other in a regularrepeating pattern.

VOLT—The push that moves electrical current through a conductor.

WATT—The rate of flow of electrical energy. One watt equals theflow of one ampere at a pressure of one volts. (Watts = Volts xAmperes).

Def

initi

ons

* Graph instructions for Page 6:

92

Useful Web Addresses

Georgia Power Company, A&E Sitehttp://www.georgiapower.com/AandE

Georgia Powerhttp://www.georgiapower.com

Southern Companyhttp://www.southerncompany.com

Georgia Public Service Commissionhttp://www.psc.state.ga.us/

U.S. Green Building Council (LEED)http://www.usgbc.org/

U.S. Dept. of Energy (EREN)http://www.eren.doe.gov/

ASHRAEhttp://www.ashrae.org

Illuminating Engineers’ Societyhttp://www.iesna.org

AIA, Georgia Chapterhttp://www.aiaga.org

Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institutehttp://www.ari.org

American Council of Engineering Companies, Georgiahttp://www.acecga.org

The Georgia Engineerhttp://www.thegeorgiaengineer.org

Useful W

eb Addresses

Documents

Technical Information Handbook - georgiapower.com · Cost Comparisons for System Types ... Determine Billing Demand by applying ratchet rules ... Dormitory, Rooms 38 320 35