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LIFEFORTHEFAMILIESOFTHEVICTORIANCRIMINALLYINSANE*

JADESHEPHERD

UniversityofLincoln

Runninghead:FAMILIESOFTHEVICTORIANINSANE

Abstract.Thisarticleuseshundredsofletterswrittenbythefamiliesofpatients

committedintoVictorianBroadmoorCriminalLunaticAsylumtoprovidethefirst

sustainedexaminationoftheeffectsofasylumcommittalonpatients’individual

familymembers.Itshowsthatdespitewhathistorianshavepreviouslysuggested

theeffectonfamilieswasnotsolely,orevennecessarilyprimarily,economic;ithad

significantemotionaleffects,andaffectedfamilymembers’senseofselfand

relationshipsoutsidetheasylum.Italsoshowsthatfamilytiesandaffective

relationshipsmatteredagreatdealtoworking-classVictorians.Somefoundnew

waystogivemeaningtotheirrelationshipwith,andthelifeof,theirincarcerated

relative,despitethecoststhisentailed.Bytakinganewapproach–engagingwith

thehistoryofthefamily,shiftingfocusfrompatientstotheirindividualfamily

members,andconsideringfactorsincludingage,class,gender,changeovertime

andlifestage–thisarticledemonstratesthebreadthanddepthoftheeffectsof

asylumcommittal,andindoingsoprovidesnewandsignificantinsightsintothe

historyoftheVictorianasylum.Italsoenrichesthehistoryofthefamilyby

providinganinsightintoworking-classquotidianlives,bonds,andemotions.

SchoolofHistoryandHeritage,UniversityofLincoln,Lincoln,[email protected]*IwouldliketothankJoelMorleyforreadingmultipledraftsofthisarticle,thethreeanonymousreviewersfortheirverykindandgenerousfeedback,andEmmaGriffinforherswiftandhelpfulcommunicationfollowingtheacceptanceofthisarticle.

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I.

Intheearly1890sMrsCooper,seeminglyfraughtandworn-down,repliedtoa

letterfromherhusbandwhohadbeenincarceratedinBroadmoor,Englandand

Wales’firstcriminallunaticasylum,fortwenty-fiveyears:

IwassurprisedthatyouwillcontinuewritingasIwishyouwouldnotas

itupsetsmeverymuchandIhopeyouwon’tdosoanymore…Itrustyou

willneverwritetomeagainnoranyoneelseasitmakesmeillfromall

thesorrowIhavegonethrough.

AndaskGodtoforgiveyouasIhavehadastrugglingtimeofittheselast

25yearsithasbroughtmedowntoapooroldwomanandyourchildren

havequiteforgotyouandneverthinkanythingofyouandnoonenever

mentionsyourname.

Andasforthechildrentheyareallscatteredaboutthecountrytryingto

getanhonestlivingandhavenothingtoshareandIhavenothing.

Shedeclaredshewasleavingherhomeand‘therewillbenoonetotakeany

morelettersinsoitsnousewriting.’1Onlyfragmentsofthisletterremain;how

sheaddressedherhusbandorendedtheletterisunknown.Nevertheless,whatis

thereisvisceral,reflectingyearsofdistressandhardship.Otherdocumentsin

1BerkshireRecordOffice(BRO),D/H14/D2/2/1/373/6.AllreferencesbeginningD/H14arefromtheBRO;allaretolettersunlessstatedotherwise,withsender/recipientomittedifevidentinthetext.

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Cooper’scasefilesuggesthisfamilyseveredtieswithhim.Yearslater,when

Cooperwasgravelyill,Broadmoor’sstaffwroteanotetoinformhislovedones.

Theyfailedtolocatethemand‘nofriends’wasscribbledonthenote.Suchcases

highlightthelong-termpainandhardshipsomefamiliesexperienceddueto

havingabreadwinner,fatherandhusbandcommittedintoBroadmoor.Such

lettersallowhistorianstoviewasylumsfromthebottom-up,providingaglimpse

at‘thehumanandemotionalsideofpatientandfamilylives,anaspectthatis

oftenmissingfromofficialbureaucraticsources.’2Theserare,valuablesources

enablenewandsignificantinsightsintotheVictorianasylum.

The1845AsylumsActrequiredeachcountyinEnglandandWalesto

haveanasylumforitspauperinsane.Scholarsandhistoriansofpsychiatryhave

debatedtheroleandsignificanceoftheVictorianasylum.Muchattentionhas

beenpaidtowhyasylumsemerged,whypatientswereadmittedandhowthey

weretreated,whypatientsweredischarged,andtheexperiencesofthosewho

workedandlivedinsidethem.3Overthelastthirtyyearshistorianshave

respondedtoRoyPorter’scalltowritemedicalhistory‘frombelow’,withafocus

onpatients.Doingsohashelpedtodevelopourunderstandingoftheroleand

2LouiseWannell,‘Patients’relativesandpsychiatricdoctors:letterwritingintheYorkRetreat,1875–1910’,SocialHistoryofMedicine,20(2007),pp.297–313atp.299.3JonathanAndrewsandAnneDigby,eds.,Sexandseclusion,classandcustody:perspectivesongenderandclassinthehistoryofBritishandIrishpsychiatry(NewYork,2004);JosephMelling,BillForsytheandRichardAdair,‘Families,communitiesandthelegalregulationoflunacyinVictorianEngland:assessmentsofcrime,violenceandwelfareinadmissionstotheDevonAsylum,1845–1914’,inPeterBartlettandDavidWright,eds.,Outsidethewallsoftheasylum:thehistoryofcareinthecommunity1750–2000(LondonandNewBrunswick,1999),pp.153–80;AnneDigby,Madness,moralityandmedicine:astudyoftheYorkRetreat1796–1914(CambridgeandNewYork,1985);MichelFoucault,Historyofmadness,trans.byJohnMurphyandJeanKhalfa(LondonandNewYork,2006);LouiseHide,GenderandclassinEnglishasylums,1890–1914(Basingstoke,2014);AndrewScull,Themostsolitaryofafflictions:madnessandsocietyinBritain,1700–1900(NewHavenandLondon,1993);JosephMellingandBillForsythe,Thepoliticsofmadness:thestate,insanityandsocietyinEngland,1846–1914(LondonandNewYork,2006).

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reachoftheasylum.4Giventhatmanyfamilieswereinvolvedinthecommittalof

insanerelativesintoasylums,itstandstoreasonthatmostpatientshadatleast

onefamilymemberaffectedbytheircommittal.Thereareswathesofthe

population–thespouses,children,parentsandsiblingsoftheinsane,aswellas

theirfriendsandneighbours–whoseliveswereaffectedbytheexistenceof

theseinstitutions.Yetweknowlittleabouthowpatients’familiesinEnglandand

Waleswereaffectedby,respondedto,andovercamearelative’sasylum

committal.Workthusremainstobedoneifwearetounderstandthefullimpact

andreachoftheasylum.

Whileexcellentstudiesdoexist,whatweknowaboutpatients’families

representsthetipoftheiceberg.Weknowthatfamilieswrotetoasylumsto

requestinformationorexpressconcernabouttheirrelative’swellbeing,toask

aboutanasylum’sprocedures,ortoobtaintheirrelative’sdischarge.5Yet

historians’considerationsofthesepointsrarelyincludethebroadersocialand

familialcontextofsuchrequestsandconcerns.Historianshaveacknowledged

thatasylumrecordsareusefulforexploringfamilylife,buttheirfocustends

towardsthe(domestic)reasonsindividualsdevelopedinsanity;howfamilies

copedwithcaringforaninsanerelativeathome;families’rolesinadmissionand

discharge;andfamilies’relationshipswithasylumdoctors,andtheirrolein

4RoyPorter,‘Thepatient’sview:doingmedicalhistoryfrombelow’,TheoryandSociety,14(1985),pp.175–98;AllanBeveridge,'Lifeintheasylum:patients'lettersfromMorningside,1873-1908',HistoryofPsychiatry,9(1998),pp.431-69;AlexandraBacopoulos-ViauandAudeFauvel,‘Thepatient’sturn.RoyPorterandpsychiatry’stales,thirtyyearson’,MedicalHistory,60(2016),pp.1–18;LeonardD.Smith“‘Yourverythankfulinmate”:discoveringthepatientsofanearlycountylunaticasylum’,SocialHistoryofMedicine,21(2008),pp.237–52.5CharlotteMackenzie,Psychiatryfortherich:ahistoryofTicehurstPrivateAsylum,1792–1917(LondonandNewYork,1992);AnnaShepherd,Institutionalizingtheinsaneinnineteenth-centuryEngland(Oxon,2014),pp.72-87.

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shapingmedicalcare.6Whentheimpactonfamiliesisexplicitlyconsideredthe

focustendstowardsthematerialeffectuponthehousehold.7Butfocusingon

economicsdoesnotgofarenough.ItpaintsVictorianfamiliesasprimarily

pragmaticunitsofdomesticeconomicsratherthantheliving,feelingpeoplethat

historiansofthefamilyhaveuncovered.8Moreover,approacheswhichconsider

thehouseholdratherthanitsconstituentsoverlookthefactthateffectswerenot

containedwithinsinglehouseholdsand,moreimportantly,thatdifferentfamily

memberswereaffecteddifferentlyandfounddifferentwaystoovercomethe

lossofarelativetotheasylum.Overlookingthesethingsunderplaysthe

significanceandimpactoftheVictorianasylum,andmisrepresentstheVictorian

working-classfamiliestryingtonavigatelifewithoutaspouse,parent,childor

sibling.9RecentworkonIrishasylumsundertakenbyCatherineCoxandAlice

Maugerprovidessomeevidenceofaffectivefamilialbonds,10andscholars

6CaraDobbing,‘Thefamilyandinsanity:theexperienceoftheGarlandsAsylum,1862-1910’inCarolBeardmore,CaraDobbingandStevenKing,eds.,FamilylifeinBritain1650-1910(2019,Cham,Switzerland),pp.135-54;MarkFinnane,‘Asylums,familiesandthestate’,HistoryWorkshopJournal,20(1985),pp.134–48;MarjorieLevine-Clark,‘Dysfunctionaldomesticity:femaleinsanityandfamilyrelationshipsamongtheWestRidingpoorinthemid-nineteenthcentury’,JournalofFamilyHistory,25(2000),pp.341–61;Smith,‘Thankful’;Wannell,‘Patients’;JohnWalton,‘CastingoutandbringingbackinVictorianEngland:pauperlunatics,1840-1870’,inWilliamF.Bynum,RoyPorterandMichaelShepherd,eds.,Theanatomyofmadness:essaysinthehistoryofpsychiatry(3vols.,London,1985-88),VII(1985),pp.132-46;DavidWright,‘Thedischargeofpauperlunaticsfromcountyasylumsinmid-VictorianEngland:thecaseofBuckinghamshire,1853-1872’,inJosephMellingandBillForsythe,eds.,Insanity,institutionsandsociety,1800-1914:asocialhistoryofmadnessincomparativeperspective(LondonandNewYork,1999),pp.93-113atp.94;Idem.‘Gettingoutoftheasylum:understandingtheconfinementoftheinsaneinthenineteenth-century’,SocialHistoryofMedicine,10(1997),pp.137-55.7CathySmith,‘Livingwithinsanity:narrativesofpoverty,pauperismandsicknessinasylumrecords1840-76’,inA.Gestrich,E.HurrenandS.King,eds.PovertyandsicknessinmodernEurope:narrativesofthesickpoor,1780-1938,(London,2012),pp.117-41.8EllenRoss,Loveandtoil:motherhoodinoutcastLondon1870-1918(Oxford,1993);Julie-MarieStrange,FatherhoodandtheBritishWorkingClass1865-1914(Cambridge,2015).9DobbingestablishedwhatproportionofthefirsthundredentriesinGarlands’visitorsbookfrom1900-1904werespouses,siblings,orparents,andsuggestedthisrevealedthesignificanceofsiblingbonds.However,asitisunclearwhetheradistinctionwasmadebetweenuniqueandrepeatvisitors,thestatisticalbasisofthisobservationmaybeunreliable.‘Family’,pp.143-4.10CatherineCox,NegotiatinginsanityinthesoutheastofIreland,1820-1900(Manchester,2012);AliceMauger,Thecostofinsanityinnineteenth-centuryIreland:public,voluntaryandprivateasylumcare(Basingstoke,2017).

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workingoncolonialasylumshaveilluminatedhowfamilieswereaffected

emotionally.11CatharineColebornehasusedfamilies’correspondencewith

asylumsinAustralasiatoexaminetherelationshipbetweenthecolonialfamily

andtheasylum,observingthatletters‘affordusaglimpseofemotional

responsestomanagingmentalbreakdown’andinsights‘intothelivesof

families’.12LikeColeborne,Iusefamilies’correspondencetomovebeyondthe

wallsoftheasylumandunitethehistoriesoftheasylumandthefamily.Idothis

withinthecontextoflate-VictorianEngland,andwithafocusontheday-to-day

livesandexperiencesofthefamiliesofapproximately525patientscommitted

intoBroadmoorbetween1863and1900.

Broadmooropenedin1863inBerkshire.IthousedQueen’spleasure

patients,whohadcommittedacrimeandwerefoundinsanewhentried,and

insaneconvicts,whohadbeenconvictedofacrimeandimprisonedbefore

developinginsanityinprison.13ItspatientscamefromalloverEnglandand

Wales,14andunlikemanypatientsincountyasylumsmostwerealongwayfrom

theirfamilies.15LikeotherVictorianasylumsBroadmoorwasnotan

11CatharineColeborne,‘Families,patientsandemotions:asylumsfortheinsaneincolonialAustraliaandNewZealand,c.1880–1910’,SocialHistoryofMedicine,19(2006),pp.425–42;Idem.Madnessinthefamily:insanityandinstitutionsintheAustralasiancolonialworld,1860-1914(Basingstoke,2010);Mary-EllenKelm,‘Women,familiesandtheProvincialHospitalfortheInsane,BritishColumbia,1905-1915’,JournalofFamilyHistory,19(1994),pp.177-93;BronwynLabrum,‘Lookingbeyondtheasylum:genderandtheprocessofcommittalinAuckland,1870–1910’,NewZealandJournalofHistory,26(1992),pp.125–44.12Coleborne,‘Families’,pp.428,434.13ForBroadmoor’spatients,JadeShepherd,‘“Oneofthebestfathersuntilhewentoutofhismind”:paternalchild-murder,1864-1900’,JournalofVictorianCulture,18(2013),pp.17-35;Idem.‘“IamnotverywellIfeelnearlymadwhenIthinkofyou”:malejealousy,murderandBroadmoorinlate-VictorianBritain’,SocialHistoryofMedicine,30(2017),pp.277-98;Idem.‘“IamverygladandcheeredwhenIheartheflute”:thetreatmentofcriminallunaticsinlate-VictorianBroadmoor’,MedicalHistory,60(2016),pp.473-91.14SomecamefromScotland,Irelandandthecolonies.15Somecountyasylumpatientswerefarfromhome.CatherineCox,HilaryMarlandandSarahYork,‘Emaciated,ExhaustedandExcited:TheBodiesandMindsoftheIrishinNineteenth-CenturyLancashireAsylums’,JournalofSocialHistory,46,2(2012),500–24

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impenetrablewalledfortress.16Bywritingandvisitingfamilieswerealmost

ever-presentwithintheasylum.Usinghundredsofletters,whichsurvivein

patients’casefiles,Iexplorethematerialandemotionaleffectshavingarelative

committedintoBroadmoorhadonindividualfamilymembers.Historianshave

lamentedthescarcityofsuchsources,17andhaveextractedlaycommentary

frommedicalcasenotesandphysicians’casebooksbut,asJonathanAndrews

highlights,thesereportlayvoicesthroughthebiasedgazeofthephysician.18The

quantity,contentandcontextoftheBroadmoorlettersmakethemanunusually

richandunmediatedsourceforexaminingtheimpactsofasylumcommittalon

families.Wecanreadtheiremotionsandseeglimpsesoftheirday-to-daylives

andactions.Queen’sPleasurepatients’familiesseeminglywrotethemostletters

andarethusthemainfocus,butinsaneconvictpatients’familiesoccasionally

feature.19Whilefewerlettersfromthelatterappeartoexistthisdoesnotmean

theywereuncaring.SomeconvictsweretransferredtoBroadmoorwithouttheir

families’knowledge;somedidnothavethesamefamilialnetworksasQueen’s

pleasurepatients;andsuchnetworks–and/ortheinclinationtowriteletters–

mayhavebeendiminishedbyconstraintsonletterwritingwhileinprison,which

‘greatlyreduced[letters]usefulnesstoanyonegenuinelyseekingtokeepalive

emotionalattachmenttosomeoneoutside’.20Thesurvivinglettersrevealthe

practicalsignificanceoffamilymembers’relationshipswiththeirincarcerated

relativesandtheeffectsonfamilies,bothduringarelative’scommittalandafter

16EssaysinBartlettandWright,eds.,Outside;Coleborne,Madness;Idem.‘Families’.17Dobbing,‘Family’.18JonathanAndrews,‘Casenotes,casehistories,andthepatient’sexperienceofinsanityatGartnavelRoyalAsylum,Glasgow,inthenineteenthcentury’,SocialHistoryofMedicine,11(1998),pp.255–81.19MoreQueen’spleasurepatients’casefilescontainedlettersfromfamilymembersandingreaterquantitiesthaninsaneconvicts’files.20PhilipPriestley,Victorianprisonlives(London,1999),p.198.

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theirdischarge.Because84percentofthosecommittedintoBroadmoor

between1863and1900wereworkingclass,thelettersalsoprovideanunusual

windowintoworking-classfamilylife,emotions,andsubjectivities.21Innormal

circumstancesworking-classfamiliesdidnottypicallyexchange(orkeep)

regularletters,22buttheenforcedseparationofcommittalencouragedepistolary

correspondence,andtheoralqualityoftheletterssuggeststhepoorwere

typicallywritingforthemselves.23Bothmaleandfemalefamilymembers,

sometimesfromwithinthesamefamily,wrotetoBroadmoor.Lettersoften

appeartoactassubstitutesforconversationsthatwecanimaginewouldhave

takenplaceinthehomeorinthesuperintendent’sofficehaddistancenot

necessitatedwrittencommunication.Accesstotheoriginalcorrespondenceis,

nevertheless,partial;whyparticularletterswerekeptorduplicatedis

indeterminablebutoftenonlyonesideoftheconversationremains,only

portionsofsomeletterswereretained,andoccasionallylegibilityisanissue.24

Nevertheless,theyareahighlyvaluablequalitativesource.Thepresenceof

patients’repliestofamilymembers’lettersshowsthatsomereachedtheir

intendedrecipients.Whetherornotthesuperintendentcensoredletterseither

bynotpassingthemonorreadingthemtopatients,theydoshowwhatfamily

memberswantedtocommunicate.Theyareidealforexploringquestionsof

21JadeShepherd,‘Victorianmadmen:Broadmoor,masculinityandtheexperiencesofthecriminallyinsane,1863–1900’(unpublishedPhDthesis,QueenMaryUniversityofLondon,2013),pp.59–62.22StevenKing,WritingthelivestheEnglishpoor1750s-1830s(Canada,2019),p.20;PennySummerfield,Historiesoftheself.Personalnarrativesandhistoricalpractice(London,2019),p.23.23InthisrespecttheyresemblethepauperlettersthatKingandLindseyEarner-Byrneexamined.King,Writing,pp.35-37;Earner-Byrne,‘“Dearfathermyhealthhasbrokendown”:writinghealthinIrishcharityletters,1922-1940’,SocialHistoryofMedicine,28(2015),pp.849-68atp.852.24Astheasylumdidnotretainalllettersquantitativeanalysishaslimitedutility.

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familyties,agencyandemotion.25Lettersbetweenfamilymembersandto

Broadmoor’ssuperintendentprovideanintimateinsightintofamilies’emotional

worldsinnineteenth-centuryEngland.Theydisplaylife,emotionsand

relationshipsastheywerelivedinrealtime,ratherthanastheywere

reimaginedinthecomposedautobiographicalaccountshistorianstendtorely

upontoexaminefamilylifeandsubjectivities.26

Thisarticleoffersthefirstsustainedexaminationoftheeffectsofasylum

committalonpatients’individualfamilymembers.Byshiftingfocusfromthe

effectsonpatientstotheeffectsonfamilies,andbytakinganewapproach–

engagingwiththehistoryofthefamily,andfocusingonindividualfamily

members,consideringfactorsincludingage,class,gender,changeovertimeand

stageinlifecycle–thisarticleexaminesthereachandsignificanceoftheasylum

furtherbeyonditswalls.Ittellsanimportant,untoldnarrativefromthe

perspectiveoffamilymembersandopensnewinsightsintothehistoriesofthe

asylumandfamilylifeinthelatenineteenthcentury.Inthefirsthalfofthearticle

itisshownthateffectsofasylumcommittalonfamilieswerenotsolelyoreven

primarilyeconomic.Itaffectedtheirrelationshipsoutsideoftheasylum,and

theirsenseofself;one’sroleinthefamily‘playedanimportantpartinthe…

formulationofpersonalidentity’,27andthelossofarelativetoBroadmoorforced

somefamilymemberstoreconfiguretheirrole.Nevertheless,despitethe

25Summerfield,Histories,p.28.26JoanneBailey(Begiato),‘MasculinityandfatherhoodinEnglandc.1760-1830’,inJohnH.ArnoldandSeanBrady,eds.,Whatismasculinity?historicaldynamicsfromantiquitytothecontemporaryworld(NewYork,2011),pp.167-86;Idem.ParentinginEngland,1760-1830:emotion,identity,andgeneration(Oxford,2012);MeganDoolittle,‘Fatherhoodandfamilyshame:masculinity,welfareandtheworkhouseinlatenineteenth-centuryEngland’,inLucyDelap,BenGriffinandAbigailWills,eds.,ThepoliticsofdomesticauthorityinBritainsince1800(Basingstoke,2009),pp.84-108;EmmaGriffin,‘Theemotionsofmotherhood:love,cultureandpovertyinVictorianBritain’,AmericanHistoricalReview,123(2018),pp.60-85.27Bailey(Begiato),Parenting,p.143.

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materialandemotionalhardshipssomefamilymembersfacedandthe

challengesposedtotheirday-to-livesandidentities,thesecondhalfofthearticle

showsthatfamilytiesandaffectiverelationshipsmatteredagreatdealto

working-classVictorians.Somefoundnewwaystogivemeaningtotheir

relationshipwiththeirincarceratedrelativedespitethedistancebetweenthem,

andtheysoughttogivemeaning–viatheirwordsandactions–totheirrelative’s

lifedespitethehardshipstheircommittalintoBroadmoorhadcaused.Yetthis

continuedattachmenthadfurthercostsforfamilies.Wherefamilialsolidarity

persistedtheasylumhadlong-lastingandfar-reachingeffects,includingbeing

policedbytheasylumaslongastheirrelativelived,eveniftheywere

discharged.

II.

CommittalintoBroadmooroftenresultedinlongdistance,long-termseparation

betweenfamiliesandtheirincarceratedrelatives.Between1863and1900just9

percentofmalepatientsand25percentoffemalepatientswerereleasedfrom

theasylum.40percentofmaleand36percentoffemalepatientsdiedthere,

and38percentofmalepatientsand30percentoffemalepatientswere

transferredtotheirlocalcountyasylum28Howmanywerelaterreleasedfrom

theirlocalasylumisunknown.Theimmediateeffectsoflosingarelativeto

Broadmoorwereburdensome,butthelong-termimpactswereoften

devastating.Theeffectswerecontingentupon,andevolvedover,thecourseof

thelifecycle.Somefamilymembersovercamethedifficultiestheyfaced,but

othersdidnot,andhereweseetheinfluencegender,class,age,andrelationship

28Shepherd,‘VictorianMadmen’,p.123.

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withtheirincarceratedrelativeandothershadonindividuals’abilityto

withstandhavingarelativeinstitutionalisedfarfromhome.

MostpatientsenteredBroadmoorduringtheprimeoftheirlives,between

theirmid-twentiesandearly-fortieswhentheentirefamilywasdependenton

men’searnings,andwomen’sdomesticwork,includingchildcare[Tables1and

2].29Manyfamiliesthusfoundtheabsenceofaspouse,parent,orchildboth

financiallyandemotionallydifficult.

Table1.TheagesofmencommittedintoBroadmoorasapercentageofthepopulation.

Table2.TheagesofwomencommittedintoBroadmoorasapercentageofBroadmoor’sfemalepopulation.

29VictorBaileyidentifiesthisageasprimeoflife,‘Thisrashact’:suicideacrossthelifecycleintheVictoriancity(Stanford,1998),p.186.

Ages1864-1867

1868-1872

1873-1877

1878-1882

1883-1887

1888-1892

1893-1897

1898-1900

Under18 0.9 0.9 1.2 0.0 0.5 0.8 1.6 1.318-27 16.8 27.5 21.5 18.8 20.7 15.5 17.5 17.528-37 29.0 33.5 39.9 39.3 32.4 29.2 35.0 33.838-47 22.0 22.7 25.2 19.4 18.6 29.9 26.8 21.348-57 15.4 10.9 6.7 14.1 17.0 17.4 10.9 10.058-67 6.8 3.9 3.7 7.3 8.0 5.3 6.6 12.568-77 1.9 0.3 1.8 1.0 2.7 1.1 1.6 3.878-87 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.8 0.0 0.0Unknown 7.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Ages1863-1867

1868-1872

1873-1877

1878-1882

1883-1887

1888-1892

1893-1897

1898-1900

Under18 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.3 0.0 0.0 1.5 0.018-27 27.0 25.0 25.5 21.1 26.8 15.6 24.6 25.028-37 29.1 37.5 34.5 35.5 35.2 34.4 38.5 20.838-47 25.0 27.8 34.5 31.6 29.6 34.4 21.5 29.248-57 8.8 6.9 5.5 7.9 5.6 10.9 10.8 12.558-67 2.7 1.4 0.0 2.6 2.8 3.1 3.1 8.368-77 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.278-87 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0Unknown 7.4 1.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.6 0.0 0.0

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Bothhusbandsandwiveswerethrustintothedualroleofhomemakerand

providerandeachstruggled.Familyhistorianshaveshownhowinstrumental

womenweretotheVictorianhome;theywerewageearners,homemakersand

carers.30Yetfemalepatients’familiesrarelysoughttoretrievemoney.One

familysoughtmoneyfortheirrelative’syoungdaughterbutperhapsonly

becausethechild’sfatherwasabsent.31Itisunsurprising,givenhowcentral

managingthehomeandcaringforchildrenwastoworking-classwives,thatthe

lossofahomemakerandmotherconcernedfamilies.Onepatient’smotherasked

thesuperintendent:‘doyouthinkshewilleverbeabletomanageherfamily

anymore?’32Many‘distressed’husbandstoldBroadmoor’ssuperintendentthey

were‘veryanxious’tohavetheirwives‘homeagain’.33Someworriedthattheir

wiveswerenotseeingtheirchildrenenough.BridgetHart’shusbandcouldnot

affordtotakehisfivechildrentoBroadmoorandaskedthesuperintendent

whethershecouldbetransferredtotheirlocalasylumso‘thatshecouldseeher

childrenoften’.34Buthusbandsalsomissedtheircompanion.Theirlettersmake

theirloveandattachmentclear;AnnieIngham’shusbandlongedtomaintain

correspondencewithhiswife.35Thatthelossoffemalerelativeswasfeltinsuch

waysdemonstratesthestrengthofaffectivebonds.Whiletheirincomewould

notalwaysstretchtocoverthereturntrainfaretoBroadmoor,patients’

husbandswerenotordinarilythrustintopovertyasaresultoftheirwife’s

committal.InhisstudyofVictoriansuicideVictorBaileyarguesthatthelossofa30EllenRoss,Love;ElizabethRoberts,Awoman’splace:anoralhistoryofworking-classwomen1890-1940(Oxford,1984),p.136;JaneLewis,‘Theworking-classmotherandstateintervention,1870-1918’,inJaneLewis,ed.,Labourandlove:women’sexperienceofhomeandfamily(NewYork:1986),pp.99-120atp.107.31D/H14/D2/2/2/175/53,tosuperintendent.32D/H14/D2/2/2/178/5.33D/H14/D2/2/2/183/7;D/H14/D2/2/2/164/7;D/H14/D2/2/2/398/14.34D/H14/D2/2/2/184/6.35D/H14/D2/2/2/183/4,tosuperintendent.

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spousedisruptedmen’sdomesticlivesmorethanwomen’s.36Anabsentwifewas

challengingforhusbands,andcertainlycausedemotionaldistress,butalthough

somemovedawaytowork,sometimesabroad,37andothersstartednew

families,38husbandswereseeminglymorewillingand(financially)ableto

preservetheirhomethanpatients’wives.Theirabilitytoremainabreadwinner,

particularlybyrelyingupontheirsistersorsisters-in-lawtohelpcarefortheir

children,meanttheyhadlessneedtoreformulatetheirownroleinthefamily,or

thefamilystructure,thanpatientswives,whocorrespondencesuggestssuffered

more.

Inthelatenineteenthcenturybeingahusbandandfathermeantleading

andexertingauthorityoverthehousehold,andprovidingfinancially.Their

husbands’absenceforcedsomepatients’wivestoreformulatetheiridentitiesby

assumingtheseresponsibilities.Insomeordinaryworking-classhouseholds

‘mothersmadeapointoftheirhusbands’authority’;fatherswere‘judgeand

arbitersofrewardsandpunishments.’39Patients’wivescouldhardlythreaten

‘youwaittillyourfathergetshome’,butsomedidrequesttheirincarcerated

husbandsperformanaspectoftheirpaternaldutybyexertingauthorityand

influenceovertheir(olderandgenerallymale)children.JosephRedding’swife

wrotetohimregardingtheirson:

Icanassureyouhehasbeenaverygreatdealoftroubleeversincehewas

15yearsold…ifonlyhewouldkeepfromhatefuldrink…Ithinkyouhad

36Bailey,Rash,pp.234-235.37D/H14/D2/2/2/183.38D/H14/D2/2/2/101.39HelenRogers,‘“Firstinthehouse”:daughtersonworking-classfathersandfatherhood’inTrevBroughtonandHelenRogers,eds.,Genderandfatherhoodinthenineteenthcentury(Basingstoke,2007),pp.126–37atp.128.

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betterwritetohimperhapsitwilldohimgoodforweareallvery

frightenedofhim.40

Inconjunctionwithrecentstudiesonfatherhood,suchcorrespondenceindicates

thatworking-classfatherswereunderstoodtobemorethanproviders,theirloss

feltinnon-materialways.41

Nevertheless,moneywasaconcern.Whatmanywivesneededfromtheir

husbandswasmoneytosupportthemselvesandtheirchildren.42Somesurvived

withouttheirhusband’swagesorphysicalpresence.Onecontinuedher

husband’srope-makingbusiness,andothersclaimedtheirpensionsorsavings.43

Butsuchcaseswererarebecausemostmalepatientsdidnothavethesethings.

Financialsurvivalwaseasierforwiveswithfewornodependentchildren,or

witholderchildrenwhocouldcontributetothehouseholdeconomy.44Butmost

wiveswerelefttocareandprovidefortheiryoungchildrenalone,with

devastatingconsequences.Lowwagesandseasonalworkdisproportionately

affectedwomen,soevenifwomenwereinorfoundworktheirearningswould

nothavematchedtheirhusbands,45andemploymentwouldnotnecessarilyhave

significantlyreducedtheiranxieties:theystillhadhomestomaintainand

childrentocarefor.Thelimitedagencyworking-classwivespossessed,andin

40D/H14/D2/2/1/1102/71.41EssaysinBroughtonandRogers,eds.,Gender;EleanorGordonandGwynethNair,‘DomesticfathersandtheVictorianparentalrole’,Women’sHistoryReview,15(2006),pp.551-9;VickyHolmes,InbedwiththeVictorians:thelife-cycleofworking-classmarriage(Basingstoke,2017),p.104;Julie-MarieStrange,‘Fatherhood,providingandattachmentinlate-VictorianandEdwardianworking-classfamilies’,HistoricalJournal,55(2012),pp.1007-27.42Ross,Love;Strange,Fatherhood,p.51.43D/H14/D2/2/1/905/18;D/H14/D2/2/1/887/5-17;D/H14/D2/2/1/811.44AnnaDavin,Growinguppoor:home,schoolandstreetinLondon,1870-1914(London,1996).45CarlChinn,Theyworkedalltheirlives:womenoftheurbanpoorinEngland,1880-1939(Manchester,1988),pp.86-8.

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particulartheirinabilitytoliveindependentlyoftheirhusbands,46meanttheloss

ofahusbandwasinmanywaysmoretraumaticthanthelossofawife.

Numerous‘anxious’and‘desolate’wivesbeggedthesuperintendentfortheir

husband’sreleasebecausetheyfearedstarvationandpoverty,asalsohappened

followingthedeathorprolongedun-orunderemploymentofabreadwinner.47

Tosurvive,somesoughtpoorreliefortookinlodgers.48Othershadlittlechoice

buttodismantletheirhomes.Someconsideredsellingtheirbelongings,but

othersremarriedorco-habited.49PatientArthurLudlow’swifehadan

illegitimatechild,andhissisterinformedhim‘[yourwife]considerssheis

utterlyfreefromyouandtendsdoingthebestforherselfandchildren.’50Some

wivesmadeharddecisions.Unabletosupportalloftheirchildren,RobertJones’

wifesenttheirten-year-olddaughtertoahomeforWaifsandStraysbecauseit

wasdeemed‘bestfor[the]childasshewillhavetrainingaswellas[the]

comfortsofagoodhome’whichhermothercouldnotprovide.51PatientJoseph

Mallon’swifewas‘veryanxious’aboutherhusbandwho‘wasalwaysgoodand

dutifultomebeingaproviderto3helplesschildren’.52Afterthesuperintendent

explainedthatherhusband’sreleasewasnotimminent,Mallon’swifetoldhim

thatthe‘oneshillingandsixpenceandoneloafofbread’herlocalparishgave

herwasinadequate.SheaskedwhetherBroadmoorhadaschoolforpatients’

46Nineteenth-centurysociety‘assumedfemaledependency’tobethenorm.Lewis,‘working-classwife’,p.106.47D/H14/D2/2/1/799/4and11;D/H14/D2/2/1/1689;D/H14/D2/2/1/1085/26;D/H14/D2/2/1/599/4.JoannaBourke,Working-classculturesinBritain1890-1960(London,1994),pp.71-81;Julie-MarieStrange,Death,griefandpovertyinBritain,1870-1914(Cambridge,2005),p.194;Strange,Fatherhood,p.56.48D/H14/D2/2/1/830/8,tosuperintendent;D/H14/D2/2/1/1102/33.Womenoftenusedlodgerstosupplementtheirincome,Roberts,Woman’s,p.141.49Forexample,D/H14/D2/2/1/829;D/H14/D2/2/1/900/9.50D/H14/D2/2/1310.51D/H14/D2/2/1/1680,tosuperintendent.52D/H14/D2/2/1/599/4,tosuperintendent.

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childrenbecause‘Iamnotabletosupportthem…Ithinktheywouldbebetterin

aschoolIwastoldtherewasaschoolnowopenforthem.’Herepliedthatthere

was‘nosuchschool’;whathappenedtothechildrenisunknown.53Mallon’swife

waslikelythinkingofschoolsforconvicts’children.54Otherpatients’wivessent

theirchildrentosuchschoolsandbecausetheyweregenderedthissometimes

meantseparatingsiblings.55Thesecasessuggestthatunlikesomepatients’

husbands,andunlikewasthecaseinsomeareas,notallwomenhadaccessto

familialorcommunitysupportnetworkswithinwhich‘auxiliaryparents’–

relativesandneighbours–operated.56Toavoidtheworkhousetheyhadto

choose;theycouldnotbebothbreadwinnerandhomemaker.Somefamilies

relocatedwhichexplainsthelackofkinship.Thestigmaofhavingacriminal

lunaticforarelative–andtheshameattachedtobothcriminalityandinsanity–

mighthaveledtosomefamiliesbeingshunnedbytheircommunitiesor

discouragedthemfromaskingforhelp.Unlikeordinaryasylumpatientswho

weresometimessecretlyadmittedbytheirfamilies,57Queen’spleasurepatients

wererarelysenttoBroadmoorwithouttheirneighbours’knowledge;press

coverageoftheircrimeandtrial,orbeingcalledtothewitnessstand,madesure

ofthat.

53D/H14/D2/2/1/599/6.ThePoorLawGuardiansrecognisedthatthisalone,themaximummostreceived,wasbarelyenoughtokeepfamiliesfromtheworkhouse.GingerFrost,Victorianchildhoods(London,2009),p.124.54From1866onwards‘destitutechildrenofaservingprisoner’couldbeadmittedintoindustrialschools.BarryGodfrey,PamelaCox,HeatherShoreandZoeAlker,Youngcriminallives:lifecoursesandlifechancesfrom1850(Oxford,2017),p.30.55D/H14/D2/2/1936a.56Ross,Love,p.156.Peoplewhostruggledexpectedfamilymemberstohelp,King,Writing,pp.75-81.57Somefamiliesrequestedprivacywhencommittingrelativesintoasylums.AkihitoSuzuki,Madnessathome:thepsychiatrist,thepatientandthefamilyinEngland,1820-1860(California,2006),p.121.

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Patients’parentswerebothgrief-strickenandthreatenedbythelossofa

malewageearner.Whilsttheymighthaveinitiallymanagedfinancially,long-

termdetentionwasmorelikelytohavenoticeablematerialeffectsontheirlives.

Financingoldagewasapressingconcernfortheagingworkingclass,forwhom

reducedemploymentopportunitiesensuredthespectreoftheworkhouse

loomedlarge.58Withoutstatepensions,manydependedupontheirwage-

earningchildren.59Onepatient’sfathertoldBroadmoor’ssuperintendent:‘Iam

…gettingoldandifIcouldonlyobtainhislibertyhewouldbeofgreatassistance

tome.’60However,anddespitethematerialhardshipssomefeared,whilesome

patients’spouseshadlittlechoicebuttoreframetheirroleinthefamily,patients’

parentsmighthaveachievedarenewedsenseofpurpose.Inordinarylife,some

agingmenandwomenstruggledwiththeirlossofparentalidentityastheir

childrenbecameindependent.61Effortstoassisttheirnow-dependentadultchild

mayhaveprovidedpatients’parentstheopportunitytocontinue(orresume)

theirparentalrole.Sometriedtoinfluencetheirchild’sexperienceat

Broadmoor,toprovidereassurance,andpromisedtocareforthemifreleased.62

PatientMaryDyson’sfathertoldherthatherhusbandhadstartedanewfamily,

andinapowerfulstatementofattachmentheremindedherthatshewasnot

alone:‘Youhaveagoodmotherandagoodfather…youhavefourbrothersand

58AkihitoSuzuki,‘Lunacyandlabouringmen:narrativesofmalevulnerabilityinmid-VictorianLondon’,inRobertaBivinsandJohnV.Pickstone,eds.,Medicine,madnessandsocialhistory,essaysinhonourofRoyPorter(Basingstoke,2007),pp.118-28.59PatThane,OldageinEnglishhistory:pastexperience,presentissues(Oxford,2000),p.297.60D/H14/D2/2/1/1092/15.Also,D/H14/D2/2/1/900/5.Theexpectationthatchildrenmighthelpagingparentsisalsoevidentincaseswherepatients’adultchildrenofferedtheirhomestothem.D/H14/D2/2/1/1085/21and23-28,tosuperintendent.Elderlymenfoundthemselvesunemployedandintheworkhousesoonerthanwomen.Davin,Growing,p.25.61Bailey,Rash,p.211.62D/H14/D2/2/1/900/4,topatientBall;D/H14/D2/2/1/900/5,tosuperintendent.Manyparentswereinalmostconstantcontactwiththesuperintendent.D/H14/D2/2/1/1068/22-56;D/H14/D2/2/1/901/5-25.

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twosisters’.Hereassuredhis‘DearDaughter’,‘ifyougetyourlibertymyselfand

yourbrotherhasahomeandagoodoneforyouaslongaswelive’.63Fathersof

sonsdemonstratedtheirattachmentintraditionalways,promisingtoprovide

workorvocationalinstructionuponrelease,muchastheymighthavedone

whentheywereonthecuspofadulthood.64Ofcourse,meetingtheneedsof

grownchildreninfantilizedbyinsanitymayhavebeenanadditionalstressfor

parentsfacingthe‘myriadlosses’ofoldage–earnings,physicalability,andtheir

spouse.65

Establishinghowpatients’youngchildrenfeltaboutlosingaparenttothe

asylumisdifficult.66Youngchildren’sguardiansoftencommunicatedmessages

fromthemtotheirincarceratedrelative:‘goodnightkisses’andwishes,anda

HappyChristmasandNewYear.67Thedifficultyofcajolingyoungchildreninto

verbalisingmessagesmighthaveencouragedtheauthortoembellishwiththe

aimofimprovingarelative’smorale.Certainly,someyoungchildrendidnot

appeartounderstandwhathadhappened,ortheimportanceoftheirwellwishes

ornewsoftheirwellbeingtotheirdetainedparent.MaryAnnDaniels’young

daughterwasbeingcaredforbyhermotherwhosentDanielsaphotograph(a

‘likeness’)ofher.Whetherinadditiontovisiting,ortocompensateforan

inabilitytodoso,theprovisionofthiskeepsakecanbereadasanactofcare,

intendedtocomfortandreassure,yetthechild’senergycausedaneedfor

63D/H14/D2/2/2/101/12.64D/H14/D2/2/1/974/3,tosuperintendent;ClaudiaNelson,FamilytiesinVictorianEngland(London,2007),p.91.65Bailey,Rash,p.212.66ToaccessVictorianchildren’sexperienceshistorianshaveusedtrialtranscripts,officialdocuments,autobiographies,fictionand,whenpossible,letters.EssaysinJaneEvaBaxterandMeredithA.B.Ellis,eds.,Nineteenthcenturychildhoodsininterdisciplinaryperspective(Oxford,2018).67D/H14/D2/2/2/184/9,tosuperintendent;D/H14/D2/2/1/1076/11,toGeorgeVarschagen;D/H14/D2/2/1/925/7,Christmascard.

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writtenreassurance:‘youmustnotthinkanythingaboutthatblackthatisupon

oneofhereyesbecauseshewoodnotsitstill…wecouldnotgethertositstill.’68

Olderchildrenweremoreconsciousofaparent’sabsence,especiallyat

particularpointsintheyearincludingChristmasandbirthdays.69

WecanassumethatforsomehavingaparentdetainedatBroadmoorwas

devastatingandconfusing,shakinganysemblanceofstabilityornormality.For

somethisbeganthemomenttheirparentcommittedacrime;somelostasibling

orparent;sometestifiedattheirparent’strial.70Aparent’scommittalinto

Broadmoordisruptedachild’shomelife;notonlywas(atleast)oneparent

absent,butstepparents,stepsiblings,orhalf-siblingssometimesappeared.Some

childrenweresentawayfromhome,oraffectedbythepovertyandstarvation

fearedorfeltwithintheirhome.Thisalsohademotionalconsequences.Inher

studyofVictorianworking-classautobiographies,Julie-MarieStrangeobserved

that‘somechildrenwereundoubtedlycontemptuousinadulthoodoffathers

whohadnotdoneenoughtosupportfamilies.’71ThisappearsintheBroadmoor

correspondence,too.Astheyaged,andperhapshavinghadtimetoreflectupon

theirchildhood,someolderchildrencriticizedtheirfatherforleavingtheir

motherdestitute.Manyyearsafterhewasconfined,Dodwellsentnumerous

lettershomeaccusinghiswifeofinfidelity.72LikeotherVictorianchildrenwho

retrospectivelyviewedtheirpoorandhard-workingmothersas‘self-sacrificing’

68D/H14/D2/2/2/175/22.Grandparentshadalonghistoryofproviding‘substituteparenting’.Bailey(Begiato),Parenting,p.204.69D/H14/D2/2/1/936a/204;D/H14/D2/2/1/936b/28.70Shepherd,‘Best’.71Strange,Fatherhood,p.80.72D/H14/D2/2/1/936c.

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and‘heroic’,hiseldestson,Henry,defendedhismotherandwhilstdoingso

highlightedDodwell’sfailureasafathertoprovide:73

motherhasbehavedinawaythatwouldbeamodeltoanotherwoman

leftwithafamilyoffouryoungchildren,owingthelast16yearsofherlife

hasbeenoneofanxietyandmisery,andtimesscarcelynotknowing

wherethenextmealwastocome.74

Somechild-parentrelationshipsweremaintainedthrough

correspondence,evolvingaschildrenaged.Asalsooccurredinordinary

circumstances,whenchildrenbecamelessreliantuponparentsforprovision

theyinsteadsoughtadvice.75Sonsinparticulardetailedtheirdailystrugglesto

theirfathers,perhapshopingtoreceivesomeguidance.76Othersonsrejected

theirfather’sattemptstoguidethem.DodwellwrotetoHenryatwork,relating

hisgrievancesandadvisinghimtochangeemployment.Henryresponded:‘I

thinkItoldyouoncebeforethattherewerenolettersallowedinthestores,but

withinthislastweekIhavereceivedtwonotes,whichIthankyoufornearly

gettingmedischarged’.Hecontinued,‘Idon’twishtoreceiveanymoreworrying

letters…neitheramIgoingtobetalkedoverbyanyonetodowhatIdonotwish

todo’.77Suchattemptstodenyfatherstheopportunitytofulfilltheirpaternal

rolewerenotnecessarilytheresultofhardfeelingscausedbytheir

incarceration,butmirrortensionsbetweenordinaryVictorianfathersandtheir

sons.78

73Davin,Growing,p.26;Griffin,‘Emotions’.74D/H14/D2/2/1/936c/104,toDodwell.75Strange,Fatherhood,p.41.76D/H14/D2/2/1/765/23.77D/H14/D2/2/1/936b/166.78Nelson,Family,p.93.

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Somefamiliesweredeterminedtoprotectchildrenfromthetraumaof

visitingorhearingfromtheirrelative,butthiscouldresultinfamilytension.

PatientAnnieIngham’sseven-year-oldsonwastoldshehaddied,discovering

thetruthten-yearslater.79Wecanonlyimaginethesubsequenttensionbetween

himandhisfatherwhohadkeptthesecret.Inothercases,thetensioncausedby

effortstoprotectchildrenisexplicit.Bytheirownaccounts,Dodwell’schildren

missedhimterriblywhentheywereyoung,butDodwell’sdaughterlater

confessedtoherfatherthattheirmotherhadencouragedthemnottowrite,80

andtheirmotheraskedthesuperintendenttosendlettersintendedforthe

childrentoherbecause‘theyprovetobeofdisadvantagetotheyoungpeople.’81

Dodwell’scaseisunusualbecauseitwasassumedthathischildrenwerebetter

offwithouthim.ThechaplainandmasteratEmmanuelHospitalexplainedhis

concernstoBroadmoor’ssuperintendent,echoingthemessageofReligiousTract

Societystoriesinwhichabsentorinadequatefathersneededreplacingwithan

appropriatemalerolemodel:82

Ihavedonemybesttobenefithischildren...Ifearthatifheweresetfree,

itcouldbeoflittlegoodtohischildren.Hewouldremovehiseldestboy

fromherewhereheisgettingausefuleducation,goodfoodandevery

possiblecare,andhisotherchildrenfromtheirplaceofshelter.

Heexpressedhisfearsclearly:‘Ithinkthefirstthingistoprotectthispoorfamily

fromthe…utter[devastation]thatwouldensueifthefatherweresetfree.’83The

79D/H14/D2/2/2/183/33,tosuperintendent.80D/H14/D2/2/1/936b/28.81D/H14/D2/2/1/936b/195.82StephanieOlsen,‘Theauthorityofmotherhoodinquestion:fatherhoodandthemoraleducationofchildreninEngland,c.1870–1900’,Women’sHistoryReview,18(2009),pp.765-80atp.772.83D/H14/D2/2/1/936a/209-10.

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confusionanddistressthatresultedfromhavinganincarceratedparent,andthe

subsequenteffortsoffamilyandfriendstoprotectchildren,appearedtoinspire

withinsomechildren(whowerecomingofageandperhapslongingtoexercise

someindependence)adesiretodemonstratetheirfilialduty,anotiongrounded

inscripture:thehonouringofone’smotherandfather.Unlikesomepatients’

spouseswhoreconfiguredtheiridentitiesorassumednewrolesinorderto

survive,patients’youngchildrenretainedtheiridentitiesasdutifulchildren.

Dodwell’syoungestson,Edward,ranawayfromschooltovisithisfather,

perhapsinfluencedbyhisfather’snumerouslettersdemandingheandhis

siblingsremain‘faithful’tohim.84Assomechildrenagedanevolutioninthe

child-parentrelationshipisevidentintheircorrespondence(orlackof).Edward

stoppedwritingtoandvisitinghisfather,buthisbrother,Henry,despitethe

angrylettershehadpreviouslysenttohisfather,continuedtocorrespondwith

himandBroadmoor’ssuperintendents.Asheaged,Henryindulgedhisfather’s

quirksanddemands,expressingcompassionandpityforafatherhecameto

perceiveas‘fragile’ratherthanfailing.85Itisclearthathavingaparentat

Broadmoor,asituationakintohavinganeglectfulorabsentfather,didnot

alwaysstrainparent-childrelationshipsbeyondrepair.AnthonyOwston’ssons

wereveryyoungwhenhemurderedtheirmotherandwassenttoBroadmoor,

buttheyremainedaconstantandsupportivepresenceinhislifeuntilhis

death.86ThisresearchsupportswhatStrangefoundinherexaminationof

autobiographies:‘whenprovidingfaltered,father-childdynamicsmightcome

understrainbut,inlongview,couldsurviveandbecomemanifestinalternative84Hevisitedhimthirty-fivetimesinFebruary1885.D/H14/D2/2/1/936b/67,memorandum;forexample,D/H14/D2/2/1/936b/47,letterto‘undutiful’daughter.85Strangedevelopstheideaofa‘fragile’fatherinFatherhood,pp.49-81.86D/H14/D2/2/1/963.

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ways.’87Moreover,thatcorrespondenceallowsustoseethisinrealtime

confirmsthatthisisnotaneffectofrose-tintedautobiographicalwriting,but

evidenceofresilientparent-childbonds.

HavingarelativecommittedintoBroadmoorhadeffectsthatspreadfar

beyondtheasylumwallsandintothewiderfamilyandcommunity.Duringthe

nineteenthcenturysomepoorfamilieslivedincloseproximitytooneanother

andprovidedmutualsupport.88Thishelpedtorelievetheburdenonsome

familieswho,withoutaccesstoformalorcharitablesupportnetworksforthe

familiesoftheinsane,unitedtosupportandprotecteachotherfinanciallyand

emotionally.Effortstoprotectthosedirectlyaffecteddrewothersinto

correspondencewiththeasylum.Onepatient’sbrotherbeggedthe

superintendenttoreleasehissisterbecausehewasconcernedabouttheir

‘disparing’mother,89andafriendofapatient’swife–awarethatshewas

‘sometimessubjecttoviolenthystericalfits’–askedthesuperintendentto

prevent‘thepoorwomanmuchmisery’bydissuadingherfromvisiting

Broadmoor.90Somefamilymemberstriedtosurviveandmoveforwardintheir

ownway:thefatherwhotoldhissonhismotherwasdead;themotherwhotried

tostopherchildrenfromcommunicatingwiththeirfather;thespouseswho

remarried;theworrieddaughter-in-lawwhosecretlybeggedthesuperintendent

torejectherhusband’spetitionforthereleaseofhisfather.91Buteachofthese

methodsofsurvivalpotentiallycarriedfurtherdamagingconsequences:tension,

87Strange,Fatherhood,p.81.88Thane,Oldage,p.299;D.CooperandM.Donald,‘Householdsand“hidden”kininearly-nineteenthcenturyEngland’:fourcasestudiesinsuburbanExeter,1821-1861’,ContinuityandChange,10(1995),pp.257-78.89D/H14/D2/2/2/175/48.90D/H14/D2/2/1/918/16.91D/H14/D2/2/1/1076/18.

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conflictandsecrecywithinthehome.Correspondencerevealsstrugglesbetween

familymembersthatmightnothaveordinarilyexisted.PatientCharlesCornish’s

wifewasadmonishedbyher‘pig-headedoldmother-in-law’who‘reproaches

herwithneglect’becauseshewasreluctanttovisitherhusband.92Suchcases

werenotunusual,93andpatientsbecamethesubjectoftensionbetweenmarital

andbloodrelationswhich,innormalcircumstances,theymighthavemediated.

Theprecedingdiscussionshowslosingawageearnerorhomemakerhad

significanteffectsonthefamily,notonlypotentiallycausingpovertybutalsothe

temporaryorpermanentreconfigurationofthefamily,relianceuponkinship

networkstomaintainthefamily’shealthandintegrity,andshapingfamilial

relationships.Importantly,itdemonstratesthatwhoenteredtheasylum

mattered:theeffectsonandconcernsoffamilymembersdependedontheir

relationshipwiththepatient.Forspouses,genderandclassaffectedthe

significanceoftheimpacts,butanindividual’slifestageandabilitytoaccess

supportnetworkswerealsoimportant.Unsurprisingly,thosewithlimited

agencyfelttheimpactsoflosingarelativetoBroadmoorthemost.Somewives

andparentsnotonlyfelteffectsimmediately,butalsoforfeitedtheirimagined

financiallysecurefuturebecausethatexpectationwaspremiseduponprovision

bytheirspouseorchild.Wivesalsofacedthegreatestchallengetotheirsenseof

self,particularlyiftheyhadtodismantletheirhome,allowotherstocarefor

theirchildren,orassumeanunexpectedrole.Thismayexplainwhymarriage

appearstohavebeenthemostfragilebond,whilebloodkinshipprovedmore

resilient.Examiningtangible,structuraleffectsonpatients’familiesalsoreveals

92D/H14/D2/2/1/918/16-17,tosuperintendent.93D/H14/D2/2/1/1254/56,medicalreport.

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theemotionalimpacts.Whilefamilymembersresponseswerecomplexand

oftencontradictory,changingovertimeandinrelationtotheirownlifestage,

theysuggesttheimportanceandresilienceoffamilialties.Cuttingacrossthe

differencesinexperienceisthewaythatfamilymembersexpressedtheirloss:

theywere‘bereaved’,‘heartbroken’and‘anxious’.94Butirrespectiveofthe

heartacheandhardshipstheirrelative’sincarcerationhadcaused,somefamilies

wereunwillingtoabandonthemtoBroadmoor.

III.

Families’anger,fearandsadnessathowtheirliveshadturnedoutandloveand

affectiontowardstherelativewhohadcausedthosefeelingswerenotmutually

exclusive.Thissectionexaminesfamilies’wordsandactions,includingvisiting,

toshowhowsomeunitedtosupportoneanotherandtodemonstratetheir

continuedattachmenttotheirrelative.

Letterwritingwasanimportantmeansbywhichfamiliescommunicated

withrelativesinasylums.Inanefforttokeepthempartofthehome,theyshared

excitingandmundanefamilynews,soughtadvice,consoledrelativeswhenthey

wereillorscared,admonishedthemiftheymisbehaved,andcommunicated

theiraffectionexplicitlyintheirsalutations.95Familymembersplacedemotional

valueontheirletters,whichcouldlessentheemotionalifnotphysicaldistance

betweenthem.Uponhearingthathisfatherwas‘verydepressedandrestlessin

94D/H14/D2/2/1/901/4-5;D/H14/D2/2/2/174/20;D/H14/D2/2/2/173/5;D/H14/D2/2/1/1102/58;D/H14/D2/2/1/791/6,alltosuperintendent.95D/H14/D2/2/1/936a/241,toDodwell;D/H14/D2/2/2/101/7,toDyson;D/H14/D2/2/1/569/2,toJones.Numerousfamilymembersreferredtotheir‘Dear’relative.Itwasnotmerelyaformalitybut,asDavidFitzpatricknotedinhisstudyofIrishandAustralianmigrantletters,wasusedtoassure‘thereaderthatfamilialsolidaritywasintact’.Oceansofconsolation:personalaccountsofIrishmigrationtoAustralia(Cork,1994).p.22.

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mind’AnthonyOwston’ssontoldthesuperintendent:‘Iamwritingtomyfather

andtrustthatthelettermaybehandedtohimasIthinkthataletterfromhome

maybeofgreatvaluetohimatthepresentcrisis.’96Hedescribedanotherletter

tohisfatheras‘cheering’.97Letterswerenotsimplycheeringplatitudes,

however,butsincere,intimatecommunicationbetweenandaboutrelatives.

Somefamilymemberssenttheirrelativeupbeat,comfortingletterswhilst

simultaneouslywritinganxiety-riddenletterstothesuperintendent,suggesting

aclearawarenessofaudienceandtheperformativityinvolvedinwriting.One

patient’smotherbeggedthesuperintendentto‘takepityonherpooraged

mother…Icannotexpressmyhartfeltgrief…relievemeofthisdistressand

restoremydaughtertomeagainorIwillbringmygrayhareandsorrowtothe

grave’.98Althoughclearlyfeelingwretched,thismotherstillencouragedher

daughterto‘keepyourspiritsup’.99ForsomefamilymembersBroadmoor’s

superintendentbecameaconfidant;100theysharedtheirtroublesandsome

confessedtheywerekeepingconcernsorcircumstancesfromtheirrelatives,a

situationakintowhatDavidGerbercalledan‘epistolarymasquerade.’101Given

thattheyomittedbadnewsorworriesorembellishedthefamily’swellbeingto

protecttheirrelative,however,thisshouldbereadasanactofcareandlove.102

Letterstothesuperintendenthighlighttheexistenceofanxietiesshared

byfamilymembersaroundtheworld;theysoughtreassurancethatrelatives

96D/H12/D2/2/1/963/18.97D/H14/D2/2/1/963/31.98D/H14/D2/2/1/175/51.99D/H14/D2/2/2/175/11.100Thishappenedelsewhere.Wannell,‘Patients’,pp.307-8;Smith,‘Thankful’,pp.239-42.101DavidGerber,‘Epistolarymasquerades:actsofdeceivingandwithholdinginimmigrantletters’,inBruceElliot,DavidGerberandSuzanneSinke,eds.,Lettersacrossborders:theepistolarypracticeofinternationalmigrants(London,2006),pp.144-57.102AsMichaelRopersuggestedofsoldiersomittingdangerintheirletterstotheirmothers,Thesecretbattle.EmotionalsurvivalintheGreatWar(Manchester,2009),pp.63-8.

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wereeating,healthyandwelltreated,particularlyiftheyhadnotheardfrom

them.103Familieswhoreceived‘rational’and‘sane’lettersfromrelatives

struggledtounderstandoraccepttheirmedicaldiagnosis.104Othersaskedabout

theirrelative’sillnessorchancesofrelease.105Requestsforinformationsuggest

concernandattachment,asdorequestsforthesuperintendent’sassistance.

Someaskedhimtodosomethingontheirbehalf,forinstancecompassionately

deliveringsadnewstoarelative.106Othersaskediftheycouldsenditems–

photographs,musicalinstrumentsandclothing–tohelptheirrelativemakea

homeforthemselves.107Regardlessofhowmuchtheycared,familymembers’

letterstothesuperintendentwere‘supplications’;theysoughtactionbut

‘recognisedthediscretionarypoweroftherecipient.’108Supplicationstomedical

mencontainedanemotionalperformance,anditisfruitfultoseethem,like

Coleborne,asa‘theatreofemotions’.109Thesuperintendent’spowerincentivized

familymember’sexpressionsoftheiremotionalandpracticalneedforhis

assistance.Attentivenesstothisdynamicrevealsfamilymember’sattemptsto

exerciseagencyandthattheyunderstoodtheiragencyascircumscribedbythe

powerofthesuperintendent.Suchemotionalperformancesalsoillustratethe

strengthoftheirfamilialattachment,explicitlyinwhatwasrevealedtothe

superintendent,andimplicitly,inthedecisiontocommunicatethattheymissed

103D/H14/D2/2/1/1116;D/H14/D2/2/1/905/12;D/H14/D2/2/1/836/6.Wannell,‘Patients’;Coleborne,‘Families’.104D/H14/D2/2/1/175/45,tosuperintendent.Also,D/H14/D2/2/1/1092/15;D/H14/D2/2/1/901/10.Thishappenedelsewhere.Coleborne,Madness,p.82;Walsh,‘Lunatic’.105AsOonaghWalshfound,‘Lunaticandcriminalalliancesinnineteenth-centuryIreland’,inBartlettandWright,eds.,Outside,pp.132-52atp.145.106D/H14/D2/2/2/178/7;D/H14/D2/2/2/212/16;D/H14/D2/2/1/975/13;D/H14/D1/2/1/936b/208;D/H14/D2/2/1/975/13.107D/H14/D2/2/1/918/3.108AndreasWurgler,‘Voicesfromamongstthe“SilentMasses”:humblepetitionsandsocialconflictsinearlymoderncentralEurope’inL.-H.vanVoss,ed.,Petitionsinsocialhistory(Cambridge,2001),pp.11-34,inKing,Writingp.49.109Coleborne,‘Families’,p.437.

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andcaredfortheirrelativewithoutburdeningthemwiththeirownheartache

anddifficulties.

Somefamiliesperformedtheirattachmentbyvisitingasylums,yetfew

historianshaveexplicitlyconsideredwhatthisrevealsaboutfamilylifeand

emotions.Visitinginstitutions,asJonathanReinarzandGrahamMooneywrite,

offeredsupporttopatientsand‘providedanintimatelinktoafamiliarworld

thatistemporarily,orevenpermanently,outofreach.’110Ofcoursefamilies

visitedBroadmoortoreassurerelativestheyhadnotbeenforgotten.Patient

WilliamLloyd’sfatherwasdesperatetoknowifhissonrememberedthathis

motherandbrothershadvisitedhim,andaskedthesuperintendentto‘pleaselet

himknow…thatsomeoneelsewillcomesoon’.111Inanotesuggestingfamilies’

actionsweremonitored,thesuperintendenttoldtheHomeOfficethatone

patient’swife‘hasallalongbeenmostkindandattentivetoherhusbandinevery

wayandsherentedahouseinthisneighbourhoodsothatsheshouldbeableto

comeandseehimfrequently.’112Butvisitingalsobenefittedfamilies.Unlikeat

ordinaryasylumswherefamiliesmighthaveencounteredtheasylumupontheir

relative’sadmission,thefamiliesofBroadmoor’spatientsmightonlyhaveread

abouttheasyluminthepress,whichsometimesprintedsensationalimagesofits

‘Frankenstein’-likepatients.113Visitingmayhaverelievedfearsaboutwho

relatives’werelivingalongside,andenabledfamiliestowitnessthekindnessand

respect(theyhoped)relativesreceived.114Italsohelpedtoeaseemotional

110GrahamMooneyandJonathanReinarz,‘Hospitalandasylumvisitinginhistoricalperspective:themesandissues’,inMooneyandReinarz,eds.,Permeablewalls:historicalperspectivesonhospitalanasylumvisiting(Amsterdam,2009),pp.7-30atp.9.111D/H14/D2/2/1/761/5.112D/H14/D2/2/1/1254/56.113‘AvisittotheCriminalLunaticAsylum’,TheTimes,13Jan.1865,p.10.114Somerelativesexpressedreliefthattheyhadencounteredtheirrelativeinagoodcondition.

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distressbytemporarilyreunitingfamilies.

Aselsewherethough,manyfoundtheprospectandtheactofvisiting

emotionallytesting.Theymighthave(orhavefeared)adistressingencounter

witharelativewhomtheyfoundinaworseconditionthanexpected,orreceive

abusefromapreviouslylovingrelative.115Theasylum’svisitor’sroom

sometimesbecameasiteofdomestictension.Dodwell’sdaughterleftthe

visitor’sroom‘intears’afterhescoldedherforquestioninghim.116Onepatient

enteredthevisitor’sroomand‘embracedthechildren,buthemotionedwithhis

handforhiswifetokeepback’andtoldher,‘youbeastkeepback,orIwillfloor

you’.Shetoldthesupervisingattendant,‘Iwillgoitonlyirritateshimmybeing

here’.117Thatsomefamilymembersvisiteddespitethepracticalandemotional

challengesitposedindicatesthestrengthoftheirattachmentandthe

significancetheyplacedupontheact.Thedevotionofonepatient’shusbandis

evidencedbyhisvisits.Thesuperintendentrecorded,‘whenherhusbandvisited

her,andspenttheportionsofthreedayswithher,sherefusedtospeakto

him.’118Despitehiswife’ssilence,hereturnedtositwithhereverydayforthree

days.Wecannotknowwhyhereturned,butunlikeotherrelativeswhoaskedthe

superintendentwhethervisitingwasworthwhile(wouldthepatientrecognize

them?wouldtheyspeaktothem?),thishusbandappearsunconcernedwithsuch

matters.Ofcourse,hemighthavehopedhiswifewouldtalktohim,butwhen

115FrederickCrawley’ssister‘wasgrievedtofindhimsolowandill’,D/H14/D2/2/1/698/7,tosuperintendent;D/H14/D2/2/1/761/5;CatharineColeborne,‘Challenginginstitutionalhegemony:familyvisitorstohospitalsfortheinsaneinAustraliaandNewZealand,1880s-1890s’,inMooneyandReinarz,eds.,Permeable,pp.289–308atp.301;GeoffreyReaume,Remembranceofpatientspast:patientlifeatTorontohospitalfortheinsane,1870-1940(Oxford,2000,p.189.116D/H14/D2/2/1/936c/51,attendant’snote.117D/H14/D2/2/1/1256/14,attendant’snote.118WilliamOrange,ReportsofthesuperintendentandchaplainofBroadmoorCriminalLunaticAsylumfortheyear1875(London,1876),p.44.

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facedwiththepossibilitythateachdaywouldbethesame,hewouldseemingly

rathersitwithherinsilencethannotatall.Wedonothaveaccesstohis

conversationswiththesuperintendentormedicalofficers,wedonotknowwhat

words,ifany,hespoketohiswife.Thereisnoexplicitrecordofemotioninthis

case;therearenoreferencestosadness,angerorfear,asinsomeotheraccounts.

Thisdoesnotmeanthehusbanddidnotfeelthemofcourse,andifotherfamily

members’accountsofvisitingareconsidereditispossiblethatratherthan

takingsolacefrombeinginhiswife’spresencehefoundhisvisitsheartbreaking.

Somepatients’casefilescontainvisitor’sslipsdetailingwhovisitedand

when.Theydonotallhavethem,anditmightbeassumedthatpatients’received

novisitorsandwere,assomepatients’complainedandfeared,andassome

historianshavededuced,‘abandoned’bytheirfamilies.119Certainlynotall

familieswerewillingtovisitarelativewhosecrimeandasylumcommittalhad

causedthemmisery,120buttheexistenceoffew,nooradwindlingnumberof

visitors’slipsisnotnecessarilyevidenceofdesertion.Notonlymightsomehave

beenlostintherecord-keepingprocess,butexaminingcorrespondencetothe

superintendentrevealsvariousreasonswhyfamiliescouldnotorwouldnot

visit,significantlyaddingtoourunderstandingsofthereachandimpactofthe

asylumwhilstsimultaneouslyhighlightingaffectivefamilialrelationships.There

aretheexpectedpracticalreasons;itrequiredmoneyandtime,bothofwhich

manyfamilieslacked,tomakethe(oftenlong)journeytoBroadmoor.121Joseph

Redding’swifecouldnotvisitfor‘tworeasons.IhavenothadthemeansasIwas

119D/H14/D2/2/1/936b/57,toattendant;D/H14/D2/2/1/936c/10,fromDodwelltoson.Reaume,Remembrance,p.196.120D/H14/D2/2/1/1310,medicalreport.121LetterstosuperintendentinD/H14/D2/2/1/969/8;D/H14/D2/2/1/1230/2;D/H14/D2/2/1/918/9.

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leftwithsixchildrenandmyselftoprovidefor.Ihavealsobeensufferingwith

changeoflife.ThereasbeenmanyobsticlesinmywaywhichIhavenotwanted

totroublehimwith.’122TheneedtohidetroublesformedpartofRedding’s

justification;similartoomissionsinletters,notvisitingwasframedasanactof

care.Practicalbarrierscouldbeinsurmountable,butemotionalbarrierscouldbe

too.Somefamilymemberstriedtopre-empt(andavoid)emotionallydifficult

visits.Manyworriedthattheirrelativehadlosttheirsenseofself,andthe

potentialheartbreakofencounteringsomeonetheydidnotrecognizedeterred

somefromvisiting.123Othersresistedvisitingbecausetheydreadedsaying

goodbye.Followinghisfather’sdeathonemantoldthesuperintendent:

Thankingyouverymuchforlettingmeknow.Ifeelitverymuchindeedas

wehavebeenthinkingofcomingtoseehimallthewinter…butitseems

wearetoolateandIfeelnowIcan’tseehimaliveitisnousetoseehim

buried...IonlywishIhadcomebeforebutIdreadedthepartingso

much.124

Itwasnotalwaysthevisititselfthatfamiliesdisliked,butthenearinevitabilityof

travellinghome,alone,attheendoftheday.125

IV.

Somefamilymemberspetitionedfortheirrelative’srelease,seekingtoreduce

thematerialandemotionalburdenswritingtoorvisitingBroadmoor(orthe

inabilitytodoso)hadcaused.Butdoingsoandtherealitiesoffamilylifepost-

122D/H14/D2/2/1/1102/70.123D/H14/D2/2/2/183/9,tosuperintendent.124D/H14/D2/2/1/659/9.125D/H14/D2/2/1/1705.

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dischargesometimescausedfurtherheartache,andfurthercurtailedfamilies’

agency.

Applyingforreleasewasabureaucratic,time-consumingprocess.

Patients’familiespetitionedtheHomeOffice,whichrequestedamedicalreport

andthesuperintendent’sopinion.Thisexposedthefamilytoscrutinyand

judgment,anditwasusuallyunsuccessful.Thatmanyfamiliesdiditanyway,

sometimesoftenandovermanyyears,suggeststhestrengthoftheir

attachment.126Correspondencerevealsvariousreasonswhyfamilieswanteda

relativehome.Lookingatotherasylums,historianshavearguedthateconomic

concernsdrovefamilies’petitions,butthismisrepresentsthecomplexityof

families’livesandfeelings.127Whilepovertymotivatedsomepetitionsto

Broadmoor,economicconcernswerenotalwaysthedrivingoronlyfactor.

Familieswantedrelativeshomebecausetheylovedandmissedthemand‘did

notlike’thethoughtofthemdyingatBroadmoor;moreovertheyofferedto

financiallysupporttheirrelativeuponrelease.128Additionally,thesemotivations

arenotmutuallyexclusiveandstrongemotionalattachmentspersisteddespite

financialhardship.

Successfulpetitionsusuallyresultedinaconditionaldischarge,which

legallyobligatedthepetitioningfamilymembertocarefortheirrelativeandto

reportchangesintheirmentalandphysicalconditiontotheHomeOfficeandto

Broadmoorindefinitely.Evenifpatientsexhibited‘sane’traits,includingthe

126Notallfamilieshadroomforawageearner,carer,orparentwhoseroleinthehomewasrenderedvoidbytheircommittalintoBroadmoor,andsomerefusedtocareforthemshouldtheybereleased.Spaceconstraintspreventthisbeingunpackedhere.127Smith,‘Living’;Smith,‘Thankful’,pp.246-8.FamiliesoftheIrishinsanehighlightedtheirfinancialburdens.Mauger,Cost,pp.74and100.128Forexamplecases:D/H14/D2/2/1/976/39;D/H14/D2/2/1/1085;D/H14/D2/2/1/974/3;D/H14/D2/2/1/366;D/H14/D2/2/1/1076;D/H14/D2/2/1/186;D/H14/D2/2/1/999/15.

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abilitytoworkandself-control,theirdischargecouldberefused,129becausethe

superintendentwasunconvincedaboutthepetitioningfamilymember’s

characterorabilitytocareforandsupervisetheirrelative.Applicationswere

thusastageuponwhichfamilymembersperformedtheiremotionsandtheir

lives.Clearlyawareoftheexpectationsplaceduponthem,somedescribedtheir

homes,supportivefamilynetworks,theiremploymentandrelativefinancial

stability.130Justaspatients’mighthaveperformedtheirrecoveriesinaneffortto

securerelease,andasColebornenotes,familymembersmightalsohave

performedtohelpsecurethereleaseofarelativetheyneededathome.131

Petitionsemphasizedfamilialbonds,particularlythe(alleged)willingness

offemalefamilymembers,especiallysistersandsisters-in-law,tocarefor

dischargedrelatives.132Women,seenasthemoralcornerstoneoffamiliallife,133

typicallyboretheresponsibilityforfamilialcareinVictoriansociety,134with

sistersexpectedtoassumeaparentalroleifrequired.135Whentryingtosecure

thereleaseofhisbrother-in-law,JohnMelloremphasizedthestrengthofsibling

bondstothesuperintendent:

mygoodwifehissisterbeinglikeamothertohim…hasapowerof

controloverhimthatmakesmehavenodoubt…ifheisreleasedandsent

129Shepherd,‘Veryglad’,p.476.130D/H14/D2/2/1/1102/58,tosuperintendent;D/H14/D2/2/1/714/7,tosuperintendent.131Coleborne,‘Families’,p.438.132D/H14/D2/2/1/186/26,tosuperintendent.133LéonoreDavidoff,Thickerthanwater:siblingsandtheirrelations,1780-1920(Oxford,2012),p.131.134DavidWright,‘Familialcareof“idiot”childreninVictorianEngland’,inHordonandSmith,eds.,Thelocusofcare:families,communities,institutions,andtheprovisionofwelfaresinceantiquity(London,1998),pp.176-97atpp.182-3.135Nelson,Family,pp.110-11;Frost,Victorian,p.18.

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herehewillbesafeandcaredforinamannerthatwillenablehimto

becomeausefulmemberofsociety.136

Otherfamiliesofferedtomakespaceforandcarefortheirrelativeintheiroften

alreadyover-crowdedhomes.137Itistellingthatsomefamilieswerewillingand

abletoopentheirhomestoarelativewhosecrimeandcommittalhadcaused

themsuffering,butsomewereevenpreparedtowelcomeunrelatedcriminal

lunatics.Oneformerpatient’shusband,perhapsrecognisingthatitwould

increasethehappinessofhisdischargedwife,offeredahomeandfinancial

supporttoapatientshehadbefriendedinBroadmoorandheld‘asisterlyregard’

towards.138Suchevidencefurtherchallengestheassumptionthatfamiliesonly

soughtthereleaseofrelativeswhocouldcontributetotherunningofthe

household,andhighlightsthestrengthofemotionalbonds.

Strongfamilialbondsalonewouldnotpersuadethesuperintendentto

recommenddischarge.Unlikeatotherasylums,Broadmoor’spatients’families

couldnotsimplydemandtheirreleaseandexpectapositiveoutcome.139

Petitionsweredeniedbecausefamilies’homesorincomesweredeemedunable

toaccommodateorsupportanothermember,140becausefamilymembersdrank

orwereunemployed,orbecausethesuperintendentdoubtedtheycould

superviseandcontrolthepatientiftheyrelapsed.141Thosewithlowlevelsof

agency–women,theelderlyandthepoor–notonlyfelttheeffectofarelative’s

incarcerationmostkeenlybutwerealsolesslikelytobedeemedableguardians.

136D/H14/D2/2/1/1284/28.Also,D/H14/D2//2/1/714/7.137Forexample,D/H14/D2/2/1/976/39;D/H14/D2/2/1/1085;D/H14/D2/2/1/974/3;D/H14/D2/2/1/366;D/H14/D2/2/1/1076;D/H14/D2/2/1/186;D/H14/D2/2/1/999/15.138D/H14/D2/2/2/107/5-6139Wright,‘Discharge’,p.98.140D/H14/D2/2/1/1738,frompoliceconstabletosuperintendent.141D/H14/D2/2/1/388/11;WilliamOrange,ReportsoftheSuperintendentandChaplainofBroadmoorCriminalLunaticAsylumfortheYear1885(London,1886),p.6.

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Forsome,arelative’sreturnhomewasandremained(asfarasthe

recordssuggest)ajoyousoccasion.Asatotherasylums,formerpatientsand

theirfamilieswrotetoBroadmoor’ssuperintendentdescribingtheirdelight,

reliefandgratitude,anddetailingtheirsuccessfultransitionbackintosociety.142

Somereunionsdidnotquelltheanguish,fear,sadnessandgriefsomefamily

membersfeltduringtheirrelative’sinstitutionalization,evenifitwassomething

theyhadlongedfor.Somefounditdifficulttocareforandsupervisetheir

relative,particularlyalongsideworking,maintainingahousehold,orparenting.

Ifrelativeswereamenablepost-release,andiffamilieshadsomefinancial

independence,minordifficulties,includinglossofspacewithinthehome,could

bemanaged.Fivemonthsafterhissister’sreleaseonemaninformedthe

superintendentthatshewasnolonger‘residingwithus’.Heandotherrelatives

had‘furnishedheranicelittlehomeatherownchoice…asitismoreconvenient

forus.’143Butsomefamilieswereunabletocope,particularlyiftheirrelative

becameviolentorintemperate.144Insuchcasesfamilymembershadlittlechoice

buttoinformthesuperintendent,knowingtheirrelativewouldberecommitted.

Suchcases,canthough,indicatestrongemotionalbonds.Despitethehavoctheir

relative’srelapseintointemperancewroughtupontheirhomes,MaryAnn

Mellor’shusband–whosewifehadpawnedtheirbelongings–andMatthew

Cook’ssister–whohadlentCookmoneyhecouldnotrepay–bothwaitedfour

monthsbeforeinformingthesuperintendent,hopingtheywouldrecoverat

142Forexamplethefollowingletterstosuperintendent,D/H14/D2/2/1/905/33;D/H14/D2/2/366/177;D/H14/D2/2/1/975/2;D/H14/D2/2/2/107/5;D/H14/D2/2/2/100/25;D/H14/D2/2/2/398/41;D/H14/D2/2/2/164/19-20.Smith,‘Thankful’,p.248.143D/H14/D2/2/2174/35.144LucyThompson’sbrotherrequestedhercommittalaftersheattackedhimandhiswife,D/H14/D2/2/2/105.Similarly,D/H14/D2/2/1/1705.

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home.145EventhenCook’ssisterwrotetothesuperintendentwith‘heartfelt

sorrow’.146Unlikeatordinaryasylumsfamiliesplayednoroleintheirrelative’s

initialadmissionintoBroadmoor,butlikeatordinaryasylumssomefamilies

decidedto(re)commitonlyafteraprolongedperiodofdistress,whentheycould

nolongermanagetheirrelativeathome.147Thissuggests,asStevenTaylornotes

inhisstudyofchildinsanity,thatfamilieshad‘strongemotionalbonds’with

theirillrelatives‘andwereeagertopreservethese.’148

Examiningpetitioning,dischargeandpost-asylumlife,demonstratesthe

extenttowhichpersistentobservationrenderedfamiliesbothvictimsandquasi-

patientsofasystemdesignedtoconfine,controlandrehabilitatecriminal

lunatics.Foucauldianapproachestothehistoryofpsychiatrypositionasylumsas

instrumentsofsocialcontrol,focusingonthesurveillanceandre-modellingof

patientsintoideal(bourgeois)membersofsociety.149Scholarshavehighlighted

the‘longhistoryofsurveillance’outsideoftheinstitution,andthatfamilies

policed,watchedandcontrolledinsanerelativeswithinthehome,sometimes

beforetheirasylumcommittal.150Thispolicingwassupplementedand

encouragedbydoctorsenteringthedomesticsphere,andbyneighbourswhose

curiosityandgossipingledsomefamiliestohidetheirillrelative.151Theroleof

Englishcountyasylums(andthustheState)inpolicingpatients’familiesduring

145D/H14/D2/2/2/146/6-7;D/H14/D2/2/1/1013.146D/H14/D2/2/1/1013.147Historiansagreethatfamilies’viewedasylumsasalastresort.Forexample,HilaryMarland,‘Athomewithpuerperalmania:thedomestictreatmentoftheinsanityofchildbirthinthenineteenthcentury’,inBartlettandWright,eds.,Outside,pp.45-65;Suzuki,Madness;Wright,‘Discharge’.148StevenTaylor,‘“Shewasfrightenedwhilepregnantbyamonkeyatthezoo”:constructingthementally-imperfectchildinnineteenth-centuryEngland’,SocialHistoryofMedicine,30(2017),pp.748-766atp.765.149Foucault,History,p.485.150PeterBartlettandDavidWright,‘Communitycareanditsantecedents’,inBartlettandWright,eds.,Outside,pp.1-8,13.151Marland,‘Athome’;Suzuki,Madness.

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andaftertheirrelative’sasylumstayisrarelyexamined.Broadmoorextended

thesurveillancetypicallyassociatedwithinsideinstitutionstothefamilyandthe

familyhomebothbeforeandafterpatients’discharge.Families’actionsand

healthwereobservedtodeterminewhethertheirrelativeshouldbedischarged.

Iftheywere,thepriceofreleasewasacceptingtherolesofactorandsubjectin

continuedsurveillance.Familieshadtopoliceandreporttheirrelative’s

behaviour,orthepolicewouldenquire.152TheDischargedPrisoner’sAidSociety

watchedsomeformerpatientsandtheirfamiliesandreportedtheirbehaviourto

Broadmoor.153Formerpatientswatchedtheirfamilymembers,too;some

reportedtheirmisdeedstothesuperintendent,particularlyiftheywantedto

moveoutoftheirhome.154Families’agencywasthuslimitedbytheirrelative’s

committalandfurthercurtailedbytheirrelease.Families’remainedsupervised

andinlimboaslongastheirrelativelived,andforaslongastheyremained

committedtothemeveniftheywereeventuallydischarged;thiswasnotloston

someoftheirfriends:‘Ican’thelpbutwishingthatthepoorfellowmaydie,forit

seemssuchawretchedlifeforthepoorlittlewomantogoonhopingagainst

hope.’155Forfamilymemberswhowishedtoremainincontactwiththeir

relative,anysemblanceofagencywouldonlyreturnupontheirrelative’sdeath.

V.

TheextensionofthefamilyandfamilialsupportintoBroadmoorlastedoverthe

courseofsomepatients’lives.Whentheirrelativesweredying,somefamilies

152D/H14/D2/2/1/1705.153D/H14/D2/2/2/105.154D/H14/D2/2/2/105/16.D/H14/D2/2/1/1565155D/H14/D2/2/1/918/7,tosuperintendent.

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wereshockedandsaddened,especiallyiftheywereunabletovisittheasylum.156

Someappearedfearful,particularlyiftheyhadstrongreligiousfaith.Perhapsin

anefforttosupportthemontheirfinaljourney,suchfamilymembersbeseeched

theirrelativestoatonebeforeitwastoolate.157Aswellasrelyingontangible

supportnetworks,somefoundsolaceintheprospectofanafterlife.Onedying

patient’sbrotheraskedthesuperintendent:

toconveytomybrothermyeverbestandmostaffectionatelovetohim

forhistruehappinessinthisworldtocometobehappyforever&ever

throughourLordandSaviourJesusChristthisismyeverearnestprayer

totheLordJesusonhisbehalfthatifIdonotseehimanymoreinthis

world,thatIdohopetomeethiminheaven,wherepartingwillbeno

more.158

Families’letterstoBroadmoorduringandaftertheirrelative’sfinal

illnesssuggeststrongfamilialbonds.Thebereavedsometimesexpressedsorrow

andregret,particularlyiftheyhadbeenunabletovisittheirrelativewhilstthey

werealive,andespeciallyiftheyhadbeenabsentattheirdeath.159InVictorian

societywitnessingarelative’sdeathprovidedasenseofcontroland(itwas

hoped)thecomfortofknowingtheirfinalhourswerepainless.160Family

membersunabletobeattheirdyingrelative’sside,orthoseinformedofa

suddendeath,soughtcomfort;theyaskedthesuperintendentabouttheirfinal

156Familymemberswereinvitedtovisitandstaywiththeirdyingrelative.RulesfortheguidanceoftheofficersofBroadmoorCriminalLunaticAsylum(London,1863).157D/H14/D2/2/1/973/5,toThornley.158D/H14/D2/2/1/605/5.159D/H14/D2/2/1/739/11,tosuperintendent.160Strange,Death,p.50.

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days,presumablyseekingreassurancetheywerenotaloneorinpain.161Some

familymembersmighthavebeenindifferenttoarelative’sdeath,particularlyif

theirrelationshiphadbeenfraught,yetevenwhenrelationshipshadbeen

fractioussorrowstillmaterialized.WhenDodwelldiedin1900hehadnotseen

hisdaughtersorseenorheardfromhispreviouslydutifulsonEdwardformany

years.UntilhisdeathDodwell’srelationshipwithhisfamilyseemedirreparable,

yethissonHenry’sfinallettertothesuperintendentdescribedhisloveand

sorrow,anddeclared,‘Ishalleverdeeplyregretmyabsencefromhissideatthe

last.’162PerhapstryingtoconsoleHenry,thesuperintendentrepliedthathewas

theonlypersonDodwellhadwishedtoseebeforehisdeathbuthehadnot

knownwhereatelegrammightreachhimintime.163Manybereavedfamily

members,includingHenry,alsoexpressedrelief;theendofrelatives’‘painand

sorrow’wasa‘greatblessing’.164Giventheemotionalandfinancialburdens

patients’familiescarried,arelative’sdeathreleasedallinvolved.Familiesno

longerhadtoworryaboutvisitingorwriting,orabouttheirrelative’shealthor

treatment,andtheywerenolongerpoliced.Itmightalsohaveeasedanyfamilial

tensionoutsideofBroadmoor.

MostpatientswhodiedatBroadmoorwereburiedtherebecauseitcost

familiesnothing.Someregrettedthis.IsobelTaylortoldthesuperintendent:‘I

should[have]liked[myaunt]tohavebeenburiedatArmitageBridgeChurch,

butIfinditwillbeexpensiveandIhavemyagedfathertolive[with]mehaving

161D/H14/D2/2/2/183/67;D/H14/D2/2/1/743/6;D/H14/D2/2/1/743;D/H14/D2/2/1/964/15.162D/H14/D2/2/1/936c/216.163D/H14/D2/2/1/936c/217.164D/H14/D2/2/2/178/36;D/H14/D2/2/1/973/9;D/H14/D2/2/1/1075/14;D/H14/D2/2/1/569/12;D/H14/D2/2/2/178/36;D/H14/D2/2/2/1075/14;D/H14/D2/2/2/183/67,alltosuperintendent.

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onlylatelylostmymother.165LikeotherVictorianwomen,Taylorhadassumed

thedutyofcaringforherelderlyfather;thecostoffulfillingherfilialduty

preventedherdoingasshewishedforheraunt.Manyfamilymembers,including

Taylor,alsoregrettedtheirinabilitytoattendtheirrelative’sfuneral;thecost

anddistanceremainedtoogreat.166WhileusualVictorianburialsites

‘representedalocusforexpressionsofgriefandcommemorationthroughthe

installationofheadstones,giftsofflowers,andvisitstothegrave’,167

Broadmoor’swascomparativelyaustere.Butempty,unadornedgravesides

representednotalifeunlovedorforgotten,butthehardshipsand

insurmountableresponsibilitiesfacedbytheworkingfamiliesoftheVictorian

criminallyinsane.AlthoughBroadmoor’sburialspaceundoubtedlyreceived

fewermournersthanatypicalVictoriancemetery,somefamilymemberswere

abletovisittogrieveandremember.168Followingarelative’sfuneralsome

familiescontinuedtodemonstratetheirlove.AnthonyOwston’ssonssent

wreathstobeplaceduponhisgraveeachChristmas,Easterandonthe

anniversaryofhisdeath,prolongingtheiremotionalconnectionwiththeasylum

wheretheirfatherhadspentthemajorityoftheirlives.169

Somefamiliesrejectedaprivateburialbecausetheybelievedthatafter

yearsofincarcerationBroadmoorwastheirrelative’srightfulrestingplace.170

OthersseizedtheopportunitytoarrangeafuneralawayfromBroadmoor.

GeorgeThomasPettwas,hiswifetoldthesuperintendent,‘laidtorestwhereI165D/H14/D2/2/2/2/183/67.166D/H14/D2/2/1/400;D/H14/D2/2/2/166/10;D/H14/D2/2/1/740/28;D/H14/D2/2/1/996/29-30;D/H14/D2/2/1/659/12;D/H14/D2/2/1/964/15;D/H14/D2/2/1/996/29-30;D/H14/D2/2/1/760/38,23;D/H14/D2/2/2/178/30.167Strange,Death,p.192.168Somefamilymembersthankedthesuperintendentfortheservice.D/H14/D2/2/1/918/22-23.169D/H14/D2/2/1/963/48-52,tosuperintendent.170D/H14/D2/2/2/178/30,tosuperintendent.

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knowhelongedtobewithourlittlegirlLillian.’171Dodwellwasburiedin

WokingCemetery,‘farfromthatplacethathassocruellyheldhimforover22

longyearsfromthosethatlovedhimsodearly.’172Afteryearsoftryingand

failingtoliberatetheirlovedone,exercisingthepowertoremovetheirbody

fromBroadmoorwasonewayfamiliesdemonstratedtheirloveandattachment.

Italsomeantthattheycouldfinallyfulfilltheir(oftenyears’old)promise,

withouttheagreementoftheHomeOfficeandtheasylum’ssuperintendent,to

bringtheirrelativehome.

VI.

TheBroadmoorarchiveisarepositoryoflove,sorrow,andhope,alivewith

storiesofloss,poverty,desperationandkinship.Analysisoffamilies’

correspondencetotheasylumhasenabledthefirstin-depthexaminationofthe

effectsofasylumcommittalonindividualfamilymembers.Thefindings

demonstratethevalueofconsideringthelives,experiencesandsubjective

identitiesofindividualfamilymembers,focusingontheirwordsandactions–

andsometimestheirsilence–andpayingcloseattentiontofactorsincluding

class,lifestage(andage)and,incasesoflong-termcommittal,changeovertime.

Thisarticledemonstratesthatasylumsaffectedpatients’familiesinmorevaried

andcomplexwaysthanhaspreviouslybeenacknowledged.Weseethefinancial

andemotionaldistresscaused,especiallytowives,howindividualidentities

werechallengedandreconfigured,andthecurtailmentofindividuals’(often

alreadylimited)agency,notleastbecausetheasylumobservedthem,too.But

171D/H14/D2/2/1/1689.172D/H14/D2/2/1/936c/216,tosuperintendent.

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kinshipalsoprovedresilient;despitethesedifficultiesfamilymembersstroveto

maintainrelationshipswith,andtocarefor,theirrelativeduringandaftertheir

incarceration.Crucially,weseetheirmotivationswerenotlimitedto,oreven

primarily,financial,butwereshapedbyadesiretopreservefamilialbonds,even

ifincircumscribedform.Evidently,somefamiliestriedandmanagedtogive

meaningtorelationshipsalteredbytheasylum.TheBroadmoorcorrespondence

demonstratesfamilies’presencewithintheasylumbutalsohighlightstheneed

formorenuancedreadingsoftheirabsence:itdidnotnecessarilymean

abandonment,butpoverty,love,fearandsadness.

Thesignificanceandresilienceofaffectivefamilybondsforpatients’

familymembersfoundhereshowsthattofullyunderstandhowtheimpactsof

committalreverberatedbeyondtheasylum’swallswemustre-evaluateother

collectionsofcorrespondencewithacloserengagementwiththehistoryofthe

family.Doingsowillallowexistingassumptionsaboutthe(mostsignificant)

effectsonfamiliestobereviewed,andwillfurtherilluminatetheeffectsof

asylumcommittalonconceptionsoftheselfandthefamily.Althoughoutsidethe

scopeofthisarticle,comparinghowfamiliesindifferentregionsappearedto

copewithlosingarelativetotheasylummayrevealtheroleregionalsocialand

culturaldifferences,andlocalizedunderstandingsofkinship,playedinfamilies’

abilitytowithstandthecommittalofarelative,andshedfurtherlightonthe

historyofthefamily.Historiansmustcontinuetolookbeyondtheasylum’swalls.

Onlywhenweunderstandthebroadersocialimpactsof(long-term,long-

distance)asylumcommittalwillwestarttounderstandthefullextentoftherole

andsignificanceoftheVictorianasylum.


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