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1 LIFE FOR THE FAMILIES OF THE VICTORIAN CRIMINALLY INSANE * JADE SHEPHERD University of Lincoln Running head: FAMILIES OF THE VICTORIAN INSANE Abstract. This article uses hundreds of letters written by the families of patients committed into Victorian Broadmoor Criminal Lunatic Asylum to provide the first sustained examination of the effects of asylum committal on patients’ individual family members. It shows that despite what historians have previously suggested the effect on families was not solely, or even necessarily primarily, economic; it had significant emotional effects, and affected family members’ sense of self and relationships outside the asylum. It also shows that family ties and affective relationships mattered a great deal to working-class Victorians. Some found new ways to give meaning to their relationship with, and the life of, their incarcerated relative, despite the costs this entailed. By taking a new approach – engaging with the history of the family, shifting focus from patients to their individual family members, and considering factors including age, class, gender, change over time and life stage – this article demonstrates the breadth and depth of the effects of asylum committal, and in doing so provides new and significant insights into the history of the Victorian asylum. It also enriches the history of the family by providing an insight into working-class quotidian lives, bonds, and emotions. School of History and Heritage, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, LN6 7TS [email protected] * I would like to thank Joel Morley for reading multiple drafts of this article, the three anonymous reviewers for their very kind and generous feedback, and Emma Griffin for her swift and helpful communication following the acceptance of this article.

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LIFEFORTHEFAMILIESOFTHEVICTORIANCRIMINALLYINSANE*

JADESHEPHERD

UniversityofLincoln

Runninghead:FAMILIESOFTHEVICTORIANINSANE

Abstract.Thisarticleuseshundredsofletterswrittenbythefamiliesofpatients

committedintoVictorianBroadmoorCriminalLunaticAsylumtoprovidethefirst

sustainedexaminationoftheeffectsofasylumcommittalonpatients’individual

familymembers.Itshowsthatdespitewhathistorianshavepreviouslysuggested

theeffectonfamilieswasnotsolely,orevennecessarilyprimarily,economic;ithad

significantemotionaleffects,andaffectedfamilymembers’senseofselfand

relationshipsoutsidetheasylum.Italsoshowsthatfamilytiesandaffective

relationshipsmatteredagreatdealtoworking-classVictorians.Somefoundnew

waystogivemeaningtotheirrelationshipwith,andthelifeof,theirincarcerated

relative,despitethecoststhisentailed.Bytakinganewapproach–engagingwith

thehistoryofthefamily,shiftingfocusfrompatientstotheirindividualfamily

members,andconsideringfactorsincludingage,class,gender,changeovertime

andlifestage–thisarticledemonstratesthebreadthanddepthoftheeffectsof

asylumcommittal,andindoingsoprovidesnewandsignificantinsightsintothe

historyoftheVictorianasylum.Italsoenrichesthehistoryofthefamilyby

providinganinsightintoworking-classquotidianlives,bonds,andemotions.

SchoolofHistoryandHeritage,UniversityofLincoln,Lincoln,[email protected]*IwouldliketothankJoelMorleyforreadingmultipledraftsofthisarticle,thethreeanonymousreviewersfortheirverykindandgenerousfeedback,andEmmaGriffinforherswiftandhelpfulcommunicationfollowingtheacceptanceofthisarticle.

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I.

Intheearly1890sMrsCooper,seeminglyfraughtandworn-down,repliedtoa

letterfromherhusbandwhohadbeenincarceratedinBroadmoor,Englandand

Wales’firstcriminallunaticasylum,fortwenty-fiveyears:

IwassurprisedthatyouwillcontinuewritingasIwishyouwouldnotas

itupsetsmeverymuchandIhopeyouwon’tdosoanymore…Itrustyou

willneverwritetomeagainnoranyoneelseasitmakesmeillfromall

thesorrowIhavegonethrough.

AndaskGodtoforgiveyouasIhavehadastrugglingtimeofittheselast

25yearsithasbroughtmedowntoapooroldwomanandyourchildren

havequiteforgotyouandneverthinkanythingofyouandnoonenever

mentionsyourname.

Andasforthechildrentheyareallscatteredaboutthecountrytryingto

getanhonestlivingandhavenothingtoshareandIhavenothing.

Shedeclaredshewasleavingherhomeand‘therewillbenoonetotakeany

morelettersinsoitsnousewriting.’1Onlyfragmentsofthisletterremain;how

sheaddressedherhusbandorendedtheletterisunknown.Nevertheless,whatis

thereisvisceral,reflectingyearsofdistressandhardship.Otherdocumentsin

1BerkshireRecordOffice(BRO),D/H14/D2/2/1/373/6.AllreferencesbeginningD/H14arefromtheBRO;allaretolettersunlessstatedotherwise,withsender/recipientomittedifevidentinthetext.

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Cooper’scasefilesuggesthisfamilyseveredtieswithhim.Yearslater,when

Cooperwasgravelyill,Broadmoor’sstaffwroteanotetoinformhislovedones.

Theyfailedtolocatethemand‘nofriends’wasscribbledonthenote.Suchcases

highlightthelong-termpainandhardshipsomefamiliesexperienceddueto

havingabreadwinner,fatherandhusbandcommittedintoBroadmoor.Such

lettersallowhistorianstoviewasylumsfromthebottom-up,providingaglimpse

at‘thehumanandemotionalsideofpatientandfamilylives,anaspectthatis

oftenmissingfromofficialbureaucraticsources.’2Theserare,valuablesources

enablenewandsignificantinsightsintotheVictorianasylum.

The1845AsylumsActrequiredeachcountyinEnglandandWalesto

haveanasylumforitspauperinsane.Scholarsandhistoriansofpsychiatryhave

debatedtheroleandsignificanceoftheVictorianasylum.Muchattentionhas

beenpaidtowhyasylumsemerged,whypatientswereadmittedandhowthey

weretreated,whypatientsweredischarged,andtheexperiencesofthosewho

workedandlivedinsidethem.3Overthelastthirtyyearshistorianshave

respondedtoRoyPorter’scalltowritemedicalhistory‘frombelow’,withafocus

onpatients.Doingsohashelpedtodevelopourunderstandingoftheroleand

2LouiseWannell,‘Patients’relativesandpsychiatricdoctors:letterwritingintheYorkRetreat,1875–1910’,SocialHistoryofMedicine,20(2007),pp.297–313atp.299.3JonathanAndrewsandAnneDigby,eds.,Sexandseclusion,classandcustody:perspectivesongenderandclassinthehistoryofBritishandIrishpsychiatry(NewYork,2004);JosephMelling,BillForsytheandRichardAdair,‘Families,communitiesandthelegalregulationoflunacyinVictorianEngland:assessmentsofcrime,violenceandwelfareinadmissionstotheDevonAsylum,1845–1914’,inPeterBartlettandDavidWright,eds.,Outsidethewallsoftheasylum:thehistoryofcareinthecommunity1750–2000(LondonandNewBrunswick,1999),pp.153–80;AnneDigby,Madness,moralityandmedicine:astudyoftheYorkRetreat1796–1914(CambridgeandNewYork,1985);MichelFoucault,Historyofmadness,trans.byJohnMurphyandJeanKhalfa(LondonandNewYork,2006);LouiseHide,GenderandclassinEnglishasylums,1890–1914(Basingstoke,2014);AndrewScull,Themostsolitaryofafflictions:madnessandsocietyinBritain,1700–1900(NewHavenandLondon,1993);JosephMellingandBillForsythe,Thepoliticsofmadness:thestate,insanityandsocietyinEngland,1846–1914(LondonandNewYork,2006).

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reachoftheasylum.4Giventhatmanyfamilieswereinvolvedinthecommittalof

insanerelativesintoasylums,itstandstoreasonthatmostpatientshadatleast

onefamilymemberaffectedbytheircommittal.Thereareswathesofthe

population–thespouses,children,parentsandsiblingsoftheinsane,aswellas

theirfriendsandneighbours–whoseliveswereaffectedbytheexistenceof

theseinstitutions.Yetweknowlittleabouthowpatients’familiesinEnglandand

Waleswereaffectedby,respondedto,andovercamearelative’sasylum

committal.Workthusremainstobedoneifwearetounderstandthefullimpact

andreachoftheasylum.

Whileexcellentstudiesdoexist,whatweknowaboutpatients’families

representsthetipoftheiceberg.Weknowthatfamilieswrotetoasylumsto

requestinformationorexpressconcernabouttheirrelative’swellbeing,toask

aboutanasylum’sprocedures,ortoobtaintheirrelative’sdischarge.5Yet

historians’considerationsofthesepointsrarelyincludethebroadersocialand

familialcontextofsuchrequestsandconcerns.Historianshaveacknowledged

thatasylumrecordsareusefulforexploringfamilylife,buttheirfocustends

towardsthe(domestic)reasonsindividualsdevelopedinsanity;howfamilies

copedwithcaringforaninsanerelativeathome;families’rolesinadmissionand

discharge;andfamilies’relationshipswithasylumdoctors,andtheirrolein

4RoyPorter,‘Thepatient’sview:doingmedicalhistoryfrombelow’,TheoryandSociety,14(1985),pp.175–98;AllanBeveridge,'Lifeintheasylum:patients'lettersfromMorningside,1873-1908',HistoryofPsychiatry,9(1998),pp.431-69;AlexandraBacopoulos-ViauandAudeFauvel,‘Thepatient’sturn.RoyPorterandpsychiatry’stales,thirtyyearson’,MedicalHistory,60(2016),pp.1–18;LeonardD.Smith“‘Yourverythankfulinmate”:discoveringthepatientsofanearlycountylunaticasylum’,SocialHistoryofMedicine,21(2008),pp.237–52.5CharlotteMackenzie,Psychiatryfortherich:ahistoryofTicehurstPrivateAsylum,1792–1917(LondonandNewYork,1992);AnnaShepherd,Institutionalizingtheinsaneinnineteenth-centuryEngland(Oxon,2014),pp.72-87.

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shapingmedicalcare.6Whentheimpactonfamiliesisexplicitlyconsideredthe

focustendstowardsthematerialeffectuponthehousehold.7Butfocusingon

economicsdoesnotgofarenough.ItpaintsVictorianfamiliesasprimarily

pragmaticunitsofdomesticeconomicsratherthantheliving,feelingpeoplethat

historiansofthefamilyhaveuncovered.8Moreover,approacheswhichconsider

thehouseholdratherthanitsconstituentsoverlookthefactthateffectswerenot

containedwithinsinglehouseholdsand,moreimportantly,thatdifferentfamily

memberswereaffecteddifferentlyandfounddifferentwaystoovercomethe

lossofarelativetotheasylum.Overlookingthesethingsunderplaysthe

significanceandimpactoftheVictorianasylum,andmisrepresentstheVictorian

working-classfamiliestryingtonavigatelifewithoutaspouse,parent,childor

sibling.9RecentworkonIrishasylumsundertakenbyCatherineCoxandAlice

Maugerprovidessomeevidenceofaffectivefamilialbonds,10andscholars

6CaraDobbing,‘Thefamilyandinsanity:theexperienceoftheGarlandsAsylum,1862-1910’inCarolBeardmore,CaraDobbingandStevenKing,eds.,FamilylifeinBritain1650-1910(2019,Cham,Switzerland),pp.135-54;MarkFinnane,‘Asylums,familiesandthestate’,HistoryWorkshopJournal,20(1985),pp.134–48;MarjorieLevine-Clark,‘Dysfunctionaldomesticity:femaleinsanityandfamilyrelationshipsamongtheWestRidingpoorinthemid-nineteenthcentury’,JournalofFamilyHistory,25(2000),pp.341–61;Smith,‘Thankful’;Wannell,‘Patients’;JohnWalton,‘CastingoutandbringingbackinVictorianEngland:pauperlunatics,1840-1870’,inWilliamF.Bynum,RoyPorterandMichaelShepherd,eds.,Theanatomyofmadness:essaysinthehistoryofpsychiatry(3vols.,London,1985-88),VII(1985),pp.132-46;DavidWright,‘Thedischargeofpauperlunaticsfromcountyasylumsinmid-VictorianEngland:thecaseofBuckinghamshire,1853-1872’,inJosephMellingandBillForsythe,eds.,Insanity,institutionsandsociety,1800-1914:asocialhistoryofmadnessincomparativeperspective(LondonandNewYork,1999),pp.93-113atp.94;Idem.‘Gettingoutoftheasylum:understandingtheconfinementoftheinsaneinthenineteenth-century’,SocialHistoryofMedicine,10(1997),pp.137-55.7CathySmith,‘Livingwithinsanity:narrativesofpoverty,pauperismandsicknessinasylumrecords1840-76’,inA.Gestrich,E.HurrenandS.King,eds.PovertyandsicknessinmodernEurope:narrativesofthesickpoor,1780-1938,(London,2012),pp.117-41.8EllenRoss,Loveandtoil:motherhoodinoutcastLondon1870-1918(Oxford,1993);Julie-MarieStrange,FatherhoodandtheBritishWorkingClass1865-1914(Cambridge,2015).9DobbingestablishedwhatproportionofthefirsthundredentriesinGarlands’visitorsbookfrom1900-1904werespouses,siblings,orparents,andsuggestedthisrevealedthesignificanceofsiblingbonds.However,asitisunclearwhetheradistinctionwasmadebetweenuniqueandrepeatvisitors,thestatisticalbasisofthisobservationmaybeunreliable.‘Family’,pp.143-4.10CatherineCox,NegotiatinginsanityinthesoutheastofIreland,1820-1900(Manchester,2012);AliceMauger,Thecostofinsanityinnineteenth-centuryIreland:public,voluntaryandprivateasylumcare(Basingstoke,2017).

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workingoncolonialasylumshaveilluminatedhowfamilieswereaffected

emotionally.11CatharineColebornehasusedfamilies’correspondencewith

asylumsinAustralasiatoexaminetherelationshipbetweenthecolonialfamily

andtheasylum,observingthatletters‘affordusaglimpseofemotional

responsestomanagingmentalbreakdown’andinsights‘intothelivesof

families’.12LikeColeborne,Iusefamilies’correspondencetomovebeyondthe

wallsoftheasylumandunitethehistoriesoftheasylumandthefamily.Idothis

withinthecontextoflate-VictorianEngland,andwithafocusontheday-to-day

livesandexperiencesofthefamiliesofapproximately525patientscommitted

intoBroadmoorbetween1863and1900.

Broadmooropenedin1863inBerkshire.IthousedQueen’spleasure

patients,whohadcommittedacrimeandwerefoundinsanewhentried,and

insaneconvicts,whohadbeenconvictedofacrimeandimprisonedbefore

developinginsanityinprison.13ItspatientscamefromalloverEnglandand

Wales,14andunlikemanypatientsincountyasylumsmostwerealongwayfrom

theirfamilies.15LikeotherVictorianasylumsBroadmoorwasnotan

11CatharineColeborne,‘Families,patientsandemotions:asylumsfortheinsaneincolonialAustraliaandNewZealand,c.1880–1910’,SocialHistoryofMedicine,19(2006),pp.425–42;Idem.Madnessinthefamily:insanityandinstitutionsintheAustralasiancolonialworld,1860-1914(Basingstoke,2010);Mary-EllenKelm,‘Women,familiesandtheProvincialHospitalfortheInsane,BritishColumbia,1905-1915’,JournalofFamilyHistory,19(1994),pp.177-93;BronwynLabrum,‘Lookingbeyondtheasylum:genderandtheprocessofcommittalinAuckland,1870–1910’,NewZealandJournalofHistory,26(1992),pp.125–44.12Coleborne,‘Families’,pp.428,434.13ForBroadmoor’spatients,JadeShepherd,‘“Oneofthebestfathersuntilhewentoutofhismind”:paternalchild-murder,1864-1900’,JournalofVictorianCulture,18(2013),pp.17-35;Idem.‘“IamnotverywellIfeelnearlymadwhenIthinkofyou”:malejealousy,murderandBroadmoorinlate-VictorianBritain’,SocialHistoryofMedicine,30(2017),pp.277-98;Idem.‘“IamverygladandcheeredwhenIheartheflute”:thetreatmentofcriminallunaticsinlate-VictorianBroadmoor’,MedicalHistory,60(2016),pp.473-91.14SomecamefromScotland,Irelandandthecolonies.15Somecountyasylumpatientswerefarfromhome.CatherineCox,HilaryMarlandandSarahYork,‘Emaciated,ExhaustedandExcited:TheBodiesandMindsoftheIrishinNineteenth-CenturyLancashireAsylums’,JournalofSocialHistory,46,2(2012),500–24

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impenetrablewalledfortress.16Bywritingandvisitingfamilieswerealmost

ever-presentwithintheasylum.Usinghundredsofletters,whichsurvivein

patients’casefiles,Iexplorethematerialandemotionaleffectshavingarelative

committedintoBroadmoorhadonindividualfamilymembers.Historianshave

lamentedthescarcityofsuchsources,17andhaveextractedlaycommentary

frommedicalcasenotesandphysicians’casebooksbut,asJonathanAndrews

highlights,thesereportlayvoicesthroughthebiasedgazeofthephysician.18The

quantity,contentandcontextoftheBroadmoorlettersmakethemanunusually

richandunmediatedsourceforexaminingtheimpactsofasylumcommittalon

families.Wecanreadtheiremotionsandseeglimpsesoftheirday-to-daylives

andactions.Queen’sPleasurepatients’familiesseeminglywrotethemostletters

andarethusthemainfocus,butinsaneconvictpatients’familiesoccasionally

feature.19Whilefewerlettersfromthelatterappeartoexistthisdoesnotmean

theywereuncaring.SomeconvictsweretransferredtoBroadmoorwithouttheir

families’knowledge;somedidnothavethesamefamilialnetworksasQueen’s

pleasurepatients;andsuchnetworks–and/ortheinclinationtowriteletters–

mayhavebeendiminishedbyconstraintsonletterwritingwhileinprison,which

‘greatlyreduced[letters]usefulnesstoanyonegenuinelyseekingtokeepalive

emotionalattachmenttosomeoneoutside’.20Thesurvivinglettersrevealthe

practicalsignificanceoffamilymembers’relationshipswiththeirincarcerated

relativesandtheeffectsonfamilies,bothduringarelative’scommittalandafter

16EssaysinBartlettandWright,eds.,Outside;Coleborne,Madness;Idem.‘Families’.17Dobbing,‘Family’.18JonathanAndrews,‘Casenotes,casehistories,andthepatient’sexperienceofinsanityatGartnavelRoyalAsylum,Glasgow,inthenineteenthcentury’,SocialHistoryofMedicine,11(1998),pp.255–81.19MoreQueen’spleasurepatients’casefilescontainedlettersfromfamilymembersandingreaterquantitiesthaninsaneconvicts’files.20PhilipPriestley,Victorianprisonlives(London,1999),p.198.

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theirdischarge.Because84percentofthosecommittedintoBroadmoor

between1863and1900wereworkingclass,thelettersalsoprovideanunusual

windowintoworking-classfamilylife,emotions,andsubjectivities.21Innormal

circumstancesworking-classfamiliesdidnottypicallyexchange(orkeep)

regularletters,22buttheenforcedseparationofcommittalencouragedepistolary

correspondence,andtheoralqualityoftheletterssuggeststhepoorwere

typicallywritingforthemselves.23Bothmaleandfemalefamilymembers,

sometimesfromwithinthesamefamily,wrotetoBroadmoor.Lettersoften

appeartoactassubstitutesforconversationsthatwecanimaginewouldhave

takenplaceinthehomeorinthesuperintendent’sofficehaddistancenot

necessitatedwrittencommunication.Accesstotheoriginalcorrespondenceis,

nevertheless,partial;whyparticularletterswerekeptorduplicatedis

indeterminablebutoftenonlyonesideoftheconversationremains,only

portionsofsomeletterswereretained,andoccasionallylegibilityisanissue.24

Nevertheless,theyareahighlyvaluablequalitativesource.Thepresenceof

patients’repliestofamilymembers’lettersshowsthatsomereachedtheir

intendedrecipients.Whetherornotthesuperintendentcensoredletterseither

bynotpassingthemonorreadingthemtopatients,theydoshowwhatfamily

memberswantedtocommunicate.Theyareidealforexploringquestionsof

21JadeShepherd,‘Victorianmadmen:Broadmoor,masculinityandtheexperiencesofthecriminallyinsane,1863–1900’(unpublishedPhDthesis,QueenMaryUniversityofLondon,2013),pp.59–62.22StevenKing,WritingthelivestheEnglishpoor1750s-1830s(Canada,2019),p.20;PennySummerfield,Historiesoftheself.Personalnarrativesandhistoricalpractice(London,2019),p.23.23InthisrespecttheyresemblethepauperlettersthatKingandLindseyEarner-Byrneexamined.King,Writing,pp.35-37;Earner-Byrne,‘“Dearfathermyhealthhasbrokendown”:writinghealthinIrishcharityletters,1922-1940’,SocialHistoryofMedicine,28(2015),pp.849-68atp.852.24Astheasylumdidnotretainalllettersquantitativeanalysishaslimitedutility.

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familyties,agencyandemotion.25Lettersbetweenfamilymembersandto

Broadmoor’ssuperintendentprovideanintimateinsightintofamilies’emotional

worldsinnineteenth-centuryEngland.Theydisplaylife,emotionsand

relationshipsastheywerelivedinrealtime,ratherthanastheywere

reimaginedinthecomposedautobiographicalaccountshistorianstendtorely

upontoexaminefamilylifeandsubjectivities.26

Thisarticleoffersthefirstsustainedexaminationoftheeffectsofasylum

committalonpatients’individualfamilymembers.Byshiftingfocusfromthe

effectsonpatientstotheeffectsonfamilies,andbytakinganewapproach–

engagingwiththehistoryofthefamily,andfocusingonindividualfamily

members,consideringfactorsincludingage,class,gender,changeovertimeand

stageinlifecycle–thisarticleexaminesthereachandsignificanceoftheasylum

furtherbeyonditswalls.Ittellsanimportant,untoldnarrativefromthe

perspectiveoffamilymembersandopensnewinsightsintothehistoriesofthe

asylumandfamilylifeinthelatenineteenthcentury.Inthefirsthalfofthearticle

itisshownthateffectsofasylumcommittalonfamilieswerenotsolelyoreven

primarilyeconomic.Itaffectedtheirrelationshipsoutsideoftheasylum,and

theirsenseofself;one’sroleinthefamily‘playedanimportantpartinthe…

formulationofpersonalidentity’,27andthelossofarelativetoBroadmoorforced

somefamilymemberstoreconfiguretheirrole.Nevertheless,despitethe

25Summerfield,Histories,p.28.26JoanneBailey(Begiato),‘MasculinityandfatherhoodinEnglandc.1760-1830’,inJohnH.ArnoldandSeanBrady,eds.,Whatismasculinity?historicaldynamicsfromantiquitytothecontemporaryworld(NewYork,2011),pp.167-86;Idem.ParentinginEngland,1760-1830:emotion,identity,andgeneration(Oxford,2012);MeganDoolittle,‘Fatherhoodandfamilyshame:masculinity,welfareandtheworkhouseinlatenineteenth-centuryEngland’,inLucyDelap,BenGriffinandAbigailWills,eds.,ThepoliticsofdomesticauthorityinBritainsince1800(Basingstoke,2009),pp.84-108;EmmaGriffin,‘Theemotionsofmotherhood:love,cultureandpovertyinVictorianBritain’,AmericanHistoricalReview,123(2018),pp.60-85.27Bailey(Begiato),Parenting,p.143.

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materialandemotionalhardshipssomefamilymembersfacedandthe

challengesposedtotheirday-to-livesandidentities,thesecondhalfofthearticle

showsthatfamilytiesandaffectiverelationshipsmatteredagreatdealto

working-classVictorians.Somefoundnewwaystogivemeaningtotheir

relationshipwiththeirincarceratedrelativedespitethedistancebetweenthem,

andtheysoughttogivemeaning–viatheirwordsandactions–totheirrelative’s

lifedespitethehardshipstheircommittalintoBroadmoorhadcaused.Yetthis

continuedattachmenthadfurthercostsforfamilies.Wherefamilialsolidarity

persistedtheasylumhadlong-lastingandfar-reachingeffects,includingbeing

policedbytheasylumaslongastheirrelativelived,eveniftheywere

discharged.

II.

CommittalintoBroadmooroftenresultedinlongdistance,long-termseparation

betweenfamiliesandtheirincarceratedrelatives.Between1863and1900just9

percentofmalepatientsand25percentoffemalepatientswerereleasedfrom

theasylum.40percentofmaleand36percentoffemalepatientsdiedthere,

and38percentofmalepatientsand30percentoffemalepatientswere

transferredtotheirlocalcountyasylum28Howmanywerelaterreleasedfrom

theirlocalasylumisunknown.Theimmediateeffectsoflosingarelativeto

Broadmoorwereburdensome,butthelong-termimpactswereoften

devastating.Theeffectswerecontingentupon,andevolvedover,thecourseof

thelifecycle.Somefamilymembersovercamethedifficultiestheyfaced,but

othersdidnot,andhereweseetheinfluencegender,class,age,andrelationship

28Shepherd,‘VictorianMadmen’,p.123.

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withtheirincarceratedrelativeandothershadonindividuals’abilityto

withstandhavingarelativeinstitutionalisedfarfromhome.

MostpatientsenteredBroadmoorduringtheprimeoftheirlives,between

theirmid-twentiesandearly-fortieswhentheentirefamilywasdependenton

men’searnings,andwomen’sdomesticwork,includingchildcare[Tables1and

2].29Manyfamiliesthusfoundtheabsenceofaspouse,parent,orchildboth

financiallyandemotionallydifficult.

Table1.TheagesofmencommittedintoBroadmoorasapercentageofthepopulation.

Table2.TheagesofwomencommittedintoBroadmoorasapercentageofBroadmoor’sfemalepopulation.

29VictorBaileyidentifiesthisageasprimeoflife,‘Thisrashact’:suicideacrossthelifecycleintheVictoriancity(Stanford,1998),p.186.

Ages1864-1867

1868-1872

1873-1877

1878-1882

1883-1887

1888-1892

1893-1897

1898-1900

Under18 0.9 0.9 1.2 0.0 0.5 0.8 1.6 1.318-27 16.8 27.5 21.5 18.8 20.7 15.5 17.5 17.528-37 29.0 33.5 39.9 39.3 32.4 29.2 35.0 33.838-47 22.0 22.7 25.2 19.4 18.6 29.9 26.8 21.348-57 15.4 10.9 6.7 14.1 17.0 17.4 10.9 10.058-67 6.8 3.9 3.7 7.3 8.0 5.3 6.6 12.568-77 1.9 0.3 1.8 1.0 2.7 1.1 1.6 3.878-87 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.8 0.0 0.0Unknown 7.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Ages1863-1867

1868-1872

1873-1877

1878-1882

1883-1887

1888-1892

1893-1897

1898-1900

Under18 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.3 0.0 0.0 1.5 0.018-27 27.0 25.0 25.5 21.1 26.8 15.6 24.6 25.028-37 29.1 37.5 34.5 35.5 35.2 34.4 38.5 20.838-47 25.0 27.8 34.5 31.6 29.6 34.4 21.5 29.248-57 8.8 6.9 5.5 7.9 5.6 10.9 10.8 12.558-67 2.7 1.4 0.0 2.6 2.8 3.1 3.1 8.368-77 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.278-87 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0Unknown 7.4 1.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.6 0.0 0.0

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Bothhusbandsandwiveswerethrustintothedualroleofhomemakerand

providerandeachstruggled.Familyhistorianshaveshownhowinstrumental

womenweretotheVictorianhome;theywerewageearners,homemakersand

carers.30Yetfemalepatients’familiesrarelysoughttoretrievemoney.One

familysoughtmoneyfortheirrelative’syoungdaughterbutperhapsonly

becausethechild’sfatherwasabsent.31Itisunsurprising,givenhowcentral

managingthehomeandcaringforchildrenwastoworking-classwives,thatthe

lossofahomemakerandmotherconcernedfamilies.Onepatient’smotherasked

thesuperintendent:‘doyouthinkshewilleverbeabletomanageherfamily

anymore?’32Many‘distressed’husbandstoldBroadmoor’ssuperintendentthey

were‘veryanxious’tohavetheirwives‘homeagain’.33Someworriedthattheir

wiveswerenotseeingtheirchildrenenough.BridgetHart’shusbandcouldnot

affordtotakehisfivechildrentoBroadmoorandaskedthesuperintendent

whethershecouldbetransferredtotheirlocalasylumso‘thatshecouldseeher

childrenoften’.34Buthusbandsalsomissedtheircompanion.Theirlettersmake

theirloveandattachmentclear;AnnieIngham’shusbandlongedtomaintain

correspondencewithhiswife.35Thatthelossoffemalerelativeswasfeltinsuch

waysdemonstratesthestrengthofaffectivebonds.Whiletheirincomewould

notalwaysstretchtocoverthereturntrainfaretoBroadmoor,patients’

husbandswerenotordinarilythrustintopovertyasaresultoftheirwife’s

committal.InhisstudyofVictoriansuicideVictorBaileyarguesthatthelossofa30EllenRoss,Love;ElizabethRoberts,Awoman’splace:anoralhistoryofworking-classwomen1890-1940(Oxford,1984),p.136;JaneLewis,‘Theworking-classmotherandstateintervention,1870-1918’,inJaneLewis,ed.,Labourandlove:women’sexperienceofhomeandfamily(NewYork:1986),pp.99-120atp.107.31D/H14/D2/2/2/175/53,tosuperintendent.32D/H14/D2/2/2/178/5.33D/H14/D2/2/2/183/7;D/H14/D2/2/2/164/7;D/H14/D2/2/2/398/14.34D/H14/D2/2/2/184/6.35D/H14/D2/2/2/183/4,tosuperintendent.

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spousedisruptedmen’sdomesticlivesmorethanwomen’s.36Anabsentwifewas

challengingforhusbands,andcertainlycausedemotionaldistress,butalthough

somemovedawaytowork,sometimesabroad,37andothersstartednew

families,38husbandswereseeminglymorewillingand(financially)ableto

preservetheirhomethanpatients’wives.Theirabilitytoremainabreadwinner,

particularlybyrelyingupontheirsistersorsisters-in-lawtohelpcarefortheir

children,meanttheyhadlessneedtoreformulatetheirownroleinthefamily,or

thefamilystructure,thanpatientswives,whocorrespondencesuggestssuffered

more.

Inthelatenineteenthcenturybeingahusbandandfathermeantleading

andexertingauthorityoverthehousehold,andprovidingfinancially.Their

husbands’absenceforcedsomepatients’wivestoreformulatetheiridentitiesby

assumingtheseresponsibilities.Insomeordinaryworking-classhouseholds

‘mothersmadeapointoftheirhusbands’authority’;fatherswere‘judgeand

arbitersofrewardsandpunishments.’39Patients’wivescouldhardlythreaten

‘youwaittillyourfathergetshome’,butsomedidrequesttheirincarcerated

husbandsperformanaspectoftheirpaternaldutybyexertingauthorityand

influenceovertheir(olderandgenerallymale)children.JosephRedding’swife

wrotetohimregardingtheirson:

Icanassureyouhehasbeenaverygreatdealoftroubleeversincehewas

15yearsold…ifonlyhewouldkeepfromhatefuldrink…Ithinkyouhad

36Bailey,Rash,pp.234-235.37D/H14/D2/2/2/183.38D/H14/D2/2/2/101.39HelenRogers,‘“Firstinthehouse”:daughtersonworking-classfathersandfatherhood’inTrevBroughtonandHelenRogers,eds.,Genderandfatherhoodinthenineteenthcentury(Basingstoke,2007),pp.126–37atp.128.

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betterwritetohimperhapsitwilldohimgoodforweareallvery

frightenedofhim.40

Inconjunctionwithrecentstudiesonfatherhood,suchcorrespondenceindicates

thatworking-classfatherswereunderstoodtobemorethanproviders,theirloss

feltinnon-materialways.41

Nevertheless,moneywasaconcern.Whatmanywivesneededfromtheir

husbandswasmoneytosupportthemselvesandtheirchildren.42Somesurvived

withouttheirhusband’swagesorphysicalpresence.Onecontinuedher

husband’srope-makingbusiness,andothersclaimedtheirpensionsorsavings.43

Butsuchcaseswererarebecausemostmalepatientsdidnothavethesethings.

Financialsurvivalwaseasierforwiveswithfewornodependentchildren,or

witholderchildrenwhocouldcontributetothehouseholdeconomy.44Butmost

wiveswerelefttocareandprovidefortheiryoungchildrenalone,with

devastatingconsequences.Lowwagesandseasonalworkdisproportionately

affectedwomen,soevenifwomenwereinorfoundworktheirearningswould

nothavematchedtheirhusbands,45andemploymentwouldnotnecessarilyhave

significantlyreducedtheiranxieties:theystillhadhomestomaintainand

childrentocarefor.Thelimitedagencyworking-classwivespossessed,andin

40D/H14/D2/2/1/1102/71.41EssaysinBroughtonandRogers,eds.,Gender;EleanorGordonandGwynethNair,‘DomesticfathersandtheVictorianparentalrole’,Women’sHistoryReview,15(2006),pp.551-9;VickyHolmes,InbedwiththeVictorians:thelife-cycleofworking-classmarriage(Basingstoke,2017),p.104;Julie-MarieStrange,‘Fatherhood,providingandattachmentinlate-VictorianandEdwardianworking-classfamilies’,HistoricalJournal,55(2012),pp.1007-27.42Ross,Love;Strange,Fatherhood,p.51.43D/H14/D2/2/1/905/18;D/H14/D2/2/1/887/5-17;D/H14/D2/2/1/811.44AnnaDavin,Growinguppoor:home,schoolandstreetinLondon,1870-1914(London,1996).45CarlChinn,Theyworkedalltheirlives:womenoftheurbanpoorinEngland,1880-1939(Manchester,1988),pp.86-8.

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particulartheirinabilitytoliveindependentlyoftheirhusbands,46meanttheloss

ofahusbandwasinmanywaysmoretraumaticthanthelossofawife.

Numerous‘anxious’and‘desolate’wivesbeggedthesuperintendentfortheir

husband’sreleasebecausetheyfearedstarvationandpoverty,asalsohappened

followingthedeathorprolongedun-orunderemploymentofabreadwinner.47

Tosurvive,somesoughtpoorreliefortookinlodgers.48Othershadlittlechoice

buttodismantletheirhomes.Someconsideredsellingtheirbelongings,but

othersremarriedorco-habited.49PatientArthurLudlow’swifehadan

illegitimatechild,andhissisterinformedhim‘[yourwife]considerssheis

utterlyfreefromyouandtendsdoingthebestforherselfandchildren.’50Some

wivesmadeharddecisions.Unabletosupportalloftheirchildren,RobertJones’

wifesenttheirten-year-olddaughtertoahomeforWaifsandStraysbecauseit

wasdeemed‘bestfor[the]childasshewillhavetrainingaswellas[the]

comfortsofagoodhome’whichhermothercouldnotprovide.51PatientJoseph

Mallon’swifewas‘veryanxious’aboutherhusbandwho‘wasalwaysgoodand

dutifultomebeingaproviderto3helplesschildren’.52Afterthesuperintendent

explainedthatherhusband’sreleasewasnotimminent,Mallon’swifetoldhim

thatthe‘oneshillingandsixpenceandoneloafofbread’herlocalparishgave

herwasinadequate.SheaskedwhetherBroadmoorhadaschoolforpatients’

46Nineteenth-centurysociety‘assumedfemaledependency’tobethenorm.Lewis,‘working-classwife’,p.106.47D/H14/D2/2/1/799/4and11;D/H14/D2/2/1/1689;D/H14/D2/2/1/1085/26;D/H14/D2/2/1/599/4.JoannaBourke,Working-classculturesinBritain1890-1960(London,1994),pp.71-81;Julie-MarieStrange,Death,griefandpovertyinBritain,1870-1914(Cambridge,2005),p.194;Strange,Fatherhood,p.56.48D/H14/D2/2/1/830/8,tosuperintendent;D/H14/D2/2/1/1102/33.Womenoftenusedlodgerstosupplementtheirincome,Roberts,Woman’s,p.141.49Forexample,D/H14/D2/2/1/829;D/H14/D2/2/1/900/9.50D/H14/D2/2/1310.51D/H14/D2/2/1/1680,tosuperintendent.52D/H14/D2/2/1/599/4,tosuperintendent.

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childrenbecause‘Iamnotabletosupportthem…Ithinktheywouldbebetterin

aschoolIwastoldtherewasaschoolnowopenforthem.’Herepliedthatthere

was‘nosuchschool’;whathappenedtothechildrenisunknown.53Mallon’swife

waslikelythinkingofschoolsforconvicts’children.54Otherpatients’wivessent

theirchildrentosuchschoolsandbecausetheyweregenderedthissometimes

meantseparatingsiblings.55Thesecasessuggestthatunlikesomepatients’

husbands,andunlikewasthecaseinsomeareas,notallwomenhadaccessto

familialorcommunitysupportnetworkswithinwhich‘auxiliaryparents’–

relativesandneighbours–operated.56Toavoidtheworkhousetheyhadto

choose;theycouldnotbebothbreadwinnerandhomemaker.Somefamilies

relocatedwhichexplainsthelackofkinship.Thestigmaofhavingacriminal

lunaticforarelative–andtheshameattachedtobothcriminalityandinsanity–

mighthaveledtosomefamiliesbeingshunnedbytheircommunitiesor

discouragedthemfromaskingforhelp.Unlikeordinaryasylumpatientswho

weresometimessecretlyadmittedbytheirfamilies,57Queen’spleasurepatients

wererarelysenttoBroadmoorwithouttheirneighbours’knowledge;press

coverageoftheircrimeandtrial,orbeingcalledtothewitnessstand,madesure

ofthat.

53D/H14/D2/2/1/599/6.ThePoorLawGuardiansrecognisedthatthisalone,themaximummostreceived,wasbarelyenoughtokeepfamiliesfromtheworkhouse.GingerFrost,Victorianchildhoods(London,2009),p.124.54From1866onwards‘destitutechildrenofaservingprisoner’couldbeadmittedintoindustrialschools.BarryGodfrey,PamelaCox,HeatherShoreandZoeAlker,Youngcriminallives:lifecoursesandlifechancesfrom1850(Oxford,2017),p.30.55D/H14/D2/2/1936a.56Ross,Love,p.156.Peoplewhostruggledexpectedfamilymemberstohelp,King,Writing,pp.75-81.57Somefamiliesrequestedprivacywhencommittingrelativesintoasylums.AkihitoSuzuki,Madnessathome:thepsychiatrist,thepatientandthefamilyinEngland,1820-1860(California,2006),p.121.

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Patients’parentswerebothgrief-strickenandthreatenedbythelossofa

malewageearner.Whilsttheymighthaveinitiallymanagedfinancially,long-

termdetentionwasmorelikelytohavenoticeablematerialeffectsontheirlives.

Financingoldagewasapressingconcernfortheagingworkingclass,forwhom

reducedemploymentopportunitiesensuredthespectreoftheworkhouse

loomedlarge.58Withoutstatepensions,manydependedupontheirwage-

earningchildren.59Onepatient’sfathertoldBroadmoor’ssuperintendent:‘Iam

…gettingoldandifIcouldonlyobtainhislibertyhewouldbeofgreatassistance

tome.’60However,anddespitethematerialhardshipssomefeared,whilesome

patients’spouseshadlittlechoicebuttoreframetheirroleinthefamily,patients’

parentsmighthaveachievedarenewedsenseofpurpose.Inordinarylife,some

agingmenandwomenstruggledwiththeirlossofparentalidentityastheir

childrenbecameindependent.61Effortstoassisttheirnow-dependentadultchild

mayhaveprovidedpatients’parentstheopportunitytocontinue(orresume)

theirparentalrole.Sometriedtoinfluencetheirchild’sexperienceat

Broadmoor,toprovidereassurance,andpromisedtocareforthemifreleased.62

PatientMaryDyson’sfathertoldherthatherhusbandhadstartedanewfamily,

andinapowerfulstatementofattachmentheremindedherthatshewasnot

alone:‘Youhaveagoodmotherandagoodfather…youhavefourbrothersand

58AkihitoSuzuki,‘Lunacyandlabouringmen:narrativesofmalevulnerabilityinmid-VictorianLondon’,inRobertaBivinsandJohnV.Pickstone,eds.,Medicine,madnessandsocialhistory,essaysinhonourofRoyPorter(Basingstoke,2007),pp.118-28.59PatThane,OldageinEnglishhistory:pastexperience,presentissues(Oxford,2000),p.297.60D/H14/D2/2/1/1092/15.Also,D/H14/D2/2/1/900/5.Theexpectationthatchildrenmighthelpagingparentsisalsoevidentincaseswherepatients’adultchildrenofferedtheirhomestothem.D/H14/D2/2/1/1085/21and23-28,tosuperintendent.Elderlymenfoundthemselvesunemployedandintheworkhousesoonerthanwomen.Davin,Growing,p.25.61Bailey,Rash,p.211.62D/H14/D2/2/1/900/4,topatientBall;D/H14/D2/2/1/900/5,tosuperintendent.Manyparentswereinalmostconstantcontactwiththesuperintendent.D/H14/D2/2/1/1068/22-56;D/H14/D2/2/1/901/5-25.

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twosisters’.Hereassuredhis‘DearDaughter’,‘ifyougetyourlibertymyselfand

yourbrotherhasahomeandagoodoneforyouaslongaswelive’.63Fathersof

sonsdemonstratedtheirattachmentintraditionalways,promisingtoprovide

workorvocationalinstructionuponrelease,muchastheymighthavedone

whentheywereonthecuspofadulthood.64Ofcourse,meetingtheneedsof

grownchildreninfantilizedbyinsanitymayhavebeenanadditionalstressfor

parentsfacingthe‘myriadlosses’ofoldage–earnings,physicalability,andtheir

spouse.65

Establishinghowpatients’youngchildrenfeltaboutlosingaparenttothe

asylumisdifficult.66Youngchildren’sguardiansoftencommunicatedmessages

fromthemtotheirincarceratedrelative:‘goodnightkisses’andwishes,anda

HappyChristmasandNewYear.67Thedifficultyofcajolingyoungchildreninto

verbalisingmessagesmighthaveencouragedtheauthortoembellishwiththe

aimofimprovingarelative’smorale.Certainly,someyoungchildrendidnot

appeartounderstandwhathadhappened,ortheimportanceoftheirwellwishes

ornewsoftheirwellbeingtotheirdetainedparent.MaryAnnDaniels’young

daughterwasbeingcaredforbyhermotherwhosentDanielsaphotograph(a

‘likeness’)ofher.Whetherinadditiontovisiting,ortocompensateforan

inabilitytodoso,theprovisionofthiskeepsakecanbereadasanactofcare,

intendedtocomfortandreassure,yetthechild’senergycausedaneedfor

63D/H14/D2/2/2/101/12.64D/H14/D2/2/1/974/3,tosuperintendent;ClaudiaNelson,FamilytiesinVictorianEngland(London,2007),p.91.65Bailey,Rash,p.212.66ToaccessVictorianchildren’sexperienceshistorianshaveusedtrialtranscripts,officialdocuments,autobiographies,fictionand,whenpossible,letters.EssaysinJaneEvaBaxterandMeredithA.B.Ellis,eds.,Nineteenthcenturychildhoodsininterdisciplinaryperspective(Oxford,2018).67D/H14/D2/2/2/184/9,tosuperintendent;D/H14/D2/2/1/1076/11,toGeorgeVarschagen;D/H14/D2/2/1/925/7,Christmascard.

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writtenreassurance:‘youmustnotthinkanythingaboutthatblackthatisupon

oneofhereyesbecauseshewoodnotsitstill…wecouldnotgethertositstill.’68

Olderchildrenweremoreconsciousofaparent’sabsence,especiallyat

particularpointsintheyearincludingChristmasandbirthdays.69

WecanassumethatforsomehavingaparentdetainedatBroadmoorwas

devastatingandconfusing,shakinganysemblanceofstabilityornormality.For

somethisbeganthemomenttheirparentcommittedacrime;somelostasibling

orparent;sometestifiedattheirparent’strial.70Aparent’scommittalinto

Broadmoordisruptedachild’shomelife;notonlywas(atleast)oneparent

absent,butstepparents,stepsiblings,orhalf-siblingssometimesappeared.Some

childrenweresentawayfromhome,oraffectedbythepovertyandstarvation

fearedorfeltwithintheirhome.Thisalsohademotionalconsequences.Inher

studyofVictorianworking-classautobiographies,Julie-MarieStrangeobserved

that‘somechildrenwereundoubtedlycontemptuousinadulthoodoffathers

whohadnotdoneenoughtosupportfamilies.’71ThisappearsintheBroadmoor

correspondence,too.Astheyaged,andperhapshavinghadtimetoreflectupon

theirchildhood,someolderchildrencriticizedtheirfatherforleavingtheir

motherdestitute.Manyyearsafterhewasconfined,Dodwellsentnumerous

lettershomeaccusinghiswifeofinfidelity.72LikeotherVictorianchildrenwho

retrospectivelyviewedtheirpoorandhard-workingmothersas‘self-sacrificing’

68D/H14/D2/2/2/175/22.Grandparentshadalonghistoryofproviding‘substituteparenting’.Bailey(Begiato),Parenting,p.204.69D/H14/D2/2/1/936a/204;D/H14/D2/2/1/936b/28.70Shepherd,‘Best’.71Strange,Fatherhood,p.80.72D/H14/D2/2/1/936c.

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and‘heroic’,hiseldestson,Henry,defendedhismotherandwhilstdoingso

highlightedDodwell’sfailureasafathertoprovide:73

motherhasbehavedinawaythatwouldbeamodeltoanotherwoman

leftwithafamilyoffouryoungchildren,owingthelast16yearsofherlife

hasbeenoneofanxietyandmisery,andtimesscarcelynotknowing

wherethenextmealwastocome.74

Somechild-parentrelationshipsweremaintainedthrough

correspondence,evolvingaschildrenaged.Asalsooccurredinordinary

circumstances,whenchildrenbecamelessreliantuponparentsforprovision

theyinsteadsoughtadvice.75Sonsinparticulardetailedtheirdailystrugglesto

theirfathers,perhapshopingtoreceivesomeguidance.76Othersonsrejected

theirfather’sattemptstoguidethem.DodwellwrotetoHenryatwork,relating

hisgrievancesandadvisinghimtochangeemployment.Henryresponded:‘I

thinkItoldyouoncebeforethattherewerenolettersallowedinthestores,but

withinthislastweekIhavereceivedtwonotes,whichIthankyoufornearly

gettingmedischarged’.Hecontinued,‘Idon’twishtoreceiveanymoreworrying

letters…neitheramIgoingtobetalkedoverbyanyonetodowhatIdonotwish

todo’.77Suchattemptstodenyfatherstheopportunitytofulfilltheirpaternal

rolewerenotnecessarilytheresultofhardfeelingscausedbytheir

incarceration,butmirrortensionsbetweenordinaryVictorianfathersandtheir

sons.78

73Davin,Growing,p.26;Griffin,‘Emotions’.74D/H14/D2/2/1/936c/104,toDodwell.75Strange,Fatherhood,p.41.76D/H14/D2/2/1/765/23.77D/H14/D2/2/1/936b/166.78Nelson,Family,p.93.

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Somefamiliesweredeterminedtoprotectchildrenfromthetraumaof

visitingorhearingfromtheirrelative,butthiscouldresultinfamilytension.

PatientAnnieIngham’sseven-year-oldsonwastoldshehaddied,discovering

thetruthten-yearslater.79Wecanonlyimaginethesubsequenttensionbetween

himandhisfatherwhohadkeptthesecret.Inothercases,thetensioncausedby

effortstoprotectchildrenisexplicit.Bytheirownaccounts,Dodwell’schildren

missedhimterriblywhentheywereyoung,butDodwell’sdaughterlater

confessedtoherfatherthattheirmotherhadencouragedthemnottowrite,80

andtheirmotheraskedthesuperintendenttosendlettersintendedforthe

childrentoherbecause‘theyprovetobeofdisadvantagetotheyoungpeople.’81

Dodwell’scaseisunusualbecauseitwasassumedthathischildrenwerebetter

offwithouthim.ThechaplainandmasteratEmmanuelHospitalexplainedhis

concernstoBroadmoor’ssuperintendent,echoingthemessageofReligiousTract

Societystoriesinwhichabsentorinadequatefathersneededreplacingwithan

appropriatemalerolemodel:82

Ihavedonemybesttobenefithischildren...Ifearthatifheweresetfree,

itcouldbeoflittlegoodtohischildren.Hewouldremovehiseldestboy

fromherewhereheisgettingausefuleducation,goodfoodandevery

possiblecare,andhisotherchildrenfromtheirplaceofshelter.

Heexpressedhisfearsclearly:‘Ithinkthefirstthingistoprotectthispoorfamily

fromthe…utter[devastation]thatwouldensueifthefatherweresetfree.’83The

79D/H14/D2/2/2/183/33,tosuperintendent.80D/H14/D2/2/1/936b/28.81D/H14/D2/2/1/936b/195.82StephanieOlsen,‘Theauthorityofmotherhoodinquestion:fatherhoodandthemoraleducationofchildreninEngland,c.1870–1900’,Women’sHistoryReview,18(2009),pp.765-80atp.772.83D/H14/D2/2/1/936a/209-10.

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confusionanddistressthatresultedfromhavinganincarceratedparent,andthe

subsequenteffortsoffamilyandfriendstoprotectchildren,appearedtoinspire

withinsomechildren(whowerecomingofageandperhapslongingtoexercise

someindependence)adesiretodemonstratetheirfilialduty,anotiongrounded

inscripture:thehonouringofone’smotherandfather.Unlikesomepatients’

spouseswhoreconfiguredtheiridentitiesorassumednewrolesinorderto

survive,patients’youngchildrenretainedtheiridentitiesasdutifulchildren.

Dodwell’syoungestson,Edward,ranawayfromschooltovisithisfather,

perhapsinfluencedbyhisfather’snumerouslettersdemandingheandhis

siblingsremain‘faithful’tohim.84Assomechildrenagedanevolutioninthe

child-parentrelationshipisevidentintheircorrespondence(orlackof).Edward

stoppedwritingtoandvisitinghisfather,buthisbrother,Henry,despitethe

angrylettershehadpreviouslysenttohisfather,continuedtocorrespondwith

himandBroadmoor’ssuperintendents.Asheaged,Henryindulgedhisfather’s

quirksanddemands,expressingcompassionandpityforafatherhecameto

perceiveas‘fragile’ratherthanfailing.85Itisclearthathavingaparentat

Broadmoor,asituationakintohavinganeglectfulorabsentfather,didnot

alwaysstrainparent-childrelationshipsbeyondrepair.AnthonyOwston’ssons

wereveryyoungwhenhemurderedtheirmotherandwassenttoBroadmoor,

buttheyremainedaconstantandsupportivepresenceinhislifeuntilhis

death.86ThisresearchsupportswhatStrangefoundinherexaminationof

autobiographies:‘whenprovidingfaltered,father-childdynamicsmightcome

understrainbut,inlongview,couldsurviveandbecomemanifestinalternative84Hevisitedhimthirty-fivetimesinFebruary1885.D/H14/D2/2/1/936b/67,memorandum;forexample,D/H14/D2/2/1/936b/47,letterto‘undutiful’daughter.85Strangedevelopstheideaofa‘fragile’fatherinFatherhood,pp.49-81.86D/H14/D2/2/1/963.

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ways.’87Moreover,thatcorrespondenceallowsustoseethisinrealtime

confirmsthatthisisnotaneffectofrose-tintedautobiographicalwriting,but

evidenceofresilientparent-childbonds.

HavingarelativecommittedintoBroadmoorhadeffectsthatspreadfar

beyondtheasylumwallsandintothewiderfamilyandcommunity.Duringthe

nineteenthcenturysomepoorfamilieslivedincloseproximitytooneanother

andprovidedmutualsupport.88Thishelpedtorelievetheburdenonsome

familieswho,withoutaccesstoformalorcharitablesupportnetworksforthe

familiesoftheinsane,unitedtosupportandprotecteachotherfinanciallyand

emotionally.Effortstoprotectthosedirectlyaffecteddrewothersinto

correspondencewiththeasylum.Onepatient’sbrotherbeggedthe

superintendenttoreleasehissisterbecausehewasconcernedabouttheir

‘disparing’mother,89andafriendofapatient’swife–awarethatshewas

‘sometimessubjecttoviolenthystericalfits’–askedthesuperintendentto

prevent‘thepoorwomanmuchmisery’bydissuadingherfromvisiting

Broadmoor.90Somefamilymemberstriedtosurviveandmoveforwardintheir

ownway:thefatherwhotoldhissonhismotherwasdead;themotherwhotried

tostopherchildrenfromcommunicatingwiththeirfather;thespouseswho

remarried;theworrieddaughter-in-lawwhosecretlybeggedthesuperintendent

torejectherhusband’spetitionforthereleaseofhisfather.91Buteachofthese

methodsofsurvivalpotentiallycarriedfurtherdamagingconsequences:tension,

87Strange,Fatherhood,p.81.88Thane,Oldage,p.299;D.CooperandM.Donald,‘Householdsand“hidden”kininearly-nineteenthcenturyEngland’:fourcasestudiesinsuburbanExeter,1821-1861’,ContinuityandChange,10(1995),pp.257-78.89D/H14/D2/2/2/175/48.90D/H14/D2/2/1/918/16.91D/H14/D2/2/1/1076/18.

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conflictandsecrecywithinthehome.Correspondencerevealsstrugglesbetween

familymembersthatmightnothaveordinarilyexisted.PatientCharlesCornish’s

wifewasadmonishedbyher‘pig-headedoldmother-in-law’who‘reproaches

herwithneglect’becauseshewasreluctanttovisitherhusband.92Suchcases

werenotunusual,93andpatientsbecamethesubjectoftensionbetweenmarital

andbloodrelationswhich,innormalcircumstances,theymighthavemediated.

Theprecedingdiscussionshowslosingawageearnerorhomemakerhad

significanteffectsonthefamily,notonlypotentiallycausingpovertybutalsothe

temporaryorpermanentreconfigurationofthefamily,relianceuponkinship

networkstomaintainthefamily’shealthandintegrity,andshapingfamilial

relationships.Importantly,itdemonstratesthatwhoenteredtheasylum

mattered:theeffectsonandconcernsoffamilymembersdependedontheir

relationshipwiththepatient.Forspouses,genderandclassaffectedthe

significanceoftheimpacts,butanindividual’slifestageandabilitytoaccess

supportnetworkswerealsoimportant.Unsurprisingly,thosewithlimited

agencyfelttheimpactsoflosingarelativetoBroadmoorthemost.Somewives

andparentsnotonlyfelteffectsimmediately,butalsoforfeitedtheirimagined

financiallysecurefuturebecausethatexpectationwaspremiseduponprovision

bytheirspouseorchild.Wivesalsofacedthegreatestchallengetotheirsenseof

self,particularlyiftheyhadtodismantletheirhome,allowotherstocarefor

theirchildren,orassumeanunexpectedrole.Thismayexplainwhymarriage

appearstohavebeenthemostfragilebond,whilebloodkinshipprovedmore

resilient.Examiningtangible,structuraleffectsonpatients’familiesalsoreveals

92D/H14/D2/2/1/918/16-17,tosuperintendent.93D/H14/D2/2/1/1254/56,medicalreport.

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theemotionalimpacts.Whilefamilymembersresponseswerecomplexand

oftencontradictory,changingovertimeandinrelationtotheirownlifestage,

theysuggesttheimportanceandresilienceoffamilialties.Cuttingacrossthe

differencesinexperienceisthewaythatfamilymembersexpressedtheirloss:

theywere‘bereaved’,‘heartbroken’and‘anxious’.94Butirrespectiveofthe

heartacheandhardshipstheirrelative’sincarcerationhadcaused,somefamilies

wereunwillingtoabandonthemtoBroadmoor.

III.

Families’anger,fearandsadnessathowtheirliveshadturnedoutandloveand

affectiontowardstherelativewhohadcausedthosefeelingswerenotmutually

exclusive.Thissectionexaminesfamilies’wordsandactions,includingvisiting,

toshowhowsomeunitedtosupportoneanotherandtodemonstratetheir

continuedattachmenttotheirrelative.

Letterwritingwasanimportantmeansbywhichfamiliescommunicated

withrelativesinasylums.Inanefforttokeepthempartofthehome,theyshared

excitingandmundanefamilynews,soughtadvice,consoledrelativeswhenthey

wereillorscared,admonishedthemiftheymisbehaved,andcommunicated

theiraffectionexplicitlyintheirsalutations.95Familymembersplacedemotional

valueontheirletters,whichcouldlessentheemotionalifnotphysicaldistance

betweenthem.Uponhearingthathisfatherwas‘verydepressedandrestlessin

94D/H14/D2/2/1/901/4-5;D/H14/D2/2/2/174/20;D/H14/D2/2/2/173/5;D/H14/D2/2/1/1102/58;D/H14/D2/2/1/791/6,alltosuperintendent.95D/H14/D2/2/1/936a/241,toDodwell;D/H14/D2/2/2/101/7,toDyson;D/H14/D2/2/1/569/2,toJones.Numerousfamilymembersreferredtotheir‘Dear’relative.Itwasnotmerelyaformalitybut,asDavidFitzpatricknotedinhisstudyofIrishandAustralianmigrantletters,wasusedtoassure‘thereaderthatfamilialsolidaritywasintact’.Oceansofconsolation:personalaccountsofIrishmigrationtoAustralia(Cork,1994).p.22.

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mind’AnthonyOwston’ssontoldthesuperintendent:‘Iamwritingtomyfather

andtrustthatthelettermaybehandedtohimasIthinkthataletterfromhome

maybeofgreatvaluetohimatthepresentcrisis.’96Hedescribedanotherletter

tohisfatheras‘cheering’.97Letterswerenotsimplycheeringplatitudes,

however,butsincere,intimatecommunicationbetweenandaboutrelatives.

Somefamilymemberssenttheirrelativeupbeat,comfortingletterswhilst

simultaneouslywritinganxiety-riddenletterstothesuperintendent,suggesting

aclearawarenessofaudienceandtheperformativityinvolvedinwriting.One

patient’smotherbeggedthesuperintendentto‘takepityonherpooraged

mother…Icannotexpressmyhartfeltgrief…relievemeofthisdistressand

restoremydaughtertomeagainorIwillbringmygrayhareandsorrowtothe

grave’.98Althoughclearlyfeelingwretched,thismotherstillencouragedher

daughterto‘keepyourspiritsup’.99ForsomefamilymembersBroadmoor’s

superintendentbecameaconfidant;100theysharedtheirtroublesandsome

confessedtheywerekeepingconcernsorcircumstancesfromtheirrelatives,a

situationakintowhatDavidGerbercalledan‘epistolarymasquerade.’101Given

thattheyomittedbadnewsorworriesorembellishedthefamily’swellbeingto

protecttheirrelative,however,thisshouldbereadasanactofcareandlove.102

Letterstothesuperintendenthighlighttheexistenceofanxietiesshared

byfamilymembersaroundtheworld;theysoughtreassurancethatrelatives

96D/H12/D2/2/1/963/18.97D/H14/D2/2/1/963/31.98D/H14/D2/2/1/175/51.99D/H14/D2/2/2/175/11.100Thishappenedelsewhere.Wannell,‘Patients’,pp.307-8;Smith,‘Thankful’,pp.239-42.101DavidGerber,‘Epistolarymasquerades:actsofdeceivingandwithholdinginimmigrantletters’,inBruceElliot,DavidGerberandSuzanneSinke,eds.,Lettersacrossborders:theepistolarypracticeofinternationalmigrants(London,2006),pp.144-57.102AsMichaelRopersuggestedofsoldiersomittingdangerintheirletterstotheirmothers,Thesecretbattle.EmotionalsurvivalintheGreatWar(Manchester,2009),pp.63-8.

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wereeating,healthyandwelltreated,particularlyiftheyhadnotheardfrom

them.103Familieswhoreceived‘rational’and‘sane’lettersfromrelatives

struggledtounderstandoraccepttheirmedicaldiagnosis.104Othersaskedabout

theirrelative’sillnessorchancesofrelease.105Requestsforinformationsuggest

concernandattachment,asdorequestsforthesuperintendent’sassistance.

Someaskedhimtodosomethingontheirbehalf,forinstancecompassionately

deliveringsadnewstoarelative.106Othersaskediftheycouldsenditems–

photographs,musicalinstrumentsandclothing–tohelptheirrelativemakea

homeforthemselves.107Regardlessofhowmuchtheycared,familymembers’

letterstothesuperintendentwere‘supplications’;theysoughtactionbut

‘recognisedthediscretionarypoweroftherecipient.’108Supplicationstomedical

mencontainedanemotionalperformance,anditisfruitfultoseethem,like

Coleborne,asa‘theatreofemotions’.109Thesuperintendent’spowerincentivized

familymember’sexpressionsoftheiremotionalandpracticalneedforhis

assistance.Attentivenesstothisdynamicrevealsfamilymember’sattemptsto

exerciseagencyandthattheyunderstoodtheiragencyascircumscribedbythe

powerofthesuperintendent.Suchemotionalperformancesalsoillustratethe

strengthoftheirfamilialattachment,explicitlyinwhatwasrevealedtothe

superintendent,andimplicitly,inthedecisiontocommunicatethattheymissed

103D/H14/D2/2/1/1116;D/H14/D2/2/1/905/12;D/H14/D2/2/1/836/6.Wannell,‘Patients’;Coleborne,‘Families’.104D/H14/D2/2/1/175/45,tosuperintendent.Also,D/H14/D2/2/1/1092/15;D/H14/D2/2/1/901/10.Thishappenedelsewhere.Coleborne,Madness,p.82;Walsh,‘Lunatic’.105AsOonaghWalshfound,‘Lunaticandcriminalalliancesinnineteenth-centuryIreland’,inBartlettandWright,eds.,Outside,pp.132-52atp.145.106D/H14/D2/2/2/178/7;D/H14/D2/2/2/212/16;D/H14/D2/2/1/975/13;D/H14/D1/2/1/936b/208;D/H14/D2/2/1/975/13.107D/H14/D2/2/1/918/3.108AndreasWurgler,‘Voicesfromamongstthe“SilentMasses”:humblepetitionsandsocialconflictsinearlymoderncentralEurope’inL.-H.vanVoss,ed.,Petitionsinsocialhistory(Cambridge,2001),pp.11-34,inKing,Writingp.49.109Coleborne,‘Families’,p.437.

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andcaredfortheirrelativewithoutburdeningthemwiththeirownheartache

anddifficulties.

Somefamiliesperformedtheirattachmentbyvisitingasylums,yetfew

historianshaveexplicitlyconsideredwhatthisrevealsaboutfamilylifeand

emotions.Visitinginstitutions,asJonathanReinarzandGrahamMooneywrite,

offeredsupporttopatientsand‘providedanintimatelinktoafamiliarworld

thatistemporarily,orevenpermanently,outofreach.’110Ofcoursefamilies

visitedBroadmoortoreassurerelativestheyhadnotbeenforgotten.Patient

WilliamLloyd’sfatherwasdesperatetoknowifhissonrememberedthathis

motherandbrothershadvisitedhim,andaskedthesuperintendentto‘pleaselet

himknow…thatsomeoneelsewillcomesoon’.111Inanotesuggestingfamilies’

actionsweremonitored,thesuperintendenttoldtheHomeOfficethatone

patient’swife‘hasallalongbeenmostkindandattentivetoherhusbandinevery

wayandsherentedahouseinthisneighbourhoodsothatsheshouldbeableto

comeandseehimfrequently.’112Butvisitingalsobenefittedfamilies.Unlikeat

ordinaryasylumswherefamiliesmighthaveencounteredtheasylumupontheir

relative’sadmission,thefamiliesofBroadmoor’spatientsmightonlyhaveread

abouttheasyluminthepress,whichsometimesprintedsensationalimagesofits

‘Frankenstein’-likepatients.113Visitingmayhaverelievedfearsaboutwho

relatives’werelivingalongside,andenabledfamiliestowitnessthekindnessand

respect(theyhoped)relativesreceived.114Italsohelpedtoeaseemotional

110GrahamMooneyandJonathanReinarz,‘Hospitalandasylumvisitinginhistoricalperspective:themesandissues’,inMooneyandReinarz,eds.,Permeablewalls:historicalperspectivesonhospitalanasylumvisiting(Amsterdam,2009),pp.7-30atp.9.111D/H14/D2/2/1/761/5.112D/H14/D2/2/1/1254/56.113‘AvisittotheCriminalLunaticAsylum’,TheTimes,13Jan.1865,p.10.114Somerelativesexpressedreliefthattheyhadencounteredtheirrelativeinagoodcondition.

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distressbytemporarilyreunitingfamilies.

Aselsewherethough,manyfoundtheprospectandtheactofvisiting

emotionallytesting.Theymighthave(orhavefeared)adistressingencounter

witharelativewhomtheyfoundinaworseconditionthanexpected,orreceive

abusefromapreviouslylovingrelative.115Theasylum’svisitor’sroom

sometimesbecameasiteofdomestictension.Dodwell’sdaughterleftthe

visitor’sroom‘intears’afterhescoldedherforquestioninghim.116Onepatient

enteredthevisitor’sroomand‘embracedthechildren,buthemotionedwithhis

handforhiswifetokeepback’andtoldher,‘youbeastkeepback,orIwillfloor

you’.Shetoldthesupervisingattendant,‘Iwillgoitonlyirritateshimmybeing

here’.117Thatsomefamilymembersvisiteddespitethepracticalandemotional

challengesitposedindicatesthestrengthoftheirattachmentandthe

significancetheyplacedupontheact.Thedevotionofonepatient’shusbandis

evidencedbyhisvisits.Thesuperintendentrecorded,‘whenherhusbandvisited

her,andspenttheportionsofthreedayswithher,sherefusedtospeakto

him.’118Despitehiswife’ssilence,hereturnedtositwithhereverydayforthree

days.Wecannotknowwhyhereturned,butunlikeotherrelativeswhoaskedthe

superintendentwhethervisitingwasworthwhile(wouldthepatientrecognize

them?wouldtheyspeaktothem?),thishusbandappearsunconcernedwithsuch

matters.Ofcourse,hemighthavehopedhiswifewouldtalktohim,butwhen

115FrederickCrawley’ssister‘wasgrievedtofindhimsolowandill’,D/H14/D2/2/1/698/7,tosuperintendent;D/H14/D2/2/1/761/5;CatharineColeborne,‘Challenginginstitutionalhegemony:familyvisitorstohospitalsfortheinsaneinAustraliaandNewZealand,1880s-1890s’,inMooneyandReinarz,eds.,Permeable,pp.289–308atp.301;GeoffreyReaume,Remembranceofpatientspast:patientlifeatTorontohospitalfortheinsane,1870-1940(Oxford,2000,p.189.116D/H14/D2/2/1/936c/51,attendant’snote.117D/H14/D2/2/1/1256/14,attendant’snote.118WilliamOrange,ReportsofthesuperintendentandchaplainofBroadmoorCriminalLunaticAsylumfortheyear1875(London,1876),p.44.

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facedwiththepossibilitythateachdaywouldbethesame,hewouldseemingly

rathersitwithherinsilencethannotatall.Wedonothaveaccesstohis

conversationswiththesuperintendentormedicalofficers,wedonotknowwhat

words,ifany,hespoketohiswife.Thereisnoexplicitrecordofemotioninthis

case;therearenoreferencestosadness,angerorfear,asinsomeotheraccounts.

Thisdoesnotmeanthehusbanddidnotfeelthemofcourse,andifotherfamily

members’accountsofvisitingareconsidereditispossiblethatratherthan

takingsolacefrombeinginhiswife’spresencehefoundhisvisitsheartbreaking.

Somepatients’casefilescontainvisitor’sslipsdetailingwhovisitedand

when.Theydonotallhavethem,anditmightbeassumedthatpatients’received

novisitorsandwere,assomepatients’complainedandfeared,andassome

historianshavededuced,‘abandoned’bytheirfamilies.119Certainlynotall

familieswerewillingtovisitarelativewhosecrimeandasylumcommittalhad

causedthemmisery,120buttheexistenceoffew,nooradwindlingnumberof

visitors’slipsisnotnecessarilyevidenceofdesertion.Notonlymightsomehave

beenlostintherecord-keepingprocess,butexaminingcorrespondencetothe

superintendentrevealsvariousreasonswhyfamiliescouldnotorwouldnot

visit,significantlyaddingtoourunderstandingsofthereachandimpactofthe

asylumwhilstsimultaneouslyhighlightingaffectivefamilialrelationships.There

aretheexpectedpracticalreasons;itrequiredmoneyandtime,bothofwhich

manyfamilieslacked,tomakethe(oftenlong)journeytoBroadmoor.121Joseph

Redding’swifecouldnotvisitfor‘tworeasons.IhavenothadthemeansasIwas

119D/H14/D2/2/1/936b/57,toattendant;D/H14/D2/2/1/936c/10,fromDodwelltoson.Reaume,Remembrance,p.196.120D/H14/D2/2/1/1310,medicalreport.121LetterstosuperintendentinD/H14/D2/2/1/969/8;D/H14/D2/2/1/1230/2;D/H14/D2/2/1/918/9.

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leftwithsixchildrenandmyselftoprovidefor.Ihavealsobeensufferingwith

changeoflife.ThereasbeenmanyobsticlesinmywaywhichIhavenotwanted

totroublehimwith.’122TheneedtohidetroublesformedpartofRedding’s

justification;similartoomissionsinletters,notvisitingwasframedasanactof

care.Practicalbarrierscouldbeinsurmountable,butemotionalbarrierscouldbe

too.Somefamilymemberstriedtopre-empt(andavoid)emotionallydifficult

visits.Manyworriedthattheirrelativehadlosttheirsenseofself,andthe

potentialheartbreakofencounteringsomeonetheydidnotrecognizedeterred

somefromvisiting.123Othersresistedvisitingbecausetheydreadedsaying

goodbye.Followinghisfather’sdeathonemantoldthesuperintendent:

Thankingyouverymuchforlettingmeknow.Ifeelitverymuchindeedas

wehavebeenthinkingofcomingtoseehimallthewinter…butitseems

wearetoolateandIfeelnowIcan’tseehimaliveitisnousetoseehim

buried...IonlywishIhadcomebeforebutIdreadedthepartingso

much.124

Itwasnotalwaysthevisititselfthatfamiliesdisliked,butthenearinevitabilityof

travellinghome,alone,attheendoftheday.125

IV.

Somefamilymemberspetitionedfortheirrelative’srelease,seekingtoreduce

thematerialandemotionalburdenswritingtoorvisitingBroadmoor(orthe

inabilitytodoso)hadcaused.Butdoingsoandtherealitiesoffamilylifepost-

122D/H14/D2/2/1/1102/70.123D/H14/D2/2/2/183/9,tosuperintendent.124D/H14/D2/2/1/659/9.125D/H14/D2/2/1/1705.

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dischargesometimescausedfurtherheartache,andfurthercurtailedfamilies’

agency.

Applyingforreleasewasabureaucratic,time-consumingprocess.

Patients’familiespetitionedtheHomeOffice,whichrequestedamedicalreport

andthesuperintendent’sopinion.Thisexposedthefamilytoscrutinyand

judgment,anditwasusuallyunsuccessful.Thatmanyfamiliesdiditanyway,

sometimesoftenandovermanyyears,suggeststhestrengthoftheir

attachment.126Correspondencerevealsvariousreasonswhyfamilieswanteda

relativehome.Lookingatotherasylums,historianshavearguedthateconomic

concernsdrovefamilies’petitions,butthismisrepresentsthecomplexityof

families’livesandfeelings.127Whilepovertymotivatedsomepetitionsto

Broadmoor,economicconcernswerenotalwaysthedrivingoronlyfactor.

Familieswantedrelativeshomebecausetheylovedandmissedthemand‘did

notlike’thethoughtofthemdyingatBroadmoor;moreovertheyofferedto

financiallysupporttheirrelativeuponrelease.128Additionally,thesemotivations

arenotmutuallyexclusiveandstrongemotionalattachmentspersisteddespite

financialhardship.

Successfulpetitionsusuallyresultedinaconditionaldischarge,which

legallyobligatedthepetitioningfamilymembertocarefortheirrelativeandto

reportchangesintheirmentalandphysicalconditiontotheHomeOfficeandto

Broadmoorindefinitely.Evenifpatientsexhibited‘sane’traits,includingthe

126Notallfamilieshadroomforawageearner,carer,orparentwhoseroleinthehomewasrenderedvoidbytheircommittalintoBroadmoor,andsomerefusedtocareforthemshouldtheybereleased.Spaceconstraintspreventthisbeingunpackedhere.127Smith,‘Living’;Smith,‘Thankful’,pp.246-8.FamiliesoftheIrishinsanehighlightedtheirfinancialburdens.Mauger,Cost,pp.74and100.128Forexamplecases:D/H14/D2/2/1/976/39;D/H14/D2/2/1/1085;D/H14/D2/2/1/974/3;D/H14/D2/2/1/366;D/H14/D2/2/1/1076;D/H14/D2/2/1/186;D/H14/D2/2/1/999/15.

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abilitytoworkandself-control,theirdischargecouldberefused,129becausethe

superintendentwasunconvincedaboutthepetitioningfamilymember’s

characterorabilitytocareforandsupervisetheirrelative.Applicationswere

thusastageuponwhichfamilymembersperformedtheiremotionsandtheir

lives.Clearlyawareoftheexpectationsplaceduponthem,somedescribedtheir

homes,supportivefamilynetworks,theiremploymentandrelativefinancial

stability.130Justaspatients’mighthaveperformedtheirrecoveriesinaneffortto

securerelease,andasColebornenotes,familymembersmightalsohave

performedtohelpsecurethereleaseofarelativetheyneededathome.131

Petitionsemphasizedfamilialbonds,particularlythe(alleged)willingness

offemalefamilymembers,especiallysistersandsisters-in-law,tocarefor

dischargedrelatives.132Women,seenasthemoralcornerstoneoffamiliallife,133

typicallyboretheresponsibilityforfamilialcareinVictoriansociety,134with

sistersexpectedtoassumeaparentalroleifrequired.135Whentryingtosecure

thereleaseofhisbrother-in-law,JohnMelloremphasizedthestrengthofsibling

bondstothesuperintendent:

mygoodwifehissisterbeinglikeamothertohim…hasapowerof

controloverhimthatmakesmehavenodoubt…ifheisreleasedandsent

129Shepherd,‘Veryglad’,p.476.130D/H14/D2/2/1/1102/58,tosuperintendent;D/H14/D2/2/1/714/7,tosuperintendent.131Coleborne,‘Families’,p.438.132D/H14/D2/2/1/186/26,tosuperintendent.133LéonoreDavidoff,Thickerthanwater:siblingsandtheirrelations,1780-1920(Oxford,2012),p.131.134DavidWright,‘Familialcareof“idiot”childreninVictorianEngland’,inHordonandSmith,eds.,Thelocusofcare:families,communities,institutions,andtheprovisionofwelfaresinceantiquity(London,1998),pp.176-97atpp.182-3.135Nelson,Family,pp.110-11;Frost,Victorian,p.18.

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herehewillbesafeandcaredforinamannerthatwillenablehimto

becomeausefulmemberofsociety.136

Otherfamiliesofferedtomakespaceforandcarefortheirrelativeintheiroften

alreadyover-crowdedhomes.137Itistellingthatsomefamilieswerewillingand

abletoopentheirhomestoarelativewhosecrimeandcommittalhadcaused

themsuffering,butsomewereevenpreparedtowelcomeunrelatedcriminal

lunatics.Oneformerpatient’shusband,perhapsrecognisingthatitwould

increasethehappinessofhisdischargedwife,offeredahomeandfinancial

supporttoapatientshehadbefriendedinBroadmoorandheld‘asisterlyregard’

towards.138Suchevidencefurtherchallengestheassumptionthatfamiliesonly

soughtthereleaseofrelativeswhocouldcontributetotherunningofthe

household,andhighlightsthestrengthofemotionalbonds.

Strongfamilialbondsalonewouldnotpersuadethesuperintendentto

recommenddischarge.Unlikeatotherasylums,Broadmoor’spatients’families

couldnotsimplydemandtheirreleaseandexpectapositiveoutcome.139

Petitionsweredeniedbecausefamilies’homesorincomesweredeemedunable

toaccommodateorsupportanothermember,140becausefamilymembersdrank

orwereunemployed,orbecausethesuperintendentdoubtedtheycould

superviseandcontrolthepatientiftheyrelapsed.141Thosewithlowlevelsof

agency–women,theelderlyandthepoor–notonlyfelttheeffectofarelative’s

incarcerationmostkeenlybutwerealsolesslikelytobedeemedableguardians.

136D/H14/D2/2/1/1284/28.Also,D/H14/D2//2/1/714/7.137Forexample,D/H14/D2/2/1/976/39;D/H14/D2/2/1/1085;D/H14/D2/2/1/974/3;D/H14/D2/2/1/366;D/H14/D2/2/1/1076;D/H14/D2/2/1/186;D/H14/D2/2/1/999/15.138D/H14/D2/2/2/107/5-6139Wright,‘Discharge’,p.98.140D/H14/D2/2/1/1738,frompoliceconstabletosuperintendent.141D/H14/D2/2/1/388/11;WilliamOrange,ReportsoftheSuperintendentandChaplainofBroadmoorCriminalLunaticAsylumfortheYear1885(London,1886),p.6.

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Forsome,arelative’sreturnhomewasandremained(asfarasthe

recordssuggest)ajoyousoccasion.Asatotherasylums,formerpatientsand

theirfamilieswrotetoBroadmoor’ssuperintendentdescribingtheirdelight,

reliefandgratitude,anddetailingtheirsuccessfultransitionbackintosociety.142

Somereunionsdidnotquelltheanguish,fear,sadnessandgriefsomefamily

membersfeltduringtheirrelative’sinstitutionalization,evenifitwassomething

theyhadlongedfor.Somefounditdifficulttocareforandsupervisetheir

relative,particularlyalongsideworking,maintainingahousehold,orparenting.

Ifrelativeswereamenablepost-release,andiffamilieshadsomefinancial

independence,minordifficulties,includinglossofspacewithinthehome,could

bemanaged.Fivemonthsafterhissister’sreleaseonemaninformedthe

superintendentthatshewasnolonger‘residingwithus’.Heandotherrelatives

had‘furnishedheranicelittlehomeatherownchoice…asitismoreconvenient

forus.’143Butsomefamilieswereunabletocope,particularlyiftheirrelative

becameviolentorintemperate.144Insuchcasesfamilymembershadlittlechoice

buttoinformthesuperintendent,knowingtheirrelativewouldberecommitted.

Suchcases,canthough,indicatestrongemotionalbonds.Despitethehavoctheir

relative’srelapseintointemperancewroughtupontheirhomes,MaryAnn

Mellor’shusband–whosewifehadpawnedtheirbelongings–andMatthew

Cook’ssister–whohadlentCookmoneyhecouldnotrepay–bothwaitedfour

monthsbeforeinformingthesuperintendent,hopingtheywouldrecoverat

142Forexamplethefollowingletterstosuperintendent,D/H14/D2/2/1/905/33;D/H14/D2/2/366/177;D/H14/D2/2/1/975/2;D/H14/D2/2/2/107/5;D/H14/D2/2/2/100/25;D/H14/D2/2/2/398/41;D/H14/D2/2/2/164/19-20.Smith,‘Thankful’,p.248.143D/H14/D2/2/2174/35.144LucyThompson’sbrotherrequestedhercommittalaftersheattackedhimandhiswife,D/H14/D2/2/2/105.Similarly,D/H14/D2/2/1/1705.

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home.145EventhenCook’ssisterwrotetothesuperintendentwith‘heartfelt

sorrow’.146Unlikeatordinaryasylumsfamiliesplayednoroleintheirrelative’s

initialadmissionintoBroadmoor,butlikeatordinaryasylumssomefamilies

decidedto(re)commitonlyafteraprolongedperiodofdistress,whentheycould

nolongermanagetheirrelativeathome.147Thissuggests,asStevenTaylornotes

inhisstudyofchildinsanity,thatfamilieshad‘strongemotionalbonds’with

theirillrelatives‘andwereeagertopreservethese.’148

Examiningpetitioning,dischargeandpost-asylumlife,demonstratesthe

extenttowhichpersistentobservationrenderedfamiliesbothvictimsandquasi-

patientsofasystemdesignedtoconfine,controlandrehabilitatecriminal

lunatics.Foucauldianapproachestothehistoryofpsychiatrypositionasylumsas

instrumentsofsocialcontrol,focusingonthesurveillanceandre-modellingof

patientsintoideal(bourgeois)membersofsociety.149Scholarshavehighlighted

the‘longhistoryofsurveillance’outsideoftheinstitution,andthatfamilies

policed,watchedandcontrolledinsanerelativeswithinthehome,sometimes

beforetheirasylumcommittal.150Thispolicingwassupplementedand

encouragedbydoctorsenteringthedomesticsphere,andbyneighbourswhose

curiosityandgossipingledsomefamiliestohidetheirillrelative.151Theroleof

Englishcountyasylums(andthustheState)inpolicingpatients’familiesduring

145D/H14/D2/2/2/146/6-7;D/H14/D2/2/1/1013.146D/H14/D2/2/1/1013.147Historiansagreethatfamilies’viewedasylumsasalastresort.Forexample,HilaryMarland,‘Athomewithpuerperalmania:thedomestictreatmentoftheinsanityofchildbirthinthenineteenthcentury’,inBartlettandWright,eds.,Outside,pp.45-65;Suzuki,Madness;Wright,‘Discharge’.148StevenTaylor,‘“Shewasfrightenedwhilepregnantbyamonkeyatthezoo”:constructingthementally-imperfectchildinnineteenth-centuryEngland’,SocialHistoryofMedicine,30(2017),pp.748-766atp.765.149Foucault,History,p.485.150PeterBartlettandDavidWright,‘Communitycareanditsantecedents’,inBartlettandWright,eds.,Outside,pp.1-8,13.151Marland,‘Athome’;Suzuki,Madness.

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andaftertheirrelative’sasylumstayisrarelyexamined.Broadmoorextended

thesurveillancetypicallyassociatedwithinsideinstitutionstothefamilyandthe

familyhomebothbeforeandafterpatients’discharge.Families’actionsand

healthwereobservedtodeterminewhethertheirrelativeshouldbedischarged.

Iftheywere,thepriceofreleasewasacceptingtherolesofactorandsubjectin

continuedsurveillance.Familieshadtopoliceandreporttheirrelative’s

behaviour,orthepolicewouldenquire.152TheDischargedPrisoner’sAidSociety

watchedsomeformerpatientsandtheirfamiliesandreportedtheirbehaviourto

Broadmoor.153Formerpatientswatchedtheirfamilymembers,too;some

reportedtheirmisdeedstothesuperintendent,particularlyiftheywantedto

moveoutoftheirhome.154Families’agencywasthuslimitedbytheirrelative’s

committalandfurthercurtailedbytheirrelease.Families’remainedsupervised

andinlimboaslongastheirrelativelived,andforaslongastheyremained

committedtothemeveniftheywereeventuallydischarged;thiswasnotloston

someoftheirfriends:‘Ican’thelpbutwishingthatthepoorfellowmaydie,forit

seemssuchawretchedlifeforthepoorlittlewomantogoonhopingagainst

hope.’155Forfamilymemberswhowishedtoremainincontactwiththeir

relative,anysemblanceofagencywouldonlyreturnupontheirrelative’sdeath.

V.

TheextensionofthefamilyandfamilialsupportintoBroadmoorlastedoverthe

courseofsomepatients’lives.Whentheirrelativesweredying,somefamilies

152D/H14/D2/2/1/1705.153D/H14/D2/2/2/105.154D/H14/D2/2/2/105/16.D/H14/D2/2/1/1565155D/H14/D2/2/1/918/7,tosuperintendent.

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wereshockedandsaddened,especiallyiftheywereunabletovisittheasylum.156

Someappearedfearful,particularlyiftheyhadstrongreligiousfaith.Perhapsin

anefforttosupportthemontheirfinaljourney,suchfamilymembersbeseeched

theirrelativestoatonebeforeitwastoolate.157Aswellasrelyingontangible

supportnetworks,somefoundsolaceintheprospectofanafterlife.Onedying

patient’sbrotheraskedthesuperintendent:

toconveytomybrothermyeverbestandmostaffectionatelovetohim

forhistruehappinessinthisworldtocometobehappyforever&ever

throughourLordandSaviourJesusChristthisismyeverearnestprayer

totheLordJesusonhisbehalfthatifIdonotseehimanymoreinthis

world,thatIdohopetomeethiminheaven,wherepartingwillbeno

more.158

Families’letterstoBroadmoorduringandaftertheirrelative’sfinal

illnesssuggeststrongfamilialbonds.Thebereavedsometimesexpressedsorrow

andregret,particularlyiftheyhadbeenunabletovisittheirrelativewhilstthey

werealive,andespeciallyiftheyhadbeenabsentattheirdeath.159InVictorian

societywitnessingarelative’sdeathprovidedasenseofcontroland(itwas

hoped)thecomfortofknowingtheirfinalhourswerepainless.160Family

membersunabletobeattheirdyingrelative’sside,orthoseinformedofa

suddendeath,soughtcomfort;theyaskedthesuperintendentabouttheirfinal

156Familymemberswereinvitedtovisitandstaywiththeirdyingrelative.RulesfortheguidanceoftheofficersofBroadmoorCriminalLunaticAsylum(London,1863).157D/H14/D2/2/1/973/5,toThornley.158D/H14/D2/2/1/605/5.159D/H14/D2/2/1/739/11,tosuperintendent.160Strange,Death,p.50.

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days,presumablyseekingreassurancetheywerenotaloneorinpain.161Some

familymembersmighthavebeenindifferenttoarelative’sdeath,particularlyif

theirrelationshiphadbeenfraught,yetevenwhenrelationshipshadbeen

fractioussorrowstillmaterialized.WhenDodwelldiedin1900hehadnotseen

hisdaughtersorseenorheardfromhispreviouslydutifulsonEdwardformany

years.UntilhisdeathDodwell’srelationshipwithhisfamilyseemedirreparable,

yethissonHenry’sfinallettertothesuperintendentdescribedhisloveand

sorrow,anddeclared,‘Ishalleverdeeplyregretmyabsencefromhissideatthe

last.’162PerhapstryingtoconsoleHenry,thesuperintendentrepliedthathewas

theonlypersonDodwellhadwishedtoseebeforehisdeathbuthehadnot

knownwhereatelegrammightreachhimintime.163Manybereavedfamily

members,includingHenry,alsoexpressedrelief;theendofrelatives’‘painand

sorrow’wasa‘greatblessing’.164Giventheemotionalandfinancialburdens

patients’familiescarried,arelative’sdeathreleasedallinvolved.Familiesno

longerhadtoworryaboutvisitingorwriting,orabouttheirrelative’shealthor

treatment,andtheywerenolongerpoliced.Itmightalsohaveeasedanyfamilial

tensionoutsideofBroadmoor.

MostpatientswhodiedatBroadmoorwereburiedtherebecauseitcost

familiesnothing.Someregrettedthis.IsobelTaylortoldthesuperintendent:‘I

should[have]liked[myaunt]tohavebeenburiedatArmitageBridgeChurch,

butIfinditwillbeexpensiveandIhavemyagedfathertolive[with]mehaving

161D/H14/D2/2/2/183/67;D/H14/D2/2/1/743/6;D/H14/D2/2/1/743;D/H14/D2/2/1/964/15.162D/H14/D2/2/1/936c/216.163D/H14/D2/2/1/936c/217.164D/H14/D2/2/2/178/36;D/H14/D2/2/1/973/9;D/H14/D2/2/1/1075/14;D/H14/D2/2/1/569/12;D/H14/D2/2/2/178/36;D/H14/D2/2/2/1075/14;D/H14/D2/2/2/183/67,alltosuperintendent.

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onlylatelylostmymother.165LikeotherVictorianwomen,Taylorhadassumed

thedutyofcaringforherelderlyfather;thecostoffulfillingherfilialduty

preventedherdoingasshewishedforheraunt.Manyfamilymembers,including

Taylor,alsoregrettedtheirinabilitytoattendtheirrelative’sfuneral;thecost

anddistanceremainedtoogreat.166WhileusualVictorianburialsites

‘representedalocusforexpressionsofgriefandcommemorationthroughthe

installationofheadstones,giftsofflowers,andvisitstothegrave’,167

Broadmoor’swascomparativelyaustere.Butempty,unadornedgravesides

representednotalifeunlovedorforgotten,butthehardshipsand

insurmountableresponsibilitiesfacedbytheworkingfamiliesoftheVictorian

criminallyinsane.AlthoughBroadmoor’sburialspaceundoubtedlyreceived

fewermournersthanatypicalVictoriancemetery,somefamilymemberswere

abletovisittogrieveandremember.168Followingarelative’sfuneralsome

familiescontinuedtodemonstratetheirlove.AnthonyOwston’ssonssent

wreathstobeplaceduponhisgraveeachChristmas,Easterandonthe

anniversaryofhisdeath,prolongingtheiremotionalconnectionwiththeasylum

wheretheirfatherhadspentthemajorityoftheirlives.169

Somefamiliesrejectedaprivateburialbecausetheybelievedthatafter

yearsofincarcerationBroadmoorwastheirrelative’srightfulrestingplace.170

OthersseizedtheopportunitytoarrangeafuneralawayfromBroadmoor.

GeorgeThomasPettwas,hiswifetoldthesuperintendent,‘laidtorestwhereI165D/H14/D2/2/2/2/183/67.166D/H14/D2/2/1/400;D/H14/D2/2/2/166/10;D/H14/D2/2/1/740/28;D/H14/D2/2/1/996/29-30;D/H14/D2/2/1/659/12;D/H14/D2/2/1/964/15;D/H14/D2/2/1/996/29-30;D/H14/D2/2/1/760/38,23;D/H14/D2/2/2/178/30.167Strange,Death,p.192.168Somefamilymembersthankedthesuperintendentfortheservice.D/H14/D2/2/1/918/22-23.169D/H14/D2/2/1/963/48-52,tosuperintendent.170D/H14/D2/2/2/178/30,tosuperintendent.

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knowhelongedtobewithourlittlegirlLillian.’171Dodwellwasburiedin

WokingCemetery,‘farfromthatplacethathassocruellyheldhimforover22

longyearsfromthosethatlovedhimsodearly.’172Afteryearsoftryingand

failingtoliberatetheirlovedone,exercisingthepowertoremovetheirbody

fromBroadmoorwasonewayfamiliesdemonstratedtheirloveandattachment.

Italsomeantthattheycouldfinallyfulfilltheir(oftenyears’old)promise,

withouttheagreementoftheHomeOfficeandtheasylum’ssuperintendent,to

bringtheirrelativehome.

VI.

TheBroadmoorarchiveisarepositoryoflove,sorrow,andhope,alivewith

storiesofloss,poverty,desperationandkinship.Analysisoffamilies’

correspondencetotheasylumhasenabledthefirstin-depthexaminationofthe

effectsofasylumcommittalonindividualfamilymembers.Thefindings

demonstratethevalueofconsideringthelives,experiencesandsubjective

identitiesofindividualfamilymembers,focusingontheirwordsandactions–

andsometimestheirsilence–andpayingcloseattentiontofactorsincluding

class,lifestage(andage)and,incasesoflong-termcommittal,changeovertime.

Thisarticledemonstratesthatasylumsaffectedpatients’familiesinmorevaried

andcomplexwaysthanhaspreviouslybeenacknowledged.Weseethefinancial

andemotionaldistresscaused,especiallytowives,howindividualidentities

werechallengedandreconfigured,andthecurtailmentofindividuals’(often

alreadylimited)agency,notleastbecausetheasylumobservedthem,too.But

171D/H14/D2/2/1/1689.172D/H14/D2/2/1/936c/216,tosuperintendent.

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kinshipalsoprovedresilient;despitethesedifficultiesfamilymembersstroveto

maintainrelationshipswith,andtocarefor,theirrelativeduringandaftertheir

incarceration.Crucially,weseetheirmotivationswerenotlimitedto,oreven

primarily,financial,butwereshapedbyadesiretopreservefamilialbonds,even

ifincircumscribedform.Evidently,somefamiliestriedandmanagedtogive

meaningtorelationshipsalteredbytheasylum.TheBroadmoorcorrespondence

demonstratesfamilies’presencewithintheasylumbutalsohighlightstheneed

formorenuancedreadingsoftheirabsence:itdidnotnecessarilymean

abandonment,butpoverty,love,fearandsadness.

Thesignificanceandresilienceofaffectivefamilybondsforpatients’

familymembersfoundhereshowsthattofullyunderstandhowtheimpactsof

committalreverberatedbeyondtheasylum’swallswemustre-evaluateother

collectionsofcorrespondencewithacloserengagementwiththehistoryofthe

family.Doingsowillallowexistingassumptionsaboutthe(mostsignificant)

effectsonfamiliestobereviewed,andwillfurtherilluminatetheeffectsof

asylumcommittalonconceptionsoftheselfandthefamily.Althoughoutsidethe

scopeofthisarticle,comparinghowfamiliesindifferentregionsappearedto

copewithlosingarelativetotheasylummayrevealtheroleregionalsocialand

culturaldifferences,andlocalizedunderstandingsofkinship,playedinfamilies’

abilitytowithstandthecommittalofarelative,andshedfurtherlightonthe

historyofthefamily.Historiansmustcontinuetolookbeyondtheasylum’swalls.

Onlywhenweunderstandthebroadersocialimpactsof(long-term,long-

distance)asylumcommittalwillwestarttounderstandthefullextentoftherole

andsignificanceoftheVictorianasylum.


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