Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
Prepositionsand
Conjunctions
Prof. Stephan Hughes
Day 1Day 1• Introduction and schedule• Initial definition and categorization
of prepositions• How prepositions are presented in
teaching materials• A semantic description of the
preposition• Lexical or Grammatical
morpheme?Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
Day 2Day 2• Conjunctions from derivatives to
grammaticalized forms• Conjunctions as lexical morphemes• Linkers, linking words, connectors• Units of cohesion and coherence –
sentence, paragraph and text level• Related processes: ellipsis, empty
infinitives
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
Some prepositionsSome prepositions
About Behind Concerning Like To
Above Below Despite Near Toward
Across Beneath Down Of Under
After Beside During Off Underneath
Against Besides Except On Until
Along Between For Over Unto
Among Beyond From Past Up
Around But (except) In Since Upon
At Inside Through With Within
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
Prepositions (Bordet and Jamet, Prepositions (Bordet and Jamet, 2010)2010)
Discursive element –semantic value
Unit of meaningVoid of syntactic
functionPrimitive
semantic unit
Functional element – syntactic value
Grammatical sign
Void of semantic autonomy
Primal grammaticalized unit
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
What is said about themWhat is said about themConnect a noun or pronoun to
another word in a sentenceAdjectivize and adverbialize a word:
one of the boys, enter through the window
Are spatially or figuratively derived from physical notions of space
Act as other parts of speech , i.e. noun or verb: down the sandwich with a glass of milk
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
What is said about them 2What is said about them 2Prepositions and conjunctions are
grammatical signs, so they are indicators of the grammatical and supralexical meanings of the words in the structure in which they appear. “ (Zugun, 2003)
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
What can be inferredWhat can be inferredThese two groups, particularly
the first extract meaning from the nouns, verbs, or adjectives or adverbs that accompany them.
In the case of phrasal verbs, not only do particles change the meaning of the original verb, but also transmit the meaning by themselves, leaving the verb with the job of modifying the action
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
Just one case of “away”Just one case of “away”The problems won’t go away by
themselves. You have to do something about them.
If only we could just wish our problems away.
I feel as if I have washed my fears away after that yoga session.
Some people believe they can will the troubles away with positive thinking.
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
How prepositions are How prepositions are highlightedhighlightedDefined morphologically, not
syntacticallyPresented by type: from most
common to most complexAssumed as having meaning,
even when temporal or physical information is provided
Categorized within a larger umbrella group known as particles
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
Focus on Grammar Advanced
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
Conjunctions as an appendix; nothing on prepositions
Murphy’s Grammar in Use
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
Organization of principal closed prepositions and possible verb combinations
Cassell’s Student’s English Grammar
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
Reliable source with clear explanations
SetbacksSetbacksUnclear boundaries between
simple and complex; weak and strong, grammatical and lexical (call for a continuum)
Dual identity: prepositions » adverbs, e.g. out, about, like, after, up.
Grammar and discourse dependency
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
Why treat them as semantic Why treat them as semantic units?units?
Translatability, e.g. I’m in!Direct and indirect equivalence,
e.g. Are we on for tonight?Teachability, e.g. He was up and about soon after the surgery.
Phrasal verbs, e.g. I whip my hair back and forth
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
The basis of translationThe basis of translationTranslation means finding an
equivalence between “two sound complexes based on their common link with the same notion”. (Copcaeg, 1998)
Instead of units of meaning, we could refer to units of notion or concepts. The latter is universal and less subjective than the former.
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
The challengeThe challengeTeaching prepositions calls for a
presentation of concepts or notion, e.g. notions of space, time, manner and place and an analysis of how the speakers of that given language see these concepts.
Mastering prepositions seem to be an eternal thorn in language learners’ sides and thus a source of frustration for the learner in question.
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
ClassificationsClassificationsSimpleEmptyWeak LightMainAbstractColorlessFakeLexical
ComplexContentfulStrong DarkSecondaryConcreteColored True Functional
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática IILexical derivant
Grammatical morpheme
No intermediate or transitory stage
Theory of grammaticalization Theory of grammaticalization (Kurylowicz, 1965)(Kurylowicz, 1965)Affixes gain full-fledged statusSyntactic litmus test: the more
prepositional, the more grammatical
closed class = advanced grammaticalization = desemanticization
Prepositions/adverbs fluctuate from lexical to grammatical and vice versa.
Loss of compositional meaning – separate elements, one meanining
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
If prepositions float If prepositions float between the two between the two categoriescategories
Would a process called re-semanticization take place when grammaticalized items assume new meanings, sometimes even redundant ?BETWEEN: BY- + TWEONUM (two people)
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
How can we tell?How can we tell?Like phrasal verbs,
grammaticalized prepositions can be separated whereas lexicalized ones cannot
The longer the preposition, the lesser the grammaticalization: compare instead of with yet
unstressed words due to phonological attrition or erosion, e.g. OF
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
Contradictory?Contradictory?The usage of lexicalized items
turns the same into a closed or grammatical class.
This group, in turn, achieves or portrays new meanings.
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
On the one hand, prepositions are dependent _ or _ relation _ semantic continuity _ the lexical content _ the term they accompany, and _ the other hand _ the syntactic function they have
In practice – grammaticalized or lexicalized?
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
On the one hand, prepositions are dependent on or in relation of semantic continuity with the lexical content of the term they accompany, and on the other hand, with the syntactic function they have
In practice
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
Linking devicesConjunctions
AdverbsRelative pronouns
InfinitivesAuxiliaries Participles
Discourse markers
Same sentence Two sentencesSame sentence Two sentences
AlthoughDespiteEven thoughMuch asWhereas
All the sameEven soHoweverNevertheless- On the other
hand
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
Conjunctions Conjunctions Syntactic (grammatical)
elements used to link ideas in a particular way so as to portray contrast, coordination, explanation, concession etc.
Elements that link ideas beyond the scope of the noun or prepositional phrase, i.e. sentence, paragraph and whole text
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
Questions to considerQuestions to considerDoes animacy affect word order
in conjunctions?Are there any restrictions to
relativization in English?Are particles/discourse markers a
lexical class? (Zwicky, 1985) If so, why the two together?
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
Adverbs vs Adverbs vs Particles/Discourse markersParticles/Discourse markers Adverbs can modify the entire
sentence, e.g. Sadly, the starting time had to pushed back.
Particles refer to the whole sentence as logical arguments, e.g Not knowing what to do, I didecided to wait
Discourse markers can be created from adverbs and adverbials, e.g. Quite honestly, you need a better job.
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
Comment
Linking
The point in tme
Comment
PlaceIndefinite time
Comment
Adverb position
Position and Meaning of Adverbs
SensiblySensibly
He (A) discussed the design with her (B).
A – It was wise B – In a sensible way
HonestlyHonestly
(B)I don’t think the mayor is capable of answering the questions (A). (honestly)
A – In a honest way B – I’m telling the truth
Obviously Obviously
He (B) realized she wasn’t (A) well.
A- Of course she wasn’t B- Of course he did
Kindly Kindly
The pilots (B) agreed to speak to the journalists (A).
A – In a kind way B – it was kind of them
Discourse markers make a connection betweenDiscourse markers make a connection between
What is being saidWhat is being saidSpeaker’s attitudeSpeaker’s attitude
What was saidWhat is to be saidWhat was saidWhat theys saying
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
Using auxiliaries to avoid Using auxiliaries to avoid repetitionrepetitionShort answers:
A: Should I revise for the test? B: I think you should (revise for the
test/do so)
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
Using auxiliaries to avoid Using auxiliaries to avoid repetitionrepetitionComments:
A: I thought the film was wonderful.
B: I didn’t (think so).
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
Using auxiliaries to avoid Using auxiliaries to avoid repetitionrepetitionSubsequent responses:
A: I wish you’d lock the door when you come in.
B: But I did (lock the door)!
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
Using auxiliaries to avoid Using auxiliaries to avoid repetitionrepetitionWith more than one auxiliary:
A: He could have been lying. B: Yes, he could/he could have
been
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
Reduced infinitivesReduced infinitivesTo give continuity to thoughts
expressed
A: Haven’t you done the washing-up?
B: No, I’m just about to
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
Reduced infinitivesReduced infinitivesTo respond politely
A: Are you coming for a walk? B: No, I dont want to, thanks
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
Reduced infinitivesReduced infinitivesTo comment:
She’s less moody that she used to be.
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II
Some useful resourcesSome useful resourcesCassell's Students' English
GrammarWays to GrammarMurphy's English GrammarPractical English UsageA Student's Grammar of the
English Language
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II