BIODIVERSITY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Madoffe, S.S.Tailored for
3rd Year BSc WLM 2007
Introductiono Living organisms and reliance on the envo The world’s bd made up of mi of spp o Species and environmental adaptationo All species depend on one another- directly or
indirectly for their survival o Recently more env degradation ever than
beforeo Humans and the role on the future of the Eartho Conflicts btn Resource Utilization and Cons
LEAD TO:Debate on Biodiversity
Why conflicts over bd use?
Different interest groups at: local(medicinal), national (water catchment) and International (Carbon sequestration)
Awareness on bd and measures to reduce losses
CONCEPT OF BIODIVERSITY
Existence of many speciesNeed to identify them – Estimates only
Identification difficult – WHY?
Table 1. Estimated number of individual species in thousands
CATEGORYESTIMATED NUMBERS (THOUSANDS)
IDENTIFIED UNIDENTIFIED
ALGAE 50 350
ARACHNIDAE 45 550
CRUSTACEANS 50 150
FUNGI 40 1,360
INSECTS 1,000 1,400
MOLLUSCUS 250 100
NEMATODES 45 455
PLANTS 500 100
PROTOZOA 100 160
VERTEBRATES 150 0
OTHERS 240 260
EXTINCTION OF SPECIES
o Species extinction as natural phenomenono Role of human on spp extinctiono Do we know how many spp have
disappeared?o Spp extinction and documentationo Have we overdrawn our account? o Status of Global forest o Examples from EAMs and Amazono Protect what protects us
BD &BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES
o Biodiversity buzzword for the 1990's,
o Concern over bd is not new.o BD = Contraction of Biological
diversity. o Biodiversity variety of life
forms ORo Variety and variability among
living organisms
LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY
Three fundamental levels Genetic diversity: Species diversity Ecosystem diversity
Main gradients of terrestrial diversity
Diversity increases from: Latitudinal gradients:
Increase Poles – equator Elevation gradients:
Increases with altitude. Precipitation gradients Others include: Nutrient
levels, Salinity gradients and Island
TROPICAL BIODIVERSITY
AN OVERVIEW Very high bd:- spp, habitats,
ecosystems Spp richness depends on RTH. About 2/3 of all spp occur in tropics Tropical humid forests 14-18 mi. km2 Today shrinkage 1 mi. km2 every 5 -
10 yrs.
EA a Mega-biodiversity Region
Due to: Biogeographic diversity Diversity of the land-form from Patterns of geological change History of ethnic/cultural diversity
Uses of Biodiversity
Direct use Consumptive Commercial Indirect values
Maintain water cycles Climate regeneration Storage and cycling of essential nutrients Photosynthesis etc
These values: could be looked at: International, National, or local.
AGRICULTURAL VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY
Genetic resources - rapid growth, high yield, pest resistance etc
Crossing of cultivated species and their wild relatives
Variety of gemplasm e.g. dry land cereals: millet,
Wild species of cropping potential for agriculture/livestock
Biodiversity hotspots
What are hotspots? High diversity of endemic spp and
threatened Support 1,500 endemic plant species,
0.5%t of the global total Plant diversity is the biological basis
for hotspot designation WHY? Diversity of endemic vertebrates in
hotspot regions is also extraordinarily high
BD hotspot cont.
There are 34 regions of biodiversity hotspots worldwide
Examples: Madagascar, The tropical Andes, Mediterranean region, Mesoamerica, the Caribbean, Indo Burma etc
In EA we have EAMs and Coastal forests of Kn and Tz
What are endemic species?
Highly restricted organisms example
Saint paulia (African violet), Usambara eagle owl, Uluguru violet-backed sunbird.
Why are there endemic species?
Evolutionary history and respond to the environment they inhabit.
Their ecological requirements are only met over a small area and
They are not capable of dispersing great distances to other suitable habitats.
Why do hotspots have many endemic species?
Many of the world's hotspots are islands WHY?.
Isolation over long periods of geologic time
Benign environments - greatest diversity of ecosystems
Isolate benign environments
Why are hotspots threatened?
Island nature - Often unprepared to compete with the introduced and exotic species
They are ecologically "naive." – due to evolutionary history
Threats by humans - logging, slash and burn, mining etc
Hotspots conservation
Pre-requisite Relies on scientific evaluations of
the threatened status of species. Determining priority areas for
conservation Set conservation priorities on the
basis of resources and importance of the area
Hotspots can be evaluated in terms of:
Their unique biodiversity The amount of habitat lost and
protected, and The number of endemic species in a
small area
Some conservation approaches
The establishment of traditional PAs Implementation innovative
economic alternatives Influencing the behaviour of the
locals Working with international corporations
Employ scientific, economic, policy, and education tools to create effective conservation strategies.
Monitoring hotspots
Aim: Implement programs and strategies that are effective at protecting bd
Hotspots are dynamic places Need to monitor them on what has
already happened Anticipate what might happen,
based on what has happened before
Monitoring done through
Understanding the situation in these areas e.g.
Patterns of biodiversity Which spp are concentrated in which
places? Factors contributing to biodiversity loss How is biodiversity changing over time?
Different ways of monitoring: Permanent sample plots, remotes sensing etc
Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests of East Africa
The Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests hotspot (Fig. 1)
Stretches along most of the eastern coast of Tanzania and into extreme SE Kenya.
The hotspot extends more than 400 km Comprises only 0.1% of tropical Africa's land
area yet contains 13% of the entire continent's
vascular plants.
The EAMs of EA
Threats to EAMs
Fire Illegal logging and pole extraction Encroachment for Agricultural
development and settlement Human population pressures also
threaten the remaining forests Alien invasive species
Fire in lowland adjacent to EAMs
Cons of EAMs and Coastal forests
What are the current conservation initiatives taken by both Tz government and International institutions?
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
The rate of species extinction is higher today than ever before
In spite of this there are more species to date on earth than ever before.
BD loss and environmental degradation is a result of humanity + natural
A: Socio-economic context of Biodiversity loss
i) Poverty ii) Loss of Traditional Knowledge iii) Population dynamics Consider : Migrations by people and
livestock Urbanization Refugees in small area
iv) Poor agricultural practices
Extensive and shifting cultivation Indiscriminate use of fire Cultivation on slopes – lead to soil
erosion Monocultural farming Over-grazing Dilemma of pushing pastoralists to
marginal areas
v) Pollution
Agro-chemicals (pesticides, and chemical fertilizers)
Mining lead to degradation, water pollution and disturbance of wildlife.
Traffic.
vi) Energy Crisis
Bio-energy use is about 92% Petroleum 7.2%, and electricity
0.8%
vii) Tourism What are main tourism related
problems?
2. Ecological aspects of BD loss
i) Invasive speciesii) Aforestation and deforestation
Examples of some threats to biodiversity in Tanzania
i) Ecological isolation of protected areas
Tarangire NP is isolated from lake Manyara NP
Uluguru as an ecological islands Ref. Island biogeography theory
ii) Fragmentation of protected areas
Due to: logging, mining, construction e.g. Ruvu F.R., Selous (TAZARA).
Fragmentation: Reduces the effective habital areas Divides plant and animal pops into
smaller isolated pops that become viable to local extinction
Creates gaps barriers for dispersal and migration of animals and plants.
iii) Food and timber production methods
Change from subsistence agriculture - industrial agriculture
Clearing natural forests for industrial forest plantations
WHY is industrial farming not sustainable in tropical Africa?
iv) Invasive exotics into protected areas
What’s an Invasive species? What’s Alien invasive species?
Factors contributing to the introduction and spread of alien species
Human mobility. Economic and trade Climate change Conflict and construction Tourism Biological control of pests Forest/ecosystem disturbance
Examples of Alien invasive spp in EA
Nile perch (Lates niloticus) Maesopsis eminii Acacia mearnsii Lantana camara Senna spectabilis Indian house crow
Alien invasive species
Maesopsis eminii in the E. Usambaras
Lantana camara
Impacts of Invasive species
Can reduce the quality of the forest Sometimes they can eliminate native spp Sometimes invaders brings its diseases or
parasites Sometimes they interbreed - thus eroding
native gene diversity Sometimes exotics out-compete natives
for an essential resource They exert a price.
How can we protect our PAs from notorious invasives?
Quarantine Planned imports and releases of exotics Importers to accept liability for damages Govt determine ecological effects of new
spp International co-operation Adopt a general policy on use of native
species
Control/Elimination of invasive species
Mechanical Control Chemical Control by pesticides Biological Control Ecosystem Manipulation Integrated Management
V: Over-exploitation of plants and animals
Over-exploitation of plants and animals like deforestation could result in:
Habitat destruction and modification, Examples:
Charcoal burning Excessive harvesting of animals e.g.
elephants, rhinos
Land clearing
Illegal logging/Mining
VI: Foreign debt serving
High levels of foreign debt, has put pressure on governments to engage in a variety of agricultural and industrial practices
e.g Hunting block e.g. in Loliondo Mining in Lake Zone could endanger
some species - WHY?
ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
What is Environment? Environment overlapping
phenomenon: physical, biological, anthropic, and resource generating in nature. Humans use Resources and could
be renewable or non-renewable
What is a resource
Resource implies something which:Can be used to satisfy human
needs.Some technology to extract and
transform it to a usable form Must be a demand for that product.
Impacts of Environmental degradation
Loss of bd has significant impact on environment
Development activities could have impact on the environment
Impacts
Local impacts Consider impact of tree fall or animal
killed in a tropical forest National, regional and global impacts Effects of Uluguru Mt forests and water
resources in Dar River Nile and Niger Deforestation in the LCD and industrial
pollution in DC on C build-up.
Relationship Environment and bd
Env and bd are cross-sectorial issues BD are therefore housed in
environmental agencies, e.g Environmental degradation increase
GHGs, soil erosion etc which impact on biodiversity
Solution to environmental problems is thus solutions to biodiversity issues
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (SD)
The Concept of SD and its implications
Development Environment led to the concept of SD
SD now a central concept in environmental policies of many countries.
Concept of SD cont.
Several defs, however, balancing the fulfillment of human needs with the protection of NE so that these needs can be met now and future
SD has to be:environmentally friendlytechnically appropriate,economically viable and socially acceptable
Sustainable Agriculture
Agriculture is sustainable if it provide:
Enough food Employment, Better income and Conserve NR and protect the
environment.
Requirements for sustainable development
Right Policy for effective citizen participation Conducive economic system Friendly social system with less conflicts Environmentally friendly production system International system that fosters sustainable
patterns of trade and finance Administrative system that is flexible and
has the capacity for self-correction
How to achieve sustainable development
i) Conservation and development – hand in hand
ii) Holistic Integration in: land use; traditional and modern systems & technology
iii) Cropping/animal production systems iv) Alternative energy systems v) Monitoring of resources and environment
vi) Education, training, and orientation
priorities
Challenges in Sustainable Development
Time-horizon of development The principle of the free market
mechanism Trickle-down process from the
developed countries Liberalization and an increase in
North-South trade and aid cooperation
Constraints on SD in Sub-Saharan Africa
General constraints Political constraints Socio-economic constraints Technological constraints Specific or sectoral constraints
Agriculture Industrial development Mineral industry development
Roles of BD in Sustainable Agricultural Planning
Maintain diversified ecosystem around farms
Diversified cropping systems, and cultivars. Traditional activities-ecologically sound Use env friendly cropping & husbandry
practice Promoting sound economic valuation Promote community participation in
planning
ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENTS
• Popular from 1960's & 1970's DCs• Main concern human impact on env• 1960's concern, pesticides, pollution,
& population.• 1970's, concern resource depletion,
pop and poverty• Today, global conservation & wise
mang of NR for SD
Major International Environmental conference
UNCHE - Stockholm in 1972. WCED - 1986 -Brundtland Advocated world "SD" 1987,WCED "Our Common Future" Global env problems and measures to
solve them.
UNGA RESOLUTIONS
1989- Holistic approach to env & development
1992 Earth Summit on SD – Rio MAIN OTPUT AGENDA 21
AGENDA 21
Action Plan and Strategy of env & economic problems & solutions to the problems.
Remove differences btn N&S Global consensus and political
commitment Develop alternative and more
environmentally friendly ways of living. Aiming to achieve SD - "sustainable living"
INTERNATIONAL IMPLEMENTATION OF RIO COMMITMENTS
International conferences of 1990's
Establishment of legal, institutional and policy instruments
Mid-term assessment (1997) of Rio Resolutions
IMPLEMENTATION OF AGENDA 21 IN TANZANIA
◊ Ratified important international legal instruments – eg BD & Climate Change Conventions.
◊ Important legislations at national level – Forest policy, Land policy, etc
◊ Institutional arrangements like establishment of NEMC
◊ Policy documents e.g. Environment, Population, HIV/AIDS, PRSPs
CONSTRAINTS IN IMPLEMENTING AGENDA 21
High Incidence of Poverty Un-equal distribution of pop/economy HIV/AIDS and human health problems Other: extreme weather conditions,
negative effects of globalization etc
WORLD SUMMIT ON SD, JOBURG 2002 (WSSD)
Main changes after Rio Summit:Globalisation, Increased poverty,HIV/AIDS, Loss of bd etc
Rio was for commitments Joburg was to:
• Review progress of agenda 21 & • Map way forward towards global SD.
Key areas dedicated for the WSSD
Water, energy, Health, Agriculture and Biodiversity
To achieve SD in above areas we need:
Global Partnership e.g. NEPAD
Key Outcomes of the WSSD
SD central element of the international agenda
More Governments commitments on SD
Energy and sanitation issues More support to Africa and NEPAD Civil society were given prominence The concept of partnerships
BEYOND JOSBURG: FUTURE PERSPECTIVES FOR TANZANIA
Main focus: Inter-sectoral co-ordination and integration More emphasis on SD and poverty reduction
themes Harmonization and further development of
legal, policy and institutional arrangements Further action on HIV/AIDS and poverty, and
environmental degradation
WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY
What is conservation? History of Conservation
e.g. Greeks and Romans Motivations for conservation in
Africa:Preserve game for colonial hunters Preserve for rituals (sacred forests)
CONSERVATION OBJECTIVES
Maintain essential ecological processes
Preserve genetic resources Ensure the sustainable utilisation of
species and ecosystems
WHY CONCERN ABOUT CONSERVATION
General Reduced ecosystem services Resources degradation particularly in
DCs due to poverty and struggle for food
Increased costs to produce goods and services
The resource base of major industries is shrinking
Other concerns: Global
Many living resources are shared Many living resources occur in areas
beyond national jurisdiction Living resources in one state may be
affected by activities done in another state
Main obstacles for conserving bd
Belief on living resources Failure to integrate conservation with
development Poor developmental planning Lack of a capacity to conserve Lack of support for conservation Wrong target conservation group
CONSERVATION AND MANG OF BD
Conservation to bd focus on: • Causes of losses• Opportunities for bd on SD
BD not equally distributed – Set conser priority Approaches in priority setting
biodiversity hotsports, major tropical wilderness and megadiversity countries.
Priority setting based on:
Importance of the BD to nation's survival
Distribution of BD Level of endemism Level of threat Availability of resources
Why Conservation of Natural forest and wildlife is a very challenging
High demand of this resource by the people.
Artificial regeneration very difficult and most of the species are under studied.
Little biological data for making precise cons recommendations
METHODS OF REDUCING BIODIVERSITY LOSSES
Respective and incorporate African values, knowledge systems, and priorities
Involving local people in conservation activities
Biodiversity conservation systems
Methods cont.
Policies Education, Training and Networking Monitoring, Evaluation and Research
MILLENIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALSAND ENV. CONS
2000, 189 countries sign Millennium declaration
Focus on the declaration: Peace, security and disarmamentDevelopment and poverty reduction Protection of environmentHuman rights, democracy and good
governance
WHAT ARE THE MDGS?
Blueprint on devel & env - agreed by all world countries & all leading developing institutions to eradicate extreme poverty worldwide
Key target of MDGs – fight poverty through reduced loss of env resources by advocating bd conservation
Element of the MDGs
i) Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger Main sources of bd losses Particular attention to marginal areas BD main source of livelihood by poor Poor countries borrow from DCs and
they pay through bd utilization Strengthening rural income will
reduce BD losses
ii) Achieve universal primary education
Girls/women are main target Importance of women on bd
cons Role of UNV
iii) Promote gender equity and empower women
Women are the poorest yet they are main actors in bd cons
Empowerment will help in decision making, access to knowledge etc
Constraints of Women empowerment and participation in BD conservation
Traditions – women should not own land
Lack of ownership Little control of benefits from income Restricted in participation of social
welfare
Others
iv) Reduce child mortality v) Improve maternal health vi) Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and
other diseases vii) Ensure environmental
sustainability
viii) Develop global partnership for development
Open trade – non-discriminatory Assist to conserve rare species,
endangered etc Good governance reduce poverty Cancel debts etc
C: The Linkage of MDGs and BD conservation
Linkages btn MDG’s and BD cons exists but not well articulated!!
Consider poverty, diseases, education Vs Env conservation!!
Dangers of not understanding and accepting the linkage by politicians and technocrats
Could compromise conservation objectives
AND THEREFORE:
Stable env will therefore assist to achieve MDGs
Income from bd can reduce poverty
Income from BD cons can improve social services eg health, education etc
ECOLOGICAL DIVERSITY AND ITS MEASUREMENTS
Why ecologists interested in ecologicaldiversity and its measurement. Comprehending ecosystem structure
and function. Conserving and breeding. Monitoring important land
management interventions Set areas of priority for conser of bd
Objective of measuring BD
To provide baseline information on: distribution, richness and relative abundance of taxa that is
needed for conservation decisionNB: Biodiversity seen as indicators of the
wellbeing of ecological systems
How to measure diversity
Recording the number of species Describing their relative abundance or Combine the two components
POPULATION INDICES
Numerous diversity indices developed Indices seek to characterize the
diversity by a simple number. Two best known are Simpson’s Index Shannon’s
Simpson's Diversity Index
Used to quantify the bd of a habitat. Takes into account: the number of species present, and abundance of each species. 'Simpson's Diversity Index' refer to any
one of 3 closely related indices
i) Simpson's Index (D)
D = (n / N)2 n = the total no. of organisms of a
particular speciesN = the total no. of organisms of all species
The value of D ranges between 0 and 1 ii) Simpson's Index of Diversity 1 - D iii) Simpson's Reciprocal Index 1 / D
Measuring biodiversity
Diversity appears to be very simple and unambiguous concept.
Where then is the scope for so many competing indices?
Because diversity measures takes into account two factors.
Species richness – i.e. number of species Evenness (equitability)
Example of the above
Consider 4 sites A, B, C and D
Site A: - 1 species of moth Site B: - 3 species of moth
B is more diverse i.e. greater richness
Example cont.
Site C: 4 spp - @ moth sp has 3 individuals = 12
Site D: 4spp – one sp has 9 individuals, others (3 sp.) have 1 individual @ giving a total of 12 individuals
C & D have equal number of spp and individuals (12),
The greater evenness of C makes it more diverse
METHODS OF ASSESSING FOREST BIODIVERSITY
i)Traditional inventory analysis: Estimate of standing volume of
trees or animals in an area To determine changes with time
(e.g FHM) Could use permanent or temporary
sample plots
Methods cont.
ii) Remote Sensing: Include aerial photography and
satellite imageryCan not be used to identify
individual plant Can be used for mapping vegetation
(zonation) and land use planning
MORE READINGS ON:
GLOBOLIZATION AND ITS IMPACT TO BIODIVERSITY IN THE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
GOOD LUCK