[XLS] · Web viewPrusty, B.C. In :National Workshop on Managing Common lands for Sustainable Development of our Village: A Search for Participatory Management Models, Bhubaneswar,

Abstract_number Title

1 50 years of forest management in India.

2 A case study of joint forest management in Andhra Pradesh.

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4

5

6 A decade of JFM and its ecological impacts.

A case study of Rajbeda van samiti, Chilpi forest range in bufferzone of Kanha National Park.

A common property resource management strategy for social forestry project division, Cuttak (Orissa).

A decade of experience of non-governmental organizations and other private associations in forestry sector.

7 A decade of JFM in India: Looking back for better foresight.

8

9 A dynmic process of institution development in Lohgarh village in Haryana.

10 A need for joint forest management.

11

12 A note on joint forest management.

A discussion on maintenance of biodiversity through community forestry in Yunnan province, China.

A note on improvement in regeneration status in forests of Madhya Pradesh under joint forest management.

13 A pragmatic approach to participation in forest management.

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15

16 Additional income generating options.

17

18 An integrated approach to information systems in joint forest management.

A reexamination of prospects for integrating conservation of biodiversity into the development of forest buffers through community participation.

A simple method of assessing growing stock and annual increment for preparing JFM plans.

An assessment of community intervention in joint forest management of South West Bengal.

19

20 Analysis of gender perception in forest management in India.

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22

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24

An introspect into management aspects of the institutions: Case study of the selected FPCs in the forest division of Midnapore district, West Bengal.

Andhari Tiger Sanctuary (Maharashtra): A case for people’s participation in the management of protected areas.

APFORGEN - Enhanced networking for forest genetic resource information in forest management.

Apnavan plantations in Arunachal Pradesh: An agro-forestry scheme for rehabilitation of degraded Jhum lands through people's participation.

Appropriate silvicultural models under the joint forest management: Gujarat state.

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26

27

28 Assessment of training needs of frontline forestry staff : A JFM perspective.

29 Associations of rural communities: Farm and community forestry.

30

Aspects of Romanian forestry: The case for community forest management in the Piatra Craiului Massif.

Assessment of benefit distribution in VFCs after harvesting: Honnebail VFC.

Assessment of socio-economic status and diversity of economically important plant resources using participatory approach: A case study from Pindari area of Nanda Devi biosphere reserve, West Himalaya.

Between common property and state monopoly: The institutional context of wasteland regeneration in India.

31 Beyond joint forest management.

32 Bilateral matching institution: An illustration in forest conservation.

33 Biodiversity concerns in joint forest management.

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35

36

Biodiversity conservation and community development activities supported by FAO.

Biodiversity conservation and community development at Khao Nor Chuchi, southern Thailand.

Biodiversity conservation and community development in Kakadu National Park, Australia.

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38

39

40

41

42 Biodiversity conservation with special reference to Kanha Tiger Reserve.

Biodiversity conservation and community development in South West Bengal.

Biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation in the Himalayan jungle project Palas valley, Pakistan.

Biodiversity conservation and rural development in the Aga khan rural support programme.

Biodiversity conservation in North-East India: Lessions from people's experience.

Biodiversity conservation through participatory community development: The NRMP-CFP experience.

43 Biodiversity implications of community management of forests in Nepal.

44 Biofertilizers for sustainable forestry.

45

46 Changes of planning strategies in forestry sector in Tamil Nadu.

47

48

Canada's model forest program: A participatory approach to sustainable forest management in Canada.

Changing dimentions of forest management in India: Options and roles for people’s participation.

Clean development mechanism and joint forest management programme in India.

49 Collective forest management in India.

50

51 Combating draught and desertification through people's participation

52 Common lands: Manangement and emerging trends.

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54

Collective resource managenment: An experience in Harda Forest Division, Bhopal, (RCWD).

Communication strategy: A need of sustainable development- JFM perspective.

Communities and the state: re-establishing the balance in Indian Forest Policy

55 Community-based forest management in India: The significance of tenure.

56 Community based forest management: The experience of the Ikalahan.

57

58

59

60 Community forest management in the sal forests of Northeastern Orissa

Community development and conservation of forest biodiversity through community forestry: Country report for Bangladesh.

Community forest management and joint forest management in the Eastern Ghats, Andhra Pradesh

Community forest management in the middle hills of Nepal: The changing context.

61

62 Community forestry in India: Issues and prospects.

63 Community forestry: A case study from Kudada, Bihar.

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65

66

Community forest management vs. joint forest management in Orissa: Need to look beyond JFM

Community forestry: An ecological, economic and institutional assessment in the Western Ghats

Community forestry: management practices in Bada Bhilwara Hamlet, Bichiwara village, Rajasthan

Community participation in the management of nature reserves: Experiences and lessons from China.

67

68 Concept of conservation in indigenous tribal communities.

69

70

71 Conflict resolution: A challenge for joint forest management in India.

72

Community participation in wildlife management: The Mount Cameroon experience.

Concept of participatory forest management including problems of implementation.

Conflict management in joint forest management and watershed development: Our experiences in Tamil Nadu.

Conflict resolution amongst various forest user groups within participatory forest management framework.

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74

75

76 Consensus building in JFM: An experience in Melagarh, Tripura.

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78

Conflicting policy, institutional and legal frameworks for participatory forest management.

Conflicts and distrubance lessons from community - based natural resource management institutions in Orissa, India.

Conflicts in institutinal development: Implications for joint forest management.

Conservation of biodiversity: Benefit sharing with participating communities.

Conservation of forests - decision making by community can make all the difference - A case study from India.

79

80

81

82

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84

Conserving the Kumaun forests through people’s participation: A case study.

Constraints in the implementation of joint participatory forest management programme: Some lessons from Haryana.

Contribution of participatory forest management in the livelihoods of rural communities in India.

Coping with climate change related uncertainities: An ideal joint forest management model.

Creating awareness among different stake holders and policy makers regarding the recent technological innovations and research advancements for application in JFM - Chhatisgarh perspective.

Criteria and indicators for assessing the sustainability of a community-based forest management project in the Philippines.

85 Criteria and key indicators for sustainable joint forest management.

86 Current best practice of JFM in Tripura.

87 Decade of joint forest management in India.

88 Determinants of people’s participation: A case study.

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90

Developing and sustaining nontimber forest products: Policy issues and concerns with special reference to India.

Developing rural communities and conserving the biodiversity of Nepal's forests through community forestry.

91

92

93

94 Dietrich Brandis and Indian forestry: A vision revisited and reaffirmed

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96

Development of good organisation standards and practices for joint forest management and eco-development committees in India. A step towards quality certification system of community based organisations.

Development of wastelands with agroforestry models through joint forest management approach.

Dieback of shisham in pure plantation in Haldwani (Uttaranchal) - A case study.

Eco-development works-impact on bio-diversity conservation in Irkam Island of Pulicat Bird Sanctuary in Andhra Pradesh: A case study.

Ecological and economic assessment of joint forest management programme in Tripura

97 Ecological concepts about shisham (Dalbergia sissoo) mortality.

98 Ecological revival of Haryana Siwaliks through community participation,

99

100 Ecological studies of sal forest in Bankura, North Division.

101

102 Economics of bamboo basket making: A case study.

Ecological stabilisation and community needs: Managing India's forests by objective

Ecological sustainability of community based forest management - A case study: Gadabanikilo, Orissa.

103 Economics of goat and buffalo rearing: A case study from Haryana.

104 Economics of rope making under participatory forest management.

105

106

107

108 Emerging federations in JFM and community forestry in India and Nepal.

Economics, poverty and transparency: Measuring equity in forest user groups.

Effect of juvenile grass cutting on fibre yield of bhabbar and hay yield of fodder grasses in Shivalik hills of Haryana.

Emergence of second generation issues in operationalising joint forest management.

109 Emerging issues in joint forest management requiring research support.

110 Emerging issues in participatory forest management.

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112

113

114 Empowerment of rural communities and joint forest management.

Emerging market for forest environmental service - Can JFM groups benefit from these.

Empowering people through joint forest management: A study from Madhya Pradesh, India.

Empowerment of people through forestry: A status paper on JFM in Uttar Pradesh.

115

116

117 Ethnoforestry and sustainability science for JFM.

118 Evolution of a legal agreement for joint forest management in Haryana.

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120

Ensuring people’s participation for sustainable forest management through entry point activities.

Environmental rehabilitation and livelihood impact: Emerging trends from Ethiopia and Gujarat.

Evolution of forest management practices in Shivalik hills, Udhampur district, Jammu and Kashmir

Evolving forest management systems: Innovating with planning and silviculture.

121

122

123

124 Facilitating factors for involvement of women.

125 Feel of first fruits of JFM in Bihar.

126 Fendal foresters.

Experience with development of VFCs in high forest areas-Baragadde, Goyar, Barge VFCs.

Exploring possibilities of reforestation of forest lands exposed to encroachment and shifting cultivation in the North Eastern India through clean development mechanism.

Extension of forestry research through joint forest management: An ecological study.

127 Fifty years of forestry in independent India: Gains and losses.

128

129 Financial viability and bankability of JFM projects in India.

130

131 Food, fodder, fuel NTFP can sustain JFM

132 For radical reforms: Dissemination of innovative technologies in rural areas.

Fifty years of forestry in Tripura: Achievements in retrospect, macro futuristic perspectives and imparatives.

First report of biodiversity enrichment through introduction of tuber yielding crops in the natural forest: An inspiring model of participatory management.

133

134 Forest and the poor in India

135 Forest management and climate change in the Walloon Region of Belgium.

136 Forest management and utilization under community forestry.

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138

Forest and People: Understanding the institutional governance, social identity and people's participation in Indian forest Management.

Forest management down the ages: A case study from district Uttarkashi, Uttaranchal.

Forest protection and management by communities in Midnapore district, West Bengal

139

140 Forest protection committees: Some institutional aspects.

141 Forest protection committees in West Bengal, India: Emerging policy issues.

142 Forest protection initiatives in Panchmahals district, Gujarat.

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144

Forest protection by "Jungle Bachao Groups" in Panchmahals district, Gujarat

Forest protection policies and local benefits from NTFP: Lessons from West Bengal.

Forest resource management through peoples participation in Barwani Forest Division, Madhya Pradesh.

145

146

147 Forestry rediscovered: Needed reforms.

148 Forestry research for sustainable development.

149 Forests and forestry in Mizoram: A profile.

150 From barren fields to grape vineyards.

Forest tenures under joint forest management in Bihar: The challenge ahead in 21st century.

Forestry extention: Strategies to make forestry technology acceptable to the people.

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152

153 Gender roles in joint forest management.

154 Gender training in joint forest management.

155 Genesis of JFM in India

156 Grass yield under community participation in Haryana Shivaliks.

From conflict to collaboration: Institutional issues in community management

Gadabanikilo - An example of community forest management with a difference

157 Greening wastelands through participatory wastershed management.

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159

160 How to made JFM sustainable.

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162

'Groupthink' to 'Teamthink': Creation of constructive thought patterns in participatory forest management.

Hamlet-based micro-level action planning: A tool for improving FUGs planning, decision-making, and implementation.

How to motivate people in rural areas to participate in development of forestry.

Identifying indicators for successful implementation of joint forest management in Arunachal Pradesh.

163 Impact of culture on process of joint forest management in India.

164

165

166

167 Impacts of community forestry on livelihoods in the middle hills of Nepal.

168

Impact of participatory eco-restoration on degraded forests of South West Bengal.

Impact of participatory forest management on socio-economic development of rural people: A case study in Kodsi and Talaichittor villages of Dehradun district.

Impact of participatory forest management on the ecology of Shivalik hills in Haryana state.

Implementation of sustainable forest management indicators for monitoring and evaluation. A case study of rehablitation of degraded forests in Machharia VFC, West Mandla Forest Division, Madhya Pradesh.

169 Improved Silvopastures for joint forest management in India.

170 Increasing forest productivity.

171

172 Indian forest departments in transition

173

174 Indigenous communities' knowledge of local ecological services.

Increasing profitability of joint forest management through silvipastoral system.

Indicators for assessing empowerment situation in joint forest management (JFM) : Relevancy, methods and applicability.

175

176 Institutional and policy issues of participatory forestry: Indian experience.

177 Institutional change, enterprise and managing for multiple use in JFM

178

179

180 Institutional flaws of collective forest management.

Innovative role of tribal institution in joint forest management in North-East India.

Institutional development for sustainable forest management: The role of conflicts.

Institutional development of forest user groups in Nepal: Process and indicators.

181

182 Institutional process in the restoration of livelihood supports.

183

184 Integrating climate change mitigation in JFM potential and issues.

185

186 Involvement of weaker section in wasteland afforestation programme.

Institutional pluralism in forestry: considerations of analytical and operational tools.

Institutional, legal and Socio-economic impacts of community paticipation in Haryana Siwaliks.

Integrating rural livelihoods with forest rehabilitation: Need for community forest management.

187

188 Issues to incorporate gender in JFM process.

189 J.F.M. compatible technologies for value addition of NWFPs.

190 JFM: A potential CDM activity.

191 JFM: The economic arousal.

192 JFM: The joint financial munching.

Is handing over forests to local communities a solution to deforestration?: Experience in Andhra Pradesh (India).

193 JFM gensis pre-dated Arabari schme.

194 JFM in Andhra Pradesh

195 JFM in Chhattisgarh.

196 JFM in Gujarat.

197 JFM in Haryana: Retrospection and future.

198 JFM in Haryana [Aravalli Project].

199 JFM in Himachal Pradesh.

200 JFM in India: Some legal concerns.

201 JFM in India: Points to ponder

202 JFM in Jammu and Kashmir.

203 JFM in Madhya Pradesh.

204 JFM in Maharashtra.

205 JFM in new millennium: Some issues.

206 JFM in Orissa.

207 JFM in protected areas.

208 JFM in Rajasthan.

209 JFM in Tamil Nadu.

210 JFM in the Northeast.

211 JFM in Uttar Pradesh.

212 JFM in Uttaranchal.

213 JFM in watershed management: Issues.

214 JFM in West Bengal.

215 JFM through NTFP.

216 JFM vis-à-vis sustainable forest management.

217 Joint (Participatory) forest management.

218 Joint forest management - A training manual

219

220 Joint forest management (concept, constraints and legal issues).

221 Joint forest management: Andhra Pradesh experience.

222

Joint forest management - towards achieving goals of biodiversity conservation.

Joint forest management: Build on rural India’s realities and corresponding scientific conclusions- time to reconsider?

223 Joint forest management: Emerging issues.

224 Joint forest management: Future directions and priorities for research.

225

226 Joint forest management: Some clarifications.

227 Joint forest management: Some fundamentals reviewed.

228 Joint forest management: The Gwira-Banso experience.

Joint forest management: Perceptions of new incombents in Indian Forest Service.

229

230 Joint forest management and protected area management.

231 Joint forest management at village level: A cognitive analysis.

232 Joint forest management for sustenance.

233 Joint forest management heralds a novel approach in Kullu.

234

Joint forest management and community forestry in India: An ecological and institutional assessment.

Joint forest management in Cuddapah Forest Division: A successful example.

235

236 Joint forest management in Haryana: Workshop proceedings.

237

238 Joint forest management in India: Current status and research needs.

239

240 Joint forest management in Punjab.

Joint forest management in five villages of Nayagram Range, Midnapore, West Bengal

Joint forest management in India: Achievements and unaddressed challenges.

Joint forest management in North Bengal and Haryana: A visitor's perspective.

241

242 Joint forest management in Tamil Nadu: Past, present and future.

243 Joint forest management in Tamil Nadu: Problems and prospects.

244 Joint forest management in the arid and semi-arid regions of India.

245 Joint forest management in the next millenium.

246 Joint forest management in the second decade.

Joint forest management in Raj Rishi Gram Ravan Deora: An inspiring experiment of participative dynamics.

247 Joint forest management in the state of Maharashtra.

248

249 Joint forest management in West Bengal at the cross-road.

250 Joint forest management issues of its progress and sustainability.

251

252 Joint forest management promising start and faltering progress.

Joint forest management in the states of Uttar Pradesh and Uttaranchal of India: A critical appraisal.

Joint forest management minimizing cost maximizing benefits: A study report.

253 Joint forest management regulations update

254 Joint forest management: An experience from Bharuch district, Gujarat

255 Joint forest planning and management in Uttar Kannada district, Karnataka.

256

257

258 Jurisdiction versus equity: Tale of two villages.

Joint forest planning and management in Uttar Kannada: A micro and macrolevel assessment

Joint forest planning and management strategy for successful implementation.

259 Kolabari: Where encroachers became protecters.

260 Land development and technological options for JFM.

261 Legal provisions for joint forest management.

262

263

264

Lessons for participatory natural forest management in Latin America: Case studies from Honduras, Mexico and Peru.

Linking biodiversity, conservation to community development: Annapurna conservation area project approach to protected area management.

Linking local community initiatives, aspirations and conservation: Lessons from Dalma sanctuary in Bihar.

265

266 Making and breaking a community forestry institution: A case study.

267 Making and breaking a community forestry institution.

268

269

270

Local demands of forest produce and working plan: A case study of Vyara Forest Division in Gujarat.

Management of bamboo forest under joint participatory forest management in Haryana Shivaliks.

Management of community forests: Some models followed in Sambalpur district.

Management of forest resource involving the local community: A case study of Buldhana district in Maharashtra.

271

272 Management plan under the joint forest management.

273 Managing forests together.

274

275

276

Management of forests for local use in the hills of Nepal.2.Towards the development of participatory forest management.

Managing man groves: Regeneration and sustainability of the mangroves in Gujarat.

Managing natural forests for sustainable harvests of mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla): experiences in Mexico's community forests.

Man-Elephant conflict and mitigation: Koundinya Wildlife Sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh.

277

278 Methodology for monitoring of joint forest management in India.

279 Microplan concept for participatory forest management.

280 Micro-planning in the context of participatory forest management.

281 Microplanning manual for joint forest management areas

282

Merging forest biodiversity conservation and community development - A CARE example.

Minimum forest produce needed by tribal: Its policy implication (Physical and financial limit determination: A study in East Melghat forest division district Amravati, Maharashtra state).

283 Monitoring needs for JFM: the perspective of policy makers.

284 Monitoring of joint forest management in India: Issues and methods.

285

286

287 National biodiversity strategy and action plan.

288

NABARD’s initiatives in funding joint forest management projects: A case study in Andhra Pradesh.

NABARD'S initiatives and experiences in funding of forestry research projects under its R and D fund.

National strategic planning for sustainable forests: Using criteria and indicators in the United States.

289

290

291 Negotiations: A challenging task in joint forest management.

292 NTFP development: Constraints and potential.

293 Participation in joint forest management from women’s perspective.

294

Nature of women's participation in local institutions and common forest management.

Need for assessment of self initiated community and joint forest management systems in India

Participation, policies, practices…. How practical ? joint forest management: A review of studies conducted and implications of participatory forest management in India.

295

296 Participatory approach in Indian forestry in historical perspective.

297

298

299

300

Participatory approach : A viable alternative for sustainable development and conservation of gene pool resource of Manipur.

Participatory forest management : The Jamaica Forestry Department experience.

Participatory forest management for conservation and sustainable use of plant diversity in India.

Participatory forest management scenario in India : A peep through SWOT analysis.

Participatory forest management to meet basic needs of forest dependent communities.

301

302 Participatory management of forests in West Bengal.

303

304 Participatory practices.

305 Participatory rural appraisal for joint forest management.

306 Participatory silviculture for JFM.

Participatory forest management: The route to anti-poverty and eco-conservation schemes.

Participatory management of village forests: A case study of village Kanabhaga.

307 Participatory vegetation monitoring: examples from West Bengal.

308

309 People’s involvement in resource management in Madhya Pradesh.

310

311 People’s participation in forest management.

312 People’s participation in forest protection.

Participatory vegetational assessment and monitoring: A tool for assessing the ecological impact of joint forest management.

People’s participation: A vital component in management of Gir protected area.

313 People’s participation in forestry sector: An approach.

314 People’s participation in management of protected area.

315 Peoples participation in forest fire control.

316 People's participation in forestry for community development in India.

317 People's participation in forestry for local community development.

318 People's participation in forestry sector an approach.

319 People's participation in wasteland development programme in India.

320

321 Perception of women FPC members in North Bengal.

322 Performance indicators to assess impact of joint forest management (JFM).

323

324 Policies on joint forest management and its implementation in Maharashtra.

Peoples’ participation: Proceedings of the State-level Senior officers’ workshop.

Pisciculture under joint participatory forest management programme in Haryana.

325

326

327 Potentials of community participation in sustainable forestry (India).

328

329 Process documentation: A research method for sustainable JFM.

330

Policy and legal issues involved in successful implementation of joint forest management (JFM): A critical analysis.

Policy and legal issues involved in successful implementation of joint forest management: A critical analysis.

Prescribing performance: Let us work together, an over view and strategy for optimisation.

Process documentation: The JFM experience: Proceedings of the national workshop on process documentation in JFM.

331

332 Productivity enhancement: Management for people’s participation.

333

334 Prospect of participatory management of forests in the Sundarbans.

335

336 Prospects of joint forest management transcending forestry.

Process documentation of women involvement in forest management at Mahespur, Ranchi.

Project monitoring: A conceptual approach in participatory forestry management.

Prospects of carbon sink expansion in problem soils through people's participation in Uttar Pradesh.

337 Public forests in Ontario, Canada: Improving the management partnerships.

338 Public involvement in forestry programs: New roles for the foresters.

339

340

341 Redefining forest management.

342 Reflections on gender issues in JFM

Public participation in forest management decisions (The case for small groups).

Quantitative and qualitative variation in essential oil of two different chemotypes of Bach (Acorus calamus, Linn), and its application in industry and joint forest management.

343

344

345 Research agenda for joint management.

346 Research and development for sustainable participatory forest management.

347

348

Regneration of degraded forests through people’s participation: An experiment in Ratlam forest division, Ratlam, M.P.

Rehabilitation of degraded tropical forest watersheds with people’s participation.

Research issues in sustainable management of non-wood forest products in joint forest management.

Research issues under joint forest management with special reference to Uttar Pradesh state of India.

349 Research needs for joint forest management.

350

351 Research, development and application imperatives under JFM.

352 Resource rehabilitation with rural development: The new JFM paradigm.

353

354 Role of Acacia plantations in JFPM.

Research needs on community based sustainable management of non-timber forest produce.

Restoring biodiversity through people's participation: A study of lime stone mined areas in Mussorrie hills.

355 Role of community institutions in fire control in Haryana.

356

357 Role of non wood forest product in joint forest management.

358

359 Role of tribal women in joint forest management.

360 Same platform, different train: The politics of participation.

Role of human resource management in joint forest management programme.

Role of social scientists and NGO in participatory forest management programme in West Bengal.

361 Second generation issues in JFM: A case study.

362 Session on gender issues.

363 Shisham mortality problem and its mitigation.

364 Silvicultural and management options of JFM.

365 Silvicultural and research issues in JFM.

366 Silvicultural and research issues incorporation of tree improvement practices in joint forest management programme.

367 Silvicultural issues in JFM.

368 Silvicultural options and research issues of JFM.

369 Silvicultural options for jont forest management in the Vindhyan ranges.

370 Silviculture for joint forest management.

371 Silviculture research in India.

372 Silvipasture development through people’s participation in Rajasthan: Experience of BAIF.

373 Social forestry and people's participation in Dharwar district.

374

375

376

377

378

Social impacts and poverty alleviation in joint forest management in Madhya Pradesh.

Social indications towards institutionalisation of development programme: A case study from joint forest management.

Socio- Economic status of JFM sites in Jabalpur (M.P.) and Sambalpur (Orissa) forest divisions.

Socio-economic aspects of peoples participation in forestry in arid region of Western Rajasthan.

Socio-economic indicators for assessing potential sites for sustainable forest management

379

380

381 Status of forest panchayats in Chamoli district of Garhwal Himalaya.

382 Status of forest protection committees in West Bengal.

383 Status of joint forest management in Tamil Nadu.

384 Status of joint forest management in Tripura.

Socio-economic- political and ecological impacts on joint forest management.

Socio-economics of participatory forest management with particular reference to Orissa.

385

386 Status of participatory forest management in India: An analysis

387

388

389 Strategy for joint forest management.

390 Study of some ecological indicators of JFM in South West Bengal.

Status of joint forest planning and management (JFPM) in Karnataka: A decade experience.

Strategy for awarness creation among rural masses in the Aravalli project: An evaluation.

Strategy for institution building for management of common lands: Steps taken in the Aravalli hills of Haryana.

391

392 Summary and conclusions

393 Sustainability of community forestry: A case study of Dhenkanal Division.

394 Sustainability of support for community forestry in Nepal.

395

396

Study on management of community funds and local institutions practices promoting good fund management under joint forest management : A compendium.

Sustainable forest development in Mexico: A hierarchical system of criteria and indicators.

Sustainable forest management and the ecosystem approach - An Australian perspective.

397

398 Sustaining JFM through medicinal plants.

399

400

401

402 Systems of bhabbar grass lease management in Haryana.

Sustainable management of degraded forest through community participation: A case study of Parraspani village in buffer zone of Panchmari biosphere reserve.

Sustaining selfreliance: An update on social impact and poverty alleviation.

Sustaining the productivity of forest involving the local community: A case study of Buldhana.

Systematic training approach for joint forest management: Bilateral matching institutions.

403

404

405

406

407 The other half of resource management: Institutions.

408 The public forestry sector.

Tamil Nadu afforestation project initiative in joint forest management: A case study.

Technical innovations for biodiversity conservation and sustainable development in Indian Himalayan region for application in joint forest management.

The Budhikhamari model of participatory management of the forest eco-system in Orissa.

The extent of economic viability of institutions formed for JFM -Case study from Midnapore district of West Bengal.

409 The requirement of firewood for Dandeli township.

410 The role of community participation in forest management.

411 The role of peasant associations in forestry development in Ethiopia.

412 The role of skill training in JFPM.

413

414

The scope and need of incorporating NTFP data in microplanning of participatory forest management.

The strengths and weaknesses of the joint forest management in West Bengal.

415

416 Towards effective community forestry through forest user groups.

417 Tracing policy and lagislative changes towards JFM

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419

420

The struggle for forest control in the Jungle Mahals of West Bengal 1750-1990

Training module for committee members and forest frontline workers of JFM, FDA, watershed, microplanning and monitoring issues.

Transition from the target approach to the process approach: Research needs in JFM.

Tribal life and forests: A case study of selected forest villages in Dindori tahsil of Mandla district in Madhya Pradesh.

421 Tribals and conservation of forests.

422 Tribals and forests.

423 Up-Date on joint forest management programme in Andhra Pradesh.

424

425 Usufruct sharing and conflict resolution in JFM in HP and J and K.

426 Value addition to wood products through joint forest management.

Using fast growing plantations to promote forest ecosystem protection in Canada.

427 Valuing the forests

428

429

430

431 Vegetation study.

432 Viability of joint forest management projects.

Van Dhan (wealth of the forests) an innovative model for JFM envolved by the panchayats in Bastar for environmentally sustainable growth.

Van panchayat: A model for people's participation in sustainable forest management in Garhwal Himalaya.

VCF for the protection of high forests and marketing Ulvi: An experiment and experience.

433 Village common fund: Experience of Udaipur Forest Division.

434

435

436

437

438 Why aren't poor people benefiting more from community forestry ?

Village forests: A solution to the legal problems involved in joint forest management.

Village resource development as an incentive to sustain the joint forest management programme.

Village resource development programme of village forest committees in Bilaspur forest circle, Madhya Pradesh: A case study.

Wasteland development programme with reference to people's participation and legal difficulties.

439

440 Women as partners in the regeneration of Haryana Shivaliks.

441 Women in forest service and their role in decision making process.

442

443

444

Widening the horizon of joint forest management through participation of indigenous knowledge holders on Indian forest biodiversity conservation.

Women in Godam- Haryana: A gender and caste based study on conservation of forest resources.

Women self-help groups in JFM programmes: Towards economic empowerment.

Women’s participation: Case study onJFM institution’s of Orissa, M.P. and Haryana.

445

446 Women's participation in forestry: Some theoretical issues.

447

448

449

450

Women’s participation in joint forest management: A case study of village Parwara, central Himalayan region of Kumaon.

Yield and prediction of yield of Mahua (Madhuca latifolia) flowers for the benefit of JFM in central India.

Yield of bhabbar and grasses from the areas managed by HRMS and Ballarpur paper mill: A comparative analysis.

Joint forest management-decentralization and devolution: A case study from Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu.

Eco-services, the natural capital way to sustainable forest management and development.

451

452

453 Research and development for sustainable participatory forest management.

454

455

456 Forest management plan inputs using RS-GIS techniques.

Application of GIS, GPS, and remote sensing technologies in forest management: A case study of Chhattisgarh.

Strategies for sustaining joint forest management-lessons from Tamil Nadu Afforestation project, India.

Effect of joint forest management practices on nutrient status of soil - A case study.

Regeneration behaviour of important tree species in relation to disturbance in joint forest management adopted village -forests in Satpura plateau, Madhya Pradesh, India.

457

458 Status of joint forest management in Nagaland.

459

460

461

462

Present status and future prospscts of joint forest management in West Bengal.

Enumeration of floristic composition in JFM managed and adjoining natural forests in Guddada Budihal area of Gadag Division, Karnataka.

Assessment of floristic diversity and regeneration status of Cedrus deodara (Roxb.) Loud. stands under forest management systems in western Himachal Himalayas: A case study of Shimla district.

Economic viability as a concept in joint forest management: A case study from the Bankura (North) Division, West Bengal.

Reframing joint forest management through compensation for environmental services.

463

464

465 Concept of JFM functioning and its evaluation.

466 Management of fringe forests for rural livelihood and forest conservation.

467

468 Forest-fringe communities, JFPM and Reed+ in India.

Contribution of joint forest management in conservation of forests, climate change and poverty reduction.

Improving livelihood status through collection and management of forest resources: An experience from Sylhet Forest Division, Bangladesh.

Economic and ecological impact of different joint forest management models in Orissa.

469

470

471

472 Trends of forest management with special reference to sal forests of Bihar.

473 Intensive forest management planning in Bastar.

474 Ecological aspects of tropical forest management (the case of India).

A comparative analysis of regeneration in natural forests and joint forest management plantations in Uttara Kannada district, Western Ghats.

Role of planning strategies in success/failure of joint forest management plantation.

Concrete proposals outlining forest management and afforestation in river valley projects.

475 Reinventing tropical forest management in India.

476

477 Forest management and biodiversity.

478

479 A study of status of joint forest management in Haryana, India.

480 Community forest management in Madhya Pradesh - the future challenge?

Considerations of demand-pattern and economic return on forest management and rationalisation of pricing of timber (teak).

Carbon sequestration through community based forest management - A case study from Sambalpur Forest Division, Orissa.

481 Forest management certification system: A working plan's perspective.

482

483

484 Social forestry and participatory forest management in India.

485

486

Integrated forest management for forest products certification (marketing) and biodiversity conservation goals: A framework.

Evaluating repercussion of new benefit sharing mechanism in joint forest management: A case study of Haryana.

Assessing impact of extraction on sustainability of forests under joint forest management: A case study.

Evaluating repercussion of new benefit sharing mechanism in joint forest management: A case study of Haryana.

487

488

489

490 Assessing forest management outcomes: A multivariate approach.

491

492

Integrated forest management for forest products certification (Marketing) and biodiversity conservation goals: A framework.

GIS based planning and monitoring of JFM treatment areas under JICA assisted Odisha Forestry Sector Development Project.

Application of remote sensing, GIS and GPS for forest management in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India.

Whither to ?: A case for the Joint Forest Management model of community forestsry in West Bengal.

Economic impact of forest management institutions on groundwater recharge in Karnataka, India.

493

494 Some aspects of risk assessment in forest management planning.

495

Indigenous knowledge of tribes on forest mangement: A case study in drought prone district of Andhra Pradesh.

Phytodiversity of six regenerating forest stands protected by joint forest management in Koraput region of Odisha, India.

Author Source Year

Shah, S.A. 1998

Mukherjee, S.D. 2000

Rai, Rajiv; Nath, V. 2000

Prusty, B.C. 1993

Pandey, Shanta. 1991

2004

Indian Forester, 124 (6), 1998: 381-390

Indian Forester, 126 (5), 2000: 453-462

In: National Seminar on Sustainable Forest Management Through People’s Participation, Jabalpur, 7-8 Feb. 2000. Proceedings. Jabalpur, TFRI, 2000. pp.179-183In :National Workshop on Managing Common lands for Sustainable Development of our Village: A Search for Participatory Management Models, Bhubaneswar, Dec.15-16 1991. Proceedings. Bhopal, NAEB, 11FM, 1993. pp.98-101In: 10th World Forestry Congress, Paris, 17-26 September 1991. Proceedings, Vol.7. Paris, Revue Forestiere Francaise, 1991. pp. 489-500.

Murali, K.S.; Murthy, Indu K.; Nagaraj, B.C.; Ravindranath, N.H.

In: Root to Canopy - Regenerating forests through community state partnerships, edited by V.K. Bahuguna, Doris Capistrano, Kinsuk Mitra, Sushil Saigal. New Delhi, Winrock International, 2004. pp.275-296

Ajay Kumar 2000

1995

Varalakshmi, V. 1994

Rastogi, Alind. 1994

Dasgupta, Saibal 2001

Gupta, H.S. 1997

Indian Forester, 126 (5), 2000: 579-582

Xue, Jiru.; Cao, Guangxia.

In: International Seminar on Community Development and Conservation of Forest Biodiversity through Community Forestry, Bangkok, Thailand, 26-28 October 1994. Proceedings. Bangkok, Regional Community Forestry Training Centre, Kasetsart University, 1995. pp. 67-76.

New Delhi, Tata Energy Research Institute, 1994. 11p

Indian Forester, 120 (7), 1994: 621-629

Indian Forester, 127 (7), 2001: 823-826

Indian Forester, 123 (6), 1997: 556-567

Shahbaz Ahmad. 1998

1995

1999

Soni, Vinod 2000

2002

Garg, Rajeev Kumar. 2003

Indian Forester, 124 (8), 1998: 594-602

Wickramasinghe, Anoja.

In: International Seminar on Community Development and Conservation of Forest Biodiversity through Community Forestry, Bangkok,Thailand, 26-28 October,1994. Proceedings. Bangkok, Regional Community Forestry, Training Centre, Kasetsart University,1995. pp. 77-100.

Gupta, H.S.; Tripathy, K.K.

Indian Forester, 125 (6), 1999: 561-565

In: National Seminar on Sustainable Forest Management Through People’s Participation, Jabalpur, 7-8 Feb. 2000. Proceedings. Jabalpur, TFRI, 2000. pp.66-68

Mishra, T.K.; Banerjee, S.K.

In: International Workshop on JFM: A Decade of Joint Forest Management – Retrospection and Introspection, New Delhi, 19-20 June 2000. Proceedings. Dehradun, ICFRE, 2002. pp. 372-374In: National Workshop on Technological Innovations and Research Advancements for Application in Joint Forest Management, Dehradun, 3-4 Feb., 2003. Proceedings. Dehradun, ICFRE, 2003. pp.120-129

1999

Pandey, Gopa. 2002

Ghate, Rucha. 1998

2003

Gupta, Vishal. 2004

Singh, H.S. 1997

Sarkar, S.K. Chattopadhyay, R.N.

Indian Forester, 125 (1), 1999: 93-104

In: International Workshop on JFM: A Decade of Joint Forest Management – Retrospection and Introspection, New Delhi, 19-20 June 2000. Proceedings. Dehradun, ICFRE, 2002. pp. 229-232

Indian Forester, 124 (10), 1998: 853-860

Koskela, J.; Hong, L.T.; Ramantha Rao, V.; Mathur, Prem

In: National Workshop on Technological Innovations and Research Advancements for Application in Joint Forest Management, Dehradun, 3-4 Feb., 2003. Proceedings. Dehradun, ICFRE, 2003. pp. 186-191

Indian Forester, 130 (2), 2004: 215-223

Indian Forester, 123 (6), 1997: 477-483

Ioras, Florin. 2002

1996

2000


Danso, L.K. 1991

Dilip Kumar, P.J. 1993

Forests, Trees and Livelihoods, 12 (4), 2002 : 297-312.

Mallikarjuna, T.H.; Naik, B. Gopal; Hittalmakki, N.G.

Uttara Kannada, Karnataka Forest Department, 1996. 20 p

Samant, S.S.; Joshi, H.C.; Arya, S.C.; Pant, S.

Van Vigyan, 38(1-4), 2000: 55-81

New Delhi, Tata Energy Research Institute, 1996. 30 p

In: 10th World Forestry Congress, Paris, 17-26 September 1991. Proceedings, Vol.7. Paris, Revue Forestiere Francaise, 1991. pp. 457-464.In: National Workshop on Managing Common Lands for Sustainable Development of our Villages: A Search for Participatory Management Models, Bhubaneswar, Dec.15-16 1991. Proceedings. Bhopal, NAEB, IIFM, 1993. pp. 53-74

Sharma, R.C. 2000

Roy, S.B. 1993

Balaji, S. 2003

Durst, Patrick B. 1995

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Wellings, Peter. 1995

Indian Forester, 126 (5), 2000: 463-476

In: Workshop on Participatory Forest Management, Calcutta, 28-29 Nov. 1993. Experiences from participatory forest management; edited by S.B. Roy. New Delhi, Inter-India Publications, 1995. pp.15-30.In: National Workshop on Technological Innovations and Research Advancements for Application in Joint Forest Management, Dehradun, 3-4 Feb., 2003. Proceedings. Dehradun, ICFRE, 2003. pp. 151-152In: International Seminar on Community Development and Conservation of Forest Biodiversity through Community Forestry, Bangkok,Thailand, 26-28 October 1994. Proccedings. Bangkok Regional Community Forestry Training Centre, Kasetsart University, 1995. pp. 229-237.

Round, Philip D.; Hobart, Clayton.

In: International Seminar on Community Development and Conservation of Forest Biodiversity through Community Forestry, Bangkok,Thailand, 26-28 October 1994. Proceedings. Bangkok Regional Community Forestry Training Centre, Kasetsart University, 1995. pp. 167-179.

In: International Seminar on Community Development and Conservation of Forest Biodiversity through Community Forestry, Bangkok, Thailand, 26-28 October 1994. Proceedings. Bangkok, Regional Community Forestry Training Centre, Kasetsart University,1995. pp. 157-166.

Malhotra, Kailash C. 1995

Duke, Guy. 1995

1995

2001

Penafiel, Samuel R. 1995

Shukla, Rakesh. 1998

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Javed Ahmed.; Khan, Hussain Wali.


Barik, S.K; Darlong, V.T.

In: Sustainable manangment of forests- India; edited by A. Arunachalam and M.L. Khan. Dehradun, International Book Distributers, 2001. pp. 477-492.In: International Seminar on Community Development and Conservation of Forest Biodiversity through Community Forestry, Bangkok, Thailand, 26-28 October 1994. Proceedings. Bangkok, Regional Community Forestry Training Centre, Kasetsart University,1995. pp. 150-156.

Indian Forester, 124 (10), 1998: 819-824

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Jamaluddin. 2000

Hall, John E. 1997

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Bahuguna, V.K. 1993

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Branney, Peter.; Dev, Om Prakash.

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Commonwealth Forestry Review, 76 (4), 1997: 261-263

Dey, Gautam; Sarcar, Manoj Kumar.

Indian Forester, 124 (6), 1998: 440-448

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Ravindranath, N.H.; Murthy, Indu K.; Sudha, P.; Sahana, C. A.

Indian Forester, 129(7), 2003: 815-825.

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Bharat Lal. 1997

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Bahuguna, V.K.; Luthra, Vinay; Rathor, B.M.S.

Ambio, 23 (4- 5), 1994: 269-273

Wasteland News, 12 (3), 1997: 17-23

Indian Forester, 118 (5), 1992: 379-384

Indian Forester, 121 (5), 1995: 339-349

Poffenberger, Mark; Singh, Chhatrapati.

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Nayak, Prateep K. 2003

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Siddique, M.A.N. 1995

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Forests, Trees and Livelihoods, 11 (2), 2001: 127-148.

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Prasada Rao, P.V.V.; Md. Iqbal; Padmavathi Devi, K.V.; Ramakrishna, T.S.; Ramesh, P.

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Springate-Baginski, Oliver; Dev, Om Prakash; Yadav, Nagendra Prasad; Soussan, John.

Journal of Forest and Livelihood, 3 (1), 2003 : 5 -20.

Nayak, Subrat; Padhi, Sanjeev; Rana, Gopinath; Das, Sanjeet Kumar; Das, Ranjan; Patra, Kripasindhu; Manika, Basantha


Singh, Neera M. 2002

Ahmed, M.F. 1997

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Singh, R.P.; Bhattacharya, P.; Roy, S.B.; Yadav, G.; Mahapatra, S.

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Murthy, Indu K.; Rekha, P.V.; Gunaga, Shrikant; Patgar, S.; Naik, M.B.; Prakash, Y.H.; Nambi, A.; Indrani, S.; Ravindranath, N.H.

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Indian Forester, 128 (11), 2002: 1167-1173

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Abstract

Forest management during the 50 years of independence has made a full circle from conversion to uniform crops and back to conversion to irregular crops. The early years of independence were charactarized by production (for industry) euphoria. Von Mon Roy’s report on the status of raw material supply in the country and the national commission on agriculture’s report reinforced this industry oriented production. The objective of sustained yield of timber which guided and governed forest management during the early 30 years of independence could not be achieved. The concept of a normal forest in which each age-class occupies an equal area came under attack for environmental reason. 1980 was watershed year. The world conservation strategy altered the way we look at forests and forest management. During the subsequent years, environmental awarness and conscionsness swept the world. The Earth summit, the convention on biological diversity and the recent climate change convention have all focused on the need to maintain forest cover, conserve biodiversity and ensure sustainability. This led to the stoppage of clear cutting system, and the need for increasing production of non-wood products for sustaining forest dependent communities. All this is possible only by making forest sustainable in all its dimensions. The forests of the country are sick and unstable and have suffered heavily in productivity. A little over 30 million ha have been degraded. The restoration of these forests requires a different approach, a different technology and a different administrative structure. This is one of the biggest challenges facing the foreters today.

Based on the 1988 national forest policy, the joint forest management(JFM) programme has been taken up in different states. Andhra Pradesh is one the leading states implementing JFM over 16.5 lakh hectares by forming 6,575 vana samarakhshana samities (VSS). The case study of one VSS inVizianagram district (Andhra Pradesh) has been presented to show how the people and the forests have benefitted from the JFM programme. The paper also deals with the difficulties in funding the programme and it is suggested that JFM should be taken up under poverty alleviation programmes of the rural development department.In tribal areas, JFM should be considered as one of the strategies for developing the tribal economy instead of depending upon agriculture alone.

The joint forest management programme at present is being implemented in 25 states of the country and different approaches have been adopted by states depending upon their forest types and socio-economic parameters. One of the objectives of the programme is to help the communities residing since ages in and in the vicinity of the forests, to meet their daily livelihood needs. Madhya Pradesh is one of the largest states comparising of 22.7 percent tribal population, residing as forest communities. These include Baigas,Bhariyas, Hill korwas, Birhors, Sahariyas, Abujhmarias, Bhils, Bhilalas, Dhurwa,Gonds, Holba, Kol, Munda, Oraon,Patels and Bhaisalands.

The case study of Rajbeda van samiti in Kawardha district of M.P. highlights the composition of forest communities, temperature and rainfall at the village location, population, agricultural land operations, forest operations and other works carried out by forest communities for their livelihood needs. These communities are trained for making furniture, basket, agarbatti and other cottage industries for raising their income levels. These tribals are adopting agriculture and decreasing the dependency on forests.

The present study aims at evolving future management strategy for cuttack district by looking at the trend of performan of common property regimes with reference to population sizes. For this purpose, data on 26 villages have been collected. The villages have been categorized as big, medium and small with population >1000; >500 but >1000 and >5000 respectively.The institutional performance (Performan of village forest committee)has been assessed and roted as excellent, good, fair and poor by using and criteria i.e. efficiency, stability, resiliency and equity.Primarily the condition of plantation raised (80% Survival as excellent, 80% to 60% as good; 60% to 50% as fair and below as poor) was used as an index to form the performance category.

In the mid seventies it was determined that the effort of the governmental organizations(GOs) alone was inadequate in solving the problem of depleting forests and the problems of populations that depend on forest resources. For the first time, at the Eighth World Congress in Jakarta (1978) it was recognized that non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and other private private associations can play animportant role in solving forestry problems. A large number of international, national and local level NGOs and private associations have come into existence since the Eighth World Forestry Congress. Many of the NGOs in forestry are young and fragile. Most of them are less than fifteen years old, need more experience, financial resources and technical expertise. This paper reviews the progress NGOs have made in forestry, especially in shaping forestry activities that benefit local populations. The paper also discusses the strengths and weaknesses of NGOs in the forestry sector, their role, and recommendations for the future.

The authors emphasise the need to understand the impact of JFM on forests that are being protected, as compared to other management systems and its impact on biodiversity, woody biomass, and its growth pattern. The status of different types of forests under JFM in different states have been projected. According to FSI (1997), the extent of forest area covered under JFM in W. Bengal and Haryana are 38% each, followed by Bihar (24%), Madhya Pradesh (10%) and Orissa (5%). In the states of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Kerala and Uttar Pradesh, the areas under JFM are less than 1%. Vegetation status under JFM; baseline and changed scenario have not been studied. However, a study by the Energy and Resource Institute 1998, as JFM case, the regeneration status and patterns in the sampled sites in different states have shown biodiversity improvement. Impact of protection on forest regeneration have been discussed. However unprotected grazing hampers regeneration. A total area of 12,050 ha was afforested under JFM programme in Uttara Kannada. The average area per VFC is in the range of 34.52 ha in the different divisions. Data on impact of forest protection and management of biodiversity, mean annual increment, and annual woody biomass production in protection forests are highlighted. Theyreviewed the regeneration density of some of the forests in Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal and Orissa. It is reported that experiences with community forestry in degraded forests lands have been relatively successful over the last 10 years. Some of the implications for JFM at the national level are also projected. It is necessary to undertake systematic monitoring and record changes for comparison and assessment. They recommend an approach for the future for maximising the output from foress and for ensuring that forests remain ecologically sustainable.

Joint forest management (JFM) is a strategy in the right direction for decentralised people-oriented forestry manangement in India. It is also a process for empowering the people and strengthening democracy. However, the need of the hour is to analyse the ground realities and then take a decision to make the JFM programme a long term sustainable movement. The basic problems should be reviewed and a new approach is to be made, putting economic parameters at the top of the agenda. A few strategies like categorising, zoning of areas, precise sharing of benefiits, etc. need to be chalked out.JFM is not like a wide-spectrum antibiotic drug to cure many ills at a time. Rather, it is a symptom specific specialised medicine to be prescribed with due care and caution.

Yunnan province, located 21 degree 9'-29 degree 15' N and 97 degree 39' -106 degree12' E, has nearly all vegetation types, from tropical forest to tundra, due to the complicated topography in its 390,000 km2 of land. Therefore, the province is endowed with an outstanding diversity of living species. Howerver, heavy population pressure, irrational land use and over-consumption of the forest resources have seriously threatened the natural habitat of living species and many species have consequently become extinct. A number of nature reserves have been established to conserve the valuable species and to alleviate the current bad conditions. Some progress has been made but problems still exist. For example, on one hand, although about 60% of the species have been included in the protected areas, the remaining 40% of the species out of the reserves should also be taken into account for conservation, and this would require active participation from local communities. On the other hand, the alienation of local communities from the management of most reserves has reduced the effectiveness of reserves in biodiversity maintenance. Thus, the involvement of local communities in biodiversity conservation is essential to achieve effective management in the maintenance of biodiversity. The corresponding strategies should include the following: alley cropping, homegarden, communal woodlots, local heritage development, etc.

Institutional arrangements for the management of common property resources are created and evolved as responses to certain combinations of circumstances. A full understanding of the evolution and survival of such arrangements requires an in depth analysis. Presented in this paper is an analysis of the management system that has evolved in Lohgarh village in response to certain factors. It is important to note that systems which have evolved at the grassroots essentially due to the efforts and involvement of the villagers have a better chance of survival as compared to the systems developed due to external leadership. These systems are also seen to be highly flexible which would undergo change with the changing circumstances. Systems imposed from the outside on the other hand would face lesser chances of either evolving any further or sustaining themselves.The concept of joint forest management is sweeping the entire nation with the advent of new forest policy. For effective institutionalization of JFM there is a need to equip the forest department officials with necessary technical knowledge, skill and attitudes. A stock of these necessary skills and knowledge has been evolved after a survey where viewpoint of forest official, people and NGOS were accommodated and compiled. It is thus imparative to incorporate suitable changes into the syllabus for the training of foresters so as to equip them to manage the change in an effective manner.Natural regneration in areas under joint forest management has shown a possitive trend and the percentage increase in natural regeneration varies from 0.15% to above 50% in some areas depending upon the degree of protection. It is also observed thati under assisted natural regeneration from the data collected, around 26% of sites showed a negative trend, i.e. natural regeneration was not coming up properly, whereas under VRDP areas only around 3% of sites from the data collected showed this trend. The negative growth may be explained by the fact that initially these areas did not regenerate as expected or the level of protection was poor. However, it is possible that these areas may show positive growth in the later years once protection is more stringent and the rootstock present in the ground starts growing.

The management of forests in appropriate and judicious manner through joint forest management has been discussed in this paper.

The paper proposes a pragmatic approach to participation especially with regards to forest management and outlines the impracticability to the prevalent participation concept.A simple and practical approach of involving the people coupled with consistency and dedication is the hope for the countries struggling with the pressure on their natural resources.

Many definitions in realtion to "buffer zones" have been put forward with reference to the objectives of forest management.This paper re-examines the adaptability of buffer zones as a concept and rationalizes its needs,focusing on fringe conditions, socioeconomics and the indigenous forest management practices of the peripheral communities located in the Adam's peak wilderness facing the southweatern facies of the central highlands of Sri Lanka. Information reveals that the strong humanforest interface existing over generations opens up opportunities to extend the objectives of conservation of biodiversity beyond the edge of the forest and acts as a buffer to the forest while relieving the pressure on the forest. Development in this sense plays a dual role; on the side of the forest it smoothes the hostilities between the forest and the non-forest surroundings, and on the side of the local communities it enables them to reaffirm the forest-based survival by regenerating species of greater socioeconomic value. Indigenous knowledge of the local communities is the local initiatve. Buffer, from the vantage point of local communities, is the intermediate zone in which they can mediate the traditional links between the forest and the communities. If the objectives of the buffer zone development are to be fully achieved, local communities must be empowered to act as social buffer, deflecting the destructive exploiters while building a forest resource related economy to improve the living standards facilitated by state intervention.

A very simple method of finding growing stock and MAI have been described in this paper. Efforts have been to avoid all complications and difficulties normally arising in their practical assessment.During the project period an attampt was made to introduce some income supplementing practices in both the sites of Jabalpur and Sambalpur. These, if adopted, would alleviate their poverty and at the same time, minimize the exploitation of the neighbouring forests for meeting their daily needs. It would give a chance to the already degenerated forests to recoup. These income generating options were: Mushroom cultivation, Lac cultivation, Pisiculture and Sunn hemp cultivation.

Details of economic analysis of five crops p.a. of oyster mushroom have been presented. Production data of brood lac of project period (1997- 1999) have been mentioned. A natural pond was mantained for pisciculture with the help of funds available with the VFC and fish spawn of Rohu, katla and Mrigail was provided under the guidance of the fishery department.Cultivation of sunn hemp (Crotolaria juncea) was a low cost, high return venture of utilizing the tracts of wasteland and unirrigated lands optimally. Further value addition by making ropes wood increase the market price obtained. The nitrogen fixing characeristics of the soil wood enhance the fertility of the soil.

Community participation in forest protection as well as management has remarkably reversed the process of forest degradation in India. In the present paper indigenous knowledge and practice of the people, which enables maintenance of sustainability, has also been explored to some extent. Basing upon some indigenous knowledge of some of the forest protection committees (FPCs) management strategies can be developed to enhance the productivity of non-timber forest produces (NTFPs). An account of biomass of NTFP resources extracted from the forest was also done with the help of FPC volunteers. Interestingly it was found that the annual productivity of NTFPs in unfenced condition surpassed the annual productivity in fenced condition. Certain factors like earmarking some woody shrubs with gregarious growth pattern for fuel wood collection by the villagers and imposing a calendar for collection of major NTFPs are the positive management inputs provided by the community.

The paper attempts at signifying the importance and scope of information systems in JFM. This aims at providing relevant and timely information to support improved organisational and forest management decision making capabilities throughout its area of application.Information system can easily integrate various activities like planning, inputs, processes, outputs and monitoring. The functional areas to be addressed by JFM information system is given in a chart (Fig. 3). Charts (Fig 4, 5 and 6) provide inputs and outputs, design development, implementation, institutionalisation and a conceptual model of JFMIS. Anticipated benefits of implementation of JFMIS are listed as (1) ready availability of critical data and improvement in information retrival (2) system dependent and objective orientation (3) users and donors group sharing the same vision and policy as an agenda (4) prompt decisions and actions (5) better services to stakeholders due to change in forest management policy (6) overall increased productivity of forests (7) maximum use of resources (8) in house capacity building. This system will assist decision makers in taking timely decisions based on objectivity leading to empowerment and betterment of communities along with increase in forest resource base.

This article is based on field survey to assess the performance of the forest protection committees through participatory monitoring in four forest divisions of Midnapore district with their success and drawbacks.

The dynamism in economic restructuring and commercialization of local production has transformed the interpersonal relationships within rural communities. An analysis of forces acting within communities based on gender equations can outline the important vectors in sustainable forest management.

The general belief among development managers that men and women have typified roles and responsibilities leads to evolution of a gender blind or gender specific policy.

Women extension workers at forester and forest guard levels have served well under social forestry project of USAID in Madhya Pradesh during 80s. They were able to establish quick rapport with women folk in rural communities and could convince them to use improved ovens in kitchen and other time saving devices.

The process of sensitizing forestry personnel has become easier with women role models in forest service. Their presence, on each cadre today, reflects a balancing mechanism to drive forest department towards a conscious effort to involve women in forestry planning and decision making.

The instruments of state action effecting gender sensitive development administration are already facilitating a number of processes at execution level.

It is evident from the experiences from various corners of the country that a blend of gender sensitive planning, with empathy to rural scenario, helps in realistic development approach. The increasing awareness among forestry personnel on conscious involvement of women at every stage of micro planning, implementation, monitoring and decision making has to be increased further. This may be achieved by designing and delivering appropriate training modules for the in-service personnel in state forest department.

Several attempts of protecting surrounding forests have been made. There is need for people’s participation in management of the protected areas through eco- development programmes by developing sense of mutual trust and understanding, so that the ecological and social objectives could be achieved.Asia Pacific Forest Genetic Resources (APFORGEN) programme provide information exchange in rapidly developing scientific and technical areas, such as biodiversity assessment and conservation methodologies in developing a regional network to strengthen work on conservation and use of forest genetic resources in India. Networking in the region can promote partnership and more efficient use of limited resources. This can also enhance the dialogue between scientists, managers, policy makers, users, and increase interaction between different sectors at the national level, before sustainable management can be operational. The topics dealt with in the paper are (i) programme objective and scope (ii) programme structure and mode of operations (includes index.) expected out puts (iv) target beneficiaries (v) status of programme development and (vi) potential role of APFORGEN in facilitating conservation in Forest Genetic Resources. ICFRE has agreed to participate in AFPORGEN activities. Establishment of APFORGEN has potential to speed up the networking process to facilitate scientific and technical co-operation among member organisation in Asia, the pacific and other regions. In India this could also facilitate development of joint research and development activities.

Owing to geographical isolation and topographical remoteness, the diverse tribal groups of Arunachal Pradesh have traditionally been practicing Jhum cultivation for ages. Jhum has reportedly affected some 0.23 million ha land of the State and nearly 54,000 families are reported to be subsisting on this age old practice. A scheme under the name Apnavan was initiated by the Department of Environment and Forests of the State to rehabilitate the degraded Jhum areas by involving the local people using agro-forestry practices. The scheme has been there for over a decade and an area of 13,645 ha has been developed from 1990-1991 to 2000-2001. This paper attempts to analyze the various issues related to the scheme, the progress achieved so far and the major constraints in the way of its successful implementation.

The appropriate silviculture system and operations meeting all requirement for sustenance of the joint forest management have been described in detail.

A Romania human pressure on forest resources and fiscal constraints are making it increasingly difficult for the Romaninan forestry commission to control and protect the forests. National democratisation and decentralisation have fuelled demands by forest inhabitants and local communities for their rights to the land to be restored and for the apportunity to re-engage as forest managers. This paper makes recommendations for pursuing such community management in Romania. Using the Piatra Craiului Massif as an example, it proposes that where private forests have been restituted, a community forest management programme be employed and implemented nationally in order to improve the incomes and welfare of rural dwellers.

Honnebail is a medium sized coastal village. The people are mainly Hallakivokkals, a nomadic community. The women are hard working and more active than the men. The women earn their livelihood by going to the forests, collecting a head load of firewood every day, and selling it to buy the day’s groceries. Thus the surrounding forests and plantations have dwindled. However the Hallakivokkals of Honnebail have protected the acacia plantations which exist at their doorstep extremely well, partly due to the motivation and leadership of the forest employee(watcher). But they were facing a threat to these plantations from neighbouring villages who were damaging them. When JFPM was introduced the Hallakivokkals readily agreed to form a VFC so that the plantations could be well protected from outside threats. When some plantations were to be harvested on reaching maturity as per the MOU, the VFC decided to share the proceeds of the harvest on a 50:50 basis between themselves and the KFD as per the JFPM government order (Go). The VFC really loved the plantations and worked towards protecting them well. Further they readily came up with plans to reinvest their VFDF money in the plantations since they were depending entirely on the fallen biomass from these plantations for firewood. The male members were insistent that they should get their share in cash but the women motivated their men folk to save. The women were themselves motivated by the efforts of pragati vanita Samaj and MYRADA who conducted a series of discussions with women and and men. These organisations also arranged exposure trips to good working self help group (SHG) centres. Now 3 yuvaka sanghas SHGs are functioning with the entire VFC member’s shares being invested in saving accounts. The VFC is protecting the forests and plantations very well.There are no forest offences or incidence of fire. It has become a model VFC demonstrating that it can have a ‘share if they care’.

Participatory rural appraisal has been used to understand the socioeconomic status, resource distribution and as a whole ecosystem of village Khati which is located in the buffer zone of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve. Social, resource and transect maps showing distribution of various components in and around the village have been done. In all 307 inhabitants are distributed within 41 families. The maximum population is distributed in 6-15 and 16-25 year age classes, respectively. The maximum population is educated. Transport and communication facilities are very poor. Apart from the socioeconomic status, the paper provides information about historical transect analysis, seasonal calendar, division of labour, assessment of economically important plant resources, organizations involved in village development and issues identified during the whole exercise. Among the fuel species Quercus floribunda, Q. semecarpifolia, Aesculus indica, Rhododendron arboreum and Alnus nepalensis are highly preferred species. Similarly among the fodder resources Acer caesium, Quercus semecarpifolia, Q. floribunda, Aesculus indica, Ulmus wallichiana, Goldfussia dalhousiana and Pyrus lanata are the top species. Aconitum heterophyllum, Angelica glauca, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Picrorhiza kurrooa, Nardostachys grandiflora, Podophyllum hexandrum and Jurinella macrocephala are the top species. Strategies for the conservation and management of the highly preferred species have been suggested. Finally, the problems of the villagers have been identified and prioritized. Further, planning on the identified issues have been suggested for the development of village.

The present study attempts to assess the training of frontline forestry staff in the face of changing management needs with the implementation of the JFMP in Haryana and 16 other states that have enunciated the JFM policy. This assessment is based on the expectations of all the actors involved in the programme, namely communities, NGOS, senior forest officials and frontline forestry staff. Technical, human and integrative skills and the knowledge base essential at the frontline for effectively involving communities in the participatory forestry system have been assessed. The training that the target groups expect and what they currently receive have been compared to highlight the gap between the two.

The paper gives brief historical background of forest reservation and management in developing countries from the beginning of this century, through the colonical and post-colonial eras, and its noble goals of sustained yield management and welfare of the people thrown out of gear by the disappearance of natural forests resulting from pressure from demands of fast -growing populations for food, cash cropping, fuelwood and timber, and general economic developpment; the above has led to environmental degradation, poor soil productivity and to worsening states of livelihood for rural peoples. The author considers the problems of rural livelihood as the rationale for FAO's philosophy of forestry for rural community development or community forestry, involving the participation by various groups including associations of rural communities, in forestry development; and recognizes two categories of such associations, one formal, and the other informal. Examples of formal associations that have contributed to community forestry development include communes in China, village forestry associations in Sourth Korea, panchayats in India and Nepal, co-operatives in Thailand and Tanzania, and schools in Tanzania; while those informal associations of rural peoples include families, ethnic groups like the Massais, the religious groups like the Buddhists, Lutheran and Roman Catholic churches.The paper ends with bright hopes for community forestry in future but cautions the need for re-orientation of practising foresters, interagency co-operation, involvement of social scientists and the exercise of care in the introduction of new species in steering community forestry development to its ultimate goal of improving livelihood of rural peoples.

Private gains from over-exploitation of a common resource outweigh private shares of social costs, leading to the tragedy of freedom in a commons. Forests and village fuel and grazing resources in India were under pressure from growing populations even during the 19th century. To save the remanining forest and village commons, the British colonial government chose to put them under the control of forest department. However, a reading of the old forest policy makes it clear that constituting reserved forests was only a first step towards sustainable resource use by the village community. Due to preoccupation with timber forests and a misreading of colonial forest policy, the forest department has not gone on to the next step of stimulating people’s institutions for managing the non-cultivated land as fuel-fodder reserves. The problem is not one of defining properly rights in the commons, but of their distribution between individuals, village community and the state. It is not possible for either the village community or the forest department alone to protect and manage the lands, hence forms of joint, participatory planning, control and management have to be evolved.

The role and importance of forests in maintaining the life support system in terms of ecological, economic and socio-cultural framework is better understood now and accordingly the incongruous forestry administration is undergoing a paradigm shift from regulatory to participatory management. Whilst sporadic efforts were made by some self-initiated groups and individuals, the national forest policy, 1988 and the enabling resolutions of the Government of India, 1990 coupled with recent constitutional amendment conferring ownership rights of minor forest produce on village level organizations, form a watershed in the saga of joint forest management(JFM) in India. Foresters, through well equipped with silvicultural armoury, had to tread hitherto unknown path of sociological variables. In order to inculcate attitudinal change and capacity building, national as well as regional level training institutes are organizing orientation and training programmes covering wide array of social issues including theory and tools of participatory techniques. However, with an impressive 36,075 village level committees, jointly managing around 10.24 million hectares forests in 22 states, the outcome has been uneven for variety of reasons. JFM being driven by the “helplessness” of the state and with little mindset change, foresters tend to hold on to their territorial and silvicultural moorings and perceive JFM as a tool to win the locals by offering employment and some usufruct sharing.People on the other hand with their past experience have little faith in state apparatus. Their aspiration is, not to remain mere passive wage earners but to become active partners and owners of the assets created. The ground reality is that apart from policy regulations and their enforcement, complex social values born out of history, culture and traditions, determine the out come. The message is loud and clear- wherever a resilient and adaptive management has taken good care of these human sensitivities, chances to succeed are better.

No human society is imaginable without institutions and in every society some individuals are authorised to assume the responsibilities for supervising the observance of the norms, values and institutions. Gradually they become the governors and the rest are governed. With the passage of time the values, norms and procedure of the former develop into bureaucratic institutions. Simultaneously, the values and procedures of the latter crystallize into social institutions. The two sets of institutions diverge sometimes over how to achieve the similar ends, resulting in conflicts. Conflict is actually found between the bureaucratic institution of forest department (FD) and forest communities(FC) in India and elsewhere. The author finds a solution to such conflicts in the strategy of what he terms 'bilateral matching institutions'.Through fieldwork among the FCs, generating among them awareness of their own capabilities and of similarities of their ultimate aims and those of FD, and through training of FD members by getting them involved in such field work and changing their outlook on the problems of FCs and their capacities for problem-solving, this matching is accomplished. A few instances presented here show that this matching is a process based on equality between the followers of two institutions and their mutual appreciation of each other's goals and problems.

The study conducted in Ayyalur watershed and Jalluthupatti village in Tamil Nadu where interface forestry programme was implemented. The impact of the programme on the biodiversity status was studied between 1997-2000. The results indicated significant improvement of floristic, as well as their bio-indicators, microorganism, birds and butterflies. Over all richness in biodiversity index was noticed as compared to the control. The enhanced biodiversity status of the area has considerably improved the economic status, employment level and quality of life of the people of Jalluthupatti and Ayyalur. Mainstreaming biodiversity consideration in JFM will help to strengthen both the livelihood and ecological security of the village adjoining the forest in the country.

Forest management responsibilities in Asia and the Pacific are increasingly being decentralized and devolved to local authorities and organizations. In general, this trend appears to have positive implications for the conservation of biodiversity. Such improvements in forest management and biodiversity conservation are badly needed in Asia and the Pacific. Recent assessments indicate that the Asia-Pacific region is suffering the highest rate of forest loss in the world and is likely experiencing the greatest absolute numbers of speceis extinctions. For decentralization and devolution to succeed, local entities must be prepared to assume the challenges of forest management. Since the 1970s, FAO has been at the forefront of efforts to develop forestry for the benefit of local people. Current FAO activities include an emphasis on community forest management, people's participation in resource management, policy formulation based toward local decision making, non-wood forest products development and increased opportunities for rural income generation and employment.

Thailand's extensive network of protected areas almost completely fails to safeguard lowland habitats and species of plants and animals. Most plains habitats, whether forests or wetlands, have usually been excluded from protected area boundaries because they were previously cleared and settled long before the process of nature reserve establishment.This critical shortcoming has never been formally acknowledged by governemnt conservation bodies. Activities which involve local communities with wildlife conservation initiatives based on mutual benefits may offer an approach for conserving or rehabilitating habitats and species around protected area margins.The approaches used and problems experienced at Khao Nor Chuchi, southern Thailand's last and most important truly lowland terrestrial forest fragment (adjacent to the Khao Pra-Bang Khram wildlife sanctuary, Krabi and Trang Provinces), are described.The Khao Nor Chuchi lowland forest project is undertaking a program of community development activities based around silviculture and education programs which provide employment and increase community involvement. A process of dialogue to involve villagers in a zoning and management scheme has begun and is beginning to show promise,although many problems remain.

Kakadu national park is a large regional park (20,000 km2) located in the wet-dry tropics of north Australia. The park is listed on the world heritage list for both its natural and cultural values, and the conservation of biodiversity is one of the park's principal management objectives. Management of the park aims to conform to internationally accepted principles underlying the definition and management of national parks but also takes into account the ownership and continuing occupation of land in the park by its indigenous aboriginal occupants. This paper describes the arrangements in place to facilitate the process of joint management inculding lease agreements for aboriginal - owned land in the park, the plan of management for the park and a board of management that comprises a majority membership of aboriginal people. It is argued that the day-to-day and formal involvement of aboriginal traditional landowners in the management of Kakadu national park has led to direct benefits for the conservation of biodiversity in the park.

In 1972 the West Begal forest department (WBFD) launched an innovative pilot project in South West Bengal to regenerate the degraded sal (Shorea robusta) forests by involving local people as partners in the management of forests. The overwhelming success of the pilot project encouraged WBFD to extend the joint forest management(JFM) in other areas by establishing forest protection committees(FPCs). This paper gives an account of the historical processes that led to the depletion of natural biodiversity and the emergence of JFM in West Bengal . The paper summarizes the results of a series of studies undertaken by the Indian Institute of Biosocial Research and Development. The study, conducted to examine the role of socioeconomic factors on the functioning status of FPCs, showed: (1)74% of the FPCs were functioning well; (2) the smaller the number of villages participating in a FPC the greater its effectiveness; (3) the greater the proportion of tribal composition in the FPC the greater its effectiveness; (4) the greater the proportion of households in each participating village included on FPC member the better its management of the forest; and (5) the greater the proportion of natural forest to plantation in the FPC project area, the better the protection. The studies on the restitution of biodiversity showed that over 214 wild flora and fauna species became established in the forests. Of these species 72% were used by the local communities. A large number of NTFPs become available to the villagers for multiple purposes throughout the year and contribute a substantial amount to the total household income. The study also highlights the important differences between regenerating sal areas and plantations; the natural regeneration of forests is far more productive, socially just and ecologically sound than plantations of a few species.

The Himalayan jungle project (HJP) recognizes that, in a developing country, environmental conservation is often possible only if the basic needs of the poor are met simultaneously. The temperate forests of the western Himalalyas in Pakistan have been identified as a global biodiversity "hotspot". The forests of the Palas valley, north-west frontier province (NWFP), probably represent Pakistan's most outstanding remaining tract of such forests. These forests are threatened by commerical logging. HJP was inaugurated on 1991 to address this threat and to safeguard the outstanding natural heritage of Palas. The project has adopted a participatory approach to empower and enable local communities to establish sustainable, integrated natural resource management in the valley. This approach was dictated by the remote montane environment, by the traditional resistance of the Palasis to outside intervention and by the fact that the forests legally belong to the community. Project methodologies, instruments and incentives have included informal and formal dialogue, participatory inquiry, emergency relief and rehabilitation following disastrous floods,written "gentlemen's agreements", social organization and agricultural development. Backed by technical input, a participatory approach has enabled the project to address both biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation. The response-from the community, the government and donor organizations, has been encouraging, and a second five-year project phase is now anticipated.

The Aga khan rural support programme is a nonprofit organisation working in northern Pakistan. Its objectives are to improve quality of life of the rural poor, develop replicable models for equitable development and evolve long-term strategies for natural resource conservation. The conceptual model of AKRSP is based on three principals: organization for collective management of resources, skill development and generation of capital through savings.Sustainable rural development and biodiversity conservation have many things in common. The conventional approaches for conservation as well as rural development have failed to produce the desired results. In third world countries, conservation cannot be dealt with an isolation from poverty alleviation. AKRSP has successfully demonstrated an approach to positive community participation which not only has improved the economic well- being of the people but also is beginning to lead the village organizations to conserve natural resources. Some of the grassroots institutions fostered by AKRSP have active forest and wildlife conservation programs, which are described in this paper.Replication of the AKRSP model for poverty alleviation has begum in the country as well as in other countries. The approach merits consideration for conservation of biodiversity as well.

The biodiversity of India constitutes about 8% of the total known global biological diversity. Till date 46,000 plant species and 81,000 animal species have been described. Several initiatives for biodiversity conservation have been taken by the national as well as state governments since independence. India has earmarked about 4.2% of its total geographical area for in situ conservation of habitats and ecosystems. The study conducted on biodiversity conservation in seven states of North-East India, viz; Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura has been described in this paper. The North-East India is rich in biological diversity and contains more than one-third of the country's total biodiversity. In view of its importance from biodiversity conservation point of view, the region has been brought under one of the 18 hot spots of the world. Realising the importance of the rich biological contents of the region, various state governments have taken initiatives on the line of the policies of the national government towards conservation of the biodiversity and the habitats.The study conducted was based on the objectives, strategies and thrust, these conservation models can be classified as follows: (1) Conservation based on religious beliefs,(2) Conservation based on needs (3) agro-ecsystem based conservation,(4) partnership based conservation, (5) Wildlife based conservation, and (6) Conservation initiatives for shifting cultivation plots. Under the model partnership based conservation the role of the joint forest management towards biodiversity conservation has been discussed. Most of the practices described were conceived by the traditional societies long ago and had evolved, through years of experience. These practices were the results of the felt-need of the societies and were designed to fulfill the ethical, subsistance, environmental and conservation needs.

In response to the people-oriented forestry program under the forestry master plan of the Philippines 17 community forestry project (CFP) sites were initiated under the natural resources management program (NRMP) . The total area covered is 33,681 ha with 4,809 participants. The CFP has the following objectives: initiate community-based forest development and utilization of natural resource; protect the remaining primary forest with the help of the community; and enhance institutional capacity of the department of environment and natural resources, local government units, educational institutions and non-government organizations to catalyze community - based forest management. To effect the implementation of CFP, several policies and administrative issuances were formulated to provide for a policy environment that would facilitate implementation of participatory community forest management. Two years after the community development work, the actions which successfully resulted in the conservation of biodiversity were: community organizing and organizational development delineation of the community forest management area, resource inventory,farmers training, livestock and fish dispersal, preparation of a community resource management and development plan, and issuence of a community forest management agreement. The visible and significant activities undertaken by the community for the conservation of biological resources were : the establishment of checkpoints for movement of illegally collected forest products, regular forest patrols,confiscation of illegally cut lumber, reforestation work, agroforestry activities, continuing environmental education and the identification of protection forests and wildlife sanctuaries. From the NRMP experience, it appears that community forestry is a viable strategy toward biological resources conservation and community development.

Kanha Tiger Reserve is one of the most promising centres of in-situ biodiversity conservation in the country. The reserve harbours, besides a wide spectum of wildlife species, including some which figure prominently in the I.U.C.N. list of the threatened species, an endangered population of the hard ground barasingha (Cervus duvauceli branderi), a sub-species endenmic to the kanha, and the tiger (Panthera tigris tigris). Over the years the wildlife management practices for the conservation of wildlife in general and the above two flagship species in particular have proven very effective in reducing to a great extent the adverse effects of the known proximate causes of the loss of biodiversity in the wildlife reserve. The long history of managerial input and intervention, involving an appropriate combination of the habitat-specific and species-specific approaches along with the park-people cooperation and stringent protection, has contributed tremendously to the understanding of biodiversity conservation which emphasizes that calculated and small disturbances lead to the highest species diversity, whereas large and hasty disturbances cause a decrease in natural species biodiversity.

The Nepal-UK community forestry project has developed a process for forest user groups to prepare and implement their own working plans for community forests. Forestry department staff assist in this process as facilitators, but emphasis is on encouraging user groups to make their own management decisions to sustainably manage their community forests for a range of forest products. Experience has shown that communities can become effective forest managers if given appropriate extension support. However, placing forest management entirely within the responsibility of the user group has a number of implications for biodiversity which have not yet been accurately assessed. A baseline survey of forest resources is being carried out at present. This will eventually provide data enabling identification of changes in forest condition and biodiversity as a result of community forest management howerver, forest users themselves are the best sources of information regarding changes in forest condition and biodiversity. Participatory monitoring can be used to collect such information.

Biofertilizers play a crucial role in the reduction of inorganic fertilizers and its utilization. There has been considerable progress during the recent past in the development of biofertilizer production technology and this has also been demonstrated as an efficient tool for increasing forest productivity. There is a pressing demand from user groups to develop an easy and effective technology for its field application. The mass production technology of biofertilizers including VAM, Azospirillum, Azotobacter, Rhizobium, Phospho-bacteria and fluorescent Pseudomonas has been standardized. The specific strains of biofertilizers for teak,bamboo, Albizias and Acacias have been developed. The quality of the biofertilizers produced is the key factor in the success of growth in nurseries and plantations, as well as the development of small scale industry. There is a need to popularize the use of biofertilizers for quality seedlings production in the nursery and also the estabilishment of plantation. The training and demonstration in this regard to the user groups would be highly beneficial. The transfer of technology and biofertilizers to SFDs and farmers could prove to be meaningful, if implemented through joint forest management programmes in rural areas.

The Canadian Forest Service established the model forest program in 1991 as an experiment on the national scale to provide the opportunity for broad participation in the investigation of just how to incorporate the theory of sustainable development into practice. The term 'model forest' describes a partnership of interested individuals representing many different forest values, including timber production, who agree to work collaboratively in pursuit of their common goal of defining approaches to SFM. The partnership includes representatives from all organisations responsible for land use decision on the model forest area, the model forest partnership has no direct authority over the landbase nor are the partners bound to any model forest decision.Tamil Nadu has fairly broad spectrum and 42 types of forests containing rich variety of flora and fauna are found in the state. The government of Tamil Nadu formulated and implimentned many schemes for conservation, development and production in forestry sector. It has changed the planning process and planning strategies have shifted from mere raising of plantations to that of a holistic approach of biodiversity conservation involving joint forest management. The objectives and approaches of different five year plans have been highlighted.

The concept of joint management system as introduced by many state forest departments has been attempted to be officially formalised through government of India, June 1990 resolution. This resolution offers tremendous opportunities for the people of India manage the resource, which they have been till now using without applying their minds as to how to perpetuate and stabilise the resource base. The instinct of survival and will for posterity would lay the foundation for the peoples participation in forest management. The concepts of joint management systems are required to be further strengthened, refined and further improved so as to manage the forest resources of India on the principles of collective management rather than joint management. Without invoking the collective will of the people for common benefits, the past attempts in common property resources have failed and the tragedy of common still continues.The success of the people’s participation programmes would also largely dependent upon the roles and responsibilities assingned to the people and the individuals providing leadership to the movent. The complementary action of forest departments and the voluntary agencies would require careful planning and confidence building. Further, the potential of district administration to support and help in the development of such models should be properly evolved. It would be worthwhile evelove the roles of people, forest department and other agencies in the process of collective management for developing packages of practices.Participatory forest management experiments to be further refined into collective management models in which people, forest departments, voluntary organisations and institutions must have well defined roles and responsibilities. Forest departments should take up various rural development activities in order to strengthen rural resource base and to forge closer linkages with the people. The major issues discussed included leadership question, rights of the people vis-à-vis their duties as enshrined in the existing forest acts and rules.

There is a large potential for reforestation under JFM in India. CDM provides opportunity to expand JFM in India. JFM is shown in this paper as an eligible activity for CDM, if it is in non-forest area. The issues such as developing a baseline, demonstrating additionality, measuring and monitoring of carbon benefits and non-permance can be easily addressed for a JFM project. India should create the necessary institutional arrangements, which are simple and transparent to attract CDM projects.

The conservation of natural resources, such as forests, is not possible without the active involvement of local people. Indian history is replete with the participatory management of nautral resources. However, this is not the case for forests, for a number of legal, social and administrative reasons. The new national forest policy of 1988, clearly states that management of forest resources in India should include the active involvement of local people. The blending of forest science within the sociocultural framework of local people was stated in the June 1990 resolution of the government of India. Various state governments have formed village forest-protection committees, Madhya Pradesh is one such state. This paper views the functioning of a people's organization at the village level, in the Harda forest division Madhya Pradesh state. The experience of Harda forest division has highlighted a few positive trends of participatory forest management. These trends are reflected in the creation of favourable conditions for regeneration of forests through control, in the removal of forest products and a check on uncontrolled grazing. This has made the task of forest protection easier and the relationship between forest staff and the people has also been transformed from that of confrontation to that of a mutually productive and harmonions relationship. Secondly, the committees have been able to function as a grassroot level organization of the successful execution of rural development activities.

The regional centre for wasteland development, IIFM, Bhopal, had undertaken an in depth study of the functioning of village forest protection committees (VFPCs) in Harda forest division, under its programme of bringing out features on success stories on peoples participation in forest manangement, for dissemination of information among the interested people. This report highlight the workdone in this regard.

The article highlights the desertification in India, with special reference to Gujarat. Eight Districts of Gujarat are affected with desertification problem. The degree of soil degradation, varies from slight to moderate and strong to extreme depending on the slope, aspect topographic position, wind velocity and intensity of rainfall. Ecological restoration of degraded soil with the help of forest department was to some extent remained successful, to combat desertification. The contribution of NGO's and VAS like Swadhyay Parivar, Aga Khan Rural Support Programme, Panjrapoles and others in this endeavour are praiseworthy. The traditional knowledge of people in Saurashtra and Kutch, and the technology evolved by them for conserving water have served as an incentive for making allout efforts in combating desertification. Forest Department in Gujarat has 19,393 sq. km. under forests with just 6.3% under good forest. The state has formulated a broad plan to achieve the goal of sustainable forest and wildlife management as well as to meet people's needs as enunciated in the National Forest Policy, 1998. During the past few years the Forest Department launched various schemes and projects, which envisage not merely planting of seedlings, but also a series of inter-related activities culminating in the flow of benefits both tangible and intengible to the society at large but the participating communities in particular. Remarkable effect was noticed in forest cover of Gujarat in 1993, total forest cover was 12,320 sq. km including mangrove forests. At present non reserve grass lands and lands taken up for compensatory afforestation in Saurashtra and Kutch are the major areas earmarked for carrying out works to combat draught and desertification. External financial support aided Ecodevelopment Project in Gir Protected Area, and Integrated Forestry Development Project of Gujarat, provides a rare opportunity indeed to execute urgent works on a large scale, to arrest the desertification in the state.

Due to the increasing of human and animal population, there is great pressure on lands (forests, other government lands and community lands). In this paper measures and models have been discussed for management of common, public, forest and community lands.

The new forest policy 1988 envisages people’s participation in management of existing treasure of biodiversity in the country. As per policy directive the concept of participatory forest management is sweeping the entire nation. Today the forest field functionaries have not only to act as natural resource managers but also as facilitators of community participation, in sustainable development, protection and conservation of forest wealth. For facilitating community participation and involving people in decision making and planning, a suitable communication strategy is to be evolved. The paper stresses upon the need for evolving effective communication systems by the forest department.

This chapter explores the evolution of forest policies and some practical implecations of the new government orders. It examines historical relations between the state, forest lands, and rural communities. Over the past few years, national and state level policies that supports the rights and needs of rural communities to forest resources have been formulated, beginning a reversal of centuary old trend in forest management. Mandated planning systems should require full community participation, benefitting from local knowledge and strengthened by an integration of community goals. The resolutions generally recommends village level committees as functional management groups, under the supervision of forest department officials. Many resolutions limit community management to degraded forests only and the tenurial period of usefruct rights is not mentioned. Users group are denied allottment of land in forests. Community forest management groups have little say over policy and management decisions. In Haryana and Rajasthan, the JFM institutions enjoy legal identity and greater independence. It projects role of women in forest management under JFM programme which suffer from gender inequities present in rural Indian society. Stronger tenurial right and guaranteed usefructs need clear articulation. Finally forest department revenue generation and benefit sharing arrangements have been discussed. The policies and programme activities in JFM can respond in a supportive way to the problem solving strategies being develop0ed by the communities and foresters. In fact JFM offers a promising opportunity to respond to India's forest management problems in a socially and ecologically sound manner.

The policies embracing the community -based forest management systems in India have not yielded significant results. The national and state governments have responded to the demands for community rights over forests by various policy statements, but the tenure of forest land remains the most contentious issue in the field of forest management in India. This paper examines policies in their local and external environments in both historical as well as current contexts. Important elements for understanding the local view points and assigning forest tenure are: The community concerns for the state of forest resources and their efforts at its conservation, rural poverty, access to basic needs for livelihoods and the condition of the forest resources. Relevant forest policies of the national and state govermnents are discussed with specific reference to the recent joint forest management programme and questions of tenure. The topic is placed in context with the development of other sectors of the rural economy and international concern for the environment.

The experience of the Ikalahan, a tribe living on the high slopes of the mountains in North Luzon, Philippines is described from 1973, the date of the creation of the kalahan education foundation (KEF), which was formed to represent the Ikalahan at the signing of two memoranda of agreement with the Philippine government .The one gave them exclusive tenure over nearly 15,000 hectares of an central land and the other established their own High School. The trustees of the KEF, tribal leaders, have followed five principles in the development of strategies to sustain and conserve the ecology of the mountain forests and the culture of the people. These principles are based on an appreciation of the need to maintain a healthy, diverse environment, providing good air and climate, clean water and a good livelihood for all its member species, including humans. The administrative structure of the KEF is described along with its activities, including improvement of the traditional swidden farming for food, the collection and propagation of wild fruits, manufacture and sale of a variety of Jams and jellies, propagation of orchids, forestry operations aimed at improving the forest while providing a steady supply of lumber, organic vegetables and fruit. The KEF also provides for the education of the yourth and conducts research on the flora and fauna of the area. The KEF model has been a powerful instrument in the development of the community based resource management program of the government which has recognized the success of the KEF through several awards of merit.

Bangladesh emerged as a sovereign nation in 1971 out of a bloody war for independence which left the country in a state of ruin. The process of development had to be started fresh. Bangladesh has a biologica heritage of approximately 500 angiosperm species. A tentative list of 27 vascular plants threatened in Bangladesh has been prepared. Conservation of plant genetic resources is now a matter of urgency. Bangladesh has 2.46 million ha of forestland covering about 17% of the country's area, but the actual tree cover is only about 9%. At least 1.46 million ha of forest are nonstocked or poorly stocked. The traditional effort toward rehabilitation, both for land and products, is being frustrated by the growing population. In such alarming circumstances, community forestry programs were initiated in nonstocked and poorly stocked forestland as a self defense mechanism. The main objectives of the programs were: to readily create resources at the user level; to alleviate rural poverty through tree-growing activities; to create a buffer zone resource to save the traditional forestry from the wrath of a hungry population; to conserve plant biodiversity in all types of foests through public awareness; to benefit generally from community forestry practices, as shown by recent studies.

The focus of the study, conducted in 1995-1996 was to understand the impact of forest protection through JFM on vegetation, socioeconomic status of forest dwellers and the potential to use the forest in a sustainable way. The study area can be divided into three regions (1) the ghat region, (2) the sub plain region and (3) the plain region. Most of the forests are in the ghats and sub plain region, where the terrain is generally complex topographical features of four villages selected for study are given. Status of vegetation of these villages before JFM are reported. The availability and status of NTFP's are also described for each village. There were two types of forest management institutions in the study area. They are i) those formed under JFM involving forest department, ii) those formed without involvement of F.D., under self initiated Community Forest Management (CFM) NGO's have been playing a major role in the formation and management of VSS and coordinating with various government departments in Andhra Pradesh. As a reciprocal gesture, they could recognise the VSSs formed by the NGOs. This will help in building the confidence of the people regarding government departments and thus government can achieve the goals of JFM in a much shorter time. The transformation improves diversity of species in the forests as is evident from the fact that over 70% of the regenerating vegetation are of seed origin and not coppices. Involvement of women in decision making and other JFM activities need to be encouraged. Protection measures such as a complete ban on grazing has improved the density of seedlings. The community should decide on thinning of vegetation in such a way that composition and density of species enhances income generating potential. The income from NTFP's should be enhanced even during the initial years.

This paper outlines the policy context and resource base for community forestry in Nepal. Drawing on a study of 11 forest user groups (FUGs) in the middle hills region, the paper examines the process of FUG formation and post-information support. The implementation process of community forestry demands rapid institutional change at department of forests (DOF) and Village level, and changes in working relationships between these levels. The DOF's main responsibilities in the middle hills are changing from the traditional role of forest policing and protection, and moving towards FUG facilitation. However, the limited capacity of the DOF has become the key constraint to implementation of community forestry, and finding a solutioin may involve re-organizing the DOF support role. As new priorities emerge in FUGs (relating to community development for instance) involving multiple support agencies is becoming increasingly necessary.

In this study an attempt has been made to describe ecological, economic and institutional features of the management initiative undertaken in three villages of the Barapada Forest Division in Orissa, PRAVA an NGO undertook this study in kutling, Nabra, and Dugdha villages in the Udala range on the southwestern side of the Simlipal Tiger Reserve, under Barapada Forest Division. The study conducted during 1995-96 had three objectives (1) to understand the structure and function of community managed forest protection institution, (2) to assess the impact of years of forest protection on species number, stem density and woody biomass, (3) to understand the collection pattern of NTFP's from the community managed forests. The village community has responded enthusiastically, by under taking collective responsibility for protecting and managing the forest in both the villages, in Kuntling as well as Nabra, the institutional arrangements are similar, and the protection is effective. The features common to both villages are that protection motivation to start the VFPCs in both the villages came from individuals. Other important features noted during study period are- Democratic way is followed to amend any rule, firstly by executive committee then by general body indicating genuine democratic and participatory decision making process. Forest protection and harvest regime is looked after by a registered society. NTFP's collection is regulated, thus imposing restrictions on quantity gathered. There is a good liasion between F.D. and VFPC's. The protection committee in Nabra was given the Prakrutimitra award by the state government. PRAVA has helped to strengthen protection in the villages by working in close association with the Kuntling Forest Protection committee and the Nabra Banasthi Kendra.

This paper looks at the conflicts and mis-match between the informal community based forest management systems in Orissa and joint forest management framework in Orissa. It also shares the discussion and the debate amongst NGOs and the civil society in Orissa, on the nature and contours of community based right regime. Using this discussion as the back-drop, the paper argues about the need to look beyond JFM and address tenurial issues and institutional use to strengthen JFM.

Several thousands villagers in Orissa are involved in active protection in management of forest. Most started protecting on their own initiative as a spontaneous response to the forest degradation problem. The state has been struggling with the process of formalising these initiatives and bringing them to the joint forest management fold. The forest protecting villages, find state promoted joint forest management (JFM) arrangement unacceptable and feel that this does not put the management powers and decisions making in the hands of local communities. There exists considerable mis-match between formal JFM system and locally evolved community forest management (CFM) arrangements. This paper looks at the nature of this mis-match and the challenges that it throws up for foresters and development workers in the state.

Community participation in forestry which is synonymous to joint forest management (JFM) has taken on the dimensions of a large movement in India today. There are already about 12,000 forest protection committees involved in managing about 1.5 million hectares of degraded forests in 15 states. Considering the extent of degraded forests available in the country (about 38 million hectares) the JFM movement is bound to grow. But there are vital issues concerning silvicultural, social, cultural, economic, political, administrative and legal aspects of JFM which have to be considered in depth in order to expand, consolidate and make the movement sustainable. Although there is general appreciation of the role and effective-ness of community forestry in India, there is a lack of clarity on the methods of its implementation. It is apparent that any ruels that may be felt necessary to regulate working of FPCs would require to be framed in simple and explicit language without using legalistic phraseology. Even the guidelines have to be translated in to regional languages for better understanding and easy application. In the past few years grate strides have been made in improving the status of JFM.

A unique example of tribal initiative towards forest protection is provided by the small Kudada village in South Bihar. Without any inspiration or support from any outside agency, the tribals of Kudada took steps way back in 1975 to protect the nearly 25km. of vast forest land which had become a virtually barren land because of indiscriminate felling of trees over the years. Their efforts in participatory forest management gave birth to the van suraksha sahyog samiti (VSSS) and the forest has now got back its lush green lusture again. The man behind the stupendous task of forest protection was a village medical practitioner named Nuna Ram Mardi, who led by his Sonthali street dramas, galvanised the forest-dwelling villagers into action. FPCs were formed, but later, around 1991, the forest department came with a helping hand. However, in spite of Kudada's success story, a lot of assistance, guidance and training is required.

This study paper describes the institutional arrangements in community managed systems that have evolved in the past few decades, in response to severe forest degradation in Karnataka. This study compares the management practices, institutional structure, vegetation regeneration, population dynamic and income generation through non timber forest products (NTFP) extraction in three villages of Shimoga district and one village of Uttarakannada district. The four study villages, which have self initiated community managed forests are Alalli, Hunsur, Kugwe of Sagara taluk and Halakar of Kumta taluk. Sagara taluk has 23 such community managed forest systems. Area under protection, plant species richness and diversity in protected forests, nearby degraded forests, and F.D. plantation in the selected villages have been studied. Percentage of trees, in the different DBH and height classes in the managed forests and plantations are reported. The protection offered and management practices followed by the village community have positive results on the vegetation. Implications of such management practices on protection, regeneration, forest succession, biomass availability and access to the forests are discussed. Economic value of forest products flow is a motivating factor for communities to adopt protection and management. Availability and extraction of NTEP, methods of NTFP gathering, extraction rate of firewood, leaf litter, have been highlighted. Few suggestions are listed for the consideration of the local communities, Forest Department, NGO's and researchers.

Seva Mandir, an NGO began promiting the initiation of JFM in 1991 in Bada Bhilwara in Jhadol Block, Udaipur (South) Forest Division. This village was selected for study to understand the impact of institutional and sociological factors; to understand the impact of protection on vegetation parameters, like species diversity, biomass production, NTFP availability and extraction; and to assess the income generated through NTFP's in the protected forest of Bada Bhilwara village. The hamlet occupies a geographicl area of about 750 ha. It has a total population of 797 in 142 households. Bhil and Meena tribes dominate the village. In 1993 a registered Forest Protection Committee helped in protecting their forests, but illicit felling still continued. A 50 ha patch of degraded forest under JFM scheme, was taken up for regeneration. A management system for protection, collection and distribution of grass has been evolved, by charging a nominal cess, subsequently to be used for forest protection. The stand of trees is appreciable, with high tree density, basal area, and annual woody biomass productivity. Mahua trees dominates the vegetation followed by Pongamira. The income of Rs.904/ha generated by the community is low, compared to other forest areas in India. Though wide variety of NTFP available there is not being used due to lack of demand in the market. The tendu density in this village is low and cannot be exploited commercially. Firewood and fodder are collected by all house holds. The economically important species like Karanj and Timru are collected, mostly by large farmer's. The basal area of the 8 years old plantations and regenerating forests are very low. The committee could look into the slow growth, which could be used as firewood. In this village, two forest management systems exist and both systems are working towards protecting and managing the forest effectively. The case study is thus an example of a place, where old and new systems of management exist, each contributing to help forest recover from degradation.

The author provides suggestions for learning from experiences in community management of protected areas in south-western China. This article examines some of the achievements and problems in several national reserves in south-eastern Yunnan Province and proposes measures for improvement from the perspective of sustainability and community development. It is essential to give sufficient consideration to the needs of the people living within and around the forest or reserve to conserve the essential to give sufficient consideration to the needs of the people living within and around the forest or reserve to conserve the biodiversity harboured within the reserve. Some of the experience of co-management in Yannan, was to have benefited local communities in improving their living standards, easing conflicts between the reserve and adjacent communities, shifts in the mandates, responsibilities and functions of reserve management and their regulations and acceptance of co-management by the communities. It was observed that multiple approach is needed to satisfy the needs of the community for forest resources. So management should be implemented in a gradual manner, based on the willing participants of the villagers. Some of the unresolved issues are inadequate approaches to community poverty, ineffectiveness of relocation as a mean of solving the conflicts between the reserves and the communities, need for conformity of policies and regulation, importance of buffer zone in sustainable forest management and need for defined functions and roles of reserve management agencies and governments. However few recommendation have emerged based on the above points. (1) unified and comparable regulations are needed to be formed (2) bufferzone management should be considered and carefully planned (3) functions and role of the reserve departments in community development and community forest management, need to be clearly defined (4) women role in the management of nature reserve should also be strengthened

The author describes a wildlife management strategy in Cameroon that involves local communities. This strategy is helping to check the rapid decline of wildlife in the forests and may help the country's wildlife legislation correspond better to local realities. Limbe project carried out from 1994-2000, facilitated the development of a participatory wildlife management strategy for the Mount Cameroon region. The same is being tested for potential replication in other regions of the country. Sustainable wildlife management system in the project area would contribute to the improvement of community livelihood. This emphasized the involvement of hunters, retailers and eating place operators (pepper soup sellers). The objectives of the strategy were (I) to create village based institutions and strengthen them for managing wildlife sustainably; (2) to develop locally defined rules; (3) to define community hunting areas and sustainable off take; (4) to develop a simple monitoring and evaluation system with the participation of all stakeholders. The wildlife management institutions are responsible to exercise effective control against illegal poaching activities. Successful outcome of this project spells out heightened awareness of management issues, developed improved capacity of users group and increase in wildlife population improvement in livelihood of stakeholders by exercising joint control on policy issues. A major lesson was that a legal framework within which hunters could identify themselves and carried out their trade legally, gives them more feeling of ownership and motivates them to manage wildlife in a sustainable way to ensure long term benefits. The knowledge gained should be used to revise country's wildlife legislation and the government should encourage the replication of the initiative in other areas of the country.

The author in this paper attempts to explain that ethenic minorities have to be associated in planning and implementation of any scheme meant for the conservation and development of forests in north-east India. These tribal groups, because of their most disadvantaged social and economic status have also a limited capacity to articulate their concerns, defend their interest and to access resources within their territory. Any project must necessarily be evaluated and monitored by the community itself. They have to be properly trained to shoulder responsibilities defined in a project. In Meghalaya, a project on watershed management, run by the department itself failed after 4,5 years of its success, since there were no stakeholders to sustain it. Forest department should come forward to explain the benefits that will accrue from the scheme in local language of tribals. Community should be involved right from the planning and designing the conservatiobn/forest management project. Women's involvement is needed in collecting the NTFP and sell them in the market, as a source of income. The message of conservation of environment be spread through schools and colleges and mass awareness be created amongst people. Joint Forest Management is a new concept in the north-east, because forest mostly belongs to individuals or clans, who consider themselves to do anything on such forests. It is therefore advised to take the tribals in full confidence, before any project is initiated there.

In order to make forestry more and more meaningful to the rural committees, the W.B. forest department took steps to create awarences about the usefulness of trees in everyday life and the needs of planting trees and protecting and maintaining forests. With active participation and involvement of local people, FPCs were formed by issuing the G.O. of 1989, amneded subsequently in 1990 and 1991. Studies conducted by IBRAD and by K.C. Malhotra have shown that despite certain lacunae the FPCs were functioning reasonably well. Specific measures for the protection of the forest area, however, have been left to the discretion of the individual FPCs. Some difficulties have been faced especially from outsiders and neighboring villagers not having their own FPCs and regarding the felling of long-rotation species of trees and sharing the usufruct. The writer thinks that FPCs will succeed if they draw members from each homogenous household of the village and the forest area consists of predominantly coppice sal trees. With cooperation from the panchayat and other government departments, the motivated villagers and forest staff can surely make the FPCs a success.

Any type of change in environmental setup tends to generate conflict. Effective conflict management requires understanding the underlying dynamics of the conflict by higher level managers. Implementation of Tamil Nadu afforestation project inTamil Nadu under JFM, in the recent years, has resulted in several conflicts, e.g. conflicts at formation of VFCs, interests, panchayat vs VFC, carrying capacity, grazing, species choice and technology, wildlife-human interface and conflict within the forest department etc.,which provided new experiences to the foresters. This paper enumerates a few such conflicts and tries to analyse the dynamics from management prospective, with an eye on possible solutions.The present day ecological conflicts have their roots in economic compulsions, sociological stresses, technological intencification,changing consumption patterns, scarce land availability and contending resource users. Making trade- offs between competing goals is thus a necesssary skill for the officials. Inventory of conflicts relate to resource use, structures, roles, interests, socio-legal and cultural attributes. However to decipher, understand and resolve the conflicts through effective communication, negotiation, mediation and conciliation poses a challenge before the natural resource manager. The paper stresses that the conflict resolution mechanisms are to be evolved, institutions developed and structures harmonised with the needs of joint forest management (JFM) in India.

PFM which had its roots in social forestry of earlier times involved people in the protection and management of government owned forests. As in PFM whole village comprising people of diverse economic, educational and social background need to be involved and motivated, so disagreements and conflicts among villagers often arose. The conflicts relate to the distribution and sharing of forest products and employment opportunities. Political factors also complicate the matter. But however difficult conflict resolution some times appears to be, there is no alternative to PFM or JFM,for the system gives the foresters and villagers an opportunity to come closer and work in hormony. West Bengal's panchayat system is conducive to a better working of PFM. Proper micro-planning will bring short-term benefits and some work opportunities to the villagers. The author believes that farm forestry is an important supplementary to PFM, so it must be strongly supported.

The paper refers to Govt. of India's order of 1st June 1990 mandated the state forest departments to operationalise the participatory forest management strategy by involving the communities for protection, afforestation and development of degraded forest lands. Present policies and legal frame work and community institution building mechanism are not conducive for sustainable management of natural resources. There is no sustainability in the community institutions being setup in large numbers by different Government Departments. What is required is an enabling policy frame work, a supportive and complementary legal framework with a simple mechanism to set up a cohesive and umbrella community institutions at each village level. Government Departments need to be more proactive in decentralising their authority and activities to such institutions. The existing institutions need be strengthened rather than opening of new institutions. Authors quote an example of forest legal framework in Himachal Pradesh, framed during 19th centuary is unique in the sense that local peoples rights were accepted and formalised. The rules framed under one act, someltimes violate the content and spirit of another act. The legal complexities have further been compounded after issuance of new forest policy in 1988 and subsequently upto 2001. Many conflicts in legal provision are quoted as under. (1) conflicts to felling of trees on private lands (2) conflict for harvesting of timber from plantations raised under PFM (3) conflicts for grantiang of Tree Patta (4) conflicts for declaration of wastelands as protected forests (5) conflicts for resin extraction and its sale (6) conflicts for regularisation of encroachments (7) conflicts of the Governer's decision to return ownership of village common lands (8) conflicts in Himachal Pradesh Panchayat Raj act 1974 (9) conflicts for Haq Churam (right to 25% share from sale proceeds). All the above conflicts in forest legal frame work were highlighted. Therefore there is an urgent need to initiate a process to amend these laws and acts. Besides, conflicts between community institutions of different departments also exist and need be simplified and solved at the government level.

The paper analysis conflicts in case studies from Orissa, and in the light of the analysis, discusses the sustainability of village institutions and their common resources. The commons in India are mainly the 'assumed commons' and not commons in reality- the tenurial arrangements over such lands often lying with the government and controlled for various purposes. These lands are used by the communities as commons under their to own set of rules and regulations as long as they remain unused by the government department concerned. This insecurity of tenure brings conflict between the government departments and the communities and raises doubts over the sustainability of both the resources and institutions managing them. Programmes such as the joint forest management, the watershed programmes etc. promote decentralisation of governance but there is still no consensus among the policy makers, the laws, the executive officers, the local communities and the users of the commons on the rights bestowed on the communities. This brings uncertainities in the implementation of these programmes. The paper concludes that: 1. Community based forest management systems have been and can be viable. 2. The situation of 'assumed commons' without adequate legislation providing security of tenure cannot function in the long term. 3. Common property regimes giving rights to defined groups over defined resources, alongwith excutive authority to manages the resources are essential. 4. Principles for sustainable resource management have to be adopted and appropriate practices evolved. 5. Government policies must be conducive to the evolution of sustainable community - based resource management institutions. State agencies must support such intitutions and respect their powers and byelaws. 6.Conflicts among the disparate inerested parties will occur, intitutions must develop skills and flexibility to manage these conflicts and use them to promote change for the general benefit of the community and reduce threats to the commons themselves.

Against the back drop of present national forest policy of India (1988), Local organisations have been developed in most parts of the country for effective forest management. The development of these organisations has led to a number of conflicts. The dynamics and management of conflicts in 32 local level organisations of forest management have been analyzed. In more than three quarters of the committees studied, conflicts were found, especially relating to access in control over forest resources, their management and the institutional functioning of the forest department. Nearly half of the conflicts remain unresolved. The emergence of conflict is an inevitable part of the institutional development process. Results are discussed in the light of theories of group development and their implications for joint forest management are highlighted. The conclusion is drawn that conflicts can play an important role in facilitating institutional learning and in making JFM institutions more effective.

Joint forest management was introduced in 1992 in 4 selected villages of Melagarh district of West Tripura. The land once had luxuriant forests, which was degraded mainly through biotic interference. The concept of JFM was introduced to the villagers by the forest department and an NGO. An MoU was signed between the benificiaries and the forest department regarding the demarcation of the land,sharing of usufructs collection of NWFPs, involvement in plantation works, etc. The villagers developed their own methods for maintenance of records and regulation. The success of the Melagarh JFM programme has attracted wide mass and media attention and many more similar projects are in the offing.

The conservation of biodiversity has been the Indian way of life. Forests were treated as common property resource and so the benefits arising out of it were shared by the community. The practice still exists in many tribal communities dominating the north eastern part of the country.As usual for the humid tropics shifting cultivation is practised in vast chunk of land. Shifting cultivation systems actively encourage diversity in many ways. When practised with setting aside 10-30 percent of land as safety forest different successional stages of vegetation development are met with an array of diverse natural produsts. In the region of north eastern India a majority of land is community controlled. In the state of Assam and Arunanchal Pradesh there are "village forest reserves" where community has got the complete control over the produce and shares it alone. In the Anchal reserve forests of Arunanchal Pradesh the benefits are shared by the state and the communities on 50-50 basis. In Arunanchal Pradesh community is also encouraged to raise apnavan where community shares the total benefit from it. There has been hardly any benefit sharing by the community adjoining the protected areas. National forest policy (1988) revising almost a century old perception of commercially exploitation of forest has emphasised that forests are maintained to conserve soil and the environment and to meet the subsistence requirement of the local people. Government of India issued a policy instruction in 1990 that supported greater participation of the village forest communities and the NGOs in regeneration and management of degraded forest land in the name of joint forest management (JFM). JFM has been a success in West Bengal, where in addition to gain from employment and NWFP collection, share from timber is also provided to the forest protection committees.Tipura is the first state in the north eastern region of India to start JFM and forest protection and regeneration committee with the assistance of local NGOs shares the benefits.

Forests providie a wealth of products and services to people. The basic and normal situation has been that communities have usually known and benefitted from all these products on a sustainable basis. However external conditions and new development related to logging and mining have undermined this situation lessening if not destroying the interest and the sense of responsibility of these communities towards their forests. The author through examples taken from the central Himalayas, with the chipko andolan movement, conveys the message that reactions from local communities first out of sheer desperation and then towards a positive undeavour of awareness raising and action, can reaffirm people's right and lead to restorative activities often far more successful than governmental operations.

Conserving our forest wealth though people’s participation is the need of the hour.Concept of van panchayats in U.P. is very old. These van panchayats in U.P. have been managing their forests on sustainable basis. This paper deals with some interesting and successful van panchayats in Kumaun hills. It also brings out the problems faced by them and some other important issues that need attention.The joint participatory forest management (JPFM) approach for management of degraded forests in the Shivalik belt of Haryana aims at providing certain incentives to the local communities linking their interests to the regneration and sustainable utilization of the forests. This study focusses on the various reasons as to why this particular approach has not been successful at some places compared to others. For the purpose of this study six villages were chosen in which the concept of JPFM had been introduced but had not been able to produce the desired results.

The study also investigates the various strategies adopted for eliciting peoples’ participation in the programme and the inadequacies in the present strategies in matters concerning a range of institutional, legal, economic, technical, and ecological issues. Lastly, the study looks into the various problems and issues which need tlo be addressed for the furtherance of the programme in Haryana.

The majority of India's rural population living in the forest rich regions of the country are poor and make up the major portion of people living below the poverty line. Sustainable management and proper utilisation of forest resources hold great potential to alleviate their poverty, but government ownership and ristrictions imposed on the collection and use of forest products have rendered these resources inaccessible to village communities. Realising that conservation and proper management of forests is not possible without actived participation of local people, the programme of joint forest management (JFM) has been launched to rehabilitate degraded forests and to share the usufructs from such forests with local communities. Experience with JFM in Orissa has shown that the sustainable yield from about a hectare of degraded sal forest per household can substantially help in poverty alleviation in rural areas. However the administration of JFM must be amended to facilitate the sale of surplus produce for the benefit of the poor in order to do this.

The present paper deals with number of facts involved in coping with climate change related uncertainities. This depend upon natural resources and biodiversity for livelyhood concern. This relationship with nature is based on coexistance rather than competition. The ultimate objective is the sustainable use of natural resources in order to arrive at compromise between environmental risk on the one hand, and productivity concerns on the other. In the present day contexed, these risks are exaggerated in the context of 'global change' of which the much talked about climate change is only component. The author explains few components like global change, traditional ecological knowledge, state of Indian forests, traditional agroecosystem, sustainable forest management, rehabilitation of degraded forests, adaptive landscape management plan. The global change can be felt in a variety of different ways: exotic weed invasion (Hyacinth in water bodies, Lantana in the land), biodiversity depletion, soil erosion, loss of soil carbon and nutrients all these collectively influence local/regional climate and ecology resulting in slowing down in the rate of ecosystem recovery process. To sumup, an ideal Joint Forest Management model has been provided to ensure an effectives carbon sequestration which concern biodiversity conservation and management, with the involvement of local communities.

This communication presents basic problems faced by stake-holders and policy makers regarding research advancements for application in JFM. The author restricts his analysis to five important stake - holders: state, user group, panchayat raj institutions, civil society and international organisations. Newly created state of Chhatisgarh is dominated by tribal groups spread over to 9,500 villages. More than 50% of the people depend for their subsistance on forests. Thus forests have a pivotal role in the rural economy of the state. Therefore Chhatisgarh has enunciated a new state forest policy explaining its main objectives. In order to translate the basic objectives, number of technologies, like livelyhood and food securities, health cover, augmenting rural income, policy and legal frame work have been taken up to achieve a common goal to convert poor people from gatherer to owner. The turnover from MFP may cross even 10,000 million rupees marks, for these poor people. Further an integrated ecosystem approach adopted for poverty alleviation, two models have been evolved viz. Dhamtari and Marwahi models. Future strategy plans discussed and adopted, which will form the basis for socially acceptable benefits sharing arrangements.

The author describes how criteria and indicators were used to assess the sustainability of a community based forest management project in the Philippines. A study was carried out in a CBFM project in Llagan, Isebela, the Philippines to identify a set of criteria and indicators. The study covered an area of approximately 10220 ha managed by the multipurpose cooperative, (VMPCI) in partnership with government agency incharge of managing the country's resources. The criteria and indicators developed by International Tropical Timber Organisation (ITTO) were employed for this project as a methodology. Socio-demographic and economic characteristics of respondents were projected. Biophysical characteristics of the CBFM project was also indicated. Of the 23 indicators selected in the study, 15 apply to the socio-economic criterion and 8 to the biophysical criterion. These fall into 3 groups; the first seven are related to organisational capability as an organisation. Indicator 8 to 13 are related to socio-economic benefits; and indicators 14 and 15 are related to institutional support. The biophysical indicators are related to conservation of ecosystem health and vitality. The results indicate that five of the indicators had decreasing or fluctuating trend in the Llagan CBFM; generation of capital and net profile from local enterprises; available credit facilities; employment generation; sharing of benefits; and enhancement of the protection of CBFM area. The decreasing trend in these indicators suggests that the people's organisation is still dependent on external agencies, an unsustainable situation. Regular assessment of the identified indicators is needed to establish a time series of data through which progress towards sustainability can be measured. At least 23 indicators for assessing the sustainability of CBFM in llagan, as defined by two identified criteria, were acceptable to both the people's organisation and the government agency. A participatory approach is necessary in developing and measuring criteria and indicators of sustainability. By involving all stakeholders, it is possible to generate consensus on a set of criteria and indicators for CBFM projects. Additional discussions and awareness raising are also needed in regard to those indicators not currently given priority by the communities.

In this paper the authors deal with criteria and indicators as a tool, which assesses sustainability at one hand and communicates for better management practices through monitoring and evaluation at other hand. The paper identifies indicators in context with Rajasthan and Gujarat. It is unlikely that single set of criteria may be applicable uniformly across the whole country with different climatic zones, and demographic socioeconomic conditions. Broad based indicators for sustainable joint forest management include profile of JFM committees, extent of JFM area rich in NTFP, problem of encroachment on forest land, response of people in forest protection, land holding, landless, service holders etc. These indicators reveals the depending on forest, and are directly related to the success and failure of JFM. However, there is a need to identify criteria and indicators at national level separately.

For the purpose of active participation and involvement of local community in development and protection of forests on the basis of sharing of usufructs, Govt. of Tripura passed a resolution on 20-11-91 for constitution of forest protection and regeneration committees (subsequently called as joint forest management committee) giving detailed guidelines regarding implementation of joint forest management in the state. 3 tier panchayats have been constituted in the state at village/block/district level with other functions including implementation of the scheme for eco-development and social justice in relation to soil conservation, social forestry, farm forestry, NTFP and fuel and fodder. There is large potential to increase economic returns from such forests by silvicultural innovations, involving raising of mixed crops producing food (fruit and oil seeds), gums, medicines and raw material for rural and cottage industries as per existing resolution of joint forest management in the state, beneficiaries are entitled to usufruct benefits. In most of the JFM committees, women participants are quite sensitized to the role of women’s participation in the JFM programme and they are also actively participated in all the committees and proceedings of JFM committees with existing working of JFM committed it is felt that future potential of JFM programme in the state is very high.

On the advice of the then national wasteland development board, Govt. of India decided to involve the people through village committee for the protection, regeneration and development of degraded forestlands. Nearly 10.2 mha of forest lands have come under the JFM programme through 36075 Village Committees. The JFM programme was reviewed by Govt. of India and the Ministry of Environment and Forests, vide their letter No.22-8/2000-JFM (FPD) dt. 21st February 2000. Though the EandF Ministry is seriously interested to implement the JFM programme, such officers having their vested interest, are reluctant to involve the local people and voluntary organisations.

Orientation programme for all the forest officers should be organised to secure their involvement and they should be made accountable. The order of February 1, 2000 suggests that every group in a village should be registered as a society under the societies registration act. The approach should be adopted by the rural development ministry for the scientific micro watershed programme. Whole of the village community should be involved through the gram sabha as against any group in the village. The gram sabha should elect the forest protection and development committee. Model of micro forest protection and development plans both for dense forest areas and the degraded forest areas, should be prepared for the guidance of the JFMCs. Suitable species and grasses for specific areas should be planted. This will help in producing the required material of high standard for the consumption of the local community and cattle, according to their need and also to enhance biodiversity.

People’s participation in forest management requires collective action by the community and forest department and is dependent on many factors. There have been many efforts to establish a theory of people’s participation in forest management by identifying its determinants and their respective roles. But, it is very difficult to claim the all inclusivness and also to explain their inter relationship because of obvious reasons. Studies to identify such determinents and explain their effects in a given context,however, help in widening and strengthening the theory. The present study was made in the village of Gajartolla of M.P. Determinants identified are level of dependence on forest, realisation of hardship because of loss of forests, support of forest department and other departments, availability of tangible benefits, clarity about rights and benefits and women’s participation.

Four main aspects of non-timber forest products(NTFPs) are examined: Valuation value addition, benefit sharing and government intervention, extraction management and the sociocultural dimension. Improved management of NTFPs will depend on improving value estimation, expending local processing, clarifying property rights, reducing government intervention and learning more about sociocultural aspects and extraction practices. Intensive field research is needed, together with the collection of existing published information from a wide range of sources. Expending the NTFP sector will depend on participatory and community-based approaches, securing value-added benefits, diversifying products used, and integrating NTFP activity with other income streams. Establish NTFP programmes based on clear tenure, and participatory management through the use of PRA techniques clear contractural agreements, and traditional knowledge as currently being practised through joint forest management programmes.

Nepal's status as one of the world's least developed and poorest nations brings special challenges to achieving sustainable community development and conserving biodiversity. Experience from community forestry programs being promoted by His Majesty's government of Nepal shows that such programs can build capacity within rural communities to undertake their own development and at the same time arrest the rate of forest decline, increase the total area of forests and increase the biological diversity of forests modified by human impact. This paper describes the challenges faced by Nepal and provides some evidence to demonstrate the potential benefits of community forestry for both community development and forest conservation.While the primary focus of community forestry has been on supporting subsistence agriculture and livestock management, recent developments in Nepal suggest that community forestry can play a major role in community development, especially in strengthening local organizations and raising funds for increasing rural welfare.This paper focuses attention on the opportunities provided by community forestry and speculates on Nepal's prospects for realizing these opportunities.The strengths and weaknesses of the current program and its players are discussed, and strategies are suggested for enhancing the role of community forestry in both community development and forest conservation.

This paper limits itself to making a case for the development of a good organisation standards and practices (GOSP) for the JFMCs and eco-development committees (EDCs) as a precurssor to devising a system of quality certification for these organisations. Such a system once in place will enhance the long term sustainability of these CBOs and help them to attract financial and programme support from various quarters. The paper provides hypothesis, essential requirements, component of good organisation standards and practices (GOSP). Over the past decade, the JFM programme has spread to various states in the country, covering about 18% of forest land and over 63,000 JFM groups are involved. Cleanly a quality control standardisation of the working of these CBOs can go a long way in making them more effective and productive centres. Method to develop GOSP for CBOs are given. The result of study in form of a GOSP document can be utilised by various agencies involved.

The activities of wasteland development through agroforestry models were carried out in 550 ha. Of wasteland in five district of Uttar Pradesh. The programme of plantation was exceuted with people's participation. 40% cost of the project was shared by the participants. The agroforestry models were selected suited to agroclimatic region. High-tech and low costs nurseries were established and developed. Crowbar plantation technique were adopted. Over the years, these agroforestry models have shown promising results in enhancing land productivity, soil and water conservation, and augmenting availability of fuelwood, fodder and food. Besides this, it has also generated sufficient employment for the rural poor and focussed on generation of income.

The present paper deals with the problems of dieback in shishm in plantation raised from seedling and clonal material. In recent years, the problem of sissoo mortality has reached an alarming stage in Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal and Punjab. The number of plantations of shisham at Haldwani were monitored for the incidence and infection of dieback. The area is typical of Tarai-Bhabar region of lower Himalayas. The observation for 100 to 500 trees in each plantation were recorded on a graph paper, according to number of parameters, during September 2003 to December 2003. Parameters taken into consideration are (1) Healthy lush green foliage, clean stem, no symptams of dieback, wilting and cankers. (2) Diseased: yellowing of leaves,wilting of foliage (3) Cankers and bands: Prominent cankers on the stem, splitting of bark, oozing of black pitch and formation of circular bands on the stem (4) Drying or dead: Dried twigs and trees, no leaves, left over stumps, gaps in the plantation. The environmental factors particularly global warming and predominance of fog are reasons, inciting the dieback. Other factors being water logging, site and attack of Fusarium solani. Wilting was less common in these plants. However agroforestry with shisham is not desirable.

This reviews the position of India's first Inspector General of Forests, Dietrich Brandis, born in Bonn, Germany. He was one of the first advocates for maintaining the role of Indian villages in forest management. He had anticipated that a system of forestry founded exclusively on state control would lead to great disaffection in the villages. He advocated for a system of forest management based on a collaborative relationship between the state and local communities, but this view was not accepted by Indian forestry, which preferred to uphold the principle of state monopoly over forest land. Striking parallels can be seen between the idea of Brandis and the ideas underlying the successful application of JFM in West Bengal, with respect to the role of forest dependent communities. The author emphasizes the striking parallels between Brandis's early vision and managerial concepts, and the evolving contemporary joint forest management strategies. Thus in the late 20th century, a movement has started for the creation of a democratic and participatory system of forest management, one founded on a genuine partnership between the state and the local communities.

Pulicat lake is the second largest brackish water lagoon in India harbouring several migratory brids like flamingoes, painted storks, grey pelicans etc. Pulicat lake is subjected to many problems like fishing , limeshell mining , aqua culture etc. Eight eco-development committees (E.D.C) were started to reduce the dependency of the villagers on the lake. Irkam island village is one such eco-development committee. People were enlightened and awareness was brought to them about the importance of the Pulicat bird sanctuary through discussions and series of meetings. A N.G.O. from young India project was also involved. They were provided with other income generating activities like dairying , duck units, leafplate making , tailoring , plastic wire bag weaving etc. to reduce their dependency on the lake. People started co-operating by way of stopping poaching , preventing poachers from outside, preventing smuggling of fuelwood from the village, booking of forest offences etc. This participatory management of protected areas by people, N.G.Os and forest department will go a long way in bio-diversity conservation.

The villagers near the JFM site at Melaghar comprised heterogenus ethnic groups, which became problematic in motivating them for participation in the JFM programme. These difficulties were over come by the local institutions working at the grass root level. The success in Melaghar could be attributed to the integrated efforts of several organisations such as Nehru Yuva Kendra Voluntary Health Association of Tripura, State forest department and Acharya J.C. Bose Brikshamitra Sangha. A total of 1050 persons were involved in the JFM programme and was protected from all disturbances to enable the degraded forest to regenerate naturally. The basic information about the villages involved in JFM programme in Melaghar, has been furnished. Average land holding per house hold (0.4 ha to 1.39 ha) and land use pattern in four study village have been given. An assessment of the institutional arrangement viz. the structure and functions of the Forest Protection and Regenerating Committee (FPRC) associated with the JFM project in Melghar have been described. The protection provided under JFM facilitated regeneration of various species from their stumps (Shorea robusta). A bamboo species, Melocanna bambusoides, dominates the hill slopes, overall improvement in vegetation and tree cover was observed in protected forests rather than unprotecd ones. End use of NTFP's extraction has also been highlighted in the forests covered under JFM programme. JFM's contribution to their economic upliftment has made the villagers realise the importance of forest protection. Forest protection has substantially increased the species diversity, canopy cover and soil fertility in the forest. Melaghar in Tripura is a JFM success story, where community participation and motivation by NGO's has led to regeneration of forests and flow of economic benefits to the people.

This paper highlights, the shisham mortality to be prominent either in isolated tree or on the plants growing on agricultural bunds, roads and canalside. It was observed, that the tree dries from the top subsdquently proceed down words nd ultimately complete tree driesup with in a span of 2-3 years. This paper gives the mechanism of mortality, foliage nutrient concentration soil physical properties, ecological succession etc. Poor water drainage or excessive water prolonged foggy weather, diffused sunlight, effect upon the resistance of the plant, causing drying of shisham growing in normal conditions, store higher concentrations of nutrient in its foliage, whereas in mortality areas, low nutrient concentration has been obsderved. Main cause of mortality was the attack of Fusharium solanii, Gynoderma lucidum in North-Gonda, U.P. Ecological succession was observed in Hasanpur. In Delhi, the shisham trees are drying up because of water stress and excessive solar radiation being reflected from nearly buildings. Shisham mortality on road side and canalside can be co-related with prolonged water logged conditions during rainy season and seepage of canal water. The following five factors are responsible for shisham mortality. (1) temporal change in the physical problems of soil and soil maturation, (2) water stress, (3) Water logging, (4) environmental stress, (5) ecological succession. These factors have been elaborated in the paper for future guidance.

The present study attempts to assess the effect of joint forest management(JFM) on the vegetation status of foests in the Siwalik hills in the context of different years of protection and strategies and the mechanisms adapted to elicit community participation. The results of these studies are indicative of definitive trends with regard to various parameters and different years of protection in spite of certain variations in site conditions of the forest areas sampled. There is a positive correlation between the period of effective protection and such parameters as tree population / ha and basal area. The increase in tree population and basal area, and the decrease in the occurrence of shrubs, with increasing years of protection, reinforces the observation that the tree canopy cover has been gradually improving over the years. Thus protection, whether provided by the concious efforts of resource users or because of such other factors as inaccessibility, is the key factor in the rehabilitation of degraded forests.

This chapter examines patterns of forest degradation prevalent in India. It also examines the implication of shifting management objectives for India's natural forests from timber production towards a more holistic approach of managing the forest ecosystem. A study conducted in eighty two villages in six states, found that CPR forest and pasture lands had declined between 31 and 55 percent since post independence. Further, common lands have also lost species diversity and vegetations density. This analyses the definition, extent and condition of India's degraded lands. It also reviews factors contributing to degradation and their ecological impact, and compares social forestry schemes with natural regeneration options for degraded lands, analysing their potential and merits. However strategies to encourage natural regeneration under community production provides a low cost alternative to plantation restoration. Fortunately, there is more data available from Indian states of alternative, creative community management approaches that are well established with great success. JFM strategies can facilitate natural regeneration and improve management of forest lands. As biomass-dependent communities organise themselves around the protection and management of degraded forest lands, impressive gains in revegetation will be visible in number of locations.

An analysis of the sal forests of Bankura north forest division has been made in this paper for assessing the impact of joint forest management of the forest's local user-groups. The proposals of regenerating vegetation and bio-diversity are also examined. It has been found that better protection by the people has led to a substantial improvement of vegetation, especially of the sal forests. Though the people's interest in and around the forests is an asset in Bankura, more efforts should be directed towards improving the bio-diversity of the area's eco-system.

Successful forest resource management through community involvement not only improve the grwoth of the forest but also its other diamensions. Gudabanikilo village of Nayagarh district, Orissa, has unique community inovolvement through institutional mechanism that has enable the community to regain their forest, which was once completely denuded. Gadabanikilo forest represents tropical moist deciduous (miscellaneous) forest. People’s participation in forest management was initiated in 1940s. A benchmark study during the year 1996 and the current study of 1999 show a remarkable growth of the forest on a sustainable basis. The forest is devided into different forest patches based on different use and management practices which, broadly, can be divided into open forest patch, cleaning operated forest patch and undisturbed forest patch. These forest patches grew @ 0.70t/ha/yr., 9.13t/ha/yr. and 2.13t/ha/yr. respectively. Biomass extraction from the forest was only 0.2% of the total woody biomass production per year for the entire forest. Presently Gadabanikilo forest which once lost its vigour completely, provides significant amount of NTFPs. The return of the benefits with respect to the cost incurred is very high and it reflects one of the most successful forest management systems of India.

Bhanjdas, the basket making community of Haryana, live mostly in the northern part of the state in the hilly belt of Shivaliks. They are dependent on bamboos from the forest areas for making baskets for their sustenance and employment. This study looks into various aspects of resource availability and utilization, volume of basket production and employment generated, and economics of various sizes of baskets made. It also investigates the problems of marketing these baskets, the role of middlemen and the net profits accruing to the Bhanjdas in the ultimate analysis. Keeping in view the socio-economic structure of the Bhanjdas, the likely options for the betterment of the lot of this forest community and sustaining productivity of the forests have been discussed.

Moginand is a village in the Morni-Pinjore forest division in Haryana state. In this village, Gujjars (graziers) are the dominant community and livestock reariang being the mainstay of their economy, the villagers depend a great deal on the surrounding forest-all the more so because individual land-holdings are too small to supply enough fodder. The forest lands near the village have, therefore, been rendered barren.Families that own no land (35% of the families in the village) depend on goats and the rest rear buffaloes and cows. This study attempts to analyse and compare the economics of buffalo and goat rearing. Keeping in view the constraints the villagers face in changing from goat rearing to buffalo rearing, the likely options for sustainable utilization of the existing forest rersources have been discussed.

Rope making has been the traditional vocation of the banjara community inhabiting the Shivalik belt in Haryana. The launching of joint participatory forest management programme (JPFMP) in the state resulted in linking the economic interests of the local communities with the protection of adjoining forest areas. Among others, the banjara community also benefitted by way of getting easy and cheap access to the raw material- bhabbar (Eulaliopsis binata), needed for rope making.

This study looks into the economics of rope making by the banjara community and the economic benefits accruing to them as a result of joint participatory forest management(JPFM). Besides, the study also compares the economics of rope making by machine with that of making rope by hand analyses why the banjaras take a certain option under a given set of conditions.

This study aimed to develop an economic methodology, usable by forest user groups (FUGs), for increasing equity transparency in community forestry in Nepal. Difficulties in developing a truly participatory approach led to a switch from the use of small key informant groups to the use of a household survey. Although more replicable, cost-effective and reliable for economic data, this reduced FUG ownership and empowerment. A main indicator for inequity was labour collection time: the return per labor day rose with the wealth group, reflecting shorter distances to collect forest products and more on-farm tree resources among the wealthier households. It is suggested that a suitable equity indicator to act as a proxy for the more complex economic indicators, and which could be more easily collected in a participatory way, is the time needed (average hours per day) to collect a bundle of subsistance forest products per unit of household demand (a composite of livestock ownership and household size). A gender-based equity indicator would be the number of female hours per day. Livestock ownership and household size should be a sufficient proxy for use levels.

This study examines the effects of clipping juvenile foliage (in July, August, September) on the yield of mature fibre of bhabbar grass (Eulaliopsis binata) and hay production of fodder grasses (in November) in Morni-Pinjore forests of Shivalik hills in Haryana. Four systems of harvesting (based on how many times and when the grass was harvested) were employed, namely S1(control, i.e. harvesting only once, in November); S2(harvesting twice, in July and November); S3(harvesting twice, in August and November); and S4 (harvesting thrice, in July, September and November). The results of the study show that cutting of bhabbar grass for fodder in July,August or September (S2, S3,S4) was highly uneconomical from the fibre yield point of view. Even one clipping done in July (S2) depressed the final fibre yield from the November cutting by about 45% as compared to control(S1). Hay production in November cutting showed a similar trend. The results show that clipping of yound grasses for fodder during the active growth period of July to September is harmful for the overall vigour, basal cover, clump size and biomass production. Therefore, the study recommends that the harvesting of grass for fodder should be avoided during their active period of growth in July- August.

This paper provide comprehensive details and factors responsible for policy non implementation towards JFM programmes. If one consider JFM as a project the following issues emergeas (I) Recognition of villagers rights (2) Livelyhood issue (3) Issues of village institutions (4) Issues in management of forest (5) Technical aspects (6) Policy related issues (7) Issues of midterm harvesting in 5 year old plantation. The above issues have been discussed in great detail with the help of flow charts and diagrammes. JFM has provided opportunity to develop people centric model for, conservation of the forests. The timely solution to the issue raised will strengthen the peoples belief in rational use of the forest. Failure to solve the problem well in time, incite people for wrong cause and thus the whole forest may be erased. The incidences are already erupting at a local level therefore, sincere efforts are needed to resolve the problems emerging in time.

The year 1995 has been seen some exciting developments with different kinds of federations in both the JFM and community forestry programmes in India and Nepal. In India informal federations are continuing to evolve in a number of states; some are self-initiated and others catalyzed by NGOs and even forest officers. In Nepal paralled developments have gone a step further with the recent formation of a national level federation. Two recent experiences highlight the current and potential role of federations. Examples of emerging federations in JFM and community forestry in India have been stated from Northern Gujarat and Orissa state. Example from Nepal is given of the newly formed sammudaik ban upabhokta mahasangh or the federation of community forestry users in Nepal (FECOFUN). The modus operandi of the above federations in JFM and community forestry has been discussed.

This paper attempts at analysing the emerging issues in JFM requiring research support. JFM aiming at production of mainly small timber and non timber forest products (NTFP's) to meet the demands of participating village communities has placed new demands for research. Appropriate research support needs to be provided for JFM to ensure sustainable management of JFM areas to meet increasing demand of local communities for forest products. The paper highlights the objectives of JFM and areas of research support required in Silviculture and Management system, demand shift degrades non-JFM areas, target oriented approach harms JFM, sharing of cost and benefits, place of NTFP's in JFM, development of low cost models for JFM, village level organisation, reorganisation of forest service to meet JFM demand, biodiversity conservation in JFM areas, approach for participatory research for JFM, monitoring and evaluation of JFM, participatory management approach for non JFM social forestry areas, and development of participatory approach for special conservation areas.Implementation of Joint Forest Management (JFM) in the country has highlighted several issues which need to be addressed to ensure its success. The paper discusses important issues emerging out of JFM programme implentation which include : (i) appropriate mechanism of participation between the parties involved, (ii) institutionalisation of JFM programme, (iii) lack of clarity about JFM objectives, (iv) adequacy of benefits to village communities, (v) sustainability of JFM, and (vi) integration of JFM and rural development.

In this short communication, the author suggests to take benefit of emerging markets from forest environmental services which have emerged round the globe. Service charges for various forestry activities like biodiversity conservation, waterflow from watersheds, photo graphic permits for landscape, beauty, and certified emission reduction for carbon sequestration, can be levied for the benefit of JFM groups. This would help to generate additional resources in addition to donors, support. Author desires to focus policy research on the above mentioned issues.Joint forest management focuses on empowerment of forest dwelling communities both socially and economically. The present study attempts to analyse the government policies, programmes and legal provisions regarding JFM with emphasis on empowerment in the Madhya Pradesh context. One of the major thrusts of the empowerment is capacity development. The efforts made by the forest department in capacity development are not yet able to yield the desired results in the field. However, there has been a basic shift towards empowerment and a large number of people, at least feel, that they are politically, socially and personally empowered after being involved in JFM. The translation of the empowerment into actual practice is going to be a major challenge for the sustainability of the JFM in the future.

Pre JFM scenario: The concept of public participation in forest management is not new to the state of UP, particularly its hills. During the pre British period (before 1850) the forests were identified with the villages and the people have unlimited access to them. The British rule during the period of late nineteenth and early twentieth century, enforced restrictions on the rights of people in the shape of declaration of forest land into reserve and protected forests. The forest panchayats have the status of “village forests”. The involvement of NGOs in facilitating joint forest management programme is also unique to the state. The special features of micro-planning in U.P. include; facilitation by spear head teams in the micro-planning exercise and its division into 2-3 parts. The key elements of the microplan are :- a) Bottom up planning, b) A complete master plan for all round development of the village, c) Decentralisation, d) Strong NTFP base, e) Flexibility as changes are permitted as the community gains experience, f) Monitoring at local level, g) Poverty alleviation and last but most important is the h) Sustainability. The most important mechanism to ensure transparency is wall writing where the details of microplans and annual implementation plan (works to be done, money released and persons responsible) are displayed on the walls of public buildings. Steps taken to provide sustainability to JFM include (i) reorientation (change in mind set) of foresters from regulatory to participatory functions, (ii) capacity building of forests for participatory planning process and more so in communication skills (iii) capacity building of the community viz. Village joint forest management committee or the forest panchayats through repeated training, workshops and study tours (iv) safeguarding the interests of the deprived section of the society. (v) involvement of women (vi) equitable sharing of usufructs (vii) creation of village development fund etc.

The major exposure to the issues of forestry and deeper understanding of the dependence of rural and tribal communities on forests and common lands was through a significant people’s movement for common lands in Karnataka during the period of 1984 to 1992. The tremendous energy unleashed by this movement was utilized for policy and programme changes, on one hand and effective grass root organisations for management of natural resources through joint forest management (village forest) committees, tank management committees and recently for the empowerment of gram sabhas. All this had led to the need for creating greater awareness for effective community control over natural resources like jai, jungle, jameen and khaneej. The SPS has also been able to play an important role at the national level, through national committee for protection of natural resources (NCPNR). In the above process, recognition of the work of SPS and NCPNR have received from international, national and local level, has further contributed to the continued effectiveness of our efforts from grass root to policy level.

The concept of entiry point activities (EPA) for a participatory forest management programme means to conduct pillot activities inducing participation of an organised community within the target group. These activities may be secondary to the programme, but help in empowerment of the community in managing the programme of the main issue with a higher degree of participation.But the process of proper identification of EPAs in a site for a programme needs specific field exercises to be conducted with the help of participatory appraisal methods. It may not be preset provision under a programme. The process of identification helps to win over the community spending a limited budget within limited time.Since common pool resources (CPR) forms a primary source of livelihood support for the poor, efforts to rehabilitate these could form a viable strategy for livelihood improvement. This paper is an attempt to find out the extent to which area enclosure (AE) programme in Ethiopic and JFM in Gujarat have been able to incorporate and address various issues concerning the livelihood security of the local people. If AE and JFM are to contribute significantly for livelihood security, they need to address issues like ensuring equity in participation, increasing biomass productivity and reducing uncertainty over sharing long-term benefits.

In this chapter the author stresses the need for harnessing the local indigenous knowledge for sustaining the JFM programme in the country. JFM will need tools drawn from the natural and social sciences including ecology, economics, sociology, anthropology, geography, philosophy, religion, political science mathematics and management. Boundaries between formal and local system of knowledge, may not be real. This disciplinary mosaic will have profound impact on policy and practices of community based forest management. He suggests that local knowledge practices, innovations and skills can contribute to ecological economic and social well being through a community based management regimes of natural resources in India. This provides hope that democratic governance of forests and other natural resources shall get further impetus in India. The author refers to few examples, based on the successful implementation of JFM strategies, through application of local knowledge by the Rajasthan Forest Department. Restoration of community conserved areas such as sacred groves of the Aravalli hills and innovative replication to develop ethno silvicultural refugia for raising saplings of local plant species of multiple use in Aravalli hills, are few examples to cite. Integration of ethno-forestry and JFM is a case of application of indigenous knowledge and formal forestry for bamboos regeneration in the Mewar region of Rajasthan. Thus it is also necessary to abandon the belief that financial resources and scientific knowledge can solve all our conservation problems. Local knowledge systems and environmental ethics, must be considered as useful resources for the sustainability of joint forest management in India.

The objective of the paper is to review the experience of the joint forest management programme in Haryana. The historical context in which the collaborative forest management systems have emerged is reviewed. Some of the operational problems encountered in the programme implementation are also discussed. Based on information from field studies and discussion of the working group that monitors the programme as well as the participating communities, recommendations concerning new procedures to improve community forest department collaboration in rsource management activities are also made. Hopefully, this will help future planning and improve the operation of joint forest management strategies. Based on recent experiences documented and discussed through the state level working group, a joint management agreement has been drafted. The purpose of the agreement is to provide a legally binding delircation of the rights and responsibilities of the Haryana forest department and participating communities involved in the joint management programme.

An outstanding feature of Joint Forest Management in JandK is the evolution of a genuine understanding of the need to relate forestry programmes with the people, for their successful implementation. This study in selected three villages, seeks to understand the following aspects of community managed forests. (1) their natural resources, (2) sources of biomass and (3) the prevailing institutional arrangements for managing forests. Features of study location and villages viz. Dabbar, Johnu, and Rithii are given. Two types of forest management are noticed (1) where the local communities on their own take up the responsibility of managing the resources (2) where the social forestry department initiates protection. Vegetation assessment of community managed forests was carried out in all the three villages. Area of protection, protection period and species number in study villages have been highlighted. Species diversity, size, class distribution of trees are also given. In all villages forest systems, regeneration by seedlings is more than through coppice indicating promotion of natural regeneration in ecosystems. Trees of large DBH are not found in the area due to earlier degradation of protected forests. There is excellent regeneration of Pinus spp. In the area in various DBH classes. Data on estimates of standing biomass, mean annual increment, potential harvest limits and biomass requirement for the study villages have been projected. Highlights on protection and regeneration, self initiated Vs F.D. supported community forests are given. Impact of community protection of forests on other sources of biomass and analysis of NTFP flow is given. Discussions of local communities, village institutions, Forest Department, NGOs, etc. are presented. Role of NGO's has been analysed. However, community protection of the resources and access control measures have helped in the regeneration of degraded forests.

JFM calls for a number of innovative approaches to planning and silviculture. In most cases the "traditional" silvicultural regeneration models have already been modified. Rotations for major timber species like sal and teak are shortened, while conversion to uniform through clear cutting, is no longer allowed in natural forest stands. That this is an area of intense interest is borne out by the fact that the sal coppic debate is continued informally at almost every gathering of foresters discussing JFM. Field foresters should be encouraged to innovate and experiment in the field. Other examples of field level experimentation in alternative silvicultural management systems need to be found and documented. Community groups all over the country are new protecting large tracts of forest lands. They need to be increasingly involved as active partners in forest management, which includes the discussion and application of new silvicultural options. If new options emerge for Indian forestry they will be in villages where the forest depaprtment and the community are not only protcting the forests collectively but also really involved in joint forest management. This paper suggests important issues which new planning and silviculture must address. It is a humble attempt to open up the discussion about silvicultural innovations which are participatory and flexible site specific and directed towards the joint objectives of meeting the needs of local communities while protecting the environmental services that forests provide. Examples of the exciting work that foresters and communities are involved in have focused more on efforts of foresters in different JFM experiments. Much less is known about many of the indigenous management practices and systems communities use in different parts of the country. The forestry of the future should ideally blend both indigenous and scientifically derived silvicultural practices just as JFM is forging a partnership between local communities and forest department manangers.

Baragadde, Goyar and Barge are 3 tiny villages in the middle of thick forets in the Gopshitta range of karwar. The residents are Kunabis a homogeneous forest dwelling community who are basically agriculturists.

During the slack season the Kunabis make cane baskets. Some are for their own use and some are sold to supplement their income. The Kunabis used to collect canes from the surrounding forets where they were freely and abundantly available. As the demand rose for cane baskets, the middlemen stepped in. They promoted the innocent Kunabis to manufacture more and more baskets by giving them money in advance and buying the baskets from them at prefixed rock-bottom prices. The Karnataka forest department also over- extracted canes from these areas.

The Kunabis were initially happy as they were earning money from selling baskets and getting good wages from the KFD. However, they soon realised that canes were becoming scarce commodity and their surrounding forests were turning dry causing water problems in one of the villages. The Kunabis wanted a sustained supply of canes, a fair price for their baskets and at the same time they wanted to conserve the canes in the forests.

The KRWCDS (an NGO) brought the massage of JFM to these villages and convinced the villagers that these issues can be solved through village forest committees. Soon KFD intervened and formed a VFC in these villages. The supply of cane and marketing of baskets were arranged through the VFC. The VFC also had an agreed joint management plan to conserve cane and raise enrichment plantations. Thus a user group VFC was constituted in Zone III (high forests).

In this paper the authors explore the possibilities of reforesting some of the degraded lands for sequestering carbon under the clean development mechanism. Shifting cultivation and encroachment of land resulted in loss of forest cover to an extent of 316 sq. km. between 1995-1997 and 278 sq. km. between 1997-1999. A total of about 0.6 m/ha of shifting cultivation lands and 0.1 m/ha of encroached lands are available for reforestation in the north-eastern India under the clean development mechanism. These could generate $43.5 million (Rs.2170 million) worth of carbon credits per year in addition to the value of forest products. This additional income shared appropriately with the stake-holders through Joint Forest Management can make reforestation of lands under shifting cultivation and encroachment an attractive proposition in the north-eastern part of India.

Joint forest management (JFM) practices have been adopted on a large scale during the last ten years in coppice sal dominated forests of lateritic region of South West Bengal in the districts of Midnapore, Bankura, Purulia, Bardwan and Birbhum. It is perhaps the most efficient extension programme of forest management whose sociological impact had a wide eco-literacy compaign. During the last ten years, more and more forest areas are being covered under the management of forest protection committees (FPCs). In the prpesent study, efforts have been made to assess the ecological impact on JFM concerning specieis richness and availability of non timber forest produce (NTFPs). The JFM movement has also opened up new areas of extension activities of forestry research wherein people's participation is assured.

As the implies joint forest management means management of forests with the active participation of local communities. Here the economic interests of villagers living near or within the forest area are linked to sustainable management of forests. All the work of afforestation, conservation and management will be done according to a management plan jointly worked by the local official of the forest department, the beneficiary(village)community and representatives of a local voluntary organisation. In ensuring people's active participation, particularly of women's involvement. Under the joint forest management programme, people's need and interests are directly linked with sustainable management and protection of forests. This linkage is achieved by allowing people to meet their basic and modest needs as a reward for their protection of the forests. A part from such incentives in kind, (fuel, fodder, poles,etc.) several other factors may also be identified as contributers to people's participation. These factors can be grouped under seven mainheads: economic, demographic, social, legal, situational, institutional and technological. These are discussed briefly in the article. Equal opportunity would be provided to both men and women to participate in afforestation, regneration, etc. But the level of involvement of women would depend on the motivating skill and dedication of field-level workers. Earlier women's involvement in development activities was mainly in the form of wage labour, but this would not constitute active participation as envisaged in the new concept. Hence, involvement of women has to be shifted from mere wage- labour orientation, (which cannot be discontinued because of the economic returns they get from it) to be more active participation in the form of decision making.

This article traces the growth of JFM in Bihar state and describes forest management plans iniciated in this state to boost up participation forestry. The emergence of JFM in Bihar state during the past years has been discussed and emerging issues have been highlighted. The need of the hour is to formulate and implement a manangement plan covering all aspects of development that is self- sufficient and complete in itself. Prioritization is a must while seeking to realize a goal. If the society wants to protect and conserve the forests, the manangement plan must speak so.Contrary to the highly acclaimed 'success' of the 'Harda model' of joint forest mangement(JFM), depite the much hyped introduction of JFM, particularly the Harda model, these has been no change either in the behaviour or attitudes or exploiative power relation between forest staff and local adivasis. The villagers vehemently asserted that they are not enjoying any benefits of improved access to forest products under JFM. In fact they said that now they were worse off than before as because now FD has some co-opted villagers in each village depriving them and villagers had been turned against each other to deny than even their traditional rights of forest assess. In Banspani, they are not permitted to collect even fallen wood. JFM, has reduced the villagers access to forest products.

This article reflects on the past, present and future scenario of forest management in India. The status of major forests, social forestry, joint forest management, forestry research, forest education, forest based industries have also been discussed.Achievements during last 50 years of forestry in Tripura have been documented, highlighting notable developments in forest resources base, afforestation, infrastructure control of shifting cultivation, conservation efforts, enabling mechanisms, capacity building and institutional strengthening. A critical appreciation reveals that gains accrued but disappointments were also many. It evaluates the efficacies of implementation of national forest policies, management planning process, conservation, social forstry, commerical function, protection, regulation and enforcement works pointing out the issues where forestry organisation could not achieve certain cherished goals and why; several institutional shortcomings, external constraints and organisational weakness are identified. Within the general framework of managerial cybernetics, strategic planning of forestry in the state is devised on the basis of a SWOT analysis spelling out the ways and means of capitalising the latent strengths and neutralising the threats in the external environment, and coping up micro environmental complexity. The imperatives of a mission- driven forest management in the state facing the emerging challenges, have been suggested.

The paper discribes the possibilities of funding JFM projects by commercial banks. The authors opine that to develop India’s vast stretch of degraded forest lands of JFM approach is here to stay. Since neither the centre nor the states have enough financial resources for their rejuvenation, there is a strong possibility of the involvement of commerical banks to finance such projects in near future. Although all JFM projects may not be bankable, case studies suggest that JFM projects where teak, sal and bamboo are predominant species, there is a strong likelihood of such projects being bankable. It is also presumed that for sustenance of JFM on long term basis continuity of credit will pay a major role in future management and protection of our forests.The authors have been working with an object to create a dynamic model of participatory management in the field of biodiversity enrichment through introduction of tuber yielding crops in the natural forest under the project participatory forest management(PFM) sponsored by the Ford Foundation, New Delhi. The study area has been selected in the regenerating forest of Karasole FPC under Nayagram range situated in the West Midnapore forest division of West Bengal. Initially the selected forest area was on the verge of ecological break down due to rapidly depleting natural sources. Now after the formation of FPC, people started protecting the forest and the entire area of the Karasole forest has been rejuvenated.

The Joint Forest Management (JFM) faces the challenge of meeting the diverse needs of the local community with focus on non timber forest products (NTFP). Millions of people living in and around forests in India, rely on NTFP for their sustenance. One of the primary objectives of JFM is to help meet the subsistence and livelihood needs of communities living in and around forests. NTFP are often the only resource accessible to the most disadvantaged groups, particularly women and children. People collect forest products such as fuelwood, tubers, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds for self consumption or they sell/barter them for essential items such as grains, salt, and edible oil. Important NTFP include, bamboo, resin, lac, katha, canes, tendu leaves, sal seeds, mahua flowers, grasses, medicinal herbs and tubers, honey, fruits, etc. The relative importance and availability of each NTFP varied from one region to another. The total value of these products in the country is estimated to exceed one billion dollars annually. The players in NTFP markets include gatherers local collection agents, and a number of wholesalers, retailers at local regional, and national levels. Private trade is by and large extractive in nature with scant regard for regeneration or sustainability of harvesting. National Forest Policy of 1988 has recognised the importance of NTFP management. One of the primary objective is meeting the requirements of fuelwood, fodder, minor forest products and small timber of the rural and tribal populations. There is also emphasis on improving the production and marketing of these products for the benefit of tribal communities and others. Under JFM, the question of biodiversity conservation, intellectual property rights and over exploitation of NTFP were discussed. The JFM programme in India is over half a decade old and the first challenge of protecting and regenerating degraded patches has been achieved. Now the challenges lies in sustainably managing these forests for meeting the diverse needs of the local community for multiple forest products focussing on NTFP.

The management of natural resources particularly the forest resources had been exclusively in the hands of forest personal who have been accustomed to a specific style of functioning based on scientific and regulatory system of management. The stress on revenue earning from forest and incorporation of forest contractors had led to exploitation of forest resources beyond their replenishable limits regardless of community perception and need about forest conservation. Obviously, the local communities, which have saved these forests for centuries before the era of scientific management,felt ignored and alienated from forest conservation activities.It is not a matter of exaggeration that the management of natural resources through participation of local people is an approach which requires attitudinal change in our entire working system. To improve the rural economy, it is necessary for the leadership to be dynamic.

Community based forest management in India has emerged mainly in three forms- indigenous community forest management(ICFM), crafted community forest management (CCFM), and joint forest management (JFM). These three types vary in composition, institutional rules, functioning of managing committee, modes of resolving the conflicts, and leadership pattern. Present study analyses weather these varied factors influence the social identity, organisational citizenship and people's participation. Six ICFM units, four CCFM units and Seven JFM units from three eastern states of India(Jharkhend, Orissa and West Bengal) were studied. Social identity, organization citizenship in terms of group based pride and respect, and participation was significantly higher in ICFM than the CCFM and JFM.Hmogeneous community, units under participatory leadership had promoted more social identity, organisational citizenship and peopl's participation particularly in ICFM. Members of ICFM had high satisfaction with its institutional rules, managing committee's functioning, and leadership pattern than CCFM and JFM. These factors of institutional governance directly enhanced social identity, feelings of organisational citizenship and people's participation.

This article throws light about 100 million forest dwellers in the country living in and around forest lands and another 275 million for whom forests have continued to be an important source of their livelihoods and means of survival through the collection and the sale of NTFPs. However in actual practice the poor people face problems in gathering these NTFPs from forests due to three reason (i) diversion of NTFPs and forests to industries, (ii) priority to man made forests, in place of mixed species, (iii) exploitation by government agencies and contractors in marketing of NTFPs. These above topics have been discussed in detail. Possible solutions are given for the betterment of gatherers of forest produce, if collection from forests and public lands are enhanced. These would require a change in the silvicultural practices of managing forests; a change in species on degraded lands; sharing of management and protection with forest dwellers and publicity about their rights in forest and community lands will efficient marketing management. New forest policy of 1998 are not being implemented in true spirit, as usefruct sharing schemes are being promoted by the Government of India. The two examples from U.P. and M.P. show how the Forest Conservation Act has affected lives of the people. After 1993, the concept of JFM has considerably weakened and this is merly being used as rhetoric to create a favourable public image and to attract foreign funds. New policy concept can bring about change in mindset, only when, productivity, yield and economic values are redifined in terms of multi purpose utilisation and satisfying basic human needs. This requires a new outlook and a new strategy, in which poors interests, of secure rights of gathering would be paramount. Livelihood needs of the poors are preconditions for sustainability of natural resources.

The author describes management measures promoted by the government of Walloonia, in Belgium, which are intended to help increase the resistance of forests to environmental changes while boosting the contribution of forests to climate change mitigation. This article describes such measures for increasing the ability of forests to adapt to climate change and shows how they converge with the ecological, economic and social objectives of multi functional forest management. The population density of Walloonia is 199 persons per square kilometre, with 0.10 ha of forest land per person. In the case of 48% of forests that are publicly owned, their primary functions are described in their management plans. General measures are adopted in production zones with a view to ensuring that ecological functions of the forest remain undisturbed. Stress is given to only quality production and not on mass production. Diversification of species is a means of improving the adaptive capacity of forest ecosystems; mixtures of the dominating tree species are favoured, and understory species are maintained. An example of dynamic silviculture Douglas fir with wide spacing, early first thinning is high-lighted. The qualitative and quantitative benefits of water management, the moderation of peak flows helps prevent flooding and protect infrastructure. Mixed multistorey forest system is of great advantage, weather with in stands or at the landscape level. Carbon storage in Wallonia's forests in 2003 is estimated to be about 52 million tonnes of carbon (biomass) while the uptake of carbon by net photosynthesis is about 2.38 million tonnes. The net annual increase in biomass after harvest is almost 500000 tonnes. The greater contribution of forest management to the reduction of carbon dioxide emissions is likely to be indirect, through an increased share of products suitable for long term use which might replace more energy-expensive materials. These measures help to boost the effect of the forest sector on climate change by improving carbon balance, both by preventing forest disasters and by favouring an increase in the proportion of wood products suitable for long term use.

This paper examines the impact of community forestry on forest resources, based on a study of 11 forest user groups (FUGs) in Nepal over three years. The findings confirm that the impact on forest resources has been very positive. Prior to the formation of FUGs, forest resources at almost 75% of study sites were deteriorating, and now all are improving to a greater or lesser extent. However, there is a great complexity of situations on the ground and various weakness in the process which need to be addressed, especially forest boundary conflicts, inequity within FUGs due to low participation of poorer households in decision-making, and the prevalence of passive' forest management.Chronological survey of processes and events in the forest and land management in Uttarkashi district, Uttaranchal has been emphasized. The present status of forest in Uttarkashi is the result of past exploitation and management practices. The conflicts between forest managers and villagers shaped the ecology of mountains. Since past few decades need of people's participation and their traditional knowledge of managing forests has been felt to slow down the process of degradation in the Himalaya.

This paper presents the features of study villages, status of forests in these three villages and income generated from various forest products. It also discusses their forest management institutions, their roles and responsibilities. The case study of three villages has shown that in Kapasgaria and Bhagwti Chowk, the FPC's have succeeded in euforcing the extraction regulations and has protected the forests. While in Langamara, the FPC has failed in its objective due to inter and intra village conflicts. The Forest. Department may have to play a more active role in case of conflicts at village level. Vegetation management strategy promotes biodiversity in both villages I.e. Kapasgaria and Bhagwati Chowk. The growth of tree species has been affected. In Kapasgaria, ban on the collection of seven timber yielding trees during the initial years of protection, resulted in homogenous growth of Shorea robusta and other species. In Bhagwti Chowk monocultural sal forest are found, because of ban on sal extraction only. Protection heads to significant regeneration of woody biomass has the potential to provide more biomass and products forseveral other end uses unlike other monoculture plantations. Besides, the investment in protected forest per ha. Is less than one tenth required for raising social forestry plantations. Three options have been described for reducing firewood requirements; to create awareness about economic benefits that can generate from NTFP's collection and options for local communities and for the Forest Department.

In 1994-95 SARTHI (Social Action for Rural and Tribal In-Habitants of India) initiated a study on the management systems followed by the FPCs, a self initiated forest protection groups called "Jungle Bachao" in two villages-Balaji-NA-Muvada and Asundariya, with twin objectives. (1) to document traditional management practices or systems in natural or regenerating forests (2) to understand the impact of these management systems on the ecology and the economy of people dependent on forests. SIFPGs are oldest protection groups in two study villages. The protective measures taken by the communities led to regeneration of existing root stocks. This coincides with the primary goal of the JFM programme in India. In both the villages, about 60% of regeneration is from seedlings and the remaining 40% from coppice, indicating that there is enough opportunity for seeds to germinate and grow. The basal area and woody biomass productivity have improved greatly with years of protection. Balaji-Na-Muvada that has a longer history of protection has higher productivity and a larger percentage of trees with greater than 10 cm D.B.H. Other FPCs can profit from the following lessons from these two case studies. (1) Adaptive vegetation management, (2) Periodic vegetation monitoring, (3) High biodiversity and biomass growth rate, (4) Three suggestions are made, for further strengthening the forest management in the study villages. This include conflict between management committees and beneficiaries. It needs to be understood that decision making should involve all stake holders, particularly women. Aspirations of women group should be taken care of. Lack of participation of forest department. Forest Department should recognise and reward the committees that have evolved effective management systems. Decision on extraction of firewood be reviewed, so that they can extract more firewood to meet their demand.

The 20 FPCs of Gujarat, West Bengal and Orissa studied in this paper did splendid work in forest protection. The massive deforestation and smuggling of forest produce could be stopped as a result of people's own initiatve.Nevertheless, the FPC as a village level organisation has not received adequate attention yet. The FPC's role is not confined to just protection of forests; it has the potential to play a much bigger role. As an instrument of community participation in forest management, the FPC should be recorganised as a village level organisation and strengthened as one. It should not be burdened with too many rules and regulations. The study shows that the FPCs are capable of taking initiative that benefits their lot without harming the forest resource. If further throws upsome key questions regarding the FPCs and joint forest management.

The West Bengal forest department has developed a laudatory approach for involving communities in the protection and development of forest lands. A number of issues, however, still need to be addressed to further improve policies and procedures. Since joint forest management is a new strategy, it is inevitable that initial policies and programme will require continuous monitoring and modification. This process should be viewed as ongoing, where learning and frank discussion of field experiences are incouraged. If the WBFD can commit itself to respond positively to emerging opportunities, the programme will continue to effectively addressed community needs and provide leadership to other state forest departments experimenting with similar schemes.This paper examines recent experiences with joint forest management(JFM), a cooperative efforts between forest dependent communities and state forest department(SFD) to regenerate degraded forests. One of the most successful programmes to date is in West Bengal, where over 1,800 rural community based forest protection committees protect more than 240,000 ha of natural sal (Shorea robusta) forests, sharing forest products with the forest department. Prior to the initiation of the programme, much of the programme area suffered from severe forest degradation and conflicts between the forest community and the forest department.

Efforts by the forest department to gain the assistance of local people in forest management through forest protection committee formation began as early as 1970-72 when the DFO of Purulia explored and encouraged such efforts. Over the next 18 years, the programme evolved gradullay,with forest department officers and communities making informal mamangement agreements. It was not until 1989 that a formal programme policy was finally approved, and later revised in 1990. The purpose of this paper is to examin how far the present government orders canprovide legal justice to the people while allowing for a pragmetic approach for natural resource management, empower the people to manage the forests for their own benefit under existing forest law and improve the situation by changing or amending the government orders of the West Bengal forest department keeping in mind that any future legal reform concerning the forest must thus aim, firist of all, at doing justice to the people and only subsiquently at doing justice to the nation and future generation.

This article highlights various forestry issues related to forest protection in Panchmahal district of Gujarat state and examins the role of JFM in forest protection. It advocates the need of efforts to make the villages self sufecient in their day to day needs and make them less dependent on forests through the use of biogas, solar energy etc. Under JFM people are authorise to collect NTFPs only. However, these villagers need small timber for agricultural implements, house repair etc.which they obtained from the forest. These needs should be considered and their supply should form a part of the planning for the management of the forests. Envolvement of people in JFM needs to be increased. Simply protecting the forests is not enough. They should also be involved in the development, planning and implimentation of various forestry works. This would inculcate a sense of ownership and result in a more responsible effort on their part.

As part of its joint forest management programme the West Bengal government has offered a 25 per cent share of returns from the rotational harvesting of timber as well as from intermediate biomass yields as an incentive for protecting its reserved forests and preventing illegal extraction. Why then does such illegal extraction take place? Using the postulate that expectations of regular and steady returns from non-timber forest produce (NTFP) constitute the backbone of preservation-oriented extraction by village communities, this study attempts to identify and quantify the range of benefits other than the returns from the illegal felling and sale of timber obtained by these communities due to the existence of the forest, so that policy can be formulated on this basis.

Participatory management of forest resources through village forest committee(VFC)in Barwani forest division has been described in this paper. Various species are coming up nicely and grass production has also been increased. The villagers are hopeful that they would be getting sufficient benefits from the developed forest areas.

Perhaps the single greatest obstacle to conservation is lack of secure tenure to land and other resources. Participatory management and conservation require creation of clear and unequivocal property rights that create a vested interest in managing resources sustainably.

The adoption of a joint forest management (JFM) policy by the Bihar State government is based on the popular rhetoric of participation in developmental programmes. It is necessary to (a) examine the existing forest tenures in various ethno-geographic regions, and (b) to evaluate the sustainability of JFM tenure with a view to recommend institutional changes for abridging observed gaps between theories and practices of JFM in Bihar. The paper is based on analyses of a (a) forest policies of the Government of India and relevant legislations and procedures of the state government to define the use and ownership of natural resources, and (b) forest management and use practices adopted by the state forest department and local forest-edge communities. Further, it deals with the theoretical framework of forest tenures and suggests additional changes that are required for a permanent JFM tenure, which are (I) comprehensive and urgent actions are needed to reconcile conflicts between de-facto and de-jure JFM tenures by making suitable changes in forest policies, regulations and administrative practices, (ii) urgent administrative actions, and (iii) social research. JFM tenures will endure only if the VFPMCs become long-term self-governing institutions. It is important to develop a theory of self-organised collective action in order to predict when individuals will be able to solve a common problem through self organisation and when outside policy intervention is needed.

Extension of a forestry research and technology packages to local people, teachers, NGO and prospective tree growers has acquired significance in view of fast depleting forest resource and acute shortage of fuel, fodder and timber. Several questions asked on afforestation by different target groups are, species to be grown , their yield, net returns market for the produce and availability of good planting stock.Reliable data base on growth rate, yield and income need to be generated. Tree species having short gestation period, fast growing and resistant to drought, pest and diceases are to be recommended for planting. Peoples participation has to be ensured. Some legal restictions put on cutting of trees planted by farmers are to be removed. Suitable solution to above problems, coordination among different agencies and an intregrated approach using modern audiovisual techniques, intensive training to field workers, selection of motivated local extension workers are some of the ways to make extension education more effective and acceptable.

Forest have been recognised as an important community resource because of their role in economic development and environmental conservation. To cope with the changing objectives of forstry management in the country, managerial functions and approach need to be reoriented. The major areas which need immediate attention are the planning process including partnership development, restructuring of forestry, organisation, generation of a strong database and an efficient reporting system to fascilitate decision making process, periodic monitoring and evaluation and market development. Involvement of non-government organisations, synergistic manner of participation of private sector in widening forest resource base will supplement the government efforts in management and funding. Reforms are needed in identified areas for proper managerial functions.Because of the complexity of forests and our incomplete knowledge of them, it is essential to conserve and manage them sustainably. While managing resources sustainabley, a policy that focuses on the conservation and protection of resources must take due account of those who depend on the resources for their livelihood. For increasing productivity, conservation of biodiversity, meeting forest products needs of the people and to reverse the current trends of forest depletion, degradation of ecosystems and loss of genetic resources, research support is urgently needed. By increasing research capacity it is possible to develop improved technologies and management practices for resulting in conservation and sustainable development of forests.The Mizoram is primilary a tribal state. Agriculture is the mainstay of the people. Traditional ‘jhum’ is practiced. The forests of the state broadly classified into (1) tropical wet evergreen(2) tropical semi-evergreen and (3) montane sub-tropical pine forests. Past and present forest management system, afforestation programme, farm forestry, wildlife management, biodiversity conservation, forest research and training, joint forest management have been discussed.

The land use change taking place in the foothills of the Western Ghats of Megamalai reserve land in Theni district of Tamil Nadu, has to be seen to be believed. This watershed was treated under the Tamil Nadu afforestation programme in 1997-1998. Due to the soil and moisture conservation structures undertaken in the watershed, the ground potential has improved. Abandoned borewells are being used now and grape cultivation in about 100 acres which was fallow till recently is in progress. This has been documented and presented.

This attempts to describe the processes and obstacles involved in linking people with forests, defining community group membership in consideration of dependency needs, rights and traditions. The chapter discusses the capabilities that community institutions must develop to act as effective managers, including controlling forest access and use, settling disputes, distributing produce equitably and interacting positively with the state. Ultimately, forest departments, which are interested in helping local institutions build institutional management capacity must approach the task in a supportive, rather than directive, top down manner. Thousands of self initiated local organisations in Bihar, Orissa, Karnataka, West Bengal and other states have already demonstrated their ability to practice sustainable forest management based on the principles of equity and grassroot democracy. The communities objectives are to recover forest stability and ensure sustainability in order to maintain the steady flow of wood and non wood forest products, upon which they rely. Experience indicates that certain characteristics are closely associated with the effectiveness and stability of community institutions in managing forest resources. These include (1) viable social unit of organisation,(2) organisational norms and procedures, (3) accountability, (4) conflict resolution and autonomous status.

Godabanikilo's self initiated village management institutions have survived for decades. It is very dynamic and rational. The study conducted in 1995-96 in this village, has the objectives to document the evolution of a self initiated forest protection group (SIFPG) started in 1940; and to understand the structure, functioning and impact of the SIFPG's forest management system. Gadabanikil is a well knit village with strong social bonds inspite of the hecterogenous ethnic composition. The village committee, constituted in 1940, looks into several aspects of village life, including forest protection, and manages most of the activities in the village. The management system has evolved over a period of time to suit the changing needs of people as and when required and has sustained over 60 years. The village committee has adopted site specific, and even species specifies management practices. Economically value able tree species are banned for extraction. The SIFPG lays great emphasis on firewood and NTFP production and sharing. Equal distribution methods have been evolved for sharing NTFP's, firewood and small timber. The SIFPG also shows due concern to adjoining villages. SIFPG has framed regulations for grazing, firewood extraction and Mohul seed and flower collection. There is open access to all other products, the economically valuable species are not allowed to be extracted for timber or for use in funerals. The villagers are concerned about the beneficial impact of forests on the local agroecology and this motivates them to protect the forests. Biodiversity impact is extremely good. The Mohul and Padar patches are in a degraded state with few trees and the existing ones are not allowed to grow beyond 10 m height and > 15 cm DBH. The study reveals that each vegetation site or even species require different location specific management practices. Rich traditional knowledge about forests and their use exists among the village communities in India. Gadabanibilo is an example of how a community organised itself to manage forest resources in their village on a sustainable basis.

This article highlights the gender roles in JFM. Joint forest management is an ideal developmental programme.As it is a management of forest resources so there should be enough opportunity of maximum use of human resources. As one can not represent the interest of others so unless both are involved the need of both will not be fulfilled. For sustainability of the programme if there is inequity in distribution of power authority and resources between men and women then gender will become an issue, which may hamper the development of the community.It will help in changing the position of the women by making them joint members in the FPCs and will also change their condition because it is expected that after strengthening the institution ecology will improve which in turn will improve their economy. JFM programme thus addresses to meet both the practical needs and strategic interests of women and men and finally the quality of life of the village people will improve and the programme will sustain.

The impact of collaborative management of forest resources can be assessed in some forest areas where community participation has been attained. However, the process can be accelerated with greater pace if the key stakeholders, women in the community, can be mobilised. A considerable need is felt to train not only the forest department staff, but also the major players in the process, to bring about changes in attitude and behaviour in planning and implementing JFM activities. This will enable a better appreciation of roles and responsibilities of women vis-à-vis forest management to gear up the results. The stakeholders, foresters, non governmental organisations and local istitutions need to develop an understanding of gender, with respect to natural resource management. More of decentralised training will be required to each category by trainers within forest department and local NGOs. A training module for inviting gender participation is outlined for the three institutions.

The author describes a historical background of beginning of Forest Department for meeting the requirement of railway companies in India. This also resulted in curtailing local people's right to fulfill their basic needs of fuel, fodder and small timbers from forests. He attributes implementation of JFM as a path-breaking initiative and welcomes the setting up of the JFM network by ministry of Environment and Forests. He discusses the role of village forest protection committees, which were, to different degrees, heavily dependent on the forest official dom for their functioning in almost all the states. On the other hand about 1,000 self initiated community protection arrangement of local forests, were not accepted as VFC's under the JFM programme. This needed drastic change in restructuring forest department officials at all levels. A lot of training input is needed to bring about change in attitude of official to work with different groups associated with JFM programme. Various issues confronting implementation of JFM, such as, area of research backup, status of JFM in tribal areas, relationship between VFC's and the local Panchayat, were highlighted. Exchange of experiences and consultations between regions would be of great value with interaction of NGO's. JFM is just not one more government scheme. It is basic to improving the quality of the forest wealth of the country and its sustainable management to serve not only ecological functions, but also livelihood needs of millions of people living in around 200,000 settlements in and around forests.

Joint forest management programme in the lower shivaliks by the Haryana forest department(HFD) has given good results in regenerating degraded forests and grasslands. Fodder and fibre grasses act as catalysts between the village community and HFD for entering into an agreement for jointly protecting and managing these forests. The study shows that effective protection and management of degraded areas improves their vegetative cover due to better regeneration. While the yield of grasses increased to 2.8 t/ha in the third year of protection, there was a significant decrease in the yield from the sixth year of protection onwards.In order to maintain grass production on a sustained basis in these jointly managed forest areas, alternate management strategies like wider spacing for planting of tree tree species, use of light crowned tree species for afforestation, identification of separate areas suitable for tree and grass cultivation etc. need to be worked out.

Continuing degradation of natural resources has brought us face to face with major ecological and socio-economical problems. These problems primarily emerge due to mass poverty i.e. problems of food supply, hygine, nutrition, health and diseases etc. Further activities of development and inudstrialisation has rsulted in a negative impact in the quality of envrionment and related problems like pollution, soil erosion and destruction of wildlife. The failure of fragnunted approachs of the past in regeneration of the wastelands. Thus invites new interventions. Participatory watershed management in thus viewed as the most appropriate integrated approach that ensure an active partnership between all the actors such as government, communities, and the NGO. This paper attampts to promote this issue with a prime concern that greening the watersheds received the first and foremost attention in preservation of different ecosystems.

Controversy and conflict over resource decisions appear to be intensifying and as a result, issues critical to the nation's future are avoided, energy is dissipated, and everyone involved loses credibility. Currently, the tendency is to blame the management agencies for all resource maladies. Parties involved in the conflict, such as environmentalists, stakeholders and local dependants typically view opponents as the source of problem and spurn responsibility for finding solutions. As a matter of fact, the forestry agencies, having taken this responsibility, are trying to find solutions to counter the allegation. This paper argues that the solution to above problem lies in converting the current participatory mode from a "Groupthink" method to a "Teamthink" method. Such a shift should enhance the success of participation leading to better conservation of natural resource.

Forest user groups (FUGs) in Nepal have become established as permanent grassroots local institutions. The most dynamic FUGs illustrate the remarkable achievements that are possible: beyond successfully protecting and managing their forest resources they are also assuming a co-ordinating role for wider community development. However many are constrained by inadequate institutional processes, compounded by weak and poorly coordinated support from external agencies. One way to address these constraints has been developed: a micro-level action planning process, which has been piloted across 11 FUGs. This involves self-assessment by FUGs on the basis of process indicators, decision-making through hamlet-level discussion, and improved participation of marginalized groups in decision - making and has proved to be an effective basis for targeted demand- led support.The urge for community participation comes from within rather that from outside and to this effect, Govt’s intervention to encourage sustained community participation in forestry by luring through benefit sharing, seems to suffer from limitations. In fact, the demand of share in the inadequate tangible benefits of the forests from the ever rising number of villagers, will trigger ‘the trigger of commons’. The visual scenario and acceptability of a well afforested watershed gained through the current project investments would be lost soon and demand the next phase of the investments for its recreation. The vicious cycle would continue endlessly. It is high time that we get out of the psyche of protecting forests at the expense of forests.

German people in rural areas show great interest in forestry and its development. Their motives for this are based on the experience of their forefathers with scarcity of wood and environmental problems in an industralized society. The forester is a person with high prestige in Germany. Forest problems are to be read almost daily in German newspapers. People are "Forest-minded". Reasons for this are economical, environmental and recreational. People in rural areas, either as farmers with forest land or working in the wood-industry profit economically from a well managed forest. The many environmental problems of industrialized and densely populated areas are balanced by zones of forest land. Protection against noise, dust and wind is experienced by people. The recreational value of forest land is known to everybody because hiking in the woods is a national favorite pastime. All of this results in deep interest in forestry among all people in Germnay.Their motives may add some ideas to "forestry for people".Arunachal Pradesh joined the JFM stream in October 1997 by a resolution being passed by the state government. At present about 10 projects are being implemented under this scheme in different parts of the state. However, looking at the vast geographical area, unsettled status of land, low human population, community ownership and customary laws, the whole concept requires a review specially in North- Eastern states. In the present paper an effort has been made to analyse the problems and prospects of JFM implementation in Arunanchal Pradesh.

Culture is relevant attribute for developing an institutionalized process of joint forest management(JFM). The domineering cultural characteristics of rural masses, frontline forest functionaries, and sociocultural subtleties during their interactions, have significant implications for administration of JFM. According to Edward Taylor,"Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge belief, art, moral, law, customs, traditions, norms and any other capabilities acquired by man as a member of society. The culture denotes acquired behaviours which are shared by and transmitted among the members of society.Culture is both an asset and a liability". Culture has a role to play in the development that will enable people to live in harmony with nature. It is possible to utilize the cultural ethos in the very task of development by recognizing its centrality for individuals and communities. Through JFM, there is scope for designing development that includes cultural patterns and cultural sensibility. A culture specific communication strategy should be evolved as past of forestry extension. If new beliefs and values are to be internalized, shared communication must not only be emphatic and credible but also persuasive. The choices, behaviours and statements of people should be studied and inferences drawn. Extension should play a vital role in reorienting the values, beliefs, expectations and behaviours according to needs of JFMP. People will invest their participation in activities they believe will benefit them.

The laterization process of the undulated tract of Chhotanagpur plateau and its adjacent areas in proceeding at an alarming rate. In such an area like Lalitasole under West Midnapore forest division, different conservation measures including plantation activities have been taken upto reverse the process of degradation. This was a large barren land with undulating topography and lateritic soil erosion marked by a number of gullies is a common feature of the sloppy area. The plantation activity coupled with soil conservation measures like construction of box trenches, rock check dams, etc. was undertaken and soil nutrients like nitrogen,organic carbon,potassium, phosphorus and pH were annually m onitored involving villager through, participatory forest management. The villagers formed a forest protection committee for eco-restoration through positive changes in the soil as well as vegetation level. The present study aimemd at quantification of eco-restoration of this degraded lateritic area in terms of changes in floral diversity and soil nutrient status.

Joint Forest Management of Participatory Forest Management (PFM) got its formal shape in the year 1990. A need has arisen to evaluate the impact of this new management tool. A study was taken up in Kodsi and Talaichittor villages of Dehradun District to assess the impact of PFM on the socio-economic development of rural people and to identify the prime ingredients of PFM programme for bringing about the desired changes. It was observed that the household income has considerably increased due to alternative job opportunities, agricultural production has increased, there is reduction in distance travelled and time spent for fuelwood and fodder collection, village women are now financially empowered, and institution building has paved the way for sustainability of the whole process.The local community is actively participating in the joint managnement programme initiated by Haryana forest department ( HFD)in the degraded forest patches of lower Shivaliks.Water for irrigation from the earthen dams,fodder grass as forage for the livestock, and bhabbar grass for rope making are some of the important incentive mechanisms through which the HFD involves the local community for the protection and management of the above forests.The study shows that in order to provide incentives to the forest community on a sustainable basis the HFD has to take into consideration factors like composition of crop, land-use pattern, hydrology of the watersheds, and the significance of the diversity of the resources.This paper attampts to assess the livelihood impacts of community forestry based on forst user groups (FUGs) in the middle hills of Nepal, using data from the Koshi hills region in the east. The general finding is that impacts are diverse both within and between FUGs, but have been generally positive, in terms of improved levels and security of forest product and benefit flows, various household income-generating opportunities, support for community infrastructure and development activities and improved 'social capital' for collective planning and action. Nevertheless, impacts to date are below their potential, and the needs of rural households require more investigation to determine what further opportunities exist and how policy and extension agencies may offer specific needs-oriented support.This paper highlights the objectives of research study to provide a detail profile of the sustainable forest management model in the selected. Village Forest Committee (VFC) at Machharia village in West Mandla Forest Division Methodology conducted swith results and discussions have been provided. Institutional role for Sustainable forest management in the forest under Machharia VFC has been projected with the help of Tables (1-5) in respect of ecological, social and economic terms. Achievements and needs for improvements in SFM task provided. Capacity building, training programmes more frequently stressed, be conducted to achieve the objectives.

Forest management as practiced during the last hundred years has proved to be a myth which is apparent from the extent of open and degraded forests in India. Joint forest management (JFM), through a collaborative effort with people, has the potential to save and conserve the remaining forests in India. Provision of sufficient fodder, pasture and firewood in areas adjoining forest is necessary in order to prevent depletion of forest beyond the sustainable limit. Promotion of imporved silvopasture systems with the help of community participation in JFM programmes is important for boosting animal husbandry in villages. Various such systems are being discussed for various agro-ecosystems in the country.

The national forest policy 1988 recognized that non wood forest product provides sustenance to tribal population and to other communities residing in and around the forests. Such produce should be protected and their production enhanced with due regard to generation of employment and income for the local populace. Keeping in view the vital needs of national forest policy experiments were conducted on some medicinal plant species in order to suggest means for increasing the productivity of the forests and the annual income of the village communities.

The species introduced in the open forest patches have been mentioned, these includes (1) Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha) (2) Abelmoschus moschatus (Muskdana) (3)Asparagus racemosus(Satawar) and (4) Gloriosa superba (Kalihari).

Methodology of cultivation of medicinal plant species have been described and some recommendations have made. Information have also been given on fuel operated draught type drier for drying non wood forest products (NWFP).

Effect of different level of grazing on productivity of fodder crops (natural v/s sown) under JFM conditions and methodology have been discussed.

The paper presents the role of silvipasture in assisting JFM to meet the tween needs of forage and firewood. Participatory management of such lands is the only alternative for arresting further land degradation, which assures the supply of forage and firewood, improving the environment, livelihood opportunities and sustainability. Silvipasture is an interface of forestry and animal husbandry based land production system. The components of trees, grasses and animals operate either simultaneously or sequentially in order to grow, produce and benefit each other in an integrated manner. Various viable options have been suggested for different lands on rainfed farming. The technique of land treatment and protection, using plant species have been suggested. Planting technique to nurse crop on degraded land are given, choice of woody species, and assisted natural regeneration methods help restore natural forest species, thus protecting biodiversity. List of suitable grass and legums species for low and high shade conditions have been suggested. Techniques of forage and firewood production, land improvement, conservation and socio-economic gains and requirement of future research needs have been enumerated as (1) germplasm collection of tree species, (2) cultural practices for tree multiplication (3) improvement of germ plasm and collection of pasture legumes, (4) device suitable management principles for optimum production of grasses, legumes and trees, (5) studies on tree lopping for basic growth and regrowth pattern, (6) use of biofertilisers and moisture conserving chemicals for establishment of plants on degraded lands.

This chapter briefly examines Indian forestry traditions and suggests the type of management changes that may help to sustain India's forests as the nation moves into the 21st centuary. Building up new skills and capacities to work closely with rural communities in microplanning and management systems by the Forest Departments. In the early 1980s, social forestry programmes were initiated as a positive step towards easing pressures on the declining state forests. It also explores changing attitudes, objectives, operating policies and procedures among forest staff and officials, which led to develop new relationship with rural communities, that need to take place to move from conflict to collaboration. The emergence of JFM provides an alternative foundation for collaboration. Foresters need to increase their capacity to undertake applied research programmes, provide technical guidance, resolve disputes and sincerely support community forestry programmes. Transparent planning strategies need be adopted, to respond to a wider range of important non-timber forest products. For the new century, target must be a forest that is environmentally sound, has a sustainable production base, respond to the needs of local people, and is managed by them as a stable and healthy ecosystem. Twenty first century's challenge for the foresters, is to learn to manage these values efficiently.

This paper highlights the need for assessing the empowerment status of JFM and suggets field level monitoring indicators, approaches and methods based on experience of study conducted in Madhya Pradesh for assessing empowerment through JFM. JFM resolution is explicit with regard to empowerment of local communities, but it is often experienced that the local people are not abe to avail the opportunity from it due to their own social-cultural and economic constraints. Hence, it is necessary to look critically into the empowerment situation to understand the dynamics of empowerment within the context of JFM. Indicators and verifiers have been developed on the basis of literature review, consultation with the actors and stakeholders and ground-truthing was done to assess the JFMC members perception towards the indicators and their applicability. The participatory methods have been followed in developing verifiers and assigning the weightage for each indicator. This will not only help ground-truthing of indicators but also educate people about JFM programme.

Forest planners and forest departments have long ignored local ecological services provided by forest, of which forest communities have knowledge of, and on which the economic social and political life of the area is dependent. Joint Forest Management (JFM) is restricted to management of forests as providers of forest and non-timber forest products. This paper investigates in detail the extensive indigenous knowledge of such local ecological services among a forest community. It argues that local ecological services are the missing link in designing plans for successful decentralisation and sustainable management of forests. Enlisting such local knowledge, as is done in this paper, is the first step to incorporating it in the management of forests.

The current JFM in India, as a paradigm of forest management, in state-owned degraded forest land is to protect, regenerate and manage with the communities living in and around the forest area on usufruct sharing basis. However, in North-East India the ownership of land and its resources lies with the communities. The communities have their own tradition, customary laws and administrative institutions to govern and deal with the management of the land and its resources.

The objective of the present paper is (a) to examine the various existing local institutions and their management system of land and its resources, (b) to critically analyse the effectiveness of these institutions and present management systems, (c) to define the role and responsibilities of these traditional institutions in the effective implementation of JFM in the forest under their control, and (d) to discuss the possible role of the government in the implementation of JFM on community land. The study is confined to the Khasis of Meghalaya and the Ao Naga tribe of Nagaland.

Growth and development of Joint Forest Management (JFM), as a concept and its implementation, is assessed in this article to understand the impact of such an exercise on the development of participatory forestry in India. The article delves with some of the institutional and policy issues that are being practiced. It describes the acceptance of JFM as a forest management tool and the problems associated with it. The effort has witnessed smoothening of relation between the Forest Department officials and the community at large, apart from increased area under forest cover. One of the major concerns of JFM is the lack of transparency in financial transactions of the forest department and the unilateral powers the forest department has in deciding the membership to the general body. Though in the recent amendments, changes were suggested, by and large, the implementing of such suggestions is far from complete. It suggests some of the policy and structural changes that need to be brought out in view of the wider acceptability of the JFM.

In India as in many other countries, managing forests for multiple products to meet diverse needs of multiple users will mean treading on unfamiliar terrain. In practical terms, making the switch to a NTFP-friendly system of management that will also encourage economically feasible, conservation promoting enterprise will not be simple. Because of low and sporadic levels of previous investments in research, technology and policy development, it will also entail sum short run costs. However, failure to make the switch would be tantamount to failure to manage forests to their full potential and would inflict for greater, even if largely hidden, costs to society.

As demand for diverse forest products continue to increase against the backdrop of greater administrative decentralization in resource management, the information based, technical capacity and institutional infrastructure necessary for locally based multiple used forest management will have to be developed on a priority basis. The organizational infrastructure and capacities gradually developing under JFM can be harnessed in this effort for the mutual benefit of multiple stakeholders. The next steps will require concerted action on various fronts involving many institutional actors from the community to the national policy level. The cadre of forestry professionals and forestry research, management and development institutions, particularly the Indian Council of Forestry and Education, will need to play a vital leadership role.

In the back drop of the present national forest policy of India(1988), people’s institutions are being developed almost throughout the country for sustainable forest management.Howerver, development of people’s institutions is not free from conflicts. The study examined the dynamics and management of conflicts in 32 forest protection committees and analysed their role in the process of institution building.The results demonstrate that emergence of conflict is an invitable part of the institution building process. It was found that more than 84% of the committees were experiencing different kinds of conflicts, especially related to access to control over forest resources, its management and institutional functioning of forest department. Results are discussed in the light of the theories of group development. Based on the findings, a model of institutional development for sustainable forest management has been developed and its implications on institutions in participatory forest management are discussed.

This paper describes an approach to developing and using process indicators of the institutional development of forest user groups (FUGs) in Nepal. Assessments of FUGs were carried out with forest users, on the basis of indicators identified by the users themselves. The approach is helpful in distinguishing patterns of development in the institutional diversity of FUGs, and highlighting support they require. Post-formation support to FUGs is perhaps the most pressing issue of community forestry. So far it has tended to be oriented to technical forestry and yield regulation. If community forestry is to genuinely reflect local people's priorities then there is a need to move towards a more holistic and dynamic approach: including supporting regular self-assessment of FUG's changing needs, specific support in conflict management, easier amendment of forest management plans, and 'entrepreneurial' support.

This article examines the institutional development within the afforestation of village revenue lands in India as well as institutions set up for management of already existing forests. These institutions are termed "collective or joint forest management committees" indicating a joint government-village arrangement for forest protection. However, it is often unclear or skewed who has which rights and to what. The present article argues for a careful analysis of the kinds of rights, of the categories of right-holders as well as of the biophysical character of the resource itself. The degree of sociopolitical overlap between new induced intitutions and the existing ones of local government such as the village panchayat is counter productive. Another critical issue is the match between the institutional set-up and the biophysical characteristics of the resource itself. Both issues are examined in the article.

The authors present an overview of analytical tools to study pluralism in the context of forestry and rural development. The article notes that pluralism is not only developing collaborative regimes, but about accepting and managing inherent conflict among participants and interest groups. Communication and learning by all participants seem to be at the centre of any successful attempt at pluralistic management of natural resources. Development of "4 Rs" ie respective rights, responsibilities, return from the resource, and relationship, approach reveals interesting global trends in the roles of the mainstakeholders involved in forest use and management work on collaborative approaches and shared production analysis not only highlights the importance of synergy and joint decision making, but also warn that such techniques are potentially costly and should not be expected to work in all circumstances. A number of methods have emerged for the promotion of collaborative public participation in environmental conflict and decision making situations. These general principles provide a preliminary frame work for the analysis of pluralism but testing of these ideas needs to be continued rigorously in the light of empirical evidence to improve understanging of the working of collaborative forest management regimes.

Collective action arises when the efforts of two or more individuals are needed to accomplish an outcome. Activities that involve furtherance of interests or well bring of a group are often examples of collective action. The need for collective action abounds in any advanced society”. It is difficult to measure institutional effectiveness in purely objective and observable terms. Forest resources in the state of Gujarat are dwindling. Most of the forest area is highly degraded.

The outcome of VIKSAT’s intervention in Bhiloda is the emergence of strong people’s institutions for the management of forests in the areas. Today, as a result of VIKSAT’s consistent inputs, these PIs have knowledge about issues related to forestry and forest management. They also have technical knowledge of nursery raising, plantation and silvicultural operations. They also have devised sanctions against free riders. Over the years, the scope of community management had expanded in terms of magnitude and quality with 47 PIs with varying degrees of effectiveness, protecting and managing forest land covering an area of around 10,400 ha. Of the 47 village institutions, 22 are already registered as TGCSs and many are in the process of registration. In addition to this, 25 village institutions have already obtained authorisation letters from the forest department to carry out protection and management activities.

Peoples’ involvement in the protection, management, and sustainable development of forests addresses three basic issues: the range of institutional and legal changes brought about by participatory forest management (PFM), the socio-economic upliftment of the local communities, and the ecological development of the areas concerned. The present study attempts to assess the first two interactive issues in the context of various strategies and mechanisms (including product sharing mechanisms) adopted to elicit participation of the local communities in the joint forest management programme (JFMP) in the Haryana Siwaliks.All the four incentives offered under the JFMP, namely, water harvesting structures, bhabbar and fodder grass leases, and bamboo permits at concessional rates, have greatly helped in the economic betterment of the local communities and in motivating the people into collective action for protection and manangement of the adjoining forests. While every incentive seems to be site-specific in its effect on people’s action, water seems to be the prime force that motivates local communities to participate; the other incentives being additional factors contributing towards the economic upliftment of the people.JFMP in Haryana has several distinctive features. Over the years the village community forest management societies have deloped as a community institution at the grass-root level, assuming a definite and purposeful role with clearly defined rights and responsibilities. The working groups (WG) at the state, division and the range levels provide a wider forum for framing policy and rules, resolving conflicts, and taking decisions related to protection, development, and management of forests. The programmer’s strong training component has helped in orienting attitudinal changes in the various target groups and in developing mutual trust and understanding of problems and limitations. Research and case-studies provide quidelines for mid-course corrections and the necessary inputs for evolving future strategies.

This paper deals with the relationship between forests and global climate change, due to increased levels of green house gases in the earth atmosphere. This may effect our forest also. Changes in growth, yield, distribution, composition of forested communities and the incidence and intensity of wildlife episodes and insect and diseased out break are among the predicted effects of global climate change. To maintain existing sinks of GHCs, it is imparative to consider both adaptive and mitigation - integerated approach while designing forest sector responses to climate change. The paper also projects the potential of clean development mechanism (CDM) in India in relation to JFM. There is an excellent scope to integrate CDM with JFM issues. Number of recommendations at internation and national level are given in order to facilitate sustainable forestry development as part of the CDM participants at all level.

In India it has been observed that wherever there is large concentration of forest, there is also high concentration of tribal and rural population. Rural livelihood is dependent on forest resources. For many of these people, not only does the forest provide economic sustenance but it is also a way of life for them socially and culturally. Degradation and depletion of the forest resources are increasing poverty and misery among the rural population. Therefore, it is imparative to rehabilitate degraded forest resources for sustaining rural livelihood. It is possible only through devolution of power to the communities for the management of forest. The national forest policy, 1988, of the government of India envisaged the communities involvement in conservation, protection and managnement of forest. With the active support of local organizations, people’s participation in forest management was initiated. Which is generally known as joint forest manangement(JFM) in India. This paper tries to examine the experiences of JFM for integating rural livelihood with forest rehabilitation. This paper also pleads for strategies for community forest management(JFM) to ensure rural livelihood along with rehabilitation of forest.

There is urgent need to bring back all the denuded lands to vegetal cover. This can be done only by the state forest departments who have the technical competence and expertise to successfully complete the task with the active involvement of public and organisations like village panchayats, school and college students, industries and business houses and other non-government organisations. In this paper the modalities for inovlving the weaker section in this afforestation programme as beneficiaries is examined in depth and suggestion on funding the programme, choice of species, institutional financing and extension support are made.

The deforestation can not be stopped without the joint efforts of community and forest department. Therefore the people should be motivated and involved for the better management of the forests. The success of joint forest management in Andhra Pradesh has been described in detail.An exploratory study on gender related issues was conducted at the project site to study the level of women’s participation in JFM activities. To assess level of awareness of the men and women about the JFM programmes, extent of participation by both the genders and perception of local people regarding conflicts and constraints. Door to door survey was conducted with hundred percent sampling , group and individual interviews were conducted and PRA tools were used for situational analysis.The study was under taken in four selected villagers for both the sites of the project.Data have been recorded on awareness regarding functioning of protection committees, people’s interest in participating in JFM ( ranking of first-eight), perception of participants regarding conflicts/ constraints in JFM (ranking of first-seven) and impact analysis of the JFM activities. Observations have been summarised and recommendations given.

The present communication describes technologies developed by the Chemistry Division which may have important role in bringing the desired ecological, social and economic benefits of JFM efforts. A process for the preparation of katha from Uncaria gamber leaf extract with better physico-chemical properties than katha extracted from Acacia catechu heartwood has been patented, FRI = Jigat is made from agro based biopolymer, an abundantly available raw material for commercial exploitation, which can replace the Jigat made from the bark of Machilus macrantha and Litsea chinensis trees for use in Agarbatties. Natural dyes from abundantly available forest biomass have been developed for dying of fabrics. Another processes developed for converting forest biomass into compost at a short rotation and detoxify the oil of jatropha for better use and Pectin from Tamarind kesnel powder which can give better price support to farmers. The above technologies can be utilised for the benefit to JFM committees. These technologies have been transferred to industries by charging license fee.

In this chapter, the authors explore the potential and feasibility of JFM as a CDM activity. They recognise forestry as a part of Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) in the Kyoto Protocol under the climate change negotiation process. The potential for and eligibility of promoting JFM as a CDM activity is presented. All issues relevant to inclusion of JFM as a CDM activity such as additionality, permanance, leakage, monitoring, verification and sustainable development implications are discussed. The issue of developing a credible baseline, critical for estimating the additionality of carbon mitigation is also discussed. Finally the transaction costs involved and institutional capacity needed for managing a CDM project are presented. Estimates of extent of waste land with potential for revegetation comes to 66 million ha. This includes degraded forests, village commons, and even cropland left fallow for long periods. With the inclusion of afforestation and reforestation as potential CDM activities, JFM is likely to qualify as a reforestation activity. However, forest conservation and rehabilitation of degraded land are likely to be covered under adaptation and not as mitigation activities. A large number of JFM projects under CDM, implemented in different regions of India, incorporating innovative technical, institutional and financial interventions could lead to a large positive impact on forest conservation and regeneration, degraded land reclamation and socio-economic development of rural communities, in a participatory way. CDM is therefore a win-win strategy providing local as well as global benefits. IPCC is also developing methods and "Good Practice Guidance" to estimate, measure, monitor, and report changes in carbon stocks, and for uncertainity management.

As of today it is very clear that people’s involvement has been secured successfully, towards energizing the JFM in the country. The methodology applied in doing so, primarily involved financial enticement. Protection has been fueled with acquired pecuniary aspirations. As of today this pole stock does not generate high scale personal interest of any commercial lobby. But once converted to bole stock, factors like “sharing of usufruct” and protection of such areas may become a serious problem. A situation may arise, that due to seriously visible rank devastation of environment, it may become silviculturally suicidal to harvest the forests protected by the VFPS members. Adopting EE based on experiential learning, could be one such strategy. There is still about fifteen years for the forests to mature. This is a well tested educational tool which has been incorporated in most of the commonwealth countries in their learning centers. A stitch in time would certainly go a long way in guiding the economic arousal into a conservational climax, and leaving a fully satiated community.

Participation is basically democratic empowerment. It aims at developing a visionary belief among the participants to look beyond the present. There is an old age dictum that the apple on the public tree is seldom allowed to ripen.

The problem with JFM is one that of accomplishment instead of initiation. If communities achieve expected money JFM will flourish. If not, then it will be misused. After all, JFM is a forest protecting strategy and not a missionary act. If people get something, they will come forward.

On the part of the forest personnel, it it desired that they abandon their extremist approach: both over criticism and over advocacy. If a category of FD personnel is strongly convinced that JFM would result in a failure they will make it happen. On the other hand if another category is convinced that it’s a sure-shot, again the failure chances are high.

Overall, it is to conclude with the JFM is a good tool to invite the mass collaboration to the extent that its implementation satisfies the people’s expectations through the usufruct of NWFPs only.

The present study examines different case studies on JFM from various states of India. An attempt has been made to analyze the factors, which have ensured successful implementation and sustainability of JFM to achieve objectives outline in forest policy and set at the inception of JFM, and to point out reasons for its failures in other areas. It is followed by recommendation, which provide basis for preparation of further forestry project under JFM.

It is commonly held that JFM movement in West Bengal began with the initiation of the Arabari socio-economic scheme in 1971-72. But the fact remains that, while Arabari scheme was being conceived and given shape of a well thought-out experiment in parts of Purulia district the process had already begun. In fact in vol.2(2-3) of the journal,West Bengal Forests, published in 1972, the fact was mentioned by the author himself. The name of the article in which it was reported is "Protection of forests in Purulia district". It was mentioned that 25 forest protection committees were protecting 5, 928 acres of forests (2 percent of the total forest area). The author has enumerated various facts and figures in this article to conferm JFM genesis pre dating Arabari scheme.

The author describes JFM in Andhra Pradesh a successful venture, but it has to go a longway before it can be termed as participatory forest management. The government had decided in the year 2000 to incorporate the JFM rules and regulations in the forest act. Salient features of JFM in Andhra Pradesh are given. Entry point activities and tribal development plans were undertaken to fulfill the basic needs like drinking water, approach roads, bus shelters, meeting halls, etc. JFM made good progress with the active participation of government, world bank, VSS (6,602) have 1,303,962 beneficiaries, male (699,399) and female (606,563) members, and 700,000 members from the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. He lists two major teething problems for JFM, ie need for change in the outlook of foresters and lack of training programmes. The monitoring system of the Forest Department was too weak to control deficiences in transparancy at the field level. There is a gradual improvement in women's participation, and they now freely express their views in the meetings. However, there is a need to upgrade their skill and involve them in the decision making process. Research activities, NGO's participation and use of information technology in JFM programmes, would be a positive step in right direction. The author highlights the impact of JFM, which show progressive and perceptible improvement in forest cover, forest protection, employment and income generation, as well as soil and water conservation. Still there are several areas that need more attention to make JFM a truly people centred programme.

The author reviews the JFM activities in Chhattisgarh state. It has been reported that presently SFM is budget intensive and therefore sustainability of programme is doubted and loaded with lots of preconditions. The ultimate analysis of related issues of forest degradation, decentralisation of forest management, and people's participation is too serious a matter to be left to JFM alone. The grey areas and weaklinks in JFM programme have been discussed. He mentions about the concept of people's protected areas (PPA's) and the new forest policy developed by the state of Chhattisgarh in the year 2001. Vision, values and mission of PPAs envisage respect of people and their traditional knowledge, care and share, capacity buildings at all levels, upgradation of local technologies including information technology. Mission include community based participatory mappling and management plan, resource assessment methodology non-destructive harvesting, marketing, ecotourism, biodiversity conservation, developing of entrepreneurship, revolving fund facility, gender sensitivity, care and share, food and helath security, enabling policy and legal framework. He lists out the steps taken by the state government to declare the state of Chhattisgarh as a herbal state by using the forests and social capital of the state.

The authors describe the salient features of JFM in Gujarat, include a broad consensus among the local people, provision for registration, recognition of the role of NGO's and village Panchayats, representatives of women and constitution of district and state level committees. The eastern forest belt of the state comprising nine districts, has 8156 villages, of which 2,740 have forests. The scope of JFM in this eastern forest belt, that covers 43% of the forest area of the state, has shown 1,542 potential JFM villages in the region dominated by tribal population. The achievement and progress of JFM during the last five years are reported. The area under JFM has also increased from 70,000 ha to 159,065 ha. Projects worth Rs.381.55 million have been sanctioned by the government of India. Impact of JFM in Sabarkantha district, where forests were being managed with people's participation prior to 1991, the area under dense forest has increased in 8 villages, but reduced in two. Further enumeration in 11 villages, indicate significant improvement in the health of forests. Case studies of villages Dhanturi (Vyara), Kaliakuva (Godhra), Balethi (Rajpipla (W.), Palawadi (Vyara), Nisana (Vyara), Titol and Oad (Sabarkantha) have greater appreciation of the role of forests in improving the environment and ecology as also the overall social and economic development in the villages under JFM. There is a 100% women JFM committee in Sabarkantha. JFM has got institutionalised in the state and it is hoped that it will be further strengthened due to modifications brought about in the JFM resolution.

Joint forest management in Haryana has come a long way since its inception. The main catalyst enlisting support of the communities under JFM in this belt has been harnessing of rainwater through construction of earthen water harvesting dams. Although a number of societies are functioning, their effectiveness needs further strengthening. The assumption that societies once constitute and which have function normally for a few years will continue on the same keel is providing to be an illusion. Regular interaction has to be made by the department with communities implementing JFM so as to provide alternatives/solutions to problem that crop up during programme implementation. Increased share to the communities, not only in minor forests produce but major forests produce are some of the measures undertaken by the state. It is felt that the gains made by JFM by consolidated first and expansion of the programme be made cautiously in suitable areas only.

The author in this paper assesses the success and sustainability of village forest committees (VFC's) and attempt to find out how far these institutions assisted in the transaction from the open access system to the community controlled regulated access system. In order to revive and restore the productivity of common lands in the Aravalli hills in Haryana, a project to rehabilitate the degraded common lands was initiated in 1990. the objectives of the project envisage restoration of green cover of village common lands to ensure sustainable supply of fuel and fodder. In this venture, 33000 ha. Of semi-arid land was improved upon to conserve soil fertility, water resources, and redress the hydrological balance and stoping soil erosion. The action plan was implemented through the perceptions given in 3 different models. This project could develop awareness in the village community, resolving of conflicts for creating trust and confidence, preparation of microplans with peoples participation. Government policies and legislation brought about social and economic changes, active participation of women, increase in income from dairy activities, sharing of equitable profits, employment generation and qualitative change in vegetation cover of Aravalli hills. The people are by and large, satisfied with the system of joint management of common lands in the Aravalli hills. The gains accrued by the rehabilitation activities need to be consolidated by further strengthening the participatory institutions and buildingup mutual trust and confidence among diverse group of stakeholders.

The author highlights the historical perspective on forest management. Experiments on involving local people in forest management started with the introduction of a village CFS (Cooperative Forest Society) in Kangra district before independence. This scheme is one of the first of its kind to be introduced in India in which government forests are being handed over to the villagers for management and enjoying their income. Three Dimensional Forest Farming (TDFF) introduced in 1976 had 3 objectives, soil conservation, production of timber and fodder for domestic animals. In 1980 peoples participation was sought in afforestation programme, which later on merged with social forestry, farm forestry schemes. For this component Indo-German Dhauladhar Project was laid for peoples participation for production of fuel and fodder. Lessons learnt and experiences gained of earlier projects viz. National Social Forestry (Umbrella Project); Kandi project, Indo-UK forestry project, led to the institutionalisation of the PFM process, known as Sanjhi Van Yojana (SVY) was initiated in December 1998 to involve communities in afforestation activities. Government of H.P. has shown its full commitments to the JFM principles. However the sustainability of village level institutions will depend on the means of income for the people after the expiry of projects.

The debate on joint forest management in India has so far paid little attention to the validity and legality of JFM. Streamlining forestry management would involve addressing critical legal issues in various new practices before the manifestation of conflicts. On the resolution of such issues will also depend the extent of contribution of the people who are expected to participate in the JFM programme.

The article discusses about the JFM programme in India. Conceptually it seems to be the right approach for regeneration of degraded forests and their sustainable management. In view of the fact that the JFM programme is poised to take a quantum leap, it is important to examine and analyse (1) afforestation activities in their totality and (2) the contents of various state governments resolutions and their technical, socio-economic, administrative and legal issues as these have a crucial bearing on JFM programmes. During VI and VII five year plans, there are clear indications of a slackening of afforestation efforts in the country. The expansion of JFM programme would, therefore, require an enlarged afforestation effort with increased investment. The objective of the JFM programme is progressively to increase the participation of local communities in management of forests on sustainable basis. The fundamental questions, like who controls and manages natural resources, and for whose benefit these resources are going to be managed, are at the core of JFM movement and need to be answered explicitly. Rural development should be integrated with JFM activities to boost rural economy. The success of JFM programme depends amongst other things on establishing a support with the local population by forest field functionaries. Frequent transfers of field staff and officers, engaged in JFM projects is a constraint in their successful implementation. Besides, socioeconomic and technical issues have been discussed and ways and means suggested for the right approach.

In this article the author describes the historical perspective on forest management in insurgency inflicted state of Jammu and Kashmir. JFM concept was initiated with the advent of scientific forestry in 1982, which envisaged the rights and concessions granted under forest notices. These included, grazing, right of way and timber from the forest for bonafide use at the concessional rates, firewood, and lopping of trees for fodder. Efforts made to protect the forests failed, even after introducing certain imovative experiments. Therefore foresters realised that forests can only be protected with the willing co-operation of the forest community. In real sense the concept of JFM was reintroduced in the year 1982, with the help of World Bank project. The gist of the important amendments of rules made from time to time are highlighted. These amendments are expected to provide an impetus to JFM, by making it more practical and people oriented. This will help in sustaining the peoples interest in the protection and management of forests. The experience gained in the last two decades in Participatory Forest Management (PFM) has brought certain major issues, which need to be resolved. Some of the core issues discussed in this paper are (1) conflicts with nomadic graziers, (2) sustainability of the SFM programme, (3) issues related to silviculture and ecology, (4) sociocultural and economic issues, (5) training and upgradation of skills for forest department officials. The involvement of NGO's is also essential to resolve issues in the way of JFM programmes.

The author in this chapter presents the status of JFM in M.P. and discusses the initiation of JFM, institutional changes undertaken by the Forest Department to strengthen JFM, its spread during the mid 1990's, constraints in implementation, steps taken to overcome these constraints, and the future programme are discussed. A total of 1100 FPCs were involved in the management of 0.22 million ha of forests. Currently there are 8,622 VFCs; 3993 FPC's and 688 EDC's collectively protecting about 52000 sq. km. of forests in the state. Formal initiative towards JFM commenced in 1989-1990. The studies in JFM since then have been supported by policy changes were discussed in the paper in detail. Salient fetures of the JFM programme and its linkage with Panchayati Raj Institutions are given. The ecological impacts of JFM project have been positive, resulting in an overall increse in the forest cover in the state. Itlicit felling, fire incidents and encroachments have reduced. Along with institutional changes within and outside the department, the attitudinal change in the staff has paved the way for better understanding and relationship between the F.D. and the villagers. Peoples participation has increased due to income generating activities and resource development work carried out in the villages; with subsequent betterment in the socio-economic conditions of the people, and poverty reduction. The financial help from World Bank is equal to Rs. 6500 per household per annum. He lists number of constraints in implementation of JFM. The role of NGOs in JFM related activities need to be clarified in terms of common interests and mechanism of collective action. On the whole, JFM has created a space for creation of meaningful institutions. These institutions require more autonomy in working, for achieving the desired objectives of JFM.

The author in this chapter highlights the progress made in JFM programme in Maharashtra since 1992. The salient features of 1992 government resolution of Maharashtra with regards to JFM policies are given. The resolution gave the state foresters an opportunity to involve local community in the protection and management of degraded forests. Over 600 villages out of 10,720, have been covered under JFM programme in a short period of 4 years and the results are already encouraging. There are many success storics spread all over the state. Buldhan district in Maharashtra succeeded in creating a mass movement for JFM and paved the way for more JFM in the state. The microplan drawn for the village is drawn with consultation of villagers. This plan contains a prescription for soil and moisture conservation works for the benefit of both the villagers and the forest area. Villagers are involved in all forestry activities under the entry point programme. Monitoring and impact assessment is found helpful in framing the future strategy of JFM. Topics like cpacity building, impact analysis of JFM, and self sustaining the movement have been covered. Considering the over whelming response that has been received by this programme, the day is not far when the entire efforts related to forest and forestry is carried out with a participatory approach in the state of Maharashtra.

The active involvement of rural and tribal people living in and around forests is crucial for the ultimate success of forest protection, regeneration, development and management activities. For achieving the objectives of the JFM programme, the potential forests to be managed are to be properly identified and appropriate management systems be evolved. For instance, the management system for the degraded forest will vary from that for the good forest. The comprehensive microplan treating the degraded forest should give equal weightage to the silvicultural and livelihood needs of the people. On the other hand, the management of good forest in the same area will focus on sustainable use of non timber forest products(NTFPs) which is an integral component of natural resource management system. There is a great need to develop a strong system of backward and forward linkages for the NTFPs. The effective implementation of the joint forest management programme will go along way in generating gainful employment apportunities for rural folk in the countryside, reducing the incidence of poverty and subsequently leading to the higher levels of income and employment. JFM resolution strategy and suggestions are given in this article.

The author describes the evolution of JFM programme in the state. Orissa was the first state to officially involve local people in the protection of natural forests in August 1988, before the historic National ForestPolicy of December 1988. He throwlight on salient features of JFM in the state and process of formation of VSS (Van Sanrakshan Samiti). After the formation of VSS, the FD demarcates the forest area to be protected and managed by the VSS. Functions of the VSS, FD and Panchayat has been defined to carryout different forestry development activities undertaken in the designated area. Impact of CFM in Orissa, led to increase in wildlife and forest productivity, increse in participatory feeling, forest protection and village development activities were on the increase, and conflicts if any were being resolved within the village. Various issues which need attention are the microplan, capacity building, and recognition of CFM groups by the government. By the year 2001, there were 5979 VSS with an area of 5846 sq. km. The role and suggestions to be implemented in future, have been projected, which suggest capacity building of thelower level staffof the forest department. Highly degraded forests needfinancial support to raise plantations and for land and forest restoration.

Joint forest management aims at sharing of products, responsibilities, control and decision making authority over forest land between forest department and local user groups based on a formal agreement.

Presently eco-development has been initiated in areas around some PAs Eco-development is aimed at involving communities in planning, management and protection of PAs. The objective, ultimately, is better conservation, but this in turn should mean better lives for local people and a more satisfying occupation for foresters at all levels.

We have three different cases ranging from pure eco-development to pure JFM with others with intermediate stages within the same eco-development zone.

This approach clearly requires the participation of the people in natural resource management while that of the forest departments in community development. There is a need to develop community based forest management programmes, which include such community development programmes as are supportive of conservation as well as a priority to the people.

The paper suggests activities to be incorporated in prevailing eco-development planning. The best thing is that some elements of JFM need to be incorporated in prevailing eco-development programmes to make it more effective.

The author presents a historical perspective of people's involvement in raising of community wood lots on village common lands under the social forestry programme. Raising of common land wood lots got an impatus, when large scale plantations were raised under rural development schemes on more than 110,000 ha of common land. Preparation of management plans and formation of protection committees are new development through JFM. At present JFM extends over the entire state. Till date (2004), 3042 Village Forest Protection and Management Committees (VFPMC) have been formed managing an area of 310,000 ha. Six Forest Divisions of the Western Circle, Udaipur have 733 committees managing 93,632 ha of forests have earned Rs. 4908 million in their common funds, besides many other useful gains. To promote JFM, state and district level awards have been instituted for the best committees, which include a cash prize of Rs. 50,000 and a citation. One of the VFPMC of the state, Salukhera ofUdaipur district, had received a rare distinction of getting the Indira Priyadarshani Vrik Shamitra Award at the national level for its out standing performance in 1999. In the state welfare activities such as health, education, sanitation and drinking water played a key role in the development of JFM. Efforts are being made to empower women and ensure their active participation in JFM programme. The FD so far has been most successful, and JFM has become a boon for rehabilitation of degraded forest resource.

The author in his article gives the measured baseline data on a comparative basis for a period from 1997-2000 on the impact of JFM, on regeneration of forests, species diversity, shrub population, grasscover, status of wildlife, water table and agriculture productivity Tamil Nadu has seen genuine resource management and development under JFM programme. Procedure for implementation strategy of project has been summarised, giving thrust areas, project input, alternative employment, etc. The implementation of the project gives a face lift to villages by constructing of overhead tanks, drilling borewells, construction of community halls, providing infrastructure for schools, electrification, installation of T.V. sets, construction of fair price shops, library and sanitation facilities. The project conducted an internal evaluation in 60 randomly selected JFM villages all over the state. The salient findings with the relevant data has been presented on all the three thrust areas viz. ecology, hydrology and social economy. Overall improvement was noticed in tree regeneration, diversity of species, shrubs, herbs, grass cover, wildlife. Hydrological impact of watersheds, was visibly felt in the agrarian front. The analysis of impact of water harvesting and hydrological improvement on agriculture brings to the fore front, the complementarity between agriculture and forest. The analysis of the over all impact on socio-economic sphere prove that considerable attitudinal change have taken place in the mindset of forest personnel and the user community. In Tamil Nadu, PFM has also been able to involve women and play a larger role in the empowerment of women in the rural areas. It is hoped that all the experiences gathered in the process would ultimately benefit in the better management of natural resources and help humankind to live in harmony with nature.

This article describes a composite picture of JFM in the northeastern states. Forest Department, except in Tripura and Assam, have little forest land under their control. 62 to 69% of the forest land is owned by various communities, individual families, and other traditional institutions. These forests are now degraded and need immediate external management intervention in order to derive the maximum ecological and economic benefits. These forests if brought under scientific management with the local Forest Department in a JFM pattern, where the forest land owner would seek scientific assistance under the frame work of JFM. He mentions the progress of JFM in various northeastern states, with their status. The implementation of JFM in Tripura has been of considerable success. Jeevan Deep J.F.M. Project, Melaghar represent a model JFM site, an excellent institutional arrangement, proper liaison between stakeholders, F.D. and NGO's. Women participation has also been ensured in the implementation of JFM. The JFM plot in Kathalia village, South Tripura, is considered a model of interdepartmental coordination and demonstrate how a mature sal plantation forest could also be protected under JFM arrangement without felling of trees. Major constraints in JFM implementation in the north-east include land ownership and tenurial pattern government policy, forest resource below expectation of people, limitation of working within the Forest Department. In order to institutionalise JFM in the region, it is required to reorient and gear up the entire F.D. to accept the new challenges through a well planned HRD programme.

The author highlights the deficient forest resources of Uttar Pradesh, being under tremendous pressure. The conflict between man and nature, and man and animal, needs to be resolved through JFM, through participation of local people as a tool for sustainable forestry. One of the important aspects of JFM in U.P. is the legal backup to the committees under the Indian Forest Act, 1927. He deals with implementation of JFM in the state with a proper back up of training and capacity building planing of microplans and their proper implementation in the forest areas. There were 734 villages covered under JFM during first three years of its inception. The net result was that JFM, which started as a target driven approach, became a demand driven programme. The main emphasis in the microplans is on silvicultural management of community forests on a sustained basis, targetting the poorest of the poor in the matter of distribution of the usefructs and income, if any. The author points out system of monitoring and evaluation. Various policies and legal issues, social and economic issues, income and usefruct sharing problems have been discussed. He alsopresents and suggest vision for the future. Success story of village Math in Jhansi district is an asset to JFM.

This chapter deals in brief about the evolution of Van Panchayats, their current status, introduction of new JFM model, and some emerging issues. An attempt has been made to analyse the reasons behind introducing a new model of JFM in an area, where a well established system was already in operation. This chapter has tried to focuss on some area of concern, which need attention to maintain the tempo that has been generated and to consolidate the gains so far in the area of community forestry. Towards the end, few suggestions have been made for the future course of action. A well established system of Van Panchayats where communities manage forest resources is unique to the region. Currently there are 6,777 Van Panchayats managing 5241 sq. km. area in the state. Many Panchayati forests were managed in good condition due to factors including quality leadership, availability of funds, total area and quality of land.Single-village Van Panchayat do much better than multi village Panchayats. She argues for a cautious approach in introducing JFM in Van Panchayat areas and recommends suitable adjustments. A good number of reasons stand behind the neglect of Van Panchayats. Thus adopting of JFM in Van Panchayat areas was a step towards developing synergies, between FD and the Van Panchayat in protection and development of forests. Some of the encouraging developments are noticable under JFM. Local people as well as forest staff are talking about the concept and are ready to experiment. Participation of woman at various levels has improved. Local communities are taking up integrated approach to development of their villages. Towardsthe end, factors contributing to the expansion of areacoverage, in terms of creating more JFM programmes and future courseof action have been advised.

The paper deals with participatory management of forests in the context of integrated watershed management approach for development. Forestry as an important component in integrated watershed management is discussed. The importance of interlinkages between various aspects of natural resource management is highlighted. It has been pointed out that integrated watershed management as an approach has good scope of participatory management of forest resources. Various issues in context of JFM in watershed management have been identified. These have been categorized into technical, social, economic, motivational, environmental and sustainability issues which have been discussed in detail.

The author expresses his opinion about the JFM concept, which was informally launched on a fairly large scale, even before the National Forest Policy of 1988 in W. Bengal. Beginning in 1970's JFM was adopted on a large scale in the 1980s. Today more than 51% of the forest area, irrespective of its legal status, is under JFM, and 3701 FPC's/EDC's protect over 0.6 million ha of forests. In entire West Bengal, 3614 FPC's protecting 529,945 ha and 87 EDCs protecting 77462 ha respectively, had been formed by 2000. Current status of JFM and role of Panchayats in it has been given. JFM impact resulted in changing the status of vegetation and regeneration of Sal forests along with its associate species like Pterocarpus marsupium, Diospyros melonoxylon, Holoptelea integrifolia, Lagerstromia parviflora, etc. The other perceptible change is increased availability of NTFP's. The biodiversity increase is also realised in the number of climbers, shrubs and understorey species. Benefits of JFM started accruing and employment potential increased due to multifarious forestry activities by the Forest Department. The actual amount distributed amongst the FP's was Rs.24.34 million. Factors responsible for success or inhibiting progress of JFM are highlighted. Factors influencing the functioning of FPC's include sincerety of approach, crop characters ethnicity, government policy and leadership. Future of JFM in West Bengal, aimed at establishing a long term protection system to restock the degraded forest land across the state. Project funds were made available for supporting the JFM programme. Thus JFM activities are continuing in the state.

The paper highlights the National Forest Policy of 1988 and its objectives, which clearly spells the importance of JFM concept and NTFP. The importance of NTFP for villagers, tribals, forest dwellers, rural poor and women has been explained and classified. Research priorities, on conservation, regeneration, value adding marketing has been stressed. Once NTFP get moral support of JFM, it is hoped to have greener and buoyant India. Active participation for scientists, foresters, NGO's and public leaders is sought for.The role and importance of forests in maintaining the life support system in terms of ecological, economic and socio cultural frame work is better understood now and accordingly the incongruous forestry administration is undergoing a paradigm shift from regulatory to participatory and sustainable forest management (SFM). Foresters, though well equipped with silvicultural armory, had to treat hitherto unknown path of sociological variables. People on the other hand, with there past experience have little faith and their aspiration is not to remain mere passive wage earners but to become active and respectable partners and proud owners of the assets created. The ground reality is that sustainability of ecological security without livelihood security of the people has no future. The message is loud and clear instead of being trapped in the maze of varied objectives. Evolve a package of proactive and people’s friendly minimal damages forest management practices with which could contribute incrementally towards SFM and simultaneously enhance the well being of forest dwellers, otherwise all laudable initiatives of JFM or SFM will wilt before bloom.

Forestry is not simply a question of trees; it is above all a question of mankind. It is very difficult to impose forest conservation regulations on rural populations, when forest areas undergo pressures arising from the need to satisfy vital food, fodder, fibre and energy requirements. Meeting these basic needs is a priority.

Foresters have to a pay more attention to the expectations and needs of society and by involving the local population in managing the forest sustainably. A well- balanced physical, financial, human, natural, institutional and cultural commitment is the condition for joint forest management with durable success.

This manual contains the essentials of the processses for training the bureaucrats especially the members of Forest Department. The training process detailed in the manual is unique in the sense that it allows the trainees first to make them understand their own perception problems regarding the programme, teach them the social behaviour, then let them join the users to understand the doubts of latter in joint forest management. Villagers to solve their own perception problems and the problems of villagers. This manual also make it more clear that joint forest management is a multidisciplinary approach, which needs the services of anthropologists, sociologists, foresters, environmentalists, etc. The manual has another feature, which make it very useful to the practitioners of training the members of the bureaucracy. It is the first manual of its kind, which records a number of actual case studies in far off places of Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Bihar focussing on how the planners went about microplanning to initiate the new concept. The manual is a valuable contribution in training large number of officiers of the concept of Joint forest management. Section I of the manual is devoted to the cause of training on JFM, which revolved around human behaviour responsible for group dynamics, organisational structure, norms, roles, conflicts achievements, motivation etc. Section II deals with the purpose of training which deals with development of knowledge, skills, techniques,motivation, attitudes, and experience. Section III provides training format for field staff. Section IV is based on concept of JFM with actual case studies. Section V, VI and VII discusses social skills, motivation, survey and information on planning respectively. Section VIII reviews resource management through group sensitisation, section IX providers executive summary of the working papers from IBRAD on ecological and economic issues. Section X discusses role of working groups.

The paper deals with aspect of conservation and utilisation of biodiversity in such a manner that ensures both natural evolution and sustainable development simultaneously. It lay emphasis on equitable sharing of benefits arising out of sustainable use of biodiversity and the indigenous knowledge system associated with it. JFM is a concept of developing partenership between fringe forest users groups and the Forest Department on the basis of mutual trust and jointly defined roles and responsibilities with regard to forest protection and development. Shortcomings in the implementation of JFM process leads to certain anomalies. The JFM impacts have not been felt across the country, particularly considering the basic issues of conservation and use of biological resources. Some ambiguties in this process are given as (1) confining the JFM area to forest land only (2) overlooking the prevelance of traditional rights in forest areas (3) no provision for restructuring of existing legal framework to ensure envisaged sharing of use fructs.The necessity of evaluation of joint forest management (JFM) applications of acceptable interventions depending upon their relevant requirement have been discussed. The efforts of international agencies and the work undertaken in India, with special emphasis on Madhya Pradesh, have been highlighted. The study goes on to describe the constraints and legal issues pertaining to JFM.

Joint forest management as a strategy for rehabilitation of degraded forests was formally adopted in Andhra Pradesh in the year 1993. From a mere 200 VSS (vana samrakshana samithi) in 1995, today we have as many as 6600 VSS in the state managing about 16 lakh hectares of forest area. About 13 lakh people, including 5.5 lakh women are actively participating in realising the dream of bringing back greenery to the forests.

State government has issued many progressive orders to enable proper implementation of the JFM in the state. The important features are transparency through joint account system, 50% compulsory enrolment for women, involvement of non governmental organisations, SCs and STs become automatic members of VSS, 100% share in usufruct from vana samarakshan samiti, 50% share in the net revenue, 25% share in the compounding fees on forest offences detected by VSS.

The involvement of village community in forest management has greatly contributed to the reduction in the incidences of smuggling, fire and grazing. The joint forest management programme has shown a challenging way for the rejuvenation of degraded forests in close association with the local people and has emerged as one of the important tool for implementation of the philosophy enshrined in the national forest policy, 1988.

The rural poverty has increased by 10.16% (1991-1997) meaning the number of rural people currently living below the poverty line, are nearly 290 million. While embarking upon joint forest management experiments it is important to realize that the people living close to forests are still facing the fundamental problems like where they are going to get their next meal from. “Thin sampling” of JFM cases should be revisited in-deep to ascertain the processes, outcomes, and lessons for strengthening the cause of conservation. In fact it indicates the further research needs to strengthen the JFM institutions. The lack of capabilities deprives an individual/ a group to take advantage of opportunities, and the same opportunities are likely to be squandered or misused by influential vested interests. Forests and wildlife has evolved over centuries, and that is vanishing fast.To protect it, legal enforcement capabilities of the forest department are also strengthened to check the dominating vested interest while the greater understanding of the system, and its objectives, and the gradual and possitive participation of every person at village level in JFM institutions is ensured. And, if JFM has to succeed further, there must be a well-conceived capacity building programme for all participants- people, NGOs, and foresters supported by earnest scientific studies based on rural realities.

Joint forest management is being practiced in many states now and these experiments are throwing up many challenging issues for decision for the policy makers, foresters, administrators, JFM activists and the planners. This paper discusses the philosophy of JFM as complementary to scientific forest management practices and focuses on the emerging issues for joint collaborative action by all groups engaged in promoting peoples participation in natural resource management.

This paper presents a collective attempts to review future research directions and priorities for joint forest management and similar forms of participation management. The context of the review is principally concerned with those countries that are densely populated relative to the forest resource such that the allocation of property rights to local communities may asist in realizing sustainable use and minimizing encroachment and illegal use. New development in our capacity to handle and analyses spatial data uncertainty and many criteria offer opportunities to start to translate landscape ecology research into aids for planning that incorporate participation by local communities. In addition to apply new technologies available in biotechnology and processing to non timber forest products, much greater priority needs to the accorded to market analysis and research, and liaison between industry and researchers, in addressing the problems of both to clarify protocols in relation to revenue sharing and other arrangements, and to better mobilize community support. Participatory processes are another area needing research beyond the phase of initial appraisal, in order to inform and involve, develop participatory management processes, and institute monitoring and review process.

The training pattern of IFS officers recruited by the UPSC is frequently moderated to address the emerging professional needs. Professional training of Indian Forest Service officers at Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy at Dehra Dun has also been tailored to suit the upcoming socio- economic dimensions of forestry profession in India. A survey of IFS probationers from four batches of Indian Foest Service officer including the first batch which has undergone the latest pattern of on-the-job training sandwiched between professional and advance phases has been conducted to interpret their assumptions and perceptions on the issues of joint forest management in India. Though their exposure to the process is very limited, yet the new generation has expressed some key issues from its objectivity to the problem which needs to be addressed. Most of them have revealed optimistic thoughts about the process and accept JFM as one of the options of regulating forestry in India.

Joint forest management is a participatory approach of managing the state owned forests. In this system the forest department has to forge alliance with local communities to manage the forests adjoining to their village. The local community protects the area against fire, grazing, encroachment, illicit feelling and helps in watch and ward. In return to their labor and increased responsibility of management the community has a right of usufructs and right of access over the land.

The success of JFM in any area will depend on the motivation of different subgroups in a particular area. In most of the cases the weaker section is affected the maximum because of its dependence on forest for livelihood and day to day requirements. Therefore while initiating any JFM programme the interests of all groups of the society specially the weaker section must be protected otherwise the success of the programme will always be doubtful.This paper looks at ecological and social objectives that could be achieved through implementation of JFM programmes. It also examines likelihood of changing needs and responses of the local communities in different types of possible socio-economic scenarios in which participative forestry programmes will have to operate in future. Need for research in various important policy related areas of JFM programmes as well as areas of potential conflict are also highlighted.The paper described an attempt by a company with a sizeable investment in the timber industry to secure its investment by contributing to the sustainable management of forests in order to assure future row materials availability. The key players are Ghana Primewood Products Ltd. (G AP), one of its major trading partners, a Danish timber company, and the chief and people of Gwira-Banso. Farmers activities constitute the single most important cause of deforestation in the area and a major purpose of the project is to help stabilize agriculture and improve farm incomes through environmentally friendly interventions. Results to date include a reduction in the rate of new land clearance, the successful introduction for more shade tolerant crops capable of growing with timber trees and the overwhelming support of farmers in planting indigenous and fast growing exotic timber species on forms and follow land. Other developments financed by GAP include provision of good drinking water and the rehabilitation of school buildings.

The traditional self-initiated community forestry management (CFM) systems that existed during the pre-colonal and colonial period in the past have largely disappeared. A national support group (NSG) on JFM was set up to generate information through research and monitoring for policy advocacy, to promote participatory forestry in India. The aim of the ecological and economics research network (EERN) is, to assess ecological and economic aspects of JFM, through a multi location, coordinated research programme. The area of operation of the EERN member groups largely determine the selection of study locations. A total of 33 villages were selected. The networking group had to address generic issues to draw general implications; they also had to understand features specific to a particular location. In this section, the following institutional aspects of JFM and self-initiated CFM systems are presented : Types of forests protection and management institutions, motivation for protection, extent of spread of JFM and CFM systems, features of management institutions, forest protection and management practices and institutional arrangements such as regulations on extraction of firewood and NTFPs and mode of enforcement.

Methods of forest protection and management practices have been discussed under the following headings grazing, forest protection practices and institutional arrangements. Regulating extraction of firewood, regulations on NTFP collection etc. The impact of protection and management on forest regeneration and status, growth rates of biomass in regenerating forests and current extraction levels, sustainability of tree regeneration, demand for firewood and supply from protected forests. The dependence of communities on forests is assessed by analyzing the diversity of NTFPs collected and used, percentage of households gathering, quantities gathered and income generated form NTFPs. Conclusions has been drawn under the following headings : Institutional structure, participation of communities, vegetation and silvicultural practices, natural regeneration as an option for revegetation of degraded lands through JFM, protection and grazing practices under JFM, vegetation management practices for JFM, sustainability of firewood extraction from JFM forests. Extraction of NTFPs and sustainability, participatory forest monitoring and adaptive forest management for JFM, implications from the national level assessment of JFM etc.

The national wildlife action plan (1983) calls for management of protected areas and habitat restoration. The biggest hurdle in the effective management of large areas under protected areas is to address the problem of man-wildlife conflicts, which has its origin due to large number of human populations continue to reside in villages located in and around the protected areas.

The landscape approach can be defined as “that for the purpose of planning the PA on its geographic scale including areas outside its legal boundaries identified as a buffer or zone of influence to which planning is to be extended”.

Ecodevelopment is one such programme, which is currently in operation in many PAs to address the human related problems in the PAs. Ecodevelopment for PAs can be referred to as the counterpart of joint forest management (JFM) being implemented in degraded and high forestlands.

There is need to develop stronger linkages between the protected area and the local communities in order to implement effective ecodevelopment programs. Ecodevelopment must enlist the willing participation of the people concerned and mutual trust between managers and people is a vital element in this process.

Effective local control with forest department requires a willingness and ability of government to empower the peoples’ local institutions and this empowerment is possible only when the people are aware of different roles and processes of JFM. In this regard, the cognitive analysis of JFM had been planned to study the level of knowledge and awareness of people towards JFM through JFM awareness index (JAI). The results indicate a limited amount of cognitive level assimilation of JFM. This limited level of awareness and knowledge at cognitive level acts as a constraint in the institutionalisation of JFM. Thus, sustained awareness generating efforts are required at micro-level through village workshops, study tours, exposure visits, educational campaigns etc. to riase the level of knowledge and awareness of people towards the broader objective of institutionalisation and sustenance of JFM programme.

Successful JFM depends on a good relationship between the forest department and local communities so that they can work together to meet common objectives. This in turn requires new skills of analysis and understanding, with more emphasis on listening and learning than traditional top down roles. The sustainability of JFM initiatives can be assured only when there is genuine involvement of the community at each level. At present, the communities are performing their roles of protection of forest effectively. Human capital formation is a fundamental premise of a joint management. Institutional development aims at improving the management of the sector through changing the approach of the forestry personal from a predominantly regulatory role to one in which communities are treated as equal partners in the management of resources. The area covered under JFM programme has increased mainfold during the past 10 years. The success of the programme mainly depends upon the continued commitment on part of all the stockholders. People are more responsive in areas where there is scarcity of biomass and where rural development activities have been linked with the JFM programme.The JFM was started in kullu during September, 1994. The staff took an initiative and the JFM support team through various participatory training workshops sensitised the field staff as well as local people to bring about an attitudinal change. Nine VFDCs have been formed and six micro plans prepared during last two and half years. The JFM approach has been successful inspite of many apprehensions expressed in the beginning.It has been realised that the forest cannot be protected and developed without the involvement of local people. The 1988 national forest policy has also envisaged the involvement of local people in the protection and development of the forests. In Cuddapah forest division, a tribal village by name Saibaba Nagar situated near the Palakonda rserve forest was identified in which the joint forest management has been started with the active involvement of all the villagers by forming the vana samarakashana samithi (forest protection committee). A non- govermnent organisation has also involved actively in implementation of the joint forest management in this village. The results are very encouraging and the villagers are taking very good interest in protection and development of the degraded forest.

The purpose of JFM study in Nayagram Range was to investigate the recovery of vegetation in response to community management; to generate information about the efficacy of management practices to help forest communities, and to understand the flow of forest products and economic dependence of the local people on the forests. The study area in Nayagram beat has 19 FPC's of which five have been selected for this study. Vegetation status has been analysed in Kalusar, Kharikamathani and Uthan Nayagram village, while NTFP (non timber forest products) flows have been analysed in Kharikamathani, Nemainagar and Khanamuri. Both the vegetation and NTFP analysis was done only in one village Kharikamathani. A comparative vegetation analysis of villages was to assess impact of community protection and management on vegetation status in the villages of Kalusar, Kharik amathani and Uthan Nayagram. The species importance value index shows that in the protected forest in Kharibamathani village, Shorea robusta, Diospyros melanoxylon, Terminalia bellirica, are the most important species. In the Kalusar village, Shorea robusta and Terminalia bellirica are predominant species. Plantations are largely monocultures of Eucalyptus tereticornis. The pattern of regeneration, dominates of a single species and size class distribution in these forests indicte that a considerable amount of extraction is continuing, hampering the recruitment pattern of these forests. The growth rate of biomass in regenerating sal forest plantations is comparable to plantations of Eucalyptus. Grazing has shown no adverse effect on regenerating capacity of forests. NTFP extraction is monitored along with vegetation growth only in Kharikamathani. NTFP extraction alone was monitored in two other neighbouring village, namely Nemaingar and Khanamuri. Seasonwise collection of NTFP current rates of firewood extraction, Data on NTFP collection by households and sharing of benefits have been analysed. Gender, equity and sustainability of management system has been discussed. In recent years participation of women has increased remarkably in all the FPC's. In all the villages, FPC's have evolved and effectively emfore protection measure and extraction regulations. The JFM concept has given the needed institutional support to the communities to undertake protection and management of forests

The joint participatory forest management programme in Haryana has come a long way since it started on an experimental basis in Sukhomajri village in 1977-78. With the JPFM policy,an outcome of the interactions of the HFD officials and TERI resource team with the village communities, having been approved by the GOH and the JPFM rules already having been submitted for approval, the HFD stands convinced and committed towards the programme and therefore, has plans to expand the same along the entire Shivalik belt and also to the Aravallis.

With the first phase of successful partnership between HFD and TERI coming to an end in June 1993, the offcials of HFD, TERI and Ford Foundation alongwith the representatives of a few HRMS came together on March 24, 1993 to review the progress of JPFMP, millestones reached, successes, failures, lessons learnt and to discuss about future strategies for moving towards achieving the conceived objectives of creating sustainable forest management systems.Presentations made in the workshop reflected the views of various parties involved. Various issues that came to light in the process are summarized.

Joint forest management represents a progressive shift towards state recognition of the interdependence between the well-being of forests and the well-being of the women and men dependent on them for subsistence and livelihood needs. Although it does not transfer the ownership or title of the land to the local community, the administrative legitimacy that state joint forest management resolution land to benefit sharing arrangements with community institutions has motivated several hundred thousand villagers to initiate or participate inforestry regeneration through community-controlled protection. Caution is warranted, however, in using the improving condition of forests as the prime indicator of the success of joint forest management. Most communities encompass internal hierachies differentiated by caste, class, tribe and gender, the nature and extent of the dependence of each subgroup on forests varies within and between communities. A currently practised,by and large joint forest management is overlooking such variations. Because of its primary focus on forest protection for timber production rather than need based forest management , the programme is empowering those members to forsake immediate extraction without providing them any alternatives. Such inequity of impact is most differentiated by gender to the near total exclusion of women(who constitute the majority of forest users)from programme related decisions. The resulting increases in inequity within and between communities as well as by gender are also a potential the eat to the long-term sustainability of joint forest management. For joint forest management to represent participatory forest management, its emphasis on regenerating timber through community protection needs to be shifted to developing sustainable alternatives for meeting the diverse forest produce needs of the most dependent members of community institutions. This requires introducing participatory disaggregation of forest dependence by caste, class, tribe and gender at the community level, and evolving mechanisms for meeting the immediate essential needs of the most dependent members through appropriate forest management interventions prior to the commencement of joint management. The marginalization of women in joint forest management needs to be rectified by structuring their integration in community institutions as independent primary and management committee members and clearly specifying their entitlements to benefits in the state joint forest management resolutions.

As per the provisions of national policy of 1988, the joint forest management (JFM), programme is being implemented in 22 states of the country. The guidelines for this purpose were determined by June 1990 circular of the Government of India. The state Minipur, Meghalaya, Goa and other Union Territories are yet to initiate the JFM programme.

To meet the goals of JFM programme, the forest to be managed must be carefully identified and suitable management regimes evolved. Continuous institutional strengthening and policy backup based on experience. Initial financial support through entry point activities should be a prerequisite for starting the JFM programme in a given locality together with adequate linkages with rural development activities through the DRDAs. The focus of JFM would be on sustainable management on non timber forest products (NTFPs) and this will also be the main source of earning for the beneficiaries.

There is also a need to link the JFM to the rural development and poverty alleviation programmes for its long term sustainability. The relationship between panchayats and JFM bodies need to be shaped keeping this into consideration. The success of joint forest management would not only depend upon the extent of participation from the people, but the management regime and technology adopted. A socio-economic profile of villages and forest resources including the bio diversity need to be evolved to prepare socio-economic indexes for the management.

The joint forest management divisions of the ICFRE, IIFM and other institutions should plan a 5 to 10 years perspective research plan to provide the technological and information back up enunciated above. The mandate of the JFM division in ICFRE should be clearly spell out for this purpose. A coordinated action plan need to be finalised by the JFM cell of the Ministry of Environment and Forests by involving all the institutions.

This is a report on the study tour of North Bengal and Haryana undertaken by the author to learn from their experiences with JFM and transmit these to GTZ-funded forestry projects in other Asian countries. The tour covered JFM areas in the Jalpaiguri,Cooch Bihar and Kurseong divisions of North Bengal. The author had discussions with a number of forest protection committees in these areas. In the second part of the tour the Ec-funded Aravali project in Haryana was visited. In addition, discussions were held with SPWD in Delhi and IBRAD in Calutta.The observations in respect of the projects are dealt with separately. It is evident that local communities on the fringe of reserved forests are ready to cooperate in joint forest management. It is also true that each FPC goes through a learning process which ideally is a joint learning process with BO, RO and DFO. This process starts with the formation of FPC and delineation of the JFM area and continues in joint microplanning, join implementation, monitoring and evaluation. Discussions during the tour of the author was centred on the key question, why members of the FPC who belong to different user groups in a local community accept to protect a substantial forest patch without getting a share of the net sale of firewood and poles before 5 years of successful protection. Of cousse, other tangible benefits are accessible in the mean time-like grass or certain NTFP.But taking into consideration that protection emplies restrictions on "castomary" uses enjoyed earlier, the key question still deserves special attention.

Punjab is predominantly an agricultural state, the forest area being only 6%. This area has been divided into block forest, partly Govt. owned and part owned by private communities; and strip forest for the purposes of joint forest management. The block forest include areas prone to severe soil erosion and degradation. Previous efforts to imporve these areas did not meet with much success. Under JFM resolution, forest protection committees were formed and given share in forest produce to meet their requirements. World Bank aided project, 1995 improved management further under which committees were made responsible for maintaining plantations, given share in revenue and also planning. Punjab afforestation project further improved situation, in which villagers were given larger share in revenues. The comprehensive guidelines associated the people, including women in management plan, which was more effective in conserving and improving the forests. The management of strip forests associated adjoining landowners in protecting these forests and sharing revenues therefore these are making steady progress. These include roadside, canal side, plantation etc.

In this paper, the authors describe a nuclear model of joint forest management(JFM) at Raj Rishi Gram Ravan Deora, Alwar (Rajasthan). Achievements in terms of wasteland development with planned afforestation through a peoples- based forest protection movement, encompassing cost-effective water and soil conservation, protection of wildlife through cultural heritage, integrated eco-awarences among the local inhabitats through lok manch and gram a choapl as centres of continuing informal learning etc. Make the model an inspiring example of self-relint participatory dynamics. All these achievements establish the result-oriented utility of the concept of joint forest management. Experimental experience and field interaction confirm that JFM is the surest way to mitigate gradually widening hiatus among the foresters, administrators, forest inhabitats, eco-social scientist, NGOs and the benificiaries.

Interface forestry project (IFP) is the Tamil Nadu version of joint forest management and it was introduced in 1998 much before the concept of JFM, where in 1990. An Interface forest is that part of the degraded RF, which has an interface with abutting village and it forms the catchment for direct and indirect benefit flows to rural committees in its command area. The IFP aims at treating and managing such a catchment to ensure increased benefit flows to improve the living conditions of people residing in the adjacent rural settlements. Interface forestry programme aimed at restoration of degraded forests close to habitations, on watershed basis, with active committee operation of abutting villagers. Besides upgrading and developing the forest resources to provide sustained ecological and economic benefits, concurrent efforts were made for socio-economic development of the village as a whole. Interface forestry has a multiple objective with multi-pronged strategies for developing forest resources, water resources and human resources of the selected forest based micro watersheds.

Joint Forest Management (JFM) is eliciting peoples’ participation in the management of natural forests for sustainable management. The interface forestry programme implemented to reclothe degraded forests since 1988 is a precursor to the present JFM initiatives in Tamil Nadu. The advantages and constraints in using JFM approach are discussed. The synergetic effect of biological, hydrological and sociological approaches adopted in JFM strives to ameliorate the conditions of rural people and facilitate their co-operation in the management of adjacent degraded natural forests in an integrated manner. Such an approach promises not only rejuvenation of the natural forests but also improved quality of life of the people living adjacent to the forests.

The author highlights the efforts made in arid and semi-arid parts of country to conserve and preserve the natural resources of this region on sustainable basis in perspective of Rajasthan and Gujarat. The author elaborates the action taken in this regard by the government in the field of JFM. JFM helps in improving of degraded forests with the help of local people in shortest possible time. Various silvicultural options are undertaken to achieve the goal of JFM. In Rajasthan the activities of management and protection of forests are looked after by Village Forest Protection and Management Committees (VFPMC's). These committees are empowered to look after the welfare of both forests and community as per guidelines issued by the forest department. Working and responsibility of VFPMC, Department officers, NGO's are defined for smooth functioning. The Joint Forest Management Plan, provide details of sharing of forest products, sharing of income, and resolution of issues in each VFRPMS. Present status of JFM activities in Rajasthan is given as under - No. of VFPMC=2075, Total area under JFM= 235634 ha., Status of VFPMC=500, Very active=1141, Developing=1064. The author also present an assessment on the status of JFM in Gujarat state and discusses its status, problems and reasons of its success, and other related issues. A 26 point programme as envisaged in Government resolution on JFM has been projected. However there is a need of research support to strengthen the JFM programme, where it has not shown remarkable progress. A few strategies like categorising, zoning of areas, precise sharing of benefits, need reorientation for future plans. The state government has made a serious attempt at involving both local communities and NGO's in the management of forest through JFM, which has insitutionalised in the state.

As it stands today the JFM involves participatory management of forests by the government. agencies and the user groups (forest dependent communities) so as to optimise the returns minimise conflicts and linking the forestry development. The ultimate aim being an ideal condition where the users acquire the technical and managerial capability to sustain the system. The question of sustainability has three dimensions. They are the ecological sustainability, the social sustainability and the institutional sustainability. The ecological sustainability has been defined as "use, that does not reduce the future use potential or impair the long-term viability of either the species being used or is compatible with the maintenance of long term viability of supporting and other ecosystems". Social sustainability is ensuring maintenance of obligations of the authorities as per joint management agreement.Institutional sustainability is the ability of the managing authority to sustain conservation obligations and this ability is to a large extent dependent upon indigenous knowledge component of the participating community.The urgent need in this regard is removal of the historical alienation of the local people from the traditional forest department.This needs to be removed with sympathetic understanding care and concern on the part of the forest department for the rural people and particularly the forest dwellers. The model of resource use estabilished under joint forest management in South-west Bengal is a social process that may be an answer to the increasing ecological disasters we foresee in the new millennium.

The course of events has lessons for the future. The most important is the necessity to internalise within the MoEF and the state forest departments the values and objectives of JFM. MoEF can, and should, reiterate from time to time the essentials of JFM the objectives and the values which should constantly inform any systems and procedures evolved by each state forest department. Any system and procedure should be evaluated in terms of these objectives and values. The JFM cell in the MoEF should be strengthened. The monitoring should also enable one to assess the progress in cardinal features of the programme. It is essential to realise that management of JFM areas would be different from the objectives of the usual departmental working plans. Policies and practices governing NTFPs vary from state to state. It would be necessary to organise studies and research in such fields. Training and refresher courses for all levels of the forest departments are critically needed. The involvement of NGOs should be welcomed as facilitators in the JFM movement. The schedule V areas which are covered by special provisions, should receive special attention in the fields of studies, research and training.

Joint forest management in a real sense began in Maharashtra from 1996-97 and 58 villages were included in the first instance under this plan. This has now increased to 602 villages. Financial assistance is provided by state govt. in a phased manner for its various components.The micro-plans are prepared in consultation with the villagers. Total area covered at present is about 2 lakhs ha, under the protection of village committees. Corporate houses are also participating in several of its programmmes. The progress is monitored at circle and state levels. Documentation is done as it is likely to motivate the people. Training is being imported to forest staff at different levels. Village level workshops are also organized. Bnefits have been noticed in the quality of forest management, moisture regime and better quality of grasses and some employment to the villagers. Future plans are to extend the scheme to the management of more than 18 lakhs ha, spread over 10,720 villages in a phased manner. When Govt. assistance shall be stopped, the scheme will be able to sustain itself from the forests’ own resources and an initiative has been made by levying some nominal fees,etc. Naxalite infested areas are proposed to be included in the scheme.

The state of Uttar Pradesh adopted JFM in 1997 and the state of Uttaranchal continued to adhere to the same after formation of new state with a view to develop a sense of ownership among local communities about forest resources. Attitudinal change, institutional development and participation of local communities in the managnement through sharing of authority and responsibility towards protection and maintenance of forests alongwith distribution of usufructs were the salient features of the programme. Labour contribution by village communities and involvement of NGOs were envisaged to strengthen the participation of communities in the programme. But, it has been revealed that irrational allocation of finance and stressing more on saving for village development fund are creating unhealthy situation for amelioration of village forest ecosystem and villager’s economy, which need appropriate attention.

Though West Bengal has made substantial achievements in joint or participatory forest management, some controversies regarding the silvicultural, landuse, management and institutional issues need to be resolved quickly. Attention must be paid to the harvesting of forest crops, benefit sharing, technical quidance, financial input, managing the FPCs and other related matters. Again, the guidelines regarding harvesting of forest produce as per the G.O. on FPC should examined in the context of the working plan prescriptions regarding felling series, cutting sections etc. The mode of disposed of the produce should also be sorted out. The felling of forest produce should be done in a phased manner so that some benefit, however small, may accrue to the FPCs every year. While preparing the micro-plan, requirements are to be assessed both directly and indirectly so that development activities can be organised in a concerted manner. A reorganisation of the forest divisions is also suggested to overcome the jurisdiction hurdles. The forest staff and the Panchayat should also establish equation of hierarchy between themselves and work unitedly. Women should play an active roll in the FPCs.

This paper critically examines strengths and weaknesses of JFM in one of the states (Gujarat) as a case study, which indicated that there was the need of more input from the forest department to resolve issues in transparent manner to strengthen JFM. Although the department did not fail, it missed the opportunity to become leader in the world in the field of natural resource management in partnership with local community. Lack of motivation among forest official, emergence of negative factors, politicization of JFM and lack of transparent approach to respond to the people’s need are the main areas of concern. Once all partners join hands for the common cause and bring the desired technical and procedural changes, process of consolidation in existing JFM areas, expansion in degraded forest, and extension in dense forest, mangroves, and grasslands will start on its own strength.

Progress of JFM and its sustainability is an important task in future. This paper concludes that the ultimate goal of the forest management under the JFM is to provide diverse products in a sustained manner to meet diverse need, including ecological security, so that JFM itself becomes sustainable.

The author conducted his study in four districts of Gujarat where JFM work is in progress. In each district, three villages were selected, two where JFM was introduced for 10 years or more and a third non-JFM village to serve as control. The data was collected in order to reflect the reality of ground situation, which aimed at broadly assessing how JFM was performing in terms of benefits and costs that are incurred by the supporting agencies and the JFM. The study has examined the costs incurred by supporting agencies, management and protection cost by JFM and plantation cost. The total cost comes to Rs. 6004 per hectare over ten years period. The average cost comes to Rs.7893 per hectare. The average realised benefit in Rs.22693 per hectare over 10 years in JFM village. In case of non JFM villages, the average realised benefit is Rs.13821, range being high of Rs.21200 to low of Rs.12966. The JFM villages are better off in terms of availability of grass, fuelwood, standing stocks and other NTFT's. Seven recommendations have emerged from this study which will contribute to augmentation of productivity of local resources of land, water, grass, trees and animals.

On this occasion of celebrating the emergence of JFM before a decade I would like to put on record the crucial role played by Shri Samar Singh, then, Additional Secretary of the Ministry of Environment and Forests, who skillfully pushed the proposal through I.G. Forest, Secretary of the Ministry untill it reached the Minister, who approved it.

First, there is no plan, no budget, no targets. Whatever happens is progress. Even the definition of forest protection committee and the area of forest lands they protect is not clear and varies from state to state and time to time. Almost the same time as JFM was initiated, another programme of area development was launched by the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) – national watershed development project in rainfed areas (NWDPRA). It sought to improve upon the earlier soil conservation programmes by enlisting the cooperation of villagers and involvement of the NGOs. But participation was peripheral. The approach was traditional technocratic, government officials continued to play the central role. In West Bengal they could mobilize the support of political leadership for involvement of forest community in management of forest lands, giving them access to minor forest produce and share in the final harvest of timber.

This publication, first in the series provide authentic information to the users. Society for Promotion of Wastelands Development, took the initiative to support the programme of Joint Forest Management. This manual provides the text of the orders on JFM by the state governments. It also provide the full text of the National Forest Policy resolution 1988 and the Government of India circular of Ist June 1990 setting out the new policy. An attempts has been made to highlight the status of JFM in various states in India Information in this respect has been collected from various pertinent publications available on this subject National Forest Policy of 1998 envisage salient features, basic objectives, strategy of forest management, diversion of forest land for non forest purpose, wildlife conservation, shifting cultivation, forest extension, etc. Highlights on involvement of village communities and voluntary agencies (VAS) in the regeneration of degraded forest lands have been projected. The text of Resolutions adopted by ten state governments for ensuring peoples participation in the regeneration of degraded forest also figures in this publication. Progress of JFM made in various states are given. Guidelines provided on training programme for Participatory Forest Management.

JFM was introduced in Gujarat in 1991. The states resolution on JFM sought to encourage village communities and voluntary organisations to participate in regeneration, conservation, development and management of forests. The progress so far is marginal as only about 488 VFC's have been formed covering an area of over 25,000 ha afforesting 5% of the total forest area. Studies on participatory management of forests were initiated by two independent NGOs VIKST (Vikram Sarabhai Centre for Development Interaction) and SARTHI (Social action for rural and tribal inhabitants of India). Viksat studied three villages under JFM in Bharuch district, while SARTHI selected a cluster of villages in Panchmahal. Geographic and socio economic features of study area, status of vegetation before protection are discussed. The forest department has played a keyrole in strengthening the FPCs by promoting, community participation. NGO's and people's institutions worked for equitable and sustainable management and development of natural resources. The community and the Forest Department can consider few suggestions for furthering the cause of forests regeneration and subsistence livelihoods. Fodder development activities, promoting market channels can supplement income by selling various NTFPs. Another important finding is that investment for protection and income generation potential is high in study area, where per capita land availability is high. Therefore increasing land availability per person will reduce pressure per unit land area and perhaps also improve the protection effort due to improved income potential.

In pursuance of national forest policy, 1988 and subsequent Govt. of India instructions, 1990, joint forest manangement has been taken up in Karnataka. The present paper outlines the work done in Uttar Kannada district thereof. It is a large area, divided into three distinct zones, consisting of a number of well populated villages. These are moderate to heavily dependent on forests degraded to a great extent and have been divided into areca, paddy and livestock systems each having its peculiarities. Previous working of social forestry has been reviewed and found deficient. Forest management problems of each zone have been analysed and projects taken up briefly outlined. The working of joint forest management, the village forest committees formed, their working defined, sharing of forest produce from managed areas indicated, other amenities, services and facilities provided to village communities have been briefly touched upon as also participation of local population in the management and microplanning of areas to attain success have been defind along with related subjects. The authors conclude that peoples’ participation has to be viewed as a movement towards humanization and democratisation for attaining equity and sustainability, particularly so for development and coservation of foests.

In Karnataka JFPM programme is being intensively implemented in the Western Ghats districts, particularly in Uttara Kannada and Shimoga districts. The JFPM programme has been assessed largely from the institutional perspective at the microlevel followed by the macrolevel at the Kanara forest circle. The microlevel study is based on survey of selected VFPC's and the macro or district level assessment is largely carried out based on data from Forest Department and other secondary sources. A microlevel assessment of JFPM in Uttara Kannada districts include eight selected VFC's to compare the cost effectiveness of social forestry plantations and JFPM plantation. Methodology, features of the study villages (VFC's), their structure and composition, functioning, microplan preparation, involvement in implementation, planting programme, sharing of income, role of NGO's in training of members and comparison of JFPM and social forestry programmeshave been discussed. The JFPM programme has made a good beginning in providing an opportunity for the village community to participate in forest management activities. However there is a need for bringing about changes in the institutional arrangements and activities to promote forest regeneration in a participatory way. A macrolevel assessment of JFPM in Uttara Kannada based on data obtained from records of the Forest Department envisage understanding the institutional arrangement, community participation under JFPM process, and impact of JFPM on forest conservation and management. Since the initiation of JFPM in Karnataka in 1993, 1026 VFC's have been formed and the area covered is 86994 ha. In the Western Ghats, districts of U. Kannada and Shimoga 324 and 185 VFC's respectively, were formed and 22694 ha of forestland has been covered under JFMP during the period 1993-1998. Positive aspects of the JFPM programmes are noted that a large capacity building and infrastructure development has taken place; 28% of the open forest has been reclaimed, village communities started receiving their share in income from the plantations raised under JFPM and initiated to reclaim degraded forests. This study reveals that peoples participation in forest management has a higher chance of success, provided the programme allows adequate decision making and implementing authority to local communities.

Motivating the people to become active partners with the forest department in management of forests, has been tried in various places in India and abroad during the last two decades with varying degree of success. The paper attempts to trace the history of peoples involvement in management of forests in the country and from the past experiences in the field of JFPM a few issues have been highlighted. The debate on the true meaning of participation has been analysed and finally an attempt has been made to suggest strategy for successful implementation of JFPM in the state of Karnataka.

The article highlights are important policy issue: the need to limit the right of the village community on forest lands within their boundary. The author says that if appropriate steps are not initiated in thisi regard, an explosive situation may emerge in the wake of joint forest management concept and practice spreading for and wide-when more forests would be closed. He calls for evolving norms of forest land needed for meeting the legitimate requirements of families in a village community for essential forest produce like fuelwood, fooder, small timber and so on. The question of jurisdiction Vs equity would now become of acute. Take Valia block where in 1995 Ak RS P motivated Rajwadi GVM(140 households) to protect its forest lands of 963 hectares. Where will the villagers of the Mauja and Kavachia go to meet their requirements of forest product? With more forests closing through local protection, the villages with little or no forest lands are becoming desperate intensifying their forays in open forests protected by the forest department with very inadequate staff. Such intensified inroads by neighboring villages are prompting villages with open forests to go in for JFM.

Kolabari forest, which is near Naxalbari town and located on the Indo-Nepal border, was the object of rampant depredations by anti-socials and encroachers. Valuable teak and sisoo trees were felled and removed to the other side of the border. It was realised that forests could not be protected without the help of local, fringe-area people. In 1990 FPCs were formed which ushered in a new era of PFM in Kolabari. Large-scale fuelwood plantations were started by the FPCs which were entrusted with the task of protecting highly degraded areas. The forest then became economically viable. Participatory micro-planning also became necessary for considering people's need and objectives. Project output and employment increased substantially. The paper highlights the achievements of the Kolabari experience. Participatory management impressed the people and enriched the forest of Kolabari, even though democratic participation brought a good many problems and the inevitable ups and downs emerging therefrom.

The author describes and suggests the technological options for development of different types of land available in the country, based on their needs for JFM - based approach through application of people friendly technologies, which should be simple in nature and easily available locally. Land development and technological input strategy and innovation in forest management has been suggested. This envisages agroforestry models on private agricultural lands, mentioning number of tree species in combination with agricultural crops like Teak, Subabul, Tamarind, Bamboo, Casuarina, etc. in different combination with Groundnut, Sunflower, Maize, Sugarcane, etc. Likewise private forests play an equally productive role and support JFM. Technologies have also been suggested for village common land vis-à-vis forest land. Rehabilitation of degraded forests and wastelands have technological package based on the principle of 'care and share' through socio-silviculture, fulfills the JFM objectives. NTFP management is essential for any sustained JFM programme. A proposal based on silvo-ethno-socio-economic model is provided for sustainable management. Cultivation of NTFP on wasteland will not only develop the land but also support to higher income through an organised market network can be provided by establishing a federation of JFM committees. Silviculture management of good forest land and their treatment for timber and NTFP ensures regular supply on sustainable basis. The major activities in any category of land management and its development must include grazing land management, fuelwood extraction, social fencing and gap planting enrichment of the natural forests. The aim of any technology package for land development under JFM should be to give maximum production in the shortest period conserve forests, and utilise all that grows in the forests to meet peoples need.

The legal provisions in respect of guide lines for involvement of village communities and voluntary agencies in the regeneration of degraded forest lands have been discussed in this paper. The need for innovative and participatory natural forest management approaches has never been greater, as more conventional approaches fail to withstand demographic, commercial and political pressures for conversion to other land uses. This paper describes three important participatory experiences in Latin America, where the primary focus is sustainable management for timber production. The results underline some of the basic conditions for successful participatory management. In Mexico, security of tenure, creation of new institutional structures, strong producer group organizations, political support, promotion of lesser known species, the presence of a valuable non-timber forest product and the relatively rich peten forest type have all been important. However in Honduras, attempts to successfully organise pit-sawing cooperatives have been hampered by the lack of most of these factors, especially the forest policy, tenure and institutional factors. The Peruvian experience, in spite of its well-documented strip shelterbelt silvicultural system, tenure security, and innovative marketing strategy has also suffered from institutional and policy problems, but above all from a political and economic climate inimical to economically sustainable natural forest management.

Biodiversity is the lifeline for the survival of billions of people worldwide. Yet, the loss of biodiversity is ever increasing due to modernization coupled with population growth, habitat manipulation and deforestation. The factors are multifaceted. Blaming the poor people who surround the protected areas for the loss of biodiversity, and designing a management plan which will exclude and restrict the local people from the use of resources, without providing any alternatives is not the solution.Several examples worldwide have proven that the indigenous people who inhabit the protected areas are very much aware of the existing environment and its fragility. Thus, they developed their own management scheme which will allow them to get sustainable yields for their benefits while maintaining biodiversity. Therefore, if biodiversity conservation is to be successful, the local population that surrounds the protected areas must be brought into the mainstream of conservation.Their needs must be addressed through small community development programs. The Annapurna conservation area project (ACAP) in Nepal was designed and implemented in 1986 with the aim of protecting the biodiversity of the Annapurna region while fulfilling the basic needs of the local people.Grassroots methodology has been applied in order to protect the biodiversity of the region.

The management of protected areas is complex due to high pressure of people living in and around them. This paper deals with a case study of Dalma wildlife sanctuary in Bihar where local communities in and around the sanctuary organized themselves in form of informal village forest protection committees and controlled the grazing of cattle, illicit felling and annual tribal hunt and catalysed the natural regeneration wihout any financial support.

National Forest Policy, 1988 recognises the dependence of the forest dwelling population and other poor living within and near forets, on the local forest resource and prescribes and their domestic requirements of fuelwood, fodder, minor forest produce and construction timber should be the first charge on forest produce. It is therefore necessary to estimate local demand of forest produce quantitatively while preparing or revising the working plan/ management plan of a forest area. The estimation would affect the quantity and quality of removals from the forest as well as guide the management prescriptions influencing species composition, rotation, harvesting regime and even cultural and tending operations. In this paper local requirement of forest produce in Vyara forest division area of Gujarat has been estimated on the basis of primary data collected through sample survey and secondary information available from existing reliable data base. It has been found that the area is self-sufficient, so far as local demands of timber is concerned. However large demand-supply gap exists in case of firewood even in the well-wooded localities. The gap can be bridged up by increasing firewood productivity, maximising fuelwood efficiency and using substitutes of firewood. Increase in fuelwood and MFP giving species in the plantation, expansion of social forestry and JFM, delay in harvesting timber, installation of solar cooker, improved crematoria, improved earthen hearths and biogas plants, subsidised distribution of LPG in forested tracts and large scale awareness campaign have been recommended as methods for narrowing the demand supply gap of forest produce.

The paper, an outcome of a study to deduce and reflect on the factors influencing community forestry, deals with the emergence of a self initiated effort, the transition into joint forest management (JFM) and, then, the weakening of its 'joints'. Community-run forestry continued but the spirit behind the self-initiation and collaboration had weakened. The study concluded that although the community was capable of managing the forest on their own, the initiation of protection work was in response to a particular situation. Religion facilitated the development of community forestry. Initial success added to the enthusiasm and expectations of the collaborating partners, but later failures to deliver other services threatened the continuation of community forestry. These lessons drawn from this case are important pointers for appreciating the complexity and dynamics of community forestry.

The paper, an outcome of a study to deduce and reflect on the factors influencing community forestry, deals with the emergence of a self initiated efforts; its transition into joint forest management(JFM) and then the weakening of its ‘joints’. Community- run forestry continued but the spirit behind the self- initiation and collaboration had weakened. The study concluded that although the community was capable of managing the forest and their own, the initiation of protection work was in response to a particular situation. Religion facilitated the development of community forestry. Initial success added to the enthusiasm and expectations of the collaborating partness, but later failures to deliver other services threatened the continuation of community forestry. These lessons drawn from this case are important pointers for appreciating the complexity and dynamics of community forestry.

The joint participatory forest management programme (JPFMP) being implemented in Haryana involves the linking of economic interests of the local communities with sustainable development of forests. One of the strategies adopted for achieving these objectives is to provide bamboos to the traditional basket weaving community of bhanjdas at concessional rates. The level of supply of bamboos from the forests to the bhanjdas has been trebled since the introduction of JPFMP in these areas. There were, however, many apprehensions regarding the potential of the forest area to sustain the supply of bamboos to the bhanjdas at this increased rate.

A study was, therefore, undertaken in Badgodam forests, which represent the bamboo areas being managed under JPFMP, to assess the existing stock and regneration status, etc. of the bamboo crop. The results of the study show that the area has about 850 bamboo clumps/ha with about 11 bamboos per clump and producing about three new clums (manus) per clump, each year.Against the present level of supply of 330 bamboos/ha/year to 27 bhanjda families from 73.6 ha of the bamboo forest, the area is producing 2550 new clums(manus)/ha/year which can more than suffice to sustain the current level of supply of bamboos to the bhanjda community. Looking at the adequate stocking, and the rate of regneration, the bhanjdas may be given more bamboos during the pre-monsoon months of May and June so that they could use the extra bamboos for basket making during the close season from July to September and keep themselves suitably employed throughout the year. It has been found that the bhanjdas prefer to harvest one to two year old bamboos for basket making. This practice of using younger bamboos needs to be curbed so as to preserve the vigour and regeneration capacity of the bamboo crop. The study also attempts to analyse the various attributes of the crop, such as level of congestion in clumps, distribution of bamboos clumps in different age and diameter classes, and the overall condition of the crop.

With increasing awareness for conservation and development of forests, increasing number of village communities are coming forward to participate in the management of village commons, particularly forests, both natural and man-made. Village committee/ village forest committees are the usual institutions constituted to enable them to manage forests on sustainable basis. The pattern of management, although same in principal, varies to some extent depending on availability of community land, demands of the dependent communities, and conditions, composition and age of the forest crop. Taking these factors into consideration, three models are discussed here (a) management of natural forests, existing on village commons, where the extent of forests is large and community is also bigger (b) manangement of both natural and man-made forests on community lands where the size of community and extent of land are just enough and(c) Managnement of man-made forests only raised on community lands.It is concluded that management of village commons for sustainable production of forest resources with the help of village forest committees for overall development of the village is possible, provided the members of the committee are trained in forest management principles and practices on scientific lines. They are to be supported in preparation of management plans and guided at the initial stage. Inaddition, legal backing to make the committee functional is also required. Clearcut policies, giving powers to the committee, for creation, protection,management, harvesting and for utilisation usufructs are also required to be framed. Motivational and technical support is required to be given by appropriate agencies. Involvement of local youth clubs and other voluntary agencies will certainly help in making the approach a fruitful one.

Buldhana is one of the most backward districts of Maharashtra. Buldhana is having mostly degraded forests spread into Satpura hills and in Ajanta hills. Only 11.2 percent of geographical area are having forests. Heavy pressure of grazing due to migratory sheep and Kathiawadi cattle caused immense damage to the forests and the natural regeneration. Apathy of local community in curbing the annual fire cause great damage to the natural regeneration and grass and in turn caused scarcity of the fodder. It was impossible for the forest department to control the above cause of degradation with inadequate personnel and infrastructure. Keeping these constraints in the view a community based conservation strategy was evolved without any financial help in 1996. Benefit from the conservation efforts set in the self sustained forest based economy. Slowly but steadily the local communities are going economically with the regenerating forests.

The paper deals with the successful regeneration of the forests achieved with the participation of the local community. Buldhana case study proves that productivity of forest can be sustained if local community is involved in management and protection of the forests.

The implementation of community forest management in Nepal requires the development of a management plan in consultation with the forest users. In the first of two case studies described, the process of management plan development started with the calling of public meetings and the rapid writing of a plan. This resulted in the domination of the forest committee by local elites. The people who most use the forest were isolated from the process and knew very little about it. The management plan can be implemented only with the authority of the forest department staff. This was because the intervention by project and forest department staff was carried out with insufficient understanding of the nature of local communities, forest users etc. In the second case study, a lengthy period was spent in the village, building rapport and developing an understanding of the local situation (problems relating to the forest, identification of users, exercise of power and authority, etc.)with all the groups who had any interest in the forest. The agreement was drawn up in the village, by the villagers who most used and depended on the forest. Implementation is being carried out by the users with advice given, when requested, by forest department field staff. The implications of institutionalising such a process into a government department are discussed.Activities of foestry should be planned and executed, keeping the interest of the people and their participation as a major thrust on the forest management. Therefore, the preparation of management plan for the vana samrakshan samiti (VSS) should be more in detail.

It is imparative for the government to do what it takes to make JFM a success, New ideas need to be generated, innovative concepts need be tried and new approaches adopted to imporve the quality and accelerate the speed. Historically and traditionally, there is no love lost between the forest functionaries and the local people. This is because of the policing and other regulatory functions of the former under the forest acts and the forest manuals. It seems imparative, therefore, to create an environment which would engender trust before even commencing JFM activities. This demands a lot of education, frequent interactions, socialising, participation in the community functions and the like.For this purpose, the field functionaries have to shed the colonial mind-set and develop a sense that, in a democracy, it is people who metter the most.

The ongoing project on the regeneration of mangroves is animportant beginning in Gujarat mainly in view of its mode of implementation through people’s participation. At every stage of the project, the local communities are being involved and before taking up any activity the villagers are consulted and their opinion is incorporated in the project.Through, there have been efforts of mangrove regeneration by the state forest department in the past in district kuchchh and Jamnagar with encouraging results, the modalities of such regeneration programme lacked the participation component. Therefore one of the major goals of the project is to influence the policy makers in favour of participatory approach for natural resource conservation.There is a great thrust in the project to involve women and economically weaker section of the society at various stages of the project implementation. Parallel to the training and capacity building programmes, several awareness generation programmes are also being carried out for the participating community.

L.K. snook and co-authors describe experiences in Mexico's community forests which are creating a foun dation for sustainable harvesting of mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) from natural forests. In the state of Quintana Roo, Mexico, deforestation and timber harvesting have severly decreased the abundance of mahogany across much of its range, leading to concern about the survival of many populations of the species as well as the sustainability of its commercial trade. As a result, this has been listed as an endangered species in Red Data Book. However in Maya Forest in north of Amazon, considerable progress towards sustainable management has resulted from almost of 20 years efforts and silvicultural studies, which have augmented the knowledge base on mahogany silviculture. Based on these experiences, it has now become possible to have sustainable and equitable mahogany production system, that provide not only timber, but livelihood for rural people as well as favouring forest conservation. However in Maxico's community forests with the help of government funds, can count on the labour of their members, enrichment planting is being carried out annually on each cutting area. Silviculture practices continue to be refined in light of observations by managing foresters and studies carried out by collaborating researchers. Under current regulations, only trees larger than or minimum diameter can be felled and clearings cannot be created in permanent production forests. These guidelines limit the potential to apply more intensive silvicultural treatments to toster mahogany regeneration. Other factors have the potential to undermine natural forest management as a land use.

Elephants returned to Andhra Pradesh in 1984 after a grap of 200 years and started living in dry deciduous forests in southern-most parts of Chittoor district. Initially elephants caused considerable damage to man and crops. In retaliation, man killed 12 elephants. With advent of joint forest management practices, development programmes including project Elephant scheme are implemented mostly through peoples participation in Koundinya wildlife sanctuary.Gap planting, water harvesting structures, plugging of entry across vulnerable borders, awareness campaign and good communication facilities yielded encouraging results in mitigating man-elephant conflict and increased elephant population year after year.

The world's tropical forests are disappearaing at an alarming rate as increasing human population and consumption drive human settlement, agricultural intensification and forest-products trade into forest areas previously predominately or completely natural. In spite of both rising concern about tropical forest loss and efforts by forest management agencies to stem the loss, recent figures suggest that 10% of the world's remaining tropical closed broadleaf forests were lost in the decade from 1980 to 1990 alone. Faced with the inadequacy of conventional forest management approaches to achieve adequate protection or management of forests, forest departments are turning toward a new approach based on establishing working partnerships between the forest department and local communities. Applied to forest reserves, the new approach recognizes that local people have both use- and conservation-related interests in the forest, and that they will cooperate with forest management agencies if their interests are recognized and met in the management of a forest reserve. Over the past decade, the approach has gained wider application with growing success in Latin America, Africa and Asia. CARE international is a federation of eleven national CARE organizations that provides emergency relief and long-term development assistance through CARE organizations in over 60 developing countires. CARE's goal is to impove the livelihood of the world's poor. CARE is world's largest humanitarian-assistance NGO.

Twenty two slates out of twenty six, have already adopted joint forest management for regenerating and developing their forest resources. Other states are also likely to follow the suit. Given the complexity and importance of JFM, its monitoring is essential for sustainable forest development. A comprehensive methodology has been outlined in the paper in conceptual frame work for monitoring of JFM in India. The methodology ensures the calculation of index score of JFM committee, forest division and state in integrated and sequential manner. Elaborate multi stage sampling design has been proposed for the monitoring. It provides the capability of detailed spatial and temporal analysis with the help of a decision support system, developed of a geographical information system (GIS), which will have functionalities of overlay analysis, index overly analysis, buffer analysis, point pattern analysis, etc. so as to facilitate the analysis. The analysis shall help to understand the status of JFM, trend of the performance of JFM, spatial distribution of its success, socio-economic variables contributing to its success, prerequisites, etc. Further, the analysis shall help in evolving appropriate strategy and deciding set of activities for JFM. If the methodology is adopted for the monitoring, it will go a long way in making JFM a sustainable forest management system. Though it has been discussed above with reference to JFM in India, it may be used in other countries in similar projects.

Participatory forest management(PFM) in West Bengal came into being due to the failure of the earlier methods. The local people's increasing demand for fuelwood and fodder put pressure on the dwindling forest resources. The foresters also felt alienated from the people. A ray of hope could be seen with the Arabari experiment which introduced decentralised management under PFM by activating the people in the participatory decision making process. After getting the FPCs involved the need for microplan was felt and a set of proformas were evolved for this purpose. Vast forest area of the Bankura range came under the new FPCs.Though it is quite difficult to manage as many as 400 FPC, the highly motivated field staff and village panchayats worked hard to make the microplan and PFM movement stronger day by day.

Planning for restoring degraded forests and improving eco-system services should ensure the local people's access to the forest resources. Government functionaries and NGOs should remain on the sidelines, leaving the decision making as well as the implementation and monitoring process to the local people. The poor forest fring dwellers now depend on the nearby forests for fuelwood, small timber and fodder. And it is because of them that there is an increasing degradation of the forest's tree-cover, especially in the fringe-areas. To stop this certain changes in the cropping pattern aided by improved agricultural practices, irrigation and animal breeding is essential. Population growth should also be checked. For achieving these goals microplans have to be prepared and executed with tact and imagination, taking into account both the short-term and long-term needs of the local people. The NGOs too can ben associated with the preparation of the micro-plans.

This publication has critically analysed relevant aspects of the Joint Forest Management process. Microplanning, as applied to JFM, is a simplified process of document preparation. This document has been designed and prepared to provide the necessary framework, guidelines and process needed for (1) developing an amicable rapport with the people through modern extension strategies, Participatory Rural appraisal (PRA) techniques, and participatory data gathering methods; (2) facilitating the processes of community motivation, conflict resolution, and empowerment of village level institution building, (3) preparing mutually acceptable micro plans for sustainable management of forests; and (4) development of a manual on GIS for implementation of microplans and action plans by the communities themselves which are easy to understand and handle. Guide lines have also been provided for the preparation of a Range Profile and village Profile for the selection of prospective JFM areas. The manual introduces the user to the concept of microplaning, the principles that guides participatory planning, and the tools for participative microplanning. The details of information that are essential for development of microplan, and methods employed in data requisition are provided. PRA and other methods have been discussed in some detail. The manual is comprehensive and would benefit the user through the different stages of microplanning with suitable diagrames. It is an important contribution towards more effective planning and implementation of JFM programme in India and in other allied countries.

Goods and services provided by the forests to the tribal have remained largely unqualified. Soon public interest litigation was filed by Sheila Barse in the Hon’ble Mumbai High Court, at Bench Nagpur. Judiciary rose to its feet and gave its order in April, 1997. One of the directives in the order was to supply minimum forest produce to tribals by the forest department. Range wise village based survey was planned so as to ascertain the goods services forests provided to tribals. Objectives are (1) to carry out village based survey to ascertain physical and monetary limits (2) to understand the present consumption level in regard to the recorded consumption of the past (3) to evolve a hypothesis in regard to the extent of conservatism in the existing consumption pattern of the tribals. Methodology adopted was simple, straight, easily docomentable and verifiable. The study reveals that each household in Melghat tribal area, on an average of East Melghat division consumes 60 ballies, 22 bullock cartloads fuel, 225 bamboo, 5 bullock cartloads grass and 50 kg. mohua flowers/fruits. Total forest produce worth Rs. 11440/- is found out to be consumed by each tribal household, levels of consumption per household in physical terms have remained almost unchanged since 1935. There must be introspection to acknowledge the truth, to ponder over the issue and to ensue that, attempt to replenish the out going resource is taken sooner than later.

In this article, the authors discuss the need for evolving an efficient monitoring mechanism for joint forest management. They advocate a participatory model for the purpose and list out complex network of interrelated parameters affects the implementation of the JFM programme. These measurable parameters are given as natural regeneration status, timber volume, status of diversity, change in the livelihood pattern of people functioning of JFM committees, etc. as an essential component of a successful monitoring mechanism. They advocate for monitoring needs to be done at three stages I.e. internal monitoring by state forest departments, participatory monitoring at the local level by involving NGO's and self initiated groups, and evaluation studies can be undertaken by the state and central government through independent agencies. The initial studies can serve as a baseline data for subsequent monitoring, by using standardised data format. For the present, no bench marks for impact assessment exist. The authors highlights the role played by the JFM cell of the Government of India in MoEF in monitoring the programme and expect for better results, synergy of actions among the different stake holders.

Most of the states of India have adopted joint forest management (JFM) to halt the trend of forest degradation and reverse the trend. The performance of JFM varies from village to village and state to state. Given the stakes involved and complexity of ground realities,monitoring of JFM is critically important for the success of JFM. In the paper three methods of monitoring viz. comprehensive monitoring, mid-term monitoring and six monthly in-house monitoring have been suggested. Comprehensive monitoring, to be taken once after five year, reviews JFM with respect to health of forests, people’s participation and preception, environmental factors, economic viability, performance of FPC and micro-plan. Weighted criteria method has been suggested for calculation of index score for each FPC, division and state and Delphi technique may be used for arriving at consensus on weights of different criteria. In this methods index score for each FPC, division and state shall be calculated. The score shall represent the performance of JFM in the area. Detailed spatial and temporal analysis shall be carried out with the help of GIS package. mid-term monitoring comparatively less comprehensive and monitors the implementation of micro-plan and functioning of FPC. It may come out with the solution of existing or emerging problems.Six monthly in-house monitoring is simplistic and focuses on micro-plan. These methods may be modified according to local situation. Hopefully, the monitoring methods will go long way in making JFM successful and viable system.

A study undertaken by NABARD in collaboration with FAO Rome in AP indicated that it might not be difficult to channelise bank credit to FPCs undertaking JFM projects. Certain institutional arranagements are necessary including govt. guarantee and legislation of the system. Studies further indicated that there might be 3 types of JFM activities that might be bankable where predominant trees are sal (Shorea robusta), teak (Tectona grandis) and bamboo. It has been estimated that with an investment of Rs. 10,000 per ha a return of Rs. 80,000/- is possible by sale of poles and other non-timber forest products (NTFPs) in 8-10 years. The major expenditure for protection and management of forest under JFM is in the form of payment of wages to the watchers bank loan with interest can be repaid within 8-10 years leaving surplus that can be reinvested or shared by FPCs. The intermediate yield of grass within 6 months of protection will also be available for sharing among FPC members. Besides, the number of NTFPs can bring revenue to FPCs on sustainable basis. Financial package for JFM is different from traditional forestry project. Thus, the working out of modalities of financing JFM project is essential. For this, research on incentives, cost and benefits for local communities, collecting data from several sites under a variety of ecological and social conditions and the biological relationships and production of timber. NTFPs and other projects are necessary. The economic sustainability and institutional implication of JFM approach need also to be studied.

The author summarises the financial activities of National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD). The bank took, initiative and sanctioned a number of R and D projects to reputed institutions. Emphasis was given for technology improvement including identification of Agroforestry models for different agro-ecological regions of the country. The author gives detailed information on such completed project undertaken by National Chemical Laboratory, Pune; Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, Dehradun, with their physical and financial outlay. He has also thrown light on various ongoing Forestry Projects by different Institutions in the country, highlights the success and failure of each project. However NABARD'S thrust areas for Forestry Research are given, for which funds can be sanctioned on selective basis for R and D Project.

This paper deals with the first draft of the National Action Plan with the entire range of biodiversity, inluding natural ecosystems, wild plants and animals, microorganism, livestock, crops and pets. A variety of aspects are covered, including biological scientific, cultural, economic, ethical and sociopolitical. The draft recommends number of strategies and actions such as preparing a national land and water use plan, strengthening of decentralised institutions of governance, reorientation of polities, laws and schemes to ensure that biodiversity and people's livelihoods are secured, integrating biodiversity concerns at all levels, strengthening of national parks, sanctuaries, biosphere reserves etc., promoting traditional and new technologies for upliftment of socio-economic status of poors, providing sufficient budgetory allocations where necessary, and building capacity of all sections of society to handle various issues of biodiversity. It advocates that the focus of all planning and decision making in India should be achieving the twin objectives of ecological security and livelyhood security of under previleged sections of society. These measures call for a major reorientation of the process of economic development and of governance of natural resources by the communities themselve.

In this paper authors describe efforts to put criteria and indicators into practice and their use at the national level in strategic planning for forestry. USDA forest service aims at sustaining the health, diversity and productivity of the nations forest and grasslands to meet the needs of present and future generations. Round table including federal government agencies; tribal, state and local units of government, private landowners and citizens industries and businesses; conservation and environmental groups, regional and community based organisations, researchers and academics met to discuss criteria and indicators and its methodology, reaching agreement on a process and guidelines for interpreting indicator trends, strategies planning and the Montreal process for the year 2000 and 2003 have been described updating the process of sustainable forest management. This draft has three goals; to maintain the health, productivity and diversity of forests and grasslands. These goals are parallel to the three main categories of Montreal process criteria. 18 core indicators became the basis for drafting an initial set of measurable policy objectives that address a limited set of high priority issues. As a result, policy objectives are linked to way social, economic and ecological condition. The draft 2003 update , describes objectives in light of how Forest Service programmes influence long term trends. Adopting a criteria and indicators framework facilitates a comprehensive analysis of progress towards sustainable forest management. These help in strengthening the capacity of the Forest Service to achieve sustainable resource management in several ways by (a) providing stakeholders with indictors for effective collaboration with varying perceptions, (b) by aligning long term range goals with measurable objectives for sustainable management, © by providing the agency with tools to measure progress towards desired outcomes. Like the United States, other countries may be able to benefit from the adaptation of criteria and indicators to strategic plans to meet the challenges of sustainable resource management.

Women's experiences of community forest management and use are explored in this paper from the perspective of interactions between men, women and nature. By focusing on women and their procurement response-choices, the importance of women's roles in forest management are made more visible. This paper further examines some of the processes outlined by looking more closely at the nature of women's involvement in forest use-that is, why women may choose to use community forests in ways which sometimes lead to resource stress and sometimes not-and by considering what this means for women's participation in forest management. As the primary procurer-users of forest products women are the de facto managers of community forests. The nature of women's participation in community forest management, however, must be understood against a backdrop of competing interests and constraints in an increasingly forest deficient world.

India has realized the importance of involving local communities in forest protection and management, and is implementing a large, state sponsored Joint Forest Management programmes since 1990 - The findings of a preliminary study, conducted in 33 villages in 8 states, is presented along with a summary analysis of JFM at the National level. The network specific goals were to: (i) record diverse forest management systems, (ii) conduct ecological, economics, and institutional assessment, (iii) estimate biomass production and productivity, (iv) estimate income generation from extraction of non-timber forest products (NTFPs). Status of forests, village commons and wasteland in India has been discussed. The breakup of forests is 3.5 Mha with over 70% crown cover, 35 Mha with 40-70% crown cover and 24.92 Mha with 10-40% crown cover, 6.08 Mha of forests are scrub forests 55.5% of forest area are totally managed bythe State Forest Departments. These forests due to various reasons have become degraded. Policy makers have now realised the need to involve local communities in promotion of forest protection, as envisaged in the Forest Policy of 1988, JFM order 1990 and Guideline 2000. Village commons are community's natural resources, to which every member of the community has access. Estimates of extent of wasteland according to different estimates are given. Realizing that to prevent further degradation of the forests, National Commission on Agriculture (NCA) recommended the setting up of social forestry plantations. Between 1980 and 1990, farm forestry came to light in Punjab, Haryana, Western U.P. and Gujarat. India has implemented a large biomass conservation programme by disseminating biogas plants and improved stoves. The article discusses scope of participatory forestry and JFM, self initiated community forest management systems; issues in participatory forestry; ecological and economic research network; participating institutions net work, and some of the issues being addressed with objectives being persued. National Support Group (NSG) on JFM pursue economic, ecological policy, legal, gender and equity aspects of forest management systems in India.

The negotiation skills with the foresters can play a positive role in shaping the institutionalization of joint forest management(JFM) in India. The real challenge lies in the pace of transformation of organizational mandate into the insitutionalized process of participatory management. The present day ecological conflicts have their roots in economic compulsions, sociological stresses, technological intensification, changing consumption patterns, scarce land availability and contending resource users. Making trade- offs between competing goals is thus a necessary skill for the natural resource managers. The paper also discusses the quantity, quality and pace of negotiations in the process of JFM.

The author deals with the importance of NTFP to the national economy. This can be judged from the fact that the revenues earned have been consistently increasing and have reached to Rs. 20,000 million by the early 1990. The role of NTFP in rural economy of the country is crucial for meeting the gainful employment and supplementry income. The recent boom in NTFP trade has opened new opportunities as well as challenges for a more sustainable, efficient and equitable management of NTFP resource. Mr. Singh seeks to review and analyse the constraints related to policy, institution and legal framework, and subsequently draw implications, for the direction of policy change that may bring about a more favourable impact on NTFP development. The author lists out constraints in the management of NTFP, which are given as (1) lack of resource assessment, (2) lack of institutional frame work for development of NTFP in a sustained manner, (3) monoply of state owned corporations in NTFP management. He highlights the successful story of the Bastar model and the role played by various organisations viz. Forest Development Corporation and Tribal Development Cooperative Corporations and private enterprises. Highlights of TRIFED, Bastar Division throw light on objectives, achievements, value addition of raw products. He further recommends for evolving clear but regulated ownership rights in order to ensure the sustainability of resources is maintained. JFM should lay emphasis of development of NTFP's for sustained income generation in a short period. Provisions may however be made to ensure that the collectors and the local users get fair returns training and technical supports to the stakeholders is recommended for the development of NTFP.

Women can play a dominant role in the implementation of joint forest management strategies because of their intimate association with forests. They depend on forests for various livelihood security servicies. They must get equal representation in the village forest councils and have a choice in the decision making viz in the selection of species and other silvicultural measures for upgrading the degraded forest’s vegetative cover and biodiversity. Various women groups can be constituted to establish alternate income generation activities to ameliorate the living conditions of poor and destitute women dependent entirely on forest for their sustainanence.The ecology and economics research network (EERN) conducted a study to assess monitoring and evaluation (MandE) studies on JFM in India. This article presents the findings of these M andE studies. These studies are struck by the fact that monitoring strategy has not been developed and executed for JFM in India. In majority of cases functioning, performance and impact of JFM was assessed for one time and few parameters were studied at different scale. The status of M and E of JFM programme in various states is discussed by addressing the scale of such studies, issues covered and impacts of studies in sustaining the programme is elaborated.

Manipur, a tiny land locked state in North-Eastern India is exceedingly rich in terms of natur’s bounty. Owing to divergent bio-geographic regions and bio-climatic conditions prevailing in the state, the range of flora and fauna is wide and this state, being in the region where speciation is believed to have occurred, remains a treasure-trove of many rare, endemic, and primitive plant species. In terms of fauna, which is predominantly Indo-Malayn, there are many species like the Hog-badger, Ferret badger, Brow-antelered Deer, etc. which are representative in the Indian context. However, unlike in most other states of India, the forest department has very limited ownership over forest land, and the hills of Manipur,which are predominantly forested. The ownership varies with the traditional practices of the two major ethnic groups of people, namely the Kuki or Chin-Kuki- Mizo group and the Nagas. The land revenue act of Manipur is not extended to the hills. As the indigenous people even now depend heavily on jhum cultivation, the forest resources are being wasted and lost at an alarming speed . In this context, the participatory approach towards the management of natural resources appears to be the only viable alternative. This paper gives an account of bio-diversity and the challenges ahead in sustainable management of forest resources of the state. It also suggests the participatory approach in forest management as an effective tool covering divergent forest types and people belonging to different ethnic groups with varying traditional practices and ethos concerning the forest resources in their surrounding.

Joint forest management is not an entirely new concept in Indian forestry because rudiments of this approach can be traced backwards to ‘sacred groves’, ‘kans’ and ‘orans’ etc. Mauryan rulers kept-special forests for public use. This continued well through Mughal times till the advent of the British administration. Brandis, the foundner of state-managed forestry in India had deep regard for traditional institutions and tried for more than a decade for the establishment of village forests on degenerated and wastelands, which were also to provide for grazing. Such a scheme was launched in Mysore state. A provision for village forests is also included in the Indian forest act, 1929. The royal commission on agriculture also suggested utilization of cultivable wastelands, and other degenrated lands for making village forests, to be managed by panchayats. All this has been imbibed by the present joint forest management approach to Indian forestry.

The author presents a pilot programme in Jamaica in which local management committees were organised to involve communities in the utilisation and management of forest reserve lands. In 1999,theJamaicaForestry Department launched a pilot programme to organise local forest management committees, their roles and functions, issues and challenges for smooth running. The Buff Bay Pencar watershed management Unit (WMU) is located in the north-eastern portion of Jamaica with an area of 2058 ha in the blue mountain range, 75% of land is privately owned, while remaining constitutes public land. The forest act of 1996 promolugates the appointment of a forest management committee, to moniter natural resources, advising to government on matters relating to forest management, proposing incentives for conservation practices in the committee's area. It also projects role and functions of LFMC's (local forest management committees). Suggestions put forward by the members to develop Buff Bay watershed as ecotourism, to build trails for hiking and to rehabilitate a forest building for use as a picnic shelter. Role of forest department of Jaimaica in developing the watershed area and confronted with various issues and challenges are discussed. The emergence of clearly quantifiable lies sometimes ahead, but future initiatives with communities in the watershed area are likely to benefit from the relationship builtup through the establishment of LFMC's. The Forestry Department has succeeded in getting communities to trust a government agency, a unique case in Jamaica.

The paper discusses the problems of plant diversity conservation under the present forest management systems. Besides establishing protected areas, need for reorienting management of other forests for plant diversity conservation is stressed. People’s participation is necessary for plant diversity conservation in the forest irrespective of their degree of degradation. Suggestion is made to extend participatory management to non- degraded forests also for sustainable production and utilization for non- timber forest products.The present day forest management calls for effective delivery systems, capacity building with the delivery agents and the institutionalization of participatory management processes. The natural resource manager of 21st century shall have to look at the resources in holistic perspective. The existing strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats associated with the institutionalization process are to be well comprehended. The present paper deciphers these attributes through SWOT analysis involving three particpatory management structures in India. The viewpoints of people, NGOs, forest department officials were assimilated to derive the results. The understanding of these attributes shall facilitate pro-active strategies and contingency plans to support the participatory efforts.In pursuance of the national forest policy, 1988 provision to create a massive people’s movement for the conservation of forest resources, joint forest management(JFM) approach has been adopted in the country to protect and rehabilitate the degraded forests. The paper analyses the working of JFM and summarises the experience gained. Based on the past experience, suggestions are made to improve the implementation of JFM.

This paper discusses the interation between mass poverty and ecological deterioration threatening life and well-being of the postarity. Now the poor forest-dwellers very much depend on the bio-mass reserves of the forests for their livelihood. In the process of collecting food, fuel, fodder and timber they destroy the forests. So deforestation and land degradation have become a menacing problem. Government measures aimed at correcting the situation were a failure till the mid 70's.Subsequently, there was a shift in policy perceptions regarding afforestation. Strengthening the economy of the people by planting shortrotation trees yielding fuelwood and fodder became the hallmark of the new PFM policy. This helped resolve the conflict between poverty and environment and integrated environment conservation with the poverty alleviation schemes. People's cooperation and participation at the grassroots level enabled protection and development of the forest. West Bengal's decentralised forest planning not only helped regeneration and eco-restoration of forests but also brought economic benefits to the local people.

In a country like India where resources are limited and demand is high, participatory management is perhaps the only answer in many spheres. The demand-resource imbalance is primarily created by excess population. Here the idea would be to utilise the population as a resource to bridge the gap between demand and resources. Equity issues get sorted out in the process and the most satisfactory solution in the circumstances in arrived at. The participatory management of forest was thought of as the only option available to save the forests where all conventional methods failed and the administration was suffering from a sence of bankruptcy. Although a beginning was made quite informally, a great measure of success has been achieved in a short span of time and with minimal investment. The need of the hour is to ensure sustainability of the effort and to spread the system to areas which are yet to come under its fold. The historical background, the necessity, the evolutionary process, the organisational aspects and the methodology have been discussed in the paper.

The paper described the process whereby social forestry project staff motivated the villagers to undertake project programmes. A village wood lot (VWL)was created over 6 ha. of land and 4 ha. of forest farming for rural poor (FFRP) component was created involving 10 landless beneficiaries of that village after consulting the villagers. With strong will-power, the village forest committee (VFC) emerged to be one of the most effective and efficient one. Looking at the success, the villagers decided to protect the nearby protected forest, over a stretech of 20 ha.Now the natural forest is gradually coming with bamboos and other miscellaneous tree growth. In addition to this, the villagers also planted seedlings in home-steads as well as in the vacant spaces and marginal lands, which were lying vacant. Gradually, the villagers started raising seedlings in a decentralised manner with active support of the social forestry project, Orissa. In 1990. VWL was declared as a village forest and it was handed over to the villagers alongwith the management plan which was prepared in local language. After handing over, the interest of the villagers increased manifold, perhaps the villagers could forsee the economic benefits they were going to get from the component and that is perhaps the greatest motivating factor.

Through the ideology of people’s participation is basically one and the same, yet the degree and mode of people’s participation of each department is different. There are various forms of people’s participation in forest management as adopted by various departments or agencies in Rajasthan.People’s action for watershed development initiatives(PAWDI). This project is being implemented in only two panchayat samities of Rajasthan i.e. Thanagaji (Alwar) and Pratapgarh(Chittorgarh) by the directorate of soil conservation and watershed development with the help of two NGO’s namely Tarun Bharat Sangh in Thanagaji and koon in Pratapgarh in their respective watershed areas. The committees implementing these workds are known as Lok Samitees(LS).VFMPC is responsible for preparing a management plan for the area and to execute it. Any adult of the village can become member of the committee by paying are rupee for membership and ten rupees as his sharemoney. The member can nominate his nominee also.The National Dairy Development Board initiated afforestation scheme in eight districts of five states in 1986 through tree grower’s co-operative federation.

To stem the tide of massive forest destruction of earlier days, social and farm forestry was introduced in the seventies. Since that failed to produce the desired result, the government realised that unless the people could be involved in the management and protection of forests the destructioni could not be stopped. So were introduced the joint forest management and other necessary acts and rules to motivate the fringe population. JFM brought various direct and indirect benefits to the fring-dwellers. People's participation needs to be appraised at the project-formulation and implementation levels and even at the post-project stage. In PFM there should be proper monitoring and evaluation of all assets, resources, finances and forest products by the beneficiaries themselves. For this it is necessary to lay down the detailed procedure of data collection. A suitably- designed questionnaire may elicit beneficiary response and other socio-economic development.

The authors define participatory silviculture as "creative silvicultures" having twin objectives of ecological restoration and meeting the multi products (fuels, fodder, bamboos, small timber and NTFP, employment) needs of the people. The authors present comparative views on participatory silviculture vs classical silviculture. The involvement of local people in exercising silvicultural options for sustainable forest management is the main crux of participatory silviculture. The authors suggest 6 step participatory approach for implementation include (1) identification of forest area and type, (2) forest condition, (3) participatory resource assessment, (4) need assesssment, (5) identification of silvicultural options intervention. A framework for monitoring the impacts of NTFP management has been provided. It makes use of simple monitoring tools and methods capable of participatory implementation and use. They also suggest a model for NTFP management under participatory silviculture. Scope for product yielding participatory silvicultural operations and participatory silvicultural interventions have been suggested. Many emergent issues which inflict in the participatory silviculture management are highlighted. Recommendations for improvement are also incorporated.

The author put forth his experiences of participatory vegetation monitoring (PVM). This has proved to be an important and effective community tool, blending traditional knowledge with modern know how in order to manage forest resources in more effective way. The information gathered from vegetation monitoring is used by foresters/community to adopt a better management system towards successful JFM. The extent and effectiveness of participation can be validated by the actions taken by the community. He cites an example of village Ghugimura of West Bengal, where vegetation monitoring has influenced the existing rules and regulations of the Forest Protection Committee. The long-standing conflict was resolved by the Forest Department by comparing the data on vegetation monitoring along with the villagers. In case of village Bandhgaba, study showed a reduction in the rate of peeling by 84% within 4 months by suggesting an alternative fiber of Combretum species instead of Acacia and Eucalyptus trees. The author highlights the participatory monitoring of NTFP's in two village viz. Kapasgaria and Bhagawatichowk. Values of NTFP gathered was assessed on the basis of prevailing market rates and compared the receipt in terms of Rupees in different villages by different stakeholders. Therefore it is concluded that it is both desirable and necessary to involve local communities not only in the protection of forest but also in monitoring and evaluation.

Harda forest division of Hoshangabad circle is considered the mecca of JFM in the state of Madhya Pradesh. At present more than 145 JFM committees are protecting over 1 lakh hectare forest area in Harda the first FD initiated forest protection committee in the division was formed in Badwani on March 25, 1991. Subsequently, similar efforts were initiated to form JFMC in other villages of Harda, including the one in Khumi that was formed in April 1991. This paper is intended to share the findings and learning from participatory vegetational assessment and monitoring (PVAM) being carried out in Harda since early 1999, with the active involvement of the joint forest management committees (JFMC) of Khumi and Badwani villages.

People’s involvement in resource management in Madhya Pradesh has been tremendous since the inception of the World Bank aided Madhya Pradesh forestry project. Joint forest management has come a long way in Madhya Pradesh.Considering the fact that there were only around 350 committees in the year 1993, which has expanded to more than 12,100 today speaks in itself for the tremendous enthusiasm that has been generated as a result of this movement.Peopl’s participation has increased due to a lot of income generating activities and resource development works that has been taken up in the villages which has subsequently increased the socio-economic condition of the people. Coupled with this attitudinal change that has taken place among the staff of the forest department has created a very cordial atmosphere between the staff and villagers. The likelihood of sustainability is very high, provided that the incentives are maintained and local participation ensured. Sustainability can be assured only when there is a genuine inovlvement of the community at each level. At present, the committees are performing their roles of protection of forests effectively. However, their role in management, decision-making, access to information, etc.needs to be further strengthened. The foundation for participatory management of forests have been laid. It is time to consolidate and build upon these initiatives so that the long-term security and development of the forests of the state can be ensured.

The collaborative efforts of the people and the forest department have paid rich dividends in changing the scenario of Gir. But increasing the biotic pressure demands more to be done economically, environmentally and in friendly manner to preserve and protect the ecosystem.

The management systems developed and followed over a hundred years were rendered ineffective in the post independence era due to various factors. The denudation of forests could not be prevented. Participatory management of forests is slowly emerging the only viable alternative in the national scenario.

In this paper, an attempt has been made to focus on the different aspects of participatory management, e.g. policy changes, institutional arrangements, equity issues, input packages, micro-planning, research needs etc.

It has further been suggested that at the initial stages to ensure continuity, it is better to implement the programme through a project.

Dungarpur (Rajasthan) is a small tribal district mainly dominated by ‘Bhil’ tribes. They are basically docile but quite elert in environmental protection. Their social and religious beliefs are very interesting and instructive in preserving forest cover. They have a peculiar system called ‘Kesar chhanta’ once they spinkle the sacred ‘kesar’ on a particular area, it becomes a social binding for them to protect that area by all means. This was reveled while discussing with traditional village leaders for the protection of a highly degraded forest block on Dungarpur Kherwada Road (Link to N.H.8).This block, being under heavy biotic pressure, in farm of illicit felling and acute grazing was almost on the verge of ecological breakdown.In this process, after a series of discussions and meetings, forest department took up ‘Kesar chhanta’ in Dec.1990, which involved ‘Vrikhya pujan’, ‘Kesar chanta’ and ‘Parikrama’ by local people. A villlage leval forest protection and management committee was also constituted.After more than one year , the result was quite inspiring. There was almost no biotic interference,coppice shoots have come up nicely and entire area has been rejuvenated. Forest department have arrange to have Balwadi and adult education centre in this area. Local tirbes have been provided with group kisan nurseries and employment opportunities through the forest department.

People’s participation in all aspects of forestrty sector is one of the cherished goals, defined in national forest policy. The emphasis, to this aspect was given time and again, but integraded and defined approach have not been evolved to ensure willing co-operation and active involvement of local inhabitants, baring a few area- specific trials. A systametic and defined approach was formulated and initiated in east Melghat forest division, Amarvati(Maharastra state) to ensure co-operation and involvement of local inhabitants in the forestry sector. The approch is yet in initial stages. It is gradually taking roots in the psyche of the people and the field staff and the ensuing out comes are encouraging.

This paper emphasises the need for a change in the culture and attitude of people as well as authorities for the sustainable management of protected areas. An effort has been made to highlight the basic management problems of protected area and some solutions have been suggested to overcome these problems with people’s participation.

Preservation and conservation of forests and control of forest fire through joint forest management and its success is described in detail.Indian culture, way of life as well as the main economic activities thrive in a forestry environment. Ninety percent of the wood produced in the country is used as fuelwood for domestic purposes. Ninenty percent of the people use fuelwood for cooking. Forests provide the bulk of the energy needed by agriculture for ploughing, threshing and transporting. Creation of community forests, therefore, brooks no delay. The nature of the activities and the local factors such as land availability in small bits, uncontrolled and excessive grazing make people's participation a must for the success of social forestry. Though efforts were made in the past and finances were made available, little success was achieved in creating community forests. Vanamahotsava was envisioned as an instrument for translating the concept of community forestry into the practice. However, it failed to click. The task is too complicated and too great to be within the resource of a government. This activity has, therefore, to be a people's movement and by the people. How to make it a people's movement is as difficult as is important. The institutional and organizational model has to vary from region to region though the general principles remain the same. Involvement of the beneficiaries from the planning stage itself through the extension approach and doing what they want and where they want holds the key to the success of the activity. It is also necessary that the benefits flow to the people early and continuously year after year for sustaining people's participation.

Forests are heterogenous envrionmental elements capable of providing diverse goods and services. The history of man is intimately linked with forestry use; the early man gathered forest fruit and hunted wild animals primarily for his survival. In modern times, forests still retain their ethno-cultual values in many societies as boundaries, reasons for settlement names, religious and administrative style or pattern, and as the basis for local architecture. Each society therefore makes its own demand on the forests, in most cases for the fulfilment of economic production of a multitude of commodities, for creating employment and new settlements, for health sustaining and improvement programmes, and as counter-measures against reverses in the environment and soil conditions. In addition to the numerous economic and social advantages of forestry enterprise, the technical characteristics of forests in terms of remote location, and considerable labour- intensive requirements of certain operations favour implementation of forestry projects by the masses. Since forest uses are numerous and the economic aims of the society are also divergent, there can hardly be any suitable means for maximizing the society's total satisfaction from its forests, let alone in societies where market forces are rudimentary and imperfect. Instead of the strictly financial management tools for evaluating forestry investments as is the case in industrialized countries, other tangible reasons which de-emphasize the financial returns of forestry appear to be more appropriate for the circumstances of rural communities. For instance, the maintenance of the enchanting aspects of indigenous tradition through forestry enterprises, the furtherance of the spirit of oneness or togetherness basic to many successful communal self-help schemes, and the removal of rural - urban conflicts are development strategies which should facilitate and sustain people's participation in communal forestry projects.

Importance of people's participation in the conservation and development of forests is being increasingly realised and several models of people's participation have been tried in various states. The present paper describes an approach to enlist the people's, willing co-operation and active involvement in forestry sector as tried in East Melghat forest division of Maharashtra state. In this approach, work centres, based on the collection of data about population, labour potential and availability of employment, were formed with a view to ensure work to atleast one member of each willng family in the vicinity of each village. This approach has helped in creating general awareness about the need of protecting forests and resulted in reduction in the cases of illicit felling, grazing and forest fire occurrence.

Forest wealth of India is getting reduced due to the indiscriminate clearance of forests at an alarming rate.Forest resources generated from 22.8% of the geographical area of India is not able to meet ever increasing demand for timber, firewood and fodder etc. There is an urgent need to raise the forest area to 33% of geographical area of India as desired by the national forest policy of India.Wasteland development board praposed by the goverment of India is intended to launch a massive afforestation programme on the wastelands to augment mainly firewood and fodder resources. The programme thus aims at the economic ecological and social development of the country.The wasteland development programme should become a movement to effect a change in economic environmental and employment regeneration of the poorest of the poor dwelling in the rural areas apart from increasing firewood,fodder and small timber resources.This will become an effective tool for the development of rural areas only when the people participate in this well meaning programme. Let us not forget the fact that people's participation can not be secured by empty slogans or platitudes. A well planned and sustained drive has to be launched to involve the people whole-heartedly in the watseland development programme so that the programme truly becomes a people's programme. People's participation and coopration cannot be achieved overnight. It has to come gradully. This calls for patience and preserverance from the implementors.

Designed to promote joint protection and management of the hilly catchments in the Shivaliks of Haryana, a JFMP was undertaken by the HFD in 1990 with the collaboration of the Ford Foundation and back-up support from TERI. The programme had its roots in the Sukhomajri experiment of mid-1970s by CSWCRTI and HFD,where the lesson of involvement of people was realized.The programme is now in the second phase of its inception. Over the years it has witnessed increased growth and interest, in terms of the area under its fold and the number and the variety of people involved in it. Though the main players have been the local villagers and the HFD, a great deal of impetus has been given to the programme by TERI in terms of back-up support.With only a year to go before the end of the second phase of the project, it became imperative to review the progress of the JFMP, discuss the outstanding issues, implementation, facilitating factors and constraints for the programme and decide its future course.It was in this light that a one-day state-level senior officers’workshop was convened on 5th August 1995, jointly by the HFD and TERI, at Pinjore. Also included among the participants were representatives from the Ford Foundation. District Administration and the HRMS. The gathering was addressed by the PCCF; Director, Forestry Operations; Deputy Commissioner, Ambala; Director, TERI and Program Officer, Ford Foundation. This was followed by presentations from the HFD, HRMS representatives and TERI. A lively discussion concluded the workshop.Certain aspects of the programme were repeatedly brought in focus by most of the speakers.

Studies were undertaken in 12 FPCs of Baikunthapur, Jalpaiguri and Cooch Bihar divisions of North Bengal plains. The study shows that the multi-ethnicity of the area does not make any major difference in the inhabitant's atitude towards forests. The objective of the study was mainly to concentrate on participation of women FPC members in North Bengal, their participation in meetings, interaction and relationship with field staff of the forest department, their understanding of joint membership and role in the exicutive committee, their means of subsistance and their inovlvement and participation in developmental activities. Joint membership is allotted for each household, it means that on the husband becoming member, the wife automatically becomes a member. But the implications of joint membership are yet to percolate to the grassroots.All the FPC members told the women coordinator that it was the first time they were having a clear idea about joint membership. Once it was clearified, they appriciated the significance and agreed to keep discussion on joint membership as a regular agenda item in all meetings to follow.From intimate interaction with the FPC members, it became clear that the necessity of joint membership must be felt not only by women members but also by their male counterparts so that women were encouraged to participate in joint forest management activities.They must speak out freely and see that their opinions are also given equal weightage as those of their male counterparts.Women's participation in JFM activities is slowly becoming the general norm in North Bengal. There is already considerable ethusiasm among the FPC members and the forest department. Regualr and close interaction is needed not only to motivate the women members to take more active part in JFM, but also to identify the more enlightened, forward looking and activate women in different FPCs so that they could be used to motivate their not-so-enlightened sisters to come forword and participate.

This paper takes a look at the performance indicators by which mianly social, economic and environmental impacts experienced during the implementation of JFM can be assessed in proper perspective. These indicators also help in examining the changing needs and responses of the local communities where participative forestry programmes is under operation.

Joint participatory forest management (JPFM) is based on linking the socio-economic development of the user communities living in and around forests with the protection, regeneration and sustainable management of these areas. In an attempt to explore new avenues for economic development, pisciculture is found to have great potential in many villages under joint participatory forest management programme(JPFMP).

This study aims to assess the social, technical and economic feasibility of pisciculture in villages under JPFM in Haryana, to be taken up as a community activity and also to develop suitable guidelines for communities interested in undertaking this economic venture.This paper deals with reshaping of the forest policies in India and its implementation in Maharashtra.Fundamental shift in the forest policies is evident as the role of local community is gradually changing from mere beneficiary to the equal partner in manangement. However one of the largest states like Maharashtra could not keep pace with the rest of the country in implementation of the new forest policy. Maharashtra forestry project aided by the World Bank could give some boost to the JFM movement in Maharashtra. Flexibility, legal backing and proper institutional framework can help in accelerating the JFM movement.

The author is of the opinion that protecting forests under sole ownership of government in past along with policing approach has not given desired result. Hence protection and regeneration of forest may be tried under co-ownership (joint ownership) of government and village community on experimental basis where JFM is being implemented. On seeing the result of co-ownership, it can be expanded to other areas.This paper mainly analyses the concept of ownership for the success of joint forest management (JFM). Author of this paper is of view that on experimental basis JFM may be tried to limited extent by way of providing co-ownership (joint ownership of state govt. and village community) with legal arrangement to be reviewed by the government that if village community fails to perform their duty in protecting and regenerating forests then co-ownership will be reverted as sole ownership of govt. The co-ownership will be bring sense of belonging to village community and in eyes of law performance of certain duties as well as obligation. It is settled principle of jurisprudence, that right and duties are in separable.

Author is of opinion that protecting of forests under sole ownership of government in past along with policing approach has not given desired result. Hence, protection and regeneration of forests may be tried under co-ownership (joint ownership) of govt. and village community on experimental basis where JFM is being implemented. And on seeing the result of co-ownership it can be expanded to other area.

Participatory forest management initiated in India has a better chance of success, if it is in tune with socio-cultural needs of local communities. The programme, that began with restoration of forests on degraded sites, can further develop into joint management of natural resources in important watersheds. Site specifici and transparent techno-extension strategies would motivate communites in self governance towards sustainable development. The paper discusses necessary inputs and potentials of community participation in forest management.

Joint forest management (JFM) in Jharkhand has gained prominence since the creation of the state. The schemes have completed almost more than 12 years afte the first notification of erstwhile Bihar government. This article is an effort to document the ground realities of JFM schemes in Jharkhand, with a basic objective to identify the various bottlenecks for further reinforcement of the JFM in the interest of the natural resource conservation and poverty alleviation in the rural areas. The findings are based on the personal meetings and interaction with number of village forest management and protection committees (VFMPCs), visits to the JFM areas in Palamu, Ranchi, Lohardaga and Hazaribagh districts and discussions with the forest officers involved in implementation of the JFM schemes. An attempt has been made to explore the conducive conditions and favourable parameters for promoting or facilitating JFM schemes in the state in the light of the available data and the observation results. The latest resolution of Jharkhand (2001) state has been analysed and necessary amendments have been proposed to make it more effective. Based on the observations and discussions, a strategy of optimisation of the JFM in the state has been developed. The proposals of this strategy are based on the various regulations of government of India (GOI), directives of JFM cell of ministry of environment and forests (MOEF,GOI), and latest guidelines of MOEF for strengthening the JFM. Adoption of the proposed strategy prescriptions will definitely promote development of synergistic man - forest relationship at a faster pace and the socio-economic based forest conservation will start easing off the anthropogenic stress on the existing forest area of Jharkhand.

This paper deals with need of the process documentation in Joint Forest Management (JFM) and issues and research needs of the process documentation. Though initially this process evolved in Phillipines, was also used in Haryana. Process documentation is a simple approach accessible to both and NGOs the village level organisation and forest department. Process documentation in JFM is applicable to feedback in planning process establishing a sound learning process, understanding the weakness of the system, providing priority responsive-ness to the process, helps in replication of the processof JFM, helps in providing sustainability. Key indicators for JFM process are given as (1) NTFP consumption pattern, (2) forest cover and condition of forest, (3) water regional of the area, (4) interaction between the forester and the local people, (5) socio-economic health of the village, (6) level of participation and its factors. These indicators are examples and not exhaustive list. Issues and concerns raised by the people, using process documentation have been listed. Efforts are needed to achieve the goal of joint forest management through process documentation with active participation of the local community. It is a dynamic tool, which can be used for sustainability and replicability of JFM in the country.

Participatory development programmes, such as community-based managnement of natural resources, necessitate capability enhancement of not only the village communities to manage their resources more ably, but also call for imporvement in the management capabilities of the concerned implementing agencies (GO/NGO). Thus, such programmes need to incorporate an element of continuous feedback and learning, particularly in the nascent stages. Agencies involved in peopple-oriented programmes must not only change their traditional approch and way of working, but also develop means to improve programme implementation, i.e., undergo “social learning”, a process by which they can learn from their own experiences. This learning is possible when the implementing agency records its experiences carefully and processes and analyses the data. The feedback generated in this manner can help to make requisite changes in carrying out the programme activities, so that the objectives can be realised in a more effective manner. PD is one such process-oriented research methodology drawn from the field of social sciences.

The workshop on “Process Documentation: The JFM Experience” was an attempt at national level to bring together the relevant organizations to discuss and review the method, approach, role and relevance of PD in JFM. The two-day workshop was organised by TERI and HFD from 8-9 August 1996. TERI has had a long association with JFM, having undertaken a JFM support programme in the Siwalik region of Haryana since 1990, in collaboration with HFD and with financial support from Ford Foundation.The participants at the workshop shared their experiences of PD in JFM, highlighting the method and approach adopted by the organisations in carrying out PD in JFM and the ways by which PD findings are disseminated and utilised. The approach and application of PD to JFM widely. Sometimes, the organization facilitates the documentation already done by the Communities, in another case the NGO undertakes PD for its own learning, while sometimes an external agency undertakes documentation for the NGO.Discussions were held at the workshop, on the use and objectives of PD, who can do it, what makes PD more effective and useful, and what problems and constraints are associated with it. The basic concept of PD as a tool for learning was emphasised, apart from it serving as a tool for communication. Brevity, relevance and objectivity are important in making PD effective. An analytical style, which brings out pertinent issues for improvement of JFM, is necessary. Reiteration might be required ensure adequate follow-up of the issues highlighted through PD. Moreover, PD is specially necessary in the initial stages of the programme.

The right burdened protected forests near villages continue to be degraded due to increasing population and cattle pressure. It has become imperative that such forests are rehabilitated to increase their productive capacity. The government of Bihar has considered this problem and concluded that active participation and involvement of the local people is vital for management and protection of these forests. Thus, a resolution has been passed. The case from Mahespur village, Ranchi district indicate that there is already awareness regarding the deteriorating forests and how the local people especially the women, are managing and protecting the forests in their own way. With proper guidance, suggestions and recognition from the forest department, it can become a full fledged PFM model.

The main objectives of this study in Haryana, were to conduct the socio-economic studies of local communities and to develop site specific models for the different channels of flow of forest products in the market. To achieve these objectives, five villages of district Yamuna Nagar (Haryana) were taken. The criteria for the selection of these villages were type of forest (dry deciduous mixed forest of lower Siwaliks), high presssure on forests, very high level of poverty, and agriculture based economy.The socio- economic studies revealed the diverse caste composition in these villages and a strong correlation between caste and forest dependency. The major dependence on forest are for fuelwood,fodder, timber, Maljhan leaves, Bhabhar grasses and gums. The economic valuation of direct benefits (tangible) was done for some products namely, earthen pot making, manufacture of leaf plates, broom grasses, ropes and Bhabhar products. It was found that Bhabhar is a prominent grass species in this area and has maximum economic value. The cause of poverty was also studied in the area. The main causes were low literacy rate, large family size, non acceptance of latest technology (health and development), less job opportunities in the area due to limited industrialization, small agricultural land holdings,rainfed conditions of agriculture, low average income and high expenditure of externalities.Some experiments were conducted to develop site specific models for maximum productivity of the forest. Varous permutations and combinations of species and spacings were tried, the major ones being the effect of cultural operations in Tendu, choice of bamboo and fodder grasses. The best results were obtained after the second year of cultural operations in Tendu. Dendrocalmus strictus is found to be the best species of bamboo in these areas and the biomass production was found to be maximum in Stylo hamata.

This paper suggests that participatory forest management (PFM) programme can be made successful, if we view it as a ‘project’ and follow project management philosophy in implementation of PFM. It has been attempted to define the concepts of project, project monitoring, project management and project implementation plan and to apply these concepts to PFM programme. While monitoring, participatory forest project monitoring of costs should be secondary and fulfilment of the needs of participants must be considered as primary issue. For successful implementation of a monitoring system, a continous feed-back system is needed. The project monitoring modes like physical parameters (inputs, outputs, impact and support parameters) as well as economic and ecological parameters are recommended to be included in participatory forestry project monitoring system.

The Sundarbans which cover about 10,000 sq.km. of Indian territory constitute about two-third of India's total mangrove forests. Outside its core and manipulation zones there were the degraded forest zones and non-forest areas which needed improvement and development for conservation of forests and natural resources. Pressure of population led to heavey biotic interference in the mangrove forests and depletion of natural resources. As traditional forest management proved a failure, the Sundarban biospher reserve was created with the main thrust on socio-economic development of the people. Joint forest management was introduced with people's participation aiming at the rehabilitation of degraded forests and development suitable and viable technologies for increased agricultural productivity. FPCs were created in terms of the G.O. dated 15.11.1991 which brought relief and benefits to the local people.However,it is necessary to work out an integrated programme with the help of the other government departments like Agriculture, Irrigation, Fishery, Health and Family Planning, Veterinary etc.

The present investigation was undertaken to assess the prospects of people's participation and carbon sink expansion in problem soils of some districts of U.P. Present study include 132 villages of 32 societies of Allahabad, Raibarali, and Pratapgarh districts. Level of participation in different societies was assessed as shown in tables 1 and 2. It was recognised that the poor farmers formed higher percentage of members from landless section. Prospects of biomass and carbon sink expansion in salt effected soils are shown in Tables 3 and 4. Impact of different species was assessed for soil carbon store under sodic soil after 3, 6 and 9 years. Carbon enrichment was higher under Prosopis juliflora (790.00%), followed by Dalbergia sissoo (176.78%) and Eucalyptus (160.00%) of nine years old plantation. Data reveals that accumulation of organic carbon store in the soiln is directly proportional to the time. Afforestation of sodic lands, has potential of good build up of carbon sink.

JFM by definition is transferring public management of forest to joint management of govt. and a group of people living on the fringe of the resources. Thus, JFM is following a recent trend. We are of the option that JFM is pointing to the efficacy of a new institution for resource management.

It is necessary to distinguish between decentralisation and devolution. People living near the resource are entitled to a considerable part of its sustainable income. By JFM, local people who were forest offenders and inimical to the forest officials have become forest friendly. Forest officials are now socially acceptable to the people where JFM is functioning. In JFM however, the people themselves in certain cases have established acceptable methods of transparent distribution system, which may be applicable in other collective action and benefit sharing.

The JFM can become instrumental in showing the way of true decentralisation and power devolution. This would produce the required impetus for participation by larger section of the fringe population. The JFM can reach its potential provided some major changes are made in policy and in implementation (Banerjee, 1999). These are 1) Introduce policies to remove the road blocks to include productive forests as well in JFM. 2) Change policies to devolve complete powers to the protection committees for planning, sustainable managing and collecting benefits of the forests resources allotted to them and equitably sharing them. 3) Eliminate executive committees in JFM. The power and authority should lie with the protection committee who will be responsible for all decisions.

Today in Canada, there is increasing public interest in the sustainable development of publicly-owned forests. The concept is serving well as a framework for organizing action on a series of related forestry issues, Including the question of forest tenure. Most of the public forests of Canada are managed under some form of tenure partnership between the provincial government resource agency responsible for forests and private forest-management interests. Our experience with such partnerships need to be broader if we are to gain the much-needed insight into how to achieve sustainable forest development in Canada. To this end, Canada's forest sector would be well served in the immediate future by a series of experimental re-arrangements of forest-management partnerships. Two options are proposed for such experiments: (a) new terms for government-industry partnerships based on the concept of long-term rental of a forest estate; and (b) new tenures for forest-based communities. It is conclude that such experiments would go a long way to providing Canadian society with the breadth of experience needed to decide with conviction about future foreset managerment partnerships.

In many countires around the world, government forestry programs have relied on technical and legislative methods to accomplish project goals and to ensure public compliance. While these methods have worked in some intances, there is a growing emphasis on public involvement as the foundation of successful forestry programs.The concept of public inolvement is not new. In the United States,such laws as the national environmental policy act of 1969 mandate some form of public involvement in federal forestry programs.The practice of informing and involving the public has found its way into the framework of government and interantional agency forestry projects worldwide. Yet public inovlvement in many cases has come to stand for the legitimization of forestry progrtams through token participation of communities and of special interest groups. Further degradation of the land and a worsening of conflict among interest groups are frequently the results.This paper examine findings and examples from community development studies to suggest new roles for foresters that will help facilitate successful public involvement in forestry projects.Diverse interest groups, often with conflicting goals, are demanding voices in setting the goals for land managnement. If goals are to reflect informed opinion, compromise and opportunities for mutual advantage, managers and conflicting interest groups must interact sufficiently to identify trade offs. Small working groups, with sustained interaction among representatives of conflicting interests, offer a solution.

This paper deals with two phenotypes of Bach (Acorus calamus, Linn). The GCMS and NMR analysis of essential oils exibited marked variation in terms of total number of compounds and asarones. The comparison establishes superiority of one over the other depending upon the demand specific use. The results would facilitate consumers (drug and cosmatic manufacturing industries) to pick and choose the particular type of Bach according to their need. This would add more value to a specific type and bring economic prosperity to local collectors, mainly tribals. A local forest dweller, who at present earns Rs. 15/Kg of dried rehizomes, is expected to earn at least 50% more.The plant being habitat specific may be propagated within the forest on suitable sites. This would go a long way in not only conserving the existing biodiversity but also facilitate forest dwellers, especially tribals to augment their income on a sustainable basis under joint forest management. The results assume greater importance in the light of D.G. foregin trade public notice No.47 dated March 10,1994, wherein greater emphasis has been laid on cultivation of certain endangered/threatened medicinal plants, including Bach, in order to allow the export of plant parts or any other derivative thereoff. The findings would pave the way for further work on demand specific cultivation of Bach.

In India forests were managed on scientific basis since 1865 and forest working plans have been basis of forest management. Butover the years scientific management lost its sanctity and adhoc management decisions have overridden the silvicultural treatment. Recent developments in the forest management and other related fields made it impossible to think the management of forests in isolation of others.This has necessitated a need for widening the scope of the working plans. The existing system of writing working plan has been analysed critically and tried to redefine the role of working plan in managing the forest by incorporating new changes.

This book emerged as a result of a compulsory training programme for IFS officers organised in 1992. The main objective of the training course was to discuss and seek solutions to the gender issues in Joint Forest Management through class room training and field work experiences. The first chapter highlights discrimination against women, in their social life as well as in family life. The future of women in Forest Protection Committee does not seem promising. They have little say in the decision making process except in some matrilineal societies like that of Khasis or Karans. How can a women hope or dare to be equal to man. The second chapter is devoted to training, objectives and methodology adopted in overcoming ageold prejudices against women in order to prove the way for their increasing involvement in Joint Forest Management. Women have a closer relationship with the forests than men. They can deal more effectively with women offenders. Chapter three contains a brief report of the inaugural session of the training programme including details preferred by participants during the icebreaking/unfreezing session. Chapter four deals with the gender role in JFM, with views expressed by participants. Women should assert themselves to occupy their position in the forest management and decision making process. It is hightime that the forest department realises the contribution women can make and support their cause. The forest need their care as much as women need the forest to meet their multiple requirement. In chapter five, participants express their views on problems faced by them and their experiences in the project work during the implementation of joint forest management. Trust building up measures among villagers are vital issues. Foresters should become co-workers to overcome the mistrust of local people and gain their confidence. The forest community should be enlightened about the advantages of Joint Forest Management. In chapter six Mitali Chatterji gives details of successful involvement of women in the forest protection committee in Brindapur West Bengal. She also highlights the importance of NTFP as a natural source of income mainly for women. S. Palit discusses the role of women in joint forest management and their active involvement is assured in protection, planning and execution. A.K. Ghosh points out the difficulties of women in collecting fuel, fodder, etc. They also face the problem of domestic pollution, which ultimately effect their health. Debal Deb took up the issue of gender role in NTFP activities. Chapter seven is devoted to field methodology, like Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) is adopted for need assessment of the people. It ensures proper implementation of measures to be executed by the community. Chapter eight deals with presentation of field reports by five groups to study the role of women in JFM and to formulate modalities to improve their participation in developmental activities under JFM. Report of group I contains the historical background of the Paschim Bhurukhandi Forest Protection Committee and the factors responsible for its success or failure. Group II and III. Experts provide site information from Bhetia village in their report. After indepth study recommended suitable measures to strengthen Forest Protection Committees. Group IV discusses involvement of men and women in FPC's. Group V report, gives an assessment of NTFP's of Paschim Bhurkhandi with particular reference of village women. In chapter nine the participants highlight their field experience.

Many wasteland development programmes have suffered from lack of sustainability over a reasonable period of time. Wasteland development efforts usually call for closure of larger chunks of degraded land from the damaging effects of uncontrolled grazing and illicit removal of wood for various purposes. These very chunks were hitherto being used as open access resources without any restrictions. The situation obviously makes rehabilitation task a difficult preposition. If genuine needs of the people are not fulfilled, it would render any amount of investment and any technological package for treatment of area a mere failure, as has been experienced over the years. The present case study dwells at the vital aspect of providing altrernative to the people in order to avoid biotic pressure of uncontrolled grazing and fuelwood crunch. Special programmes for stall feeding of cattle, livestock improvement, enhancing availability of grass and fodder from both government and private lands, alternative energy resources, energy conservation measures, tree planting and socio-economic upliftment of the peopole have been undertaken. These measures have helped to seek people’s participation. This has in turn, helped regeneration of degraded forests.

Land degradation has assumed alarming proportions in the foothills of Northern India.The traditional forest management practices have failed to provide goods and services to the village community. The attitudes of the villagers, and of foesters, changed with the adoption of a new conservation strategy, which included harvesting of rainwater for irrigation to rainfed agricultural lands, grants of fodder and fiber grass leases to registered village societies, and involvement of the people in forest management. The average annual grass yield increased from 0.04 t ha in the predevelopment period to more than 2.0 t ha in the post-development phase. The number of trees simultaneously increased from 13 to 810 ha. These forests are now providing irrigation water for farm land and green forage for cattle. In the process, people have taken more responsibility for providing protection against grazing and illicit felling. The hills now contain a green vegetation cover and the risks for soil erosion, floods and droughts have been minimised. The amelioration of soil, in terms of reduction of soil pH, organic matter build up and improvement in soil fertility, consequent upon vegetation cover development, are reflected in the data.

Joint forest management is being increasingly suggested as a solution to conservation problems of forests in India and developing countries. Philosophically the concept is ideal and needs to be supported without reservation. However, while implementing the programme in different Indian States, it has been observed that the programme is unable to institutionalise due to number of problems. It is therefore, important to analyse the details of programme and its viability in a shrinking resource base scenario. It is often seen that the joint forest management programme finds success in support from non- forestry incentives. In this context, it is important to set up a clear research agenda to make the programme self sustainable and viable and to institutionalise the same. The paper traces the history, analysis the bottlenecks and in the process, attempts to set up research agenda for initiating a debate for arriving at a well based research programme to make JFM a success. The important research needs felt are to induce continuity of flow of benefits and enhance the level of benefits availlable to a level which could generate sustained enthusiasm and ensure viability of the programme on a long-term basis.

This paper deals with some aspects of the research needs of JFM to provide sustainability. The broder forestry related research of JFM should concentrate on activities in silviculture, forest management to meet the need of local people, efficient forest produce utilisation, marketing intellegence and marketing of forest produce, valuation of forest resources in JFM area, effect of conflicts on JFM, economics of different JFM models, developing performance indicator, monitoring and evaluation. Research mainly on forestry and socio-economic aspect supported by sound information system can provide a needed boost to the JFM.The present paper attempts at highlighting the current research needs and management issues facing the NWFP areas and need to be resolved before any fruitful and sustainable management of these resources could be envisaged under the Joint Forest Management programmes. The paper also pointsout the grey areas where the local communities and their traditional knowledge base could be utilized effectively for assessing the resources potential and ecological stability of the eco-systems being managed. Overall strategy must be based on participatory and active collaboration between the Research Institutes, State forest departments and marketing agencies to answer the research, production and marketing questions, of course with local communities at the centre of all the activities.Joint forest management (JFM) establishes forest management within the wider context of natural resource management and encourages communities to take a decisive role in forest management. With an objective to look backwards to asses our strengths, where we have gained and also which have been weak areas so as to focus for a bright future of JFM, in this paper an attempt has been made to analyze various observations made and experiences gained during the past decade of JFM and find out issues which needs technical inputs through research works. Recording twenty important observations on past experience, ten research issues under JFM have been identified. At the end emphasis have been given on the ‘science power’ and the ‘people’s power (or people’s participation) to make JFM a great success in India.

The paper emphasize that in the context of the changes in the forest policy, qualitative changes in ongoing forest research is required to be adopted. The broad priorities of research for JFM would be on technical aspect of NTFP, fodder management for better value of the product, problems retarding the growth and development of JFM, designing the suitable models on participatory basis, to remove obstacles in the way of JFM. The research methods in JFM paradigm would be quite different from the methods adopted in classical forestry. Three steps have been suggested for JFM experiment required to assist JFM grow. The paper however does not spell out what type of research organisations has to be established and how the local people would be involved in the experiment.

This paper attempts at highlighting an urgent need to assess the current status of NTFP's their sustainable potential in the special context of tribal development and build processing and small scale industries with a view to preserve their traditions, custome and cultural identity. It further presents a total view point connected with sustainable NTFP's manmagement, scientific information, technology and extension, human resource development, scope and scale of research and lastly comeout with six recommendations to achieve the goals. These are (1) role of forestry sector in alleviating the stark poverty of the tribals and other forest fringe dwellers, (2) utilisation of experience in joint forest management by forest department and recently established forest development agencies (FDA), (3) sustainable management of NTFP's, (4) marketing of NTFP and its benefit to local communities, (5) inter-agency co-operation to solve the poverty problem, (6) transfer of power of forest management to community forest management should take into account from the previous experience gained from JFM and FDA.

The author stresses the importance of RandD support in order to meet the emerging challenges successfully in JFM programmes. It is now due time to provide considerable importance to research in all aspects related to JFM. The upcoming challenges in JFM can only be addressed through multi-model research. Major areas in which research efforts should be focussed are (1) silvicultural research, (2) site specific agroforestry research, (3) developing of combination-specific designs, (4) canopy architecture, research for high yield improvement, (5) tree and crop combination for different edaphic conditions, (6) research related to conservation and protection aspects, (7) research on livelihood analysis, identification of socio-economic variables and their integration with planning process, (8) market survey for NTFP's management, (9) integrative research to resolve compatibility between different resource uses, (10) research writing and reporting are to be encouraged at the field level for effective communication. The research network shall coordinate with other research divisions in the State Forest Department, ICFRE, Universities, NGO's to provide effective and timely answers to JFM questions.

Joint Forest Management(JFM) experiences in India have revealed crucial role that social and economic incentives play in sustaining these efforts. JFM was conceived as a sustainable management system based on active participation of forest fringe dwellers whose opportunity cost was compensated by giving some rights and privilleges on forest products. However, the definition and scope of the JFM programme is being expanded from rehabilitation of degraded forest lands to socio-economic development of resource-dependent communities; from managing resources for meeting peoples’ demand for forest products to managing pressures through alternatives. The purpose of this paper is two fold: (i) to assess the extent to which the sustainability of JFM programme is dependent on rural development and (ii) to evaluate the extent of effects of already taken rural development efforts in four states under JFM namely Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal. It is seen that from a forest resource management programme, states have adopted an integrated approach of rural development to supplement forest protection measures. The emphasis is now on meeting the social, economic and human development needs of communities. The village-level institutions created for natural resource management are also emerging as the focal point for rural development and each of these functions is mutually enriching and supportive. The paper traces this paradigm shift, ably supported by examples from across the country to present the crucial role for socio-economic development of communities for sustaining joint forst management initiatives. It emphasises that a self-reliant community is a prerequisite for sustaining forests and should be the basic philosophy for community forestry programme.

Loss of biodiversity as a consequence of mining not only affects the availability of tangible benefits from ecosystem, but also affects the functioning of the ecosystem; nutrient cycling, decomposition of plants and animal remains, nitrogen fixation, food chain and food webs, maintenance of soil structure etc. It is, therefore imperative to restore these vulnerable mined ecosystem into sustainable one with the objectives (1) to enrich the local species diversity which in turn regulate the ecological functions and (2) to cater the local needs for fuel,fodder and other forest produce etc.To meet the above objective, is desirable to have knowledge of the various native plant species, their plasticity, nutrient requirement etc.It is noticed that local people usually have a broad knowledge of plants, propagation, survival,growth and uses, and moreover it is also realized that any revegetation program with assessment of existing local knowledge and practice make a good sense for effectiveness and efficiency. To keep these points in view, the rehabilitation of limestone mined degraded area in Kiarkuli catchment of Mussoorie hills was undertaken with close participation of local people.

Though 80% of the land in Uttara Kannada is covered by forests, there are many villages especially in the coastal belt with only some minor forests, devoid of any tree growth and with exposed laterite sheets and boulders. Until the 1990s the villagers used to go far off to wooded forests to get fire-wood and manurial leaves. In the 1980s Acacia auriculiformis, which grows well in most hostile and lateritic soils was introduced. Now there are Acacia plantations all along the coast. These plantations are boon, serving the various needs of the people. Every part of the tree i.e. green leaves, dry leaves, twigs, branches, poles and boles is used for manure, firewood, small timber and timber.

With the introduction of JFPM, Acacia plantations and all activities connected with them have become central activities of the VFC. A study to understand the role of Acacia plantations in JFPM was conducted in two VFCs of Honnavar division. The study revealed that Acacia plantations not only meet the daily requirements of the people but also help to increase agricultural production, generate employment and bring revenue to the VFC, together helping to improve the standard of living of the people. The study conducted by the the Kumta branch of the Indian Institute of Science shows that Acacia helps to provide cover to barren hills, providing soil cover, checks soil erosin caused by torrential rain and being a legume, helps to build the nitrogen content of the soil.

Forest fires are one of the most potent sources of damage to forests. They damage crops and adversely affect the productive capacity of the soil, crub natural rengeneration and destroy the protective, recreational and scenic values of the forest and wildlife. Forest fires also cause damage to large areas of standing biomass resulting in huge monetary losses. In 1987-88, for instance an instance an estimated area of 10 lakh ha of forest area was damaged by fires in the country resulting in a loss of about Rs. 68 million. There is also growing scientific evidence that forest fires are an important cause for the increase in the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases which have the potential to alter the global climate and the natural environment. But FD’s have for a variety of reasons been poorly equipped to prevent or control the spread of forest fires; poor infrastructure, low levels of staff motivation and inadequate budgetary support being some of the reasons. However, attempts by forest departments to elicit peoples’ participation in the fire control offers more hope of minimising the damage caused by fires. The JFM programme in Haryana is an example of a participatory approach in which people co-operate with the state FD in forest protection in return for economic benefits in form of leases for forest products and an assured supply of fodder and fuelwood. This paper is an attempt to compare the extent of community involvement in fire control in JFM and non-JFM areas of the Haryana Shiwaliks.

Human resource development in joint forest management can play an important role in its success. The motivation and attitudinal charge in forest managers and stakeholders is very important, as it will ensure better participation in forest management. Since the JFM program’s success lies in maximum participation from the participates, human resource development training should be organised. These training should have along period and curriculum should include field training (practical) to ensure success. At the end of the training a follow up action should be done to monitor the effects of training. This will not only reflects the success of program will also help in remodeling the sedulous. The paper deals with the HRD and HRM concepts, which can be used, in JFM programs. A case study of Haryana is also presented to show that proper human resource development training (HRD) ensures success of any program.

In JFM the villagers get a greater access to a number of non wood forest products in return for increased responsibility for its protection from fire, grazing and illicit harvesting. Non wood forest products besides meeting subsistence needs are often the only source of cash income for many rural poor during the lean season, especially in areas where agriculture is rain fed and only one crop is taken. Another feature of these products is that they are available almost through out the year and many of these can be sustainably harvested at low level without damaging the forest or affecting forest regeneration.Managing forests for multiple NWFPs and value eddition at the local level are two of the main challenges JFM programme is facing in India. Some of these challenges are, recognition of rights, alternate silvicultural practices, policy review and changes, ensuring equity, value addition, examining trade and management from the perspective of the NWFP collectors and identifying constraints that limits the return to the local community.

Forestry in India has come a long way from the days of isolation and recent developments have altered their course significantly. Innovative principles and success of PFM in West Bengal have been acclaimed world over, which brought recognition through Paul Getty award- the highest recognition of the forest conservation and management- in 1993. There are areas where PFM or community participation is either indifferent or unable to take off. Initiative for motivation would come from forest department staff while accredited NGOs can play significant role through socio- economic studies, training etc. Analysis of the success of PFM approach for conservation of forest throughout the state leads to growing realisation that neither the government nor the NGOs alone can steer the extensive programme of resource management to success. More and more NGO support would be useful to complement the governmental efforts for conservation, enhancement and management of the national heritage.

Women particularly those living in forests and rural areas, play a major role in managing natural resources – soil, water, forests and energy. They have a profound knowledge of the plants, animals and the ecological processes around them. Only a change in women’s role from that of wage labour to that of decision makers will ensure success of any afforestation programme. The life of tribals, and the other poor people, living within and near forest, revolves around forest. Since the existing forest area cannot meet the growing demand of the people, their participation particularly of the tribal/rural women in afforestation and protection is very necessary.

Survival of mankind has been due much more to ‘women-the gathered’ than to ‘man the hunter’. Women play a critical role in the forest economy, depending on if for subsistence and the economic needs. For centuries women have gathered forest products. This remains an important activity for tribal societies and for many other rural societies. In fact women’s dependence on forestlands is more significant in comparison with private land or revenue land. Increased awareness and involvement of women is crucial to better development and sound eco-management. For women, trees and forest are multifunctional, whereas men tend to concentrate their commercial potential for timber and other goods. Trees offer fuel, ‘food and fodder’.

The traditional independence of tribal women and their vital role in resource management should be further strengthened by involving them as an organised force. JFM should be initially taken up in villages where:

• Women’s groups have already been organised and sensitized.• Homogenous tribal groups live.• Tribal groups unaffected by non villagers influx.

In this article authors take a harsh look at "participation" programmes that are not based on full recognition of the distribution and operation of power within local communities and wider society in India. Forest management in India has been accused of using local people as source of cheap labour in the name of participatory forms of forest management and for participatory approaches which stress community based resource management - arouses deep suspicion. NGO's and other might be better off forming alliances with those whose politics they share. Such alliances might well include sympathetic individuals with in government departments and industry, just as they may include a wide range of other NGO's. Such a view suggests for NGO's and others to take a more politically committed approach to participatory projects and to press donors and government to do likewise. Donors group should only admit the demands of marginalised and oppressed groups. This may require them to disempower dominant groups (for example through the implementation of agrarian reform or as in the westernghats project, promoting women only VFC's). It may also calls for funds and other forms of support to be given in the spirit of active solidarity not in order to co-opt stakeholders to a pre-conceived agenda or with a view to empowering from outside. They should not be influenced by propaganda compaign, but set their own house in order to consider how their own internal hierarchies, training techniques and office culture, affect the receptivity, flexibility patience, non defensiveness, curiousity and respect for the opinion of others.

Joint forest managnement with people's participation in protecting the forests proving very successful in Orissa. The first generation issues in JFM are :(1) degradation of forests.(2) acute scarcity of firewood and small timber. (3) inhospitable weather conditions like severe summer,drought, water scarcity, floods (4) afforestation done in degraded forest areas.(5) creation of suitable atmosphere for JFM by the government(6) Successful examples in JFM trigger chain reaction in neighbouring villages to undertake forest protection. The paper gives an account of the emergence of some new problems faced by the people called second generation, which challenges the management and protection of forests with public participation and suggests solution for the same.

The term 'gender issue' is often thought to be synonymous with women's issues. But 'gender' does not refer to the feminine gender alone. Gender issues in JFM do not concern women alone; they consider how women and men of different ages and communities share forest resources.Forest protection groups are generally male-dominated because of the other gender's relative lack of assertiveness.There is women's inadequate participation in West Bengal's JFM programmes. There is no provision for any representation of women in the FPC's decision-making bodies, even though women are the major collectors, processors and users of forest produce. The paper makes concrete suggestions to increase the forest department's reach to village women. The various rules and JFM government order's need to be revised to induct more and more women members especially the tribal women.Women are awfully disadvantaged now and they are denied even the basic human rights. All gender bias has to go sooner than later.

The author carriedout extensive survey in different forest division in Eastern U.P. to assess the shisham mortality. Samples of soils, root, stem and bark was collected for further investigation. The problems of mortality were discussed with local farmers. InGonda district it was found that the fungal infection was very low or absent, where it was grown with tobaco crop. It was observed after testing of samples, that the main cause of mortality was the attack of fungus because of waterlogged conditions leading to physiological stress. Block plantation as well as mixed cropping was least affected by mortality. The mortality was prominent either in isolated trees or on the plants growing on agricultural bunds, roadside, canalside. All the age class were affected. The trees growing under stress exhibits the symptoms of reduction in leafsize, light green colar. In the later stage, the tree dry from the top to downwards and thus completely driesup within a span of 2-3 years. 13 preventive measures have been suggested to control further fungal infections in plantation areas and in agroforestry system.

The joint forest management looks for a forestry design that matches and caters the needs of varied forest produce of local population in the shortest possible time. The suitable management and silvicultural initiative should be capable of matching the product basket with the needs of local people. Their incoeme generation and employment opportunities are also to be looked after. As the regeneration of degraded land should be cost effective and remunerative, emphasis is laid on coppicing and cut-back of existing rootstock, inducement of natural regeneration, seedling, gap plantation, soil and moisture conservation works as well as enrichment with non-timber forest produce yielding trees. At the same time tending operations,thinning and harvesting regime are adjusted such that multiple forest products are available to the community without reducing potential of the resource. It has also been found that JFM in degraded forest land is a financially viable proposition,however highly degraded patches should be kept outside the JFM system. Silvicultural models and management design of JFM are site specific and depend upon rsource, resource environment and use community. Care has to be taken for bio-diversity conservation as well as enrichment of native species required locally. With these consideration an illustrative typical silvicultural and management model applied in JFM areas of South Gujarat has been detailed. The basic concepts for designing the site-specific options are discussed and substantiated with examples from Gujarat.

One of the primary objectives of forest management in India, outlined in the 1988 national forest policy, is to help meet the resource and livelihood needs of local forest dependent communities. The joint forest management (JFM) programme is attempting to achieve this by developing a partnership, between forest department staff and local communities. Sustainable management of non-timber forest produces (NTFPs) and bamboos will probably decide the sustainability of the forests in future. And it is only the organized forest dependent communities (VFCs/FPCs) with an appropriate usufruct sharing arrangement, who can have a long term interest in sustainable management. But in JFM, community objectives involve a wide range of products and management practices, which are technically sound and easy to adopt. The field forester has to be adequately equipped to give advice to the forest dependent communities about how they should treat and harvest the forest to achieve the objective of both the users and the government.

It is stated that how tree improvement practices can be employed through the joint forest management programme. The joint forest management is implemented with the help of villagers, farmers, tribals etc. under the guidance and supervision of foresters. Similarly basic tree improvement practices may also be implemented in the above mentioned way. The farmers/villagers may be actively involved in preservation of germplasm, the names of persons/communities of farmers contributing creatively in development, establishment or preservation of germplasms should be well documented to facilitate benefit sharing in context of farmers rights and intellectual property right of donor agency.

The primary objectives of the JFM is to give users a stake in forest benefits and a role in planning and management for the improvement of forest conditions and productivity of forests. Sustainable management of forest requires continuous improvement of sites coupled with enough production of biomass on a sustained basis to meet the growing needs of the society. This can be achieved only through sound silvicultural practices. From technical view point an important issue concerning JFM forests is the method for obtaining early and varied returns through harvesting fuel wood, fodder, poles and NTFPs with improved techniques to ensure minimum damage. Natural regeneration has traditionally been an integral part of forest management in the state. If JFM is to succeed and replicated widely low cost option based on natural regeneration is the best silvicultural system. There is some misconception that JFM is not a tree planting programme. It is true that products like grasses, shrubs, herbs and fruits are valued most by the villagers but for the long term sustainability of JFM tree planting component is equally important. Mixed forests producing NTFP are best suited for the sustenance of JFM. Proper management of these forests result in maximum benefits to rural community as NTFPs not only provide cash income but also generates regular employment. A silvipastoral model has to be designed for maximum production of grass alongwith adequate protection for soil. From the silvicultural issues discussed above it is clear that the JFM areas require multiple options. Options that suit local conditions and resource use pattern and are acceptable to people.

Joint forest management (JFM) looks for a forestry design that matches and caters the needs of wider range of forest produce in the shortest possible time and on sustained basis. Cut back operation (CBO) applied to the straggling and stunted vegetative growth of coppicing species in dry and semi moist tropical forests of western India is a vivid example. The need for separate set of silviculture and management design for joint forest management is based on certain characteristic feature of the system. Attempts have been made to define participatory silviculture. Participatory silviculture is creative silviculture – for and by the people, that draws prescriptions from existing scientific understanding as well as rich indigenous knowledge and thus has strong institutional, ecological and socio-economic bases underpinning the art and science of vegetation management. As mentioned earlier many silvicultural methods in forestry have been used in JFM. Unusual tending and harvesting regime have been utilized. A number of silvicultural issues have come to light and are under active debate and discussion. Community protection of the local forests is the first and foremost activity the community takes up in JFM.

There is a need to sensitize and train the forestry staff as well as village community on the kind of coppice emanating from cut back. Moisture conservation structures like vantalavadies (forest ponds) and check dams are widely demanded by the local communities organized for the implementation of JFM. For a tribal a living tree, which annually gives the NTFP, is more important than a timber tree such as teak which gives timber to a far off industry once in life time. The grazing needs of the community and availability of the extent of area will govern the size of area to be treated annually or the fallow to be left out for grazing. The system of grazing would also depend upon the size of area and quality and quantity of grass production. The silvicultural and management design of JFM will depend upon types of ecosystem too. Thus the design will be site specific depending upon resource, resource environment and user community.

Forest management in future must strike a balance between environment and people. There is a need to reconcil ecological, socio-economic, technical and institutional dimensions to achieve equitable and sustainable forest productivity and production on a continuous enhanced basis. Sustainable forest management can be ensured by using participatory management as a means and tool. The present silvicultural systems, therefore, need a re-orientation to suit the requirements of sustainable forest management. The Vindhyan ranges were once covered by mixed dry deciduous forests, which were managed under coppice-with- reserves (CWR) system. Ever incresing human, cattle and wildlife population and the consequent severe biotic pressures and inadequate protection against grazing, fire and illicit felling etc. led to severe forest degradation. In this context, selection-with- enrichment (SWE) system and protection-with- imporvement (PWI) system, including promotion of natural and artificial regeneration of usufruct based multiple product NTFP species and soil and water conservation measures in consultation and cooperation with local forest user groups and stake holders, have been suggested.

This paper attempts at highlighting the role of Joint Forest Management, community objectives adoption of a particular silvicultural options which involves collection of information about the forest and the needs and preferences of the communities. Apart from this, the focus has been shifting from timber to Non-Timber Forest Products (NWFP). Sustainable management of forests for these products is also compatible with conservations of biodiversity, carbon sequestration and other environmental function provided by tropical forests. Silvicultural practices which ensures use of NTFP, bamboos and canes have also to be evolved on priority and disseminated to the field. It further discusses research requirements of NTFP, Bamboos, Canes, Tree based silviculture for current and potential JFM areas. For effective dissemination of data, information, market intellegence etc., a networking of NGO's across the country would be necessary for the benefit of the implementing agencies on a continual basis.Silviculture research has rendered yeoman service to the development of forestry and forestry practices in India. Important research achievements in silviculture have been the study of woody plants, classification of forest types, development of silvicultural systems and afforestation techniques, introduction of exotics and management of bamboos. Silviculturists are likely to face complex challenges of sustainable forest management, biodiversity conservation and joint forest management. Silvicultural options are therefore required to be developed to address these complex and other technological issues.

Agriculture and livestock husbandry, being the traditional means of livelihood in semi arid region of Rajasthan, the villagers let out their livestock for free grazing in the community pasture spread over 150 hectare around the Dev Narayan temple at Kavlas village in Asind taluka of Bhilwara district, Rajasthan in India. The programme involved 4935 villagers belonging to 10 different castes and 350 families who lived in great harmony with 440 ha of cultivable land, 500 ha wasteland and 180 ha pasture land. The new programme of conservation of community pasture was launched with the formation of a village level committee of 21 members which included the village sarpanch as the chairman and BAIF’s local officer as a member. The committee decided to fence 10 ha in the first year by creating a trench cum mound around the plot. Over a period of three years, an expenditure of Rs. 10,000/- ha was incurred out of which 60% was spent on fencing. On an average, a tree could fetch Rs. 10-20 per season, depending on the available forage volume. Today, nature has regained its green glory on this denuded patch of grassland. The villagers have succeeded in preventing their livestock from entering the fenced pastures and the Neelgais have found a new home amongst this conservation. The committee, which now has a net saving of Rs. 58,000/-, is able to provide the salary for a watchman. The savings are expected to reach Rs. 1,00,000 during the current year.

The process of joint management and sharing of forest produce with the villages has given good encouragement and the process if continued with the same pace will definitely lessen the burden of protection of the forest resources and in turn provide enhanced peopple's participation which is very much needed in times to come for development and preservation of forest resources and their equitable distribution. The paper presents an analysis of the alternatives to government tree planting programmes. People's participation with special references to ideologies of joint forest management has been highlighted with example drawn from Dharwar district.

In pursuance of Govt. of India resolution 1990, the MP forest department announced JFM resolution in 1991 and 1995 to give more opportunity to the weaker sections and women along with NGO’s involvement with the state forest management. The JFM activities were supported by the World Bank projects since September 29, 1995. Beside the ecological process of natural regeneration, the institutional activities were emphasized by the formation of the village level committees (VFC/EDC/FPC). More than 12000 communities (or approx. 6 million people) are currently working with the MPFD in developing forest resources. However, project financing is limited to the support of 2451 community group or roughly 1.2 million people.

To bring the over-all social impacts in participatory process of implementation PRA planning was introduced to identify community problems and aspirations, forest dependency and the needs of the tribals and other disadvantage groups. These plans formed the basis for investment in forest and rural development.

As the state is well known for the tribal population the project was designed to benefit tribal and other people living at the forest fringe and particularly those people who are most dependent on the forest. So the income generation activities have been taking place through creating of jobs (42.3 million days work), providing small loan to landless people, increase of annual income by sharing 100% of NTFP'’.

Though there are some shortcoming, women are actively involved in decision making process and are involved in micro-credit system and several forestry works.

The quentitative information collected for the success of joint forest management have been described in detail.

Two villages each, in both the sites were selected, namely kundwara and Raoria villages in Jabalpur forest division, M.P. site and Radhiapali and Kunjapali villages in Sambalpur forest division, Orissa site. The socio- economic status of both the site, with special reference to NTFPs have been presented. Major issues regarding the socio-economics status covering all the findings are documented in socio-economic profile and PRA reports of both the sites. It is concluded to improve income generation from NTFPs and medicinal plants cultural operations, either within the natural forests or on private agricultural / wastelands, need to be explored. These changes would allow communities dependent on socially disruptive, seasonal, agricultural, migration, to break this pattern by productivity managing natural forests, maintaining their communities and reducing school drop-outs and medical problems.

The paper presents the findings from a study on people’s participation in forestry activities carried out under UNDP funded project in 10 selected villages of Jodhpur district of Western arid region of Rajasthan, India. The study aimed at analysing various socio-economic and other constraints which hinder people’s participation in tree planting programmes and motivating them to ensure process, participation both interactive and material, in different forestry activities. The findings revealed that the farmers of the villages under study faced several socio-economic and natural environmental or climatic constraints which hinder their involvement in tree planting activities. The illitracy, poverty, water scarcity, uncontrolled grazing, lake of general awareness and source religious myths were the main hurdles. It has been found that women and children are more enthusiastic in tree planting activities. This was also evident from their participation in training and demonstration. Villagers showed more interest for homestead or backyard planting as compared to field planting. Choice of species was mainly for fruit trees and species which are not indigenous. Sharing of material inputs and imparting training were helpful and instrumental in motivating local people to adopt tree planting on their land. Though the farmers of arid regions have a defeatist attitude towards tree plannting, continuous efforts to motivate and encourage them through some incentives, enriching technical skill and creating awareness about importance of trees have shown significant impact in changing their attitude towards tree planting programmes.

Successful management of a forest through community participation on sustaibale basis requires in-depth analysis of the community and the forests. This study has been carried to pre-assess the sites where community participation could be better, based on some soci-economic indicators for judicious investment of limited resources.The objectives of this study were : 1 To identify socio-economic indicators linked with participatory community activity. 2 To establish a scale for comparison of different villagers through indicators. 3 To develop a proforma of collecting information during PRA exercise. 4 To field test the proforma and modify accordingly. 5 To develop methodology for calculation of scale of various indicators.Results of study are reported on the relationship of selected socio-economic indicators with participation potential of communities and on comparison of selected socio-economic indicators for assessing the potential JFM sites in M.P. and Orissa.

In the early nineties the theme of joint forest management was promulgated as a first instance in West Bengal. The functioning of forest protection committees and joint forest management thereof was studied and analysed by the author and Shri S.Sen, W.B.F.S., the then DFO, silvicultural (South) division, on different forest protection committees in West Midnapore division's jurisdiction. Also one case study, in perticular on the kajra beat area of West Midnapore, jointly done with Shri S.Sen, Mr. J.Y. Campbell of Ford Foundation in India, and Dr. Mark Poffenberger of California University in the year 1991. In addition to juvenile joint forest management in West Bengal the author takes apportunity to analyse the case studies with reference to research findings of Shireen J.Jejeebhoy (on Maharashtra), John Harriss (on West Bengal) and Sumit Guha (Land, Labour fallacy) in a generalised view.

Socio-economic conditions prevailing in a region or state generally influence the land use management practices. India offers a typical illustration of the forest management planning which has been closely linked with the socio-economic environment. The community- based forest management systems, currently being developed in many developing countries including India, need to be evaluated in the context of larger socio-economic environment in which the land- based systems including common property resources (CPRs) evolved over the period. Existing land-use systems in Orissa have also been shaped by historical forces and become very complex over time. Villagers in Orissa have traditions for the community based forest manangement system which can presently be strengthened by formalising them and providing necessary legal and administrative the support. The age old concept of village forests and pastures have become rather more relevent now with the only change that these will now be managed both by the communities and forest department. The present participatory forest management systems need to be refined and imporved due mainly to dynamic socio-economic environment requiring periodical updating and revision.

The participation of local people is essential to ensure the sustainable management and protection of forests. The forest panchayat system in India is one of the most long established institutions for achieving this. A study of ten forest panchayats in the Chamoli district of Garhwal Himalaya found that some have good management, high growing stock, high biodiversity and low degradation, while others are exactly the opposite in character. No simple explanation is apparent. Although degradation of forest is highest in areas of high population density, there is no relationship between size of forest and sustainability of management. On the other hand, poor management can be linked with lake of cooperation between local people and government officials, lack of knowledge of the forest panchayats act, lack of political will on the part of the government, lack of funding, poor enforcement of regulations, poor management by panchayats and lack of involvement of women.

From the text of the article it can be concluded and suggested that few of the important issues which have emerged through the extensive field work of IBRAD are : (1) Resolution alone may have little or no effect on field retalities and operational activities. It should be communicated properly to each and every level of the Lierachy of forest department.(2) The objective of the programme must be clear to each and everyone, who are directly involved in the activity(3) These resolutions need to be translated into local languages(4)Proper and convenient network as a team must be developed among forest department personals and villagers by conducting meeting at a regular intervals(5) Microplanning can be prepared taking into account the need of the local people involved and (6) Forest officials should take into account the whole of human resources of the area i.e. they must appreciate and recognize the decision and recommendations of both male and female members of the village community.

Participatory forest management in reserved forest which started in 1986 in the form of interface forestry programme in Tamil Nadu has developed into a full fledged joint forest management programme in 1997. Ecological restoration and biological upgradation of forests and thereby improving the quality and health of forests is being ensured by making the local villagers the joint custodians of forests. The graded development of village level institutions called village forest councils (VFC) to exclusively deal with joint forest management, its functioning on democratic principles, and maintenance of complete transparency in all its operations have created tremendous response and a sense of belongings among villagers of the forests in Tamil Nadu. Nearly 2,32,000 villagers in 600 villages over an area of 2250 sq. kms. of degraded forest and nearly 1500 forest personnel are creating a new chapter in the history of forest management in Tamil Nadu with plenty of hopes for the future in the form of joint forest management.

The joint forest management programme was initiated in Tripura in December 1991 and since then there has been reasonable progress in involving the people living around the forests to protect and improve the forests and in their share the benefits therefrom. It was at first initiated in Melaghar, West Tripura district and resulted in turming the barren lands into verdant forests with protection made available by forest protection and regeneration committees. Upto Dec.1999, 165 such committees have been formed which protect 18,566 ha of forest land. A few microplans have been prepared which intend to provide aided natural regeneration. Plantation of bamboo and other species, underplanting of canes, plants of medicinal value etc. have been undertaken. Benefits have come as bamboos, fuelwood, honey, minor forest produce, leaves etc. although the programme is still in its infancy. The committees formed are vulnerable as they have no force of law.Moreover forest produce is required to be cultivated to increase income of the members of the committees, but there are no such plans so far. The constitution and the byelaws of the committees are yet to be framed. Forest offences in such managed areas are not covered by laws except the Indian forest act. Mechanism for the distribution of benefits is still to be worked out and there is the paucity of funds for this programme. Flexibility in taking up works is also needed. Smuggling across the border is cause of concern. Coordination with other agencies is necessary because the benefits from such management are usually lower than benefits available from other agencies programmes. Territorial confusion with administrative unit exists. Law and order problems also handicap free working in the field. Such issues need to be looked into to attain success. The programme should commence from selected areas as joint forest management is still envolving and neither the staff nor the people are ready to take it up everywhere. Positive benefits in selected areas are likely to enthuse all concerned. The staff should be trained in this new concept. Coordination committees should be formed at all levels and ensure participation of different govt.departments, professionals, NGOs and eminent persons. A network, if formed, will definitely make JFM an effective tool for forest conservation and rural development. Operational methodology should be worked out satisfactorily e.g. coordination between panchayats and FRRCs. The Committees should also create own funds for the sustained working of the programme when govt assistance will not be available to them.

Joint forest planning and management(JFPM) is a decade old programme in Karanataka, brought institutional changes in forest management. It emphasizes on collective and collaborative efforts of forest department (FD), local communities and non-government organization for conservation and regeneration of forests. Over decade, 3700 village forest committees have been formed in the state and they are protecting an area about 2.5 lakh hectares. Macro and micro level assessments conducted by covering 10 forest divisions and 476 VFCs in the state, revels the good beginning was made by involving local people in management of degraded forests, and regenerating and conserving resources. Future, it is essential to strengthen participatory process, by enabling them to protect open forest and wasteland available in the village and sustainable management of resources. It is possible by building VFCs as a decentralized body, ensuring, participation of all section of people by effective implementation of policies.

The JFM approach to forest protection and regeneration through community participation has been accepted in India and has spread to 23 states with 36, 130 Forest Protection Committees (FPC's). The JFM provisions are expected to promote peoples involvement, collective decision making, social fencing, empowerment of the village community, sharing of authority, focus on NTFP's and sustained harvest of use fructs. A preliminary assessment has shown that several issues related to policies, institutions, forest regeneration, social aspects and lack of incentives are likely to have effected the spread and performance of JFM. Some important topics that need to be discussed and addressed immediately by policy makers and implementing authorities. 1. Learning by experience: The factors contributing to the observed rate of spread and performance in different regions are yet to be assessed. Methodology has to be evolved to improve the participation of communities and to bring about transformation in forest management in India. 2. Incentives to the local community: There is a need for strategies to increase the flow of benefits, particularly in the initial years. In addition to increasing the flow of timber production. 3. Legal status to FPC's: Proper legal rights need to be enacted to support the proper working of FPC's. 4. Equity and Gender participation: Steps need to be taken to promote gender equity in reality, through awareness, education and participation of NGO's. 5. Accountability: There is a need for enhancing transparency in financial transactions. The FPC should be involved in the decision making process on prioritisation of activities, financial allocation and expenditure monitoring. 6. Sustainability of JFM programme: JFM has to become cost effective option, and the states should look upon it as an opportunity to regenerate the vast degraded land and forests and to meet the biomass demand of its people. 7. Vegetative management and silvicultural practices. 8. Empowerment of FPC's: These committees must be empowered to levy fee and forefeit of products. 9. Interface with other rural development programmes: An effort is needed to get all these developmental programmes under one umbrella.

The success of an eco-rehabilitation project, particularly when common lands are involved, largely depends upon eliciting cooperation of the local communities in providing effective protection to the treated area. A strategy for awareness creation among village communities, members of village forest committees/panchayat, project staff and school children was, therefore, designed and implemented with particular emphasis on women’s involvement. An evaluation of the strategy was undertaken by a survey. The survey revealed that (1) a majority of the villagers had participated in the extension programmes (2) they were aware of the project-interventions and concomitant flow of benefits (3) a substential proportion of the sampled population cooperated in protecting the plantations and were even keen to raise seedlings for the project, besides participating directy in the project activities. A welcome attitudinal change manifested in willingness to shoulder the responsibility of managing with the help of the project staff the treated land when transferred to panchayat. The acceptance of the idea of a village fund further shows that villagers are ready to contribute to the common cause of eco-restoration of the Aravallis.Absence of effective institutions in the villages result in mismanagnement of common property resources. Haryana forest department, in its Aravalli project, is trying to develop institutions in the project villages for sustainable management of rehabilitated common lands by the village communities in the future. This paper describes the strategy adopted and steps taken for this purpose.This article views on account on the history and development strategy for JFM with reference to national forest policy, people's reaction to government policy and need for a revised forest policy and new strategy required for its effective implimentation. It is pointed out that it is necessary to have an institutional arrangement at the policy making lable that will ensure the flow of rural development funds to villages located on the fringes of the forests. The villages taking up JFM must be given preferential treatment in implementing various rural development programmes so that these remote villages can be developed to reduce their dependence on forests. Poor people in these villages can be given alternative sources of livelihood through land development, irrigation, soil and moisture conservartion works and other income generating schemes to reduce their direct dependence on forests.The paper deals with ecological indicators as an important pointer for the success of any joint forest management programme. The study was carried out in three forest protection committees (FPCs ) managing the coppice sal forests in South West Bengal. The productivity of fenced and unfenced areas, as also the degree of human exploitation in a participatory method, were assessed. An enhanced productivity was obtained in the unfenced areas as compared to the fenced ones. Certain important management decisions of the FPC have been discussed. The impact of human interventions on nutrient cycling and nutrient budget is highlighted.

Good fund management is dependent on a host of factors that determine the way in which the FPC itself functions and not just on the accounting or other practices that apply specifically to funds. While the latter are equally important, it is necessary that the FPC put in place mechanisms that ensure its sustainability. In this framework, the FPC needs to incorporate good fund management practices as one mechanism, although a significant one that can help achieve sustainability.

Fund management should be undertaken with the intention of fulfilling certain objectives. The FPC should hence decide what objectives it wants to meet. While an a priori listing is necessary, the FPC should feel free to amend and add to this list, keeping pace with the changing circumstances. However, a basic minimum list of primary objectives should include the following.

• To ensure financial sustainability of JFM in the long run.• To help in the maintenance and enhancement of forest health.• To ensure continued interest and participation of the local community in JFM• To help in achieving effective local control over forest resource and the JFM process. (This is possible only if there is democracy, transparency, accountability and especially equity in the operation of the common fund.)

While a priori is seems that fund management in the case of JFM is very different from fund management in the case of say, and other business enterprise, in reality this is not so. It is only that each initiative has its own sets of objectives that it must meet.

Based on the Network studies, conducted in 8 states, involving 11 institutions, attempt has been made to generate information on the institutional and ecological aspects of participatory management systems. The main endeavour has been to understand the impact of various institutional structures and management practices on the effectiveness of the community's conservation efforts. Based on this, guidelines, which could have long ranging implications for policy and vegetation management at local and national level can be developed. Participation of local communities is critical for forest conservation, regeneration and sustained flow of benefits. These institution arrangements and vegetation management practices are dynamic and location specific. It is necessary to involve the local communities and institutions in the monitoring process to promote adaptive forest management. The case studies presented in different chapters, provide useful data to determine the scope for improving institutional arrangements and management practices in order to promote participatory forestry in India. This summary report presents findings from 4 sets of studies. (1) Findings of studies conducted in 8 states, using a shared approach and methodology. (2) A set of 8 case studies of JFM in Uttarakannada district, Western Ghats area. (3) A macro level study of JFM in Uttara Kannada district (Kanara forest circle). (4) A preliminary assessment of JFM at the national level. The inference drawn from the above four sets of studies and their implication for JFM in India are presented in this report. An overview of the specific issues are addressed in this chapter.

Sustainability is the single most important factor for the success of any long term programme or policy. But at the planning stage, attention is mainly concentrated on a few specific objectives and there is a tendency to ignore various other interacting forces, and as a result the scheme ends up in a failure for not being sustainable. In the forestry sector, at the planning stage, attention is mainly focussed on planting, sustained yield of timeber and other forest produce, conservation etc. But the various sociological, traditional psychological and demographic problems of the local people tend to be neglected.The lack of sustainability is the root cause of the improper management of the community foresets. So while preparing the scheme for management of community forests, it is to be ensured first whether it would be sustainable. It is suggested that in the first phase certain villages be adopted and specific schemes be prepared. The first step would be make a thorough study of the sociological, traditional and psychological problems of the target groups and make an assessment of their economic background. Then the rate of growth of population and the rate of increase of their requirements in the future years have to be projected. The sustained yield that can be obtained annually by management of the community forests is to be calculated. In all probability, the projected sustained yield will keep falling far too short of the increasing requirements. The next step is to find out some means of (i) increasing the sustained yield and (ii) reducing the demand so that these two keep matching.

A system of community forestry was developed during the late 70's to preserve the degraded hills of Nepal and to provide basic needs of forestry products to the rural people. The community forestry programme has received the highest priority within the forestry sector in Nepal and is regarded as one of the most successful development programmes in Nepal. However, recent studies are claiming that under community forestry; traditional users have lost their use rights and many of the poor have been marginalized for example by way of fees and charges imposed to them. The issue of selfreliance to run the programme without external support is equally important. Currently only about 27 percent of potential community forest area has been handed over to the local communities, leaving a significant amount still to be handed over. Even so, the productive management of all of the forest areas already handed over is a great challenge requiring large amounts of current resources and a huge commitment from both the government and the communities in the future. The paper discusses the issues of membership charges in community forests and means to allocate the financial resources needed to run the programme.The creation of of forestry development funds in the districts could be a sustainable approach to running the community forestry programme in Nepal.

In this paper authors describe the development of a four tier system of principles, criteria, indicators and verifiers tested in a model forest programme in Mexico. Also included are shorter pieces on the use of arthopods and epiphytic ferns as indicators of forest disturbances, and on indicators of soil disturbances. The study was carried out in 110067 ha area comprises seven forest communal landholdings known as efidos and has a population of 22417 inhabitants. The participants in a workshop analysed and validated the hierarchical system and its indicators in terms of the community's vision of a desirable future. The model was designed to be flexible and dyanamic for potential application in other parts nationally or globally. The hierarchical system in the evaluation model comprised of six basic principles of sustainability. A set of criteria indicators and varifiers was defined for each principle, and these will enable reliable measurements to assess progress towards sustainable development. Survey were designed and conducted to gather data from primary and secondary sources on the variables were assembled in an excel database. The concept of sustainable development, envisaged in the programme in the Chihuahua Model Forest, the community at large did not grasp to favour sustainability oriented community development. Further more the community had not participated actively in the design and implementation of sustainable development plans, projects to meet its needs, desires and preferences. Efforts should be made to educate community to heighten their sense of responsibility, commitment and involvement in the successful implementation of sustainable development projects.

The article describes how Australia has incorporated the principles and operational guidelines of the ecosystem approach into its institutional arrangements for sustainable forest management. Increasing attention is being given to the use of criteria and indicators for measuring progress towards sustainable forest management. Seven assessment criteria envisage the protection and maintenance of biological diversity; maintenance of the productive capacity of ecosystems; maintenance of forest ecosystem health and vitality; protection of soil and water resources; maintenance of forests contribution to global carbon cycles; maintenance of natural and cultural heritage values; maintenance and enhancement of long-term socioeconomic benefits to meet the needs of society. Besides two over arching principles, explain as precautionary principles for the prevention of environmental degradation and intergenerational equity to ensure the needs of the present generation, without compromising the needs of future generation. This approach permits a wide range of ecosystem values that are characterized by dynamic changes to be manged on a spatial and temporal basis. In Australia, ecologically sustainable forest management is considered the equivalent of ecosystem approach, which provides guidelines to support the conservation and sustainable use of forest resources in an equitable manner across human generations. Wider community and market confidence is SFM should result, in protection and maintenance of the full range of forest values for present and furutre generations. Australias approach may be useful as a model for other countries to consider.

In this paper the studysite is a forest village Parraspani lying in buffer zone of Panchmari biosphere reserve and situated in the Parraspani wildlife sanctuary. With inadequte infrastructural facilities in the village, people mostly gond tribals depend on agriculture for livelihood. 50 acres land is semi irrigated and is being shared by about 173 people of the village. Standard ecological methods were employed to assess the status of forest vegetation and NTFP's to suit various analytical parameters. Value index and diversity indexes were computed with the help of microsoft excel computer version. Observation and result of resources, tree species regenertion and status of NTFP's in various inpact zone are presented in tabulor form. Assessment of regeneration in Parraspanivillage envisage that the forest cover near to habitation are in changing nature due to induced successional trend prevailing in the area. Fifteen tree species have disappeared in regenerating forest. However some new species are invading the area, which have less economic value. Constitution of VFC's and FMU level have been considered as an effective tool for SFM. Observation made at grass root level in the present study where community members have been considered as the part of ecosystem, proves to be an important stake-holder for sustainable management of forests. Integrated ecosystem approach with direct involvement of community seems to be an effective and inevitable tool for SFM.

The author deals with the pivitol role of medicinal plants, their cultivation and trade in strengthening the JFM programme. India currently exports herbal material and medicines to the tune of Rs. 4,463 million. There is a wider scope for India, to emerge as a major player in the global market. JFM can be of help in fulfilling the objective. The status of medicinal plants, their availability and conservation strategies are discussed. He discusses biodiversity and species distribution pattern of medicinal plants. Details of in situ and ex situ conservation models are available in Karnataka,Tamil Nadu,andKerala, which have an impressive network of some 50 conservation sites. The significance of these operational model lies in the fact that they address certain public expectations. Community participation activities play an important role in conservation and development of medicinal plants. Model for sustainable harvest of NTFP and medicinal plant have proper linkage between JFM committees and NTFP's processing and marketing. The study through this model help to understand the necessary interventions and to promote sustainable harvesting of different species. The author emphasises the need for reorientation of the working plans for NTFP management plans, strategy for sustainable production, a sound base for research, and capacity building. He also support the legal reforms in order to achieve the goals of medicinal plants based NTFP management.

In pursuance of government of India 1990 resolution, the Madhya Pradesh forest department(MPFD) announced its joint forest management(JFM) resolution in 1991, which was further revised in 1995 and 2000 to give more opportunity to the weaker sections and women alongwith NGO’s involvement with the state forest management. The JFM activities were supported by the world bank project since 1995. Beside the ecological process of natural regeneration, the institutional activities were emphasized by the formation of village level committees. More than 12,000 communities(or approximately six million people) are currently working with the MPFD in developing forest resources.

The prectices of forest management, as followed during the last hundred years, have proved ineffective in sustaining forest productivity. It has thus been realised that the human angle has been neglected and alienation of the local communities has led to large scale degradation of the forests. This paper deals with the successful regeneration of the forests of Buldhana division of Maharashtra, achieved through participation of the local communities. Buldhana forests had been degraded mainly due to heavy grazing by the “Kathiawadi’ cattle, sheep grazing, illicit felling of valuable teak trees by organised smugglers, felling and / or heavy lopping of anjan trees by the Dhangars and Kathiawadi for fodder, fuelwood, etc. However local people organised themselves, removed the ‘Kathiawadi’ cattle from the forests, controlled sheep grazing after severe confrontation with the Dhangars and checked illicit felling of trees.At present 112 forest protection committees are managing and protecting the forests without any external aid. The Buldhana case study proves that forest productivity can be sustained if local communities are involved in the management and protection of the forests.

Foresters organisation like any other organisation is dynamic, growing and changing, willingly or unwillingly. The change is inevitable.

The scope of the paper is confined to understanding the organisation as a system and the training approach for organisational change in such a way that both foresters organisation and community institutions match bilaterally for setting the common goal of forest conservation.

To provide a better understanding of the nature of organisations one has to deal with the structural aspects of organisations revealed by organisations charts. One has to make consideration of some complex interrelationships that exist between factors such as organisation structure, technology and environment. The use of system concepts as a means for describing and gaining insights into organisational behaviour has been author’s recent approach, found very effective. Forest department (FD), as an organisation is “a collection of interacting and interdependent individuals who work towards common goals and whose relationships are determined according to certain structure.

Emphasis has been on understanding the perception, believe, values and norms of the people within the organisation as part of the whole system. In the training programme, using systematic approach the who (organisation) and the part (individual) are treated as single entity for effective training and organisational development.

The Haryana forest department (HFD) awards bhabbar leases to Ballarpur paper mill, hill resource management societies (HRMS) formed under the joint participatory forest management programme (JPFMP) and to local contractors. There are significant variations in the way these lesses harvest bhabbar grass and channel it to its end use.

Broadly, there are six different combinations of agents and channels through which bhabbar ultimately finds its end use. The study aims to closely follow these six management systems identified to assess the economics of each. The flow of bhabbar grass from the lessee to the final consumers has also been traced and the value addition at each level has been computed and compared.

The major joint forest management under implementation in Tamil Nadu is the Tamil Nadu afforestation project (TAP). Forest policy 1988 aimed at “creating a massive people’s movement with the involvement of women, for achieving these objectives of forest policy and to minimise pressure on existing forests”. The forest policy was at variance with forest laws in the country. Govt. of Tamil Nadu issued Government orders (GO MS No. 166 dated 11-6-98) for implementation of joint forest management in degraded reserve forest area of Tamil Nadu without causing any amendment in the Tamil Nadu forest amendment Act 1882. The territorial division of Attur District Salem was also part of such joint forest management exercise. The idea of roping in Rotary Club was with the objective of sharing protection with the objective of sharing protection with the locals and forest department in turn taking care of their health and family. The creation of houses by Rotary Club of Attur at their own cost was one bond, which had held the villagers together as regards faith in forest department, was concerned. The feeling emerged the forest department will solve their entire problems. The opposition of villagers about JFM and the problem of funds almost brought JFM to halt making forest department helpless. Rotary Club was involved and Rotary Club did help in replacement of entire thatched houses into permanent houses at their own cost reestablishing faith that missionary approach can change hearts much faster than stick of forest department.

This paper presents the technological innovations done in the rural setting across the Indian Himalaya depleted forest and agriculture resources in the region, led to heavy biotic pressure realising that forests couldn't be managed in isolation from the communities, whose livelihood are linked to their natural resources. The need to involve local people was felt absolutely necessary in a Joint Forest Management Programme. Technological innovations for integrated management of watersheds, spring sanctuary development, sloping watershed environmental engineering, contour hedge row farming, mountain risk engineering, diversity conservation, bioprospecting for economic development, cultivation and propagation, ecotourism, solid waste as resource in the Himalaya, restoration of Badrinath Dham, have been discussed.. Use of microbial inoculations have been successfully tested and found to improve survival of tissue culture raised tea plants. Its beneficial effect are observed mainly in terms of (1) improved establishment, (2) biocontrol, (3) plant growth promotion. Ecotourism provide livelihood option for the mountain people next to farming in the Himalayan region. The advancement made in Sikkim have been categorised as (1) participatory ecotourism planning, (2) participatory conservation practices, (3) skill development training programme (4) tourism policy and monitoring. This is an example of ecologically and socially responsible tourism to conserve the biological diversity of the area. The thrust of the above quoted technological package is to provide solutions to location specific problems relating to land, water, forests and grazing lands. Hence, through the concepts and principles of JFM these technology modules can be utilised for the sustainable development of the region and conservation of its biological diversity.

To save the forests from illicit removal of fuel, fodder, timber and minor forest products by the near villagers, the forest department played a novel task. The villagers were motivated in active conservation of the forests. This new and successful model of participatory management has been adopted by 79 villages.Keywords: Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction,Social participation, Joint forest management,JFM, Ecosystems, Tribal Society, Institutions, Non-wood forest products.In the lateritic tract of South-West Bengal sal coppice forests, JFM programme had started in late 1990s and is apparently successful. But the major factor for the continuity of the programme depends on the viability and buoyancy of the institutions i.e. Forest Protection Committees (FPCs) formed for this purpose. In this study attempts were made to assess the income of the FPC members from different sources and resources in Midnapore District of West Bengal, selecting sample FPCs all over the district. How far such income is encouraging to keep them involved in the programme and the ways and means to enhance income have also been indicated and suggested.The importance of user group characteristics in resource i.e. forest management has been realised. To give this feature a due role in forest management,different experiments have been done and terminologies like joint management, people’s participation etc. have been evolved. Forest managers have realised the importance of other half of resource manangement: institutions which heavily depend upon the characteristics of users group. The need of the time is to concentrate on other half of the resource i.e. forest management and to evolve a sustainable institutional structures which will very from community to community and would depend upon the extent and characteristics of physical resource i.e. forest, socio-economic and cultural characteristics of user group and type and extent of dependence of user group on the resource.

Territorial authorities and parastatal organisations work in parallel with the state to safeguard the public interest. Like the state, the former can be land-owners, or be responsible for managing resources on behalf of inhabitants or groups of inhabitants. They have all the advantages of public institutions (continuity; relatively large managed areas; protection against the breaking up and fragmentation of land onwership), and are more flexible than the state as they can behave like private businesses. Parastatal organizations have some of the responsibilities of the state, but have an autonomy that theoretically guarantees their dynamism.These two types of organization can both give useful, high-quality contributions to the administration of forest resources. They can substitute themselves for the forest administration to bring it nearer to the inhabitants and carry out tasks proper to private businesses.

Prior to the 1950’s Dandeli was a small forest village in the midst of thick evergreen-semi evergreen forests. It was the centre of many forestry activities with the biggest timber depot in Karnataka having a rail-head exclusively for transport of timber. Depot sales used to extend over nearly 1-1 ½ months in those days. ‘Bidder chawls’ used to house the bidders from for off places. With the establishment of Indian Plywood Ltd; Dandeli Ferro- Alloys Ltd; West Coast Paper Mills Ltd; and with the coming up of the Kali Nadi Hydro Electric Project around Dandeli, the village has grown into a township with a population of 52,699 as per the 1991 census. Due to industrialisation, the labour class has increased many fold. With the increase in the population, the demand for firewood has also increased causing degradation of the surrounding forests and posing an environmental threat. A study was conducted on the firewood requirement for Dandeli town. The study revealed that 78% of the fuel requirement is met from subsidised supply of firewood, LPG connections, kerosene and electricity, and the remaining 22% is met from firewood illegally brought from surrounding forests.

Forests are the major reservoirs of biodiversity and genetic resources. Forest genetic resources of India are enormous and distributed in different forest types ranging from tropical to alpine type. Rural folks and tribals of the country depend to a large extent on the forests for their livelihood. The loss of tropical forests is especially a matter of worry as these forests greatly influence the climate and are the mian repository of biological diversity. Though forest can be considered to be a synthesis of various biological attributes, there is also the need to evaluate human society, its role and relationships with forests. The values, driving forces, human influences and measures for the conservation and sustainable use of forest resources very greatly within and among different cultures of communities. The importance of sociological, ethical, religious and ethno-biological values of human activities on foests should be recognised.The importance of community participation has been recognised and incorporated in recent forest policy of India. Moreover, in Indian context, community participation would help to maintain and increase genetic and species diversity in a particular region through traditional forest resource management practices.

From having been a heavily forested country with some 40% of its area covered by closed forest, less than 4% or some 4 million ha of the Ethiopian forest now remains. This forest destruction is related to political and socio-economic factors and Ethiopia today is a gigantic ecological manifestation of a political system which ruthlessly exploited both man and land. During the last decade the demands for a land reform grew strong and was one of the main cause to the Ethiopian Revolution in 1974. A land reform proclamation was presented in 1975 ending the feudal system. Private ownership of land was eliminated and a system of use-rights proclaimed. Area for private farming was rectricted to 10 ha. The establishment of Peasant Associations for the implementation of the land reform was also proclaimed in 1975. In 1977, 24, 000 Peasant Associations were established with 6.7 million members. The forestry Authority, Forestry and Wildlife Development Authority (Fa WDA) is recently established and the budget allocation for forestry has increased rapidly in a few years amounting to around 11 million US$ in 1977/78. The main source of energy is wood and the annual local consumption is estimated at 21 million m3. Where wood is not available, cow dung is used and thus a valuable nutrient for the soil disappears. Lack of forest land causes the fertile topsoil to disppear. Annual loss of forest land because of need of agricultural land, fertilizers, fuel and building material is estimated at 200, 000 ha although it is assumed that this figure has decreased since the land reform. Reasons for this are that the PA's now are responsible for and distribute agricultural land, that the peasnats now plant trees for their own consumption and that Fa WDA-activities have increased substaintially. The main problem of Ethiopian forestry todays is related to the needs of the 6.7 million rural families, to their needs of wood for fuel and building material and need of protection of their soil. These peasants are now organized in Peasant Associations and represent a powerful and dynamic momentum in the development process. By law they have jurisdiction and control over their environment and by practice they have proven themselves an important resource in developing work.

The Western Ghats forestry project aided by the Department for International Developpment (DFID, formerly ODA) has been implemented in Uttara Kannada district since 1992-93. One of its objectives is ‘to sustain and improve the status of poor people, particularly women, tribals, the landess and other disadvantaged groups, whose livelihoods currently derive, in whole or part, from the Western Ghats forests’. In order to fulfill this obligation a series of training programmes was conducted in arts and crafts in bamboo, cane and other non timber forest products(NTFPs) in all the 5 divisions of kanara circle.

The role and effect of training were studid in two divisions, namely Yellapur and Karwar. While the training helped in the very formation of the village forest committees(VFCs) in Yellapur division, it had also helped during the drawing up of microplans in Karwar division. In both the divisions training had helped the forest dwellers and weaker groups who are entirely dependent on forests for their livelihoods.

While collecting resource data, particularly on NTFPs, from different forest protection committees ( FPCs) for planning or undertaking research on participatory management of forests, it has been observed that the existing 'microplan formats' are inadequate for the purpose. In that case data for each FPC had to be collected afresh and the data such collected is also not available to others as it is not incorported in any 'microplan format'. So a need was felt to introduce a new performa after that of existing III, in which all such data will be recorded permanently and will be accessible to the planners/users. It is needless to say that such information is essential for planning the livelihood/ employment generation in micro locality. As such a new sets of formats have been proposed named III-A for recording permanently such data.

In West Bengal the site and situation are different in different parts of the state. The south-west lateritic tract was in severe degradation, therefore, priority was given to this area first to form the protection committee under joint forest management programme and gradually extended to other areas. The strength and weakness of the programme and their remedial measures are suggested.

Prior to the colonial era, Jungle Mahal's was covered by dense forest tract of shorea robusta trees and inhabited by tribal people. The strategies used by tribal communities could effectively protect natural forests, with virtually no budget, relying on natural regeneration, more than a million people have participated in the establishment of effective management for nearly one third of a million ha of once degraded sal (shorea robusta) forests. This chapter attempts to reconstruct the historical process through, which this grass-root social environmental movement emerged, and its broader implications for renewing India's natural forests. In recent decades, the Marxist government in West Bengal has facilitated the resurgence of community forest management to forest protection. Community members are concerned about environmental degradation, in their area and are willing to take action to respond to the challenge. The forest protection strategy adopted by WBFD, involved communities to protect local forest and in turn, enjoy the benefits. As each community began protection activities, it influenced the behaviour of neighbouring villages. Villagers were forced to negotiate and discuss management issues and needs with one another, without waiting for the forest department to take action. It is this community based chain reaction effect that is apparently the driving force behind the rapid emergence of localised access controls on state forest lands in eastern India, especially in south-west engal. The people of Jungle Mahals represent a classic case.

Community forestry, through forest user groups is the major policy initiative for the forestry sector in Nepal. Forest user groups accept responsibility for protection, management and sustained utilization of their community forest. An evoluation of the establishment and implementation of community forestry through forest user groups, for all the government forests in Kabhre village development committee area in central Nepal, shows that the forest department field staff are capable of identifying forest user groups and negotiating with them management arrangements for community forests, while the forest user groups were generally capable of implementing the provisions of their management agreements. Most of the groups had accepted responsibility for protecting their forests and organising collection of dry forest products, which they had traditionally collected. But where idigenous forest management system had not previously existed, the groups tended to rely on field staff assist in resolving social conflicts. Few groups had made the transition to harvesting green products which is an important potential benefit of community forestry. The village people were found to be meeting many of their forest product needs from private land, but were largely dependent on community forests to meet their supply of both leaf litter and fuelwood. The forest user groups which were found to be most effect were those where immediate benefits were available to the users and/or where indigenous forest management systems previously existed. To improve the sustainability of this approach towards community forestry the forest user groups will need to be strengthened and markets will need to be developed for surplus green forest products.

The author gives a brief history of forest policies and management during the pre and post independence period in India. He traces the progress of JFM from its birth in 1987, the first policy level decision was taken in the resolution passed in the meeting of the Central Board of Forestry, chaired by the Prime Minister. She (Indira Gandhi) emphasized the need for effective peoples participation in forest protection and management. A resolution was adopted that by March 31, 1990 a plan of action was prepared for regeneration of degraded forest land with people's participation through village Panchayats or other such bodies. Forest policy of 1988, had a few unique features for bringing 33% of the country's land under forest tree cover. This initiated a process of reforms at the local policy and operational levels of forest management by ensuring that the Forest Department developed close collaboration with local stakeholders for protection and sustainable management of forests. In the year 2000-2001 Forest Development Agency came into existance to undertake all forestry activities in and around 170,000 villages, situated close to forests to meet its objectives for village development on an integrated basis. After a review of JFM in the country he argues for special approach for national parks and sanctuaries where usefruct sharing may not be possible, but benefits from eco-tourism can be shared. He also lays stress for an increasing role of women and NGO's in the future as trainers, researchers, and policy advisors. Viable management partnership need to be based on solid understanding of forest use dependencies, balancing ecological and economic objectives to benefit both participating village families and the state.

This two day training module is aimed at developing a perspective of joint forest management(JFM) programme, forest development agency (FDA) setup, watershed manangement and how to do microplanning besides monitoring and evaluation. Each of the above mentioned themes are interlinked and complimentary to each other, leading to holistic development through participatory management. It is proposed to impart this training module through the spear head team, which can work at the micro level in the field.

It is envisaged that this training module will have two days schedule. On the first day beside ice breaking, the session-1 will give details of JFM, FDA and watershed management. The session-2 will focus on microplaning and how to implement various works. The session-3 will focus ond monitoring and evaluation and how to assess the changes through simple indicators. On the second day the session-4 is planned for practical training in nearby areas for understanding the concepts through demonstration based on the theoretical inputs.

The JFM programmes initiated have made a beginning for a change from the target oriented forestry to the process approach. To achieve the goals of eco-development and sustainable management of forests, participation of local communities through JFM is very crucial. The research perspective on the process of JFM seeks to develop a set of criteria and indicators for monitoring and evaluating the level of participation, the process of empowerment, the degree of transparency the quality of gender justice, the effectiveness of conservation, the sustainability of livelihoods and outputs, the equity in benefit sharing, the strength, resilience, and independence of the JFM institutions, etc. A framework of benefit sharing on Gandhian principles of social justice would be the ideal approach to build up healthy forests and contented communities.

This paper presents a case study of four selected forest villages, viz. Chada, Tantar, Silpiri and Tharpathra of Bajag forest range in Dindori tahsil of Mandla district in Madhya Pradesh. The socio-economic status, occupational pattern and dependence on forest of the two major tribal communities in the village, viz; Baigas and Gonds have been studied. Forestry works and collection of minor forest produce, account for 61.6 percent of the total income and continue to be the major sources of income. Cultivation, though consuming 72.3 percent of the time, accounts for only 38.4 percent of the total income. An integrated approach of development, covering agricultural development, cattle improvement, encouragement to village artisans and forest based cottage industries, formation of cooperatives to channelise the marketing of minor forest produce, participatory forest management etc. has been recommended to bring about improvement in the life quality of these important aboriginal tribes of central India.

There are more than 460 tribal groups in India living in selected areas. Neither did they always live in the forest nor did they entirely depend on the forests. Today ninety percent of the tribals depend on agriculture.

The conflict between the interest of the tribals and the interest of the state arises mainly because of an unrealistic division of the developmental effeforts into various compartments. The development should be viewed as an integrated concept. For conservation of sal forests in south-west Bengal a new management strategy is being tried, involving fringe population in the protection and management of the forests.

The desired motivation has come partly from the experience of the people in absence of the forests and partly from the expectation that the government will share the usufructs from the forests with them at different stages.

Since tribals dominate the forest fringes, they will be the major beneficiaries. This will also help restore the tribal ethos.

Tribals are an important part of forest ecosystem. Their dependence on forest areas has been very well understood. Foresters and tribals are at the opposite ends due to conflict of their interests. Earlier when tribal areas/forest villages were managed by foresters, things were more congenial as foresters were looking after welfare aspect also. But as on today foresters have been left with policing job only without any welfare component. Experiences in joint forest management and eco-development schemes have shown the necessity of integrated development of forests and forest dwellers. Past experiences prove the competence of foresters in this regard. Protection of forest is linked with the welfare of people. The goal of forest protection can be achieved with the people's cooperation.The joint forest management programme is being emplemented with full vigore and with the active involvment of village level vana samarakshana samithies (VSS) in Andhra Pradesh. It has now come to a stage where positivie results can be seen. Some of the VSS formed in 1993 are today in a position to harvest the first rotation crop after successfully protecting the forests and improving it. This programme will be sustained and the degraded forests of Andhra Pradesh would be regenerated giving maximum benefit to the local people.

The authors consider forest plantations within an overall forest conservation and management strategy. They propose designing forest areas in Canada for varying objectives, from super-intensive wood production to full protection. Such a strategy might make it possible to increase protected areas while maintaining the country's high wood production level. An example of how the productive forests of Canada could be divided into four different zones to promote sustainable forest management. (1) Ecosystem management (74%) which signifies reduced timber production, longer rotation cycle, partial conservation of biodiversity and landscape management (2) Full protection (12%) in which all ecosystem types are represented, controls required (3) Intensive management (10%) which contains indigenous species having traditional silvicultural treatments (4) Fibre forms (4%) with Poplar hybrids and larch (Larix spp.) in about 700 ha. Increased level of management intensity maintains wood supply as well as biodiversity in forested landscape. Annual productivity of the bored forest was estimated to be about 141 mill./cu.m. per year. The value of 166 mill./cu.m per year of wood available for harvest is well above the productivity of annual forests despite the inclusion of reserves and a low productivity from a large part of the landscape. In order to achieve conservation goals from only 13% of the area through intensive forestry is possible through ecosystem management approach could than be applied to 72% of the productive area in order to obtain the remaining 55% of the country's wood requirement. In the future, the establishment of fast growing plantations or introduction of fast growing exoties or hybrids on a portion of landscape may well be associated with forest ecosystem protection and not the reverse.

The joint forest management process is not too old in Himachal Pradesh. The VFDCs and plantations raised under this programme are at immature state. Till now people are only getting grasses from these new closures which is distributed among the members peacefully. However the definite mechanism for sharing of other products like fuelwood, leaf fodder, medicinal plants could not be evolved by the VFDCs. But in Jammu this programme is at advance stage. The quantitative data regarding various non timber forest products have been produced. The VFCs in JandK follow a set pattern for benefit sharing which has been evolved year after year in the last decade. Various conflicts have been reported in both the states and many of them were sorted out with the help of forest departments. However, sometimes conflicts are so complex that there is a need of strong conflict resolution mechanism in future.

This paper highlights the research activities carried out in the past (1906 to 1940) on different aspect of wood utilisation in India. A great deal of basic research, data on anatomical, physical and mechanical properties, seasoning behaviour, durability and treatability characters was generated. After post independence period more than 200 Indian standard specifications on testing, seasoning, preservation, packing cases, tool handles and panel products were formulated based on research conducted at FRI. It also highlights important research findings on 20 JFM species viz. Eucalyptus spp. Poplar deltoides, Melia azedarach, Grewia optiva, Ailanthus spp. and Quercus dilatata etc. The work has resulted in inclusion of JFM species for timber use in various Indian standards. Technological innovation development include FRI solar treated kiln, wood-preservatives, service tests, ammonia plasticised bent wood, plywood and reconstituted boards. Priority research area in future, has also been indicated.

This chapter reviews the multiple perspectives that can be used to place values on the forest. Projecting into the future, the author explores how present forest management objectives would require to change to meet national, regional, and local needs. The use of participatory rural appraisal (PRA) and diagnostic research applications can help forest managers learn more from forest communities about forest values, uses, ecology, economics and local institutions. This reviews some preliminary findings from interactive field learning and underscores the need for new, locally informed perspective on the forest and its management. Millions of rural people employed in small forest based industries require improved production, processing and marketing support. The inevitable, longterm environmental imperatives of the subcontinent, demand a more holistic approach to management. This will require a serious commitment by planners, donor agencies, and forest department staff to applied research and extension programmes. The quality of life for more rural Indians could be improved by converting wasted area of former natural forest into intensively managed biodiverse ecosystems. The other relevant topics on community perspective, commercial perspective macroeconomic assessment including firewood, fodder, grazing, NTFP, timber, soil conservation, biodiversity and environmental sttability, community managed forests and new economic perspective have been discussed.

The paper relates to Van Dhan, an innovative project taken up in Bastar district of M.P. Van Dhan is hindi for wealth of the forests. Trifed (Tribal Cooperative Marketing Development Federation of India Ltd.) provides working funds as well as marketing support. The SHGs (self help groups) which function as procuring agents of Trifed, receive from it commission for the service done.

Van Dhan can be called the obverse of JFM. It represents reaching the goal of JFM from the other side. The primary concern of JFM is forest; people’s participation is a means to this end. JFM rightly recognizes that people are to be viewed as solutions, not as problems. The provisions of panchayats (extension to scheduled areas) Act, 1996 and its state co-relative provide adequate legal basis for taking such an approach to JFM today.

The Bastar model breaks new ground, or at least it brings for JFM new emphasis on the following moot points:

1. Multi-departmental approach 2. Self help group approach 3. Marketing.

Van Dhan has caused into the tribal’s pockets an additional income of Rs. 35.00 crores. Van Dhan has created self-employment opportunities for around 10,000 local youth in their villages.

The Van panchayats were formed in Uttar Pradesh hills now Uttaranchal hills under the van panchayat niyamawali laid down in 1931 which were accepted by Govt. of India in 1976 and given legal sanction in the Indian forest act 1927 under section 28(2). The area under van Panchayats is about 3.92% of the reported area of Garhwal Himalaya. These forests are under the control of revenue department for administrative purpose and the forest department have the responsibility for the technical matters.The local management is under participatory villages. Some funds have now been made available to the van panchayats under various employment schemes being implemented in the area including Jawahar rojgar yojna and social forestry programmes. Van panchayats have vast potential as they institutionally restore the ownership of forest to the village community. Factors which helps satisfactory functioning of the Van panchayats can be summarised as (1) The panchayats in the Uttaranchal hills have generally done better then the Panchayats in plains because the size of the user groups in the hills is generally 50 to 100 families only. (2) Single village panchayats do much bette then multi-village panchayats. In the latter, smaller hamlets often feel discriminated and, therefore, do not cooprate.Similarly monocaste village do better.(3) Chances of pilferage by the neighboring village are reduced if they too have access to a well stocked forest.(4) Total area and quality of land of the Panchayats forests.(5) Poximity of the village to reserved forests, which satisfy a substantial part of the village needs. A few km. Distance from road also helps in that the produce can not be marketed. (6) Panchayats which have good bank balance find it easier to employ a watchman for protection.(7) Leadership quality of the sarpanch, time given by him for supervision, his ability to evolve consensus within the village, his equation with bureaucracy also help in smooth running of van panchayat. Further amendment in Van Panchayat Niyamawali can be initiated by taking into consideration the above mentioned facts.

Ulvi is a famous temple village and religious centre in the heart of thick forests in the Uttara Kannada District. Sri Chennabasaveshwara, a disciple and contemporary of Basaveshwara a great reformer of the 12th Century, fled from ‘Kalyana’ and reached Ulvi where he settled down and breathed his last. In his memory a car festival takes place in February every year drawing lakhs of devotees. As mementos of their visit, these devotees used to take home a piece of cane and an adchari (Memecylon edule) pole. Over the years this custom led to smuggling of canes and poles by some unscrupulous people. The vegetation around Ulvi area was severely depleted and this posed a water problem for the devotees themselves. This went on unchecked for quite a long period partly because of the limited number of staff available for protection and partly because of the religious sentiment attached to the practice. By creating awarness of the importance of the forests in the minds of the devotees through the press and temple authorities and proper deployment of KFD personnel at strategic points, the smuggling was effectively controlled during 1995.

Vegetation assessment of community managed forest was carried out in five villages of Sambalpur forest division (Orissa) and two villages of Jabalpur forest division (M.P.), alongwith adjacent non- protected forest area to gauge the effects of community protection.The following recommendations have been made: Orissa site- In the areas protected 4, 6 and 8 years some cleaning operations are required. In 13 years old protected area thining operation is required. In 3 years protection area which is under miscellaneous forest more protection is required. A part of the area should be toally closed for atleast 5 years and remaining area for next 5 years. This is important for regneration and growth of major species. M.P. site- In Kundwara and Raoria some forest areas should be closed for 5 years to enable regeneration and growth of bamboo and other important species. These closure pratices have already started in these areas and the data of regneration for the major species has been recorded after 3 years of closer. The number of established species per hectare were found to be Dendrocalamus strictus 280, Aegle marmelos 160, Tectonai grandis 190, Anogeissus latifolia 132, Boswellia serrata 84 and Cassia fistula 65.

This paper contends that joint forest management projects have been initiated by government and are not a spontaneous response of people to safeguard forests. The NGOs involvement is only to serve their own vested interests. Pressure of livestock grazing is at least eight times more than what the forest areas can support. Lopping of tree leaves for fodder and sweeping of forest floors has drastically reduced the growth of forests. Kautilya’s Arthasastra clearly mentions that in times of the Maurya kings the forests and pasture lands belonged to the state. Dispassionate and unbiased analysis of present day facts show that joint forest management projects are not sustainable in the long run.

The joint forest management has generated additional income to village households which willingly contribute time, energy or money for the common cause of the village. Collection of money very often for different purposes is combersome and unmanageable. In order to create a permanent common fund in all the village forest protection and management committees(VFPMC), a village common resource pool was initiated and bank account was opened for each committee. This has provided several advantages. Topices discussed in the article are namly on contributions to village fund from various sources such as collection and sale of seeds, collection of fines by the VFPMC, charges for drought combating, income from user groups and uses of common funds.With the object of resolving legal conflicts being faced in day to day implementation of the joint forest management programme, it has been suggested in the paper to invoke the provisions contained in Chapeter III of Indian forest act,1927 regarding formation of village forests. Such a measure would not only provide sound legal basis to the entire programme, but would also solve the problems related to the conflicts arising of the exercise of numerous adverse rights of the people already existing in these forests.

Case studies from India indicate that village resource development activities may provide an important incentive for sustaining interest in the joint forest management programme apart from leading to improvoements in people’s livelihood status. Ensuring sustainability of such activities, however, requires several innovative measures including the development of village funds and enhancing of inter-sectoral linkages.

The dependence of landless and poor masses of the villages in the vicinity of forests for their livelihood is a well known fact. An integrated approach for the eco-development of this target group is helping to reduce their dependence on the forest. Other groups are also being benefited by eco-development programmes and their active co-operation is being sought for JFM.

Out of the total land mass of 329 million ha. About 175 million ha. is considered as a wasteland or degraded land. Of the total landmass under agriculture of 143 million ha nearly 60 to 80 million ha. constitutes wasteland and in forestry sector out of 75 million ha. of landmass nearly 40 million ha is degraded. Wasteland development programme for such a big area cannot be fully carried out with the help of government machinery alone. In private lands in the rural areas, without the active involvement, of people, their whole hearted participation and cooperation the necessary impetus to the wasteland development programme could be hardly feasible. The legal impediments which appear to be few, neverthless, may restrict the wasteland development activities. The technical know-how alongwith the feedback, monitoring and evaluation also form an important aspect in wasteland development programme from the paint of view of making it a success as well as enlarging the scope of this programme on a wider scale considering its dire necesity in the present ontext of acute shortage of fuel and fodder, as well as its impact on the ecosystem and environment as a whole. This wasteland development programme in rural areas would also go a long way in improving not only the agricultural rural economy and in turn create wood based industries in the rural sector but by the large will stop the influx of rural population to urban areas and on the whole may improve in increasing water yield, and water table in the areas where such activities are taken on a large scale.

This paper summarizes the findings of a socio-economic baseline study undertaken amongst four forst user groups (FUGs) in Nepal focusing on levels of participation, understanding of and benefit from, community forestry activities.Poorer households were found to benefit significantly less than wealtheir households, and in some cases may even be directly disadvantaged by the advent of community forestry in their villages. A major cause of this inequity is that FUG committees are dominated by wealthier households. In addition; awareness levels of a range of community forestry and FUG institutional issues is low, particularly amongst the poorest groups. Forests are being managed below their productive potential and only a limited proportion of member's forest product needs come from community forests.

The main objective of the present paper is to highlight the significance of natural benefits through the integrated approach on sharing of wisdom of indigenous knowledge (IK) and advance knowledge (AK) holders, that is, IK + AK = IA (strengthening of participatory will) + 2K (Integration of knowledge for application on various aspects of IFBC) and it is possible through various on going development activities of JFM in key areas of biodiversity conservation.

The present paper based on field observation in different parts of the country deals comprehensively the key areas of significance to the IK and advance knowledge holders on Indian forest biodiversity conservation. Need and priorities with emphasis on scientific scrutiny and conversion of IK on components such as selection of species and genetic diversity of economic, aesthetic and ornamental values for conservation, propagation, shifting cultivation and harvesting techniques, gene pool management through traditional approaches like maintenance of sacred groves, on farm conservation, etc. plant-based medicines and health care, food and nutrition, etc. have been elucidated in JFM and IFBC perspectives.

Concerted efforts have been made for involving women in the joint forest management programme being implemented in the Shivalik belt of Haryana state by providing for their primary as well as managerial membership to the hill resource management societies (HRMS), which are the village level organizations involved in the programme. However, the social , cultural and economic barriers present in the rural society prevent women from openly expressing their views and often put a question mark on their real involvement in the programme. This study attempts to make a qualitative and quantitative assessment of the benefits accruing to women folk in the villages where the programme is operational and while doing so, also assesses the level of involvement of women in the programme and whether the current level of involvement provides adequate room and opportunity to this gender to express and find solutions to their problems at an equal footing with the men folk.

There is a focus on women in forest service. Their contributions to Indian Forest Service are related with their own perceptions of linkages between women and forests.

Forestry as a career for women is a recent development in India. In 1995, Indian Forest Service had a total cadre strength of 2,576. Of this number only 72 or 2.8 per cent were women officers. Among the forestry subordinate services, 150 women were employed as assistant conservator of forests, range forest officers, foresters and forest guards. In term of number and representation, women’s presence is quite insignificant.

To create an effective cadre of women managers of forests, it is not enough to recognise their forestry related pursuits. What is generally not addressed is the long term implication of graduating women into development processes, be that forest or water or land management. Instead of focusing on women per se, our concern is with the larger perspective of social equity whereby both women and men manage resources to their collective empowerment.

Today in the modern world, the pairing of women with nature is also critically examined in view of the fact that nature itself is considered, in the present politico-economic context, a political construct. In this sense, both gender-based structures and the subjugation of the natural environment are seen as dominant forms of oppression.

It has been found that women specific programs tend to be largely ignored by the mainstream development planners.

Although forestry is an outdoor career, women can contribute a lot if only appropriate support is provided. Since the forest officers are required to tour a lot, project back-up forest arrangements can certainly provide women officers an opportunity to deliver the goods in a better way. There are a number of fields like wildlife, photo interpretation, management information system and geographical information system in which women can specialize and contribute more meaningfully.

Godam village of Northern Haryana is inhabited by people belonging to four different castes; namely Rajputs, Muslim Gujjars, Harijans and Bhanjdas. Women in the village perform both household as well as productive activities, wherein in the income generating activities have been referred to as productive activities and those which are carried out to run the household and take care of the family members, such as fuel and water collection, food preparation, cleaning and laundry etc. have been categorised as household activities. The former are mostly caste based and the latter are common. Some of the productive activities help in income generation directly and the others contribute towards their traditional role of housekeeping. The study assesses as to what impact these activities have on the lives of women belonging to the four castes and whether these do in any way either modify or redefine their roles and status. Further, depending upon the activities, the relationship between women and the forest resources, has been defind.

There is a need for rationalization of rural credit systems in order to make credit more accessible to rural communities and pull them out of the vice like grip of the money lenders. A number of organizations and agencies working in the area of rural development are focussing on the establishment of a community fund created from contributions of beneficiaries under different programmes as an alternative. The role of economic incentives is significant in sustaining the interest and participation of communities. Greater access and allotment of forest products under programmes like JFM only provide for a marginal increase in incomes to dependent communities; but much more significant impacts on women’s lives would be achieved through the system of self help groups undertaking savings and credit activities. The discussion in this paper is on the opportunities for the economic empowerment of women. While incomes that follows the emphasis is essentially on exploring the options for economic empowerment of women. In this context, the forest departments in the JFM states could really make a difference in the lives of millions of poor rural women and incorporate the requisite changes in their activities profile so as to promote these groups and at the same time support this through staffing procedures and norms, budgeting, training programmes, policy procedures and guidelines. Some of the crucial observations from Bairani Kuldis experience in Jhabua are that while impoverished rural women have been encouraged to save, they have also been provided the additional incentives of accessing grants and loans.

The study is an attampt to find the level of women’s dependence on forests in joint forest management adopted states of Haryana in the north and Madhya Pradesh and Orissa in central India. Study reveals that women continue to be heavily dependent on forests for fuel, fodder, NTFP and other products, women of lower classes have to work harder and are therefore more dependent which points to the necessity of gender concerns in JFM areas.

Forest in hills constitute the essential life support system. The symbiotic relationship between people (specially women) and forests finds expression in popular folk songs. Women are major stake holders for natural resources specially forests and their improvement of degradation directly impinges on women welfare. Thus it is no wonder that Kumaon has been pioneer in joint/community forest management not only in India but probably in Asia also, since Kumaon panchayat forest rules were notified for the whole of Kumaon division of the then United Provinces on July 13, 1931. Villages Parwara was taken up for joint forest management (JFM) in 1997. Women have been associated in JFM right from micro planning to implementation and monitoring of JFM activities. All the meetings of VFC are chaired by Smt. Bhagirathi Devi, Chairperson of VFC. Participation of women in the open meetings of villagers to discuss implementation of JFM has increased considerably after JFM. Women have organised themselves into two groups of thirteen members each, (who patrol by rotation), and accept only token honorarium. They have issued 150 offence cases, realized Rs. 2425/-apart from educating and sensitizing the offenders. Water resources are being conserved and augmented by self imposed restrictions for the protection of spring sanctuary. In women’s nursery 16,500 plants have been raised for afforestation in the year 2000. Savings due to voluntary labour in forest protection and development works are deposited in the coffers of village development fund. The present balance is Rs. 1,09,496/-. Physical and financial activity wise details of work plan are written at prominent places which are frequently visited by villagers. Income and employment opportunities have increased for the uneducated and under educated villagers, specially women at their door steps. As a result of JFM women have improved their capacity to recognize and overcome their own problems. They have also understood that together everyone achieves more and they have also made self help groups. Thus JFM in Parwara is making women equal partners in the process of development with men folk.

The national forest policy and legislation on joint forest management (JFM) in some states are influenced by two theoretical perspective: one, a women and environment development (WED) perspective, which focuses on the material role of women in achieving 'closeness' with nature and ecofeminism, and the other a gender and development (GAD) perspective that firmly believes that gender - sensitive planning for JFM should be to find ways for women to institutionalise their bargaining strength. This paper, an attempt to examine the extent of women's involvement in forestry and their role in JFM in West Bengal, observes that despite women's greater involvement in forestry, the state JFM resolution has proved inadequate for ensuring their participation in community institutions.The present study endeavours to augment the available literature, with additional yield data of 45 trees each of two sites at Jabalpur, namely, Kundwara and Raoria. The parameters recorded were girth, crown diameter and crown length of the trees and the yield of its flowers over a three year period. It was attempted to build a best fit regression equation based on this data to predict yield of flowers in terms of girth, crown diameter and crown height. The equation was found to be Y = 296.01+ (-0.031 X1) + 0.503 X2 + 0.549 X3 (R2 = 0.999) where X1=Girth in cm ; Y= yield in Kg; X2 = Crown diameter in cm; X3 = Crown length in cm.

The Haryana forest department (HFD) leases its forest areas to the Ballarpur paper mill and the hill resource management societies (HRMS) for extraction of bhabbar, which grows luxuriously in the Shivalik region and has varied uses as raw material for paper and rope etc. This study was undertaken to assess and compare the yield of bhabbar and other grasses from the forest areas leased to different agencies. Economics of the bhabbar extraction and marketing mechanisms being practised by the two agencies were also worked out.

Joint Forest Management (JFM) is an organic process targeting the regeneration of degraded forests by involving the local community and operates on the interaction between the Forest Department and the local community. Successful formation and functioning of Village Forest Councils (VFCs) is the key factor that decides the success of the entire programme. Involvement of women and the marginalized in the programme will serve the purpose of benefiting the poor and the landless forest dependents. Responsibility of protection combined with the right over the forest produce will help achieve the target of the programme.Sustainability means survival, livelihoods and environmental services. Himachal's economic valuation of natural capital and eco-services, such as direct non-consumptive benefits and goods has shown the importance of looking holistically at eco-systems and eco-services. Ecotourism provides a sustainable solution towards handling mountain community upliftment through a participatory mode between the different stakeholders involved. For sustainable development to work with natural ecosystems and their goods and services, a combination of regulatory constraints and market mechanisms are needed.

Developing an information base is a sine-qua-non for scientific management of forests. It requires building a comprehensive geo-database of forest resources and it critical analysis on a continuous basis. This is possible if modern technologies such as computing, geographical information system, geographical positioning system, remote sensing and internet are applied in forest management practices. Towards this, Forest Department of Chhattisgarh has launched an initiative to develop multiplayered geodatabase primarily focused on forest management. It has also prepared an application software known as Working Plan Decision Support System (WP DSS) fully adapted to processes and procedures provided in the new working plan code issued by Govt. of India. GIS and remote sensing technologies are fully applied not only to revise forest working plans in the state but also to carry out other management tasks.

Joint Forest Management (JFM), a co-management programme between government Forest Departments and local people, has been hailed as a successful strategy in arresting forest degradation and promoting socio-economic development of forest fringe villages in India. Sustaining the programme, however, was found to be a major challenge in the absence of lasting institutional mechanisms and regular income flow to the participating communities. The Tamil Nadu Afforestation Project (TAP) addressed these challenges by focusing on (I) providing stronger rights and responsibilities for local forest management, (ii) developing specific institutional measures toward empowering rural poor and women, (iii) ensuring improved sectoral integration and flow of additional developmental assistance, and (iv) promoting flexible and effective programme implementing organzations and stakeholder capacities. These approaches and their outcomes are discussed in the paper.

This paper deals with some aspects of the research needs of JFM to provide sustainability. Research needs of JFM can be broadly categorised in to the forestry related research and socio-economic research. It is important to focus research on multi-tier forestry to meet the needs of JFM. There is need to reorient the Silvicultural Systems and define the productive parameters for new alternatives which will blend these NTFPs with timber and fuelwood. Research on different models for the optimum returns and providing protection to the soil and biodiversity is a priority area. Forest research on utilization aspect will provide the sustainability and the required financial return to the community and the state in long run. More focussed research is needed on grasslands and fodder to meet specific needs of JFM. Impact of JFM on the socio-economic aspects of the local community is important for sustainability. Participatory approach requires understanding of factors influencing the involvement of local people and long-term sustainability. It becomes imperative to develop performance indicators.An experiment conducted in selected village forests of Ranchi and Hazaribagh districts (both were JFM is practiced and where not practiced), indicatesthat forest where JFM is practiced has better soil characteristics. Through this experiment is not a perfect one and it has to explain some questions but it has definitely given a hint that JFM has certainly positive effect on soil nutrient status of the forests.Regeneration behavior and population structure of important tree species were analyzed in nine village forests under joint forest management in East Chhindwara forest division (Madhya Pradesh). Possible future composition changes in these forests were explored. The greater contribution of seedlings, saplings and individuals in lower diameter-class for sites I, III,VII and IX showed 'extending population structure,' which is indicative of better regeneration on these sites. However, sites-VI, VIII and II were highly disturbed sites, the proportion of individuals were greater in larger diameter-classes as compared to smaller diameter-classes. This is indicative of 'decline population structure. Present and past disturbances adversely affect the regeneration and composition of different tree species at different sites. Besides the protection of these forests, artificial regeneration is suggested for the improvement of tree regeneration and maintenance of vegetation composition in near future.The scientific management plan for the forests of Sajwa round of Vadodara district was prepared using remote snsing and geographical information system (GIS) technique. This study was undertaken to evaluate the present management plan and suggest changes for better management of the forests. Suggestions were made based on IRS IC,1999 satellite data and the field data collected from forests. According to the analysis, the status of the forests was found degraded. Therefore most of the forest patches from the round may be included in the afforestation working circle for better management. Also the effectiveness of remote sensing data compared with conventional method in the forest cover monitoring was assessed and presented.

JFM is a recent concept adopted by various states of India, which is an institution building process (not a silvicultural management system ) by which it is easier to manage the forests through active participation of the fringe people. But the viability and continuty of these institutions rest on certain factors. The most important is the sustainability of the development process by which the benefits received by the FPC members should be commensurate, at least to some extent, with the services rendered by them in managing the forests effectively. Attempts are made in this article to examine this from institutional, economic and ecological point of view of this programme and suggest improvements. Income of the beneficiaries may not be complementary, but definitely it can be supplemented to great extent, if certain technical and technological measures can be taken. Above everything motivation and interaction with the FPCs are vital and imparting training for value addition of natural resources is an important factor to augment the income.

The paper gives an account about the status of joint forest management (JFM) in the state of Nagaland. The land holding pattern in the state is totally different from the other states. In the state, most of the land belongs to people. The involvement of people has played an important role in protection and conservation of forests. Through JFM programme people are also getting involved in biodiversity conservation. The samanvit gram vanikaran smriddhi yojna ( SGVSY) and national afforestation programme (NAP) implemented by forest development agencies (FDAs) have given momentum to JFM programme in the state which lead to increase in dense forest cover. The JFM programme is very successful in the State.The floristic composition of JFM managed forest and adjoining natural scrub forest in Guddada Budihal areas of Gadag Division was studied. The study has inferred the higher species diversity in the JFM managed forests compared to the natural forests. There was 19 species in JFM managed forests, among them Hardwickia binata possessed higher IVI value of 120.41. It was follwed by Steropermum personatum and Anogeissus latifolia. The data on regeneration indicated that, Hardwickia binata was most ecologgically success species constituing IVI value of 74.7 of the total regenerating individuals. The data has clearly indicated a high diversity and more species composition among regenerated individuals in JFM managed forests compared to adjoining natural forests. The results indicated that an urgnet need for taking enrichment works in many of the patches with indigenous local species and protecting the forests from grazing by involving local people.

The documentation of forest wealth in the Himalayas is of great imporance because of biotic pressure on them. The applied system of management and conservation of forest is of immediate concern for the present and future generation. Such study is useful to know the type of plant community development through succession under single stand management system. The present study revealed the dominance of Cedrus deodara an endemic species of Indian Himalayas in all Periodic Blocks with maximum dominance in PB II. Among different PBs maximum diversity in species was found in PB IV with highest density of Quercus floribunda followed by Cedrus deodara and Pinus wallichiana. Among shrub species Berberis aristata showed maximum dominance in PB I, PB II and PB IV. However, Sarcococca saligna was dominant in PB III and as a next dominant species in PB I and PB II. It also showed highest density in PB I, PB II and PB III. While Berberis aristata indicated highest density in PB IV. Among herbaceous vegetation most dominant species was Eragrostis nutans in all periodic blocks. The maximum regeneration of Cedrus deodara was found in the decreasing trend as PB I > PB IV > PB III > PB II. The maximum contribution to regeneration among various Periodic Blocks was of Cedrus deodara followed by Quercus floribunda, Pinus wallichiana and Quercus leucotrichophora.

Joint forest management (JFM), the partnership between the Government Forest Department and forest-fringe community (organised through the Forest Protection Committees (FPCs) towards forest protection, had its inception in the state of West Bengal and is considered to be most successful in this state. Bankura (North) Division, being part of the successful JFM zone, has some unique features like, diverse topographical configurations, availability of commercially viable minerals beneath the forests in some areas and regions, like Barjora, that have seen a recent spurt in industrialisation and urbanisaion. All these features provided an exclusive opportunity to study the factors leading to the effectiveness of JFM, involving the FPCs. The study aimed at evaluating the effectiveness of JFM from the economic perspective, like the effect of the protection-linked direct incentives, impact of the market forces and the existence of demand for alternative use of forest land. Both the quantitative and the qualitative investigations were undertaken to this effect. In the quantitative study, some 80 FPCs were studied, based upon the presence of 11-criteria chosen for the purpose. The results confirmed that the effect of protection-linked direct incentives, impact of market forces and existence of demand for alternative use do influence the effectiveness of FPCs. To augment the quantitative study, some 20 FPCs, showing somewhat unexpected results, were probed further in the qualitative study. The results, therein, augmented the findings of the quantitative study and also confirmed the existence of free-riders and the fact that the very JFM in the study area is in actuality a result of the choice of the economic rationale within the FPC community, rather than that of being motivated by the emotions attached to being a part of a peoples' movement, as is normally attributed to the JFM regime in south West Bengal.

The current JFM strategy is built primarily on the notion that local communities can mange forests if their costs involved in undertaking this task are compensated with resultant forest produce. Degraded forests under JFM in several places however virtually yield very little forest produce for local villagers to be enthusiastic about JFM. Although the program is recognized as potentially delivering off-site benefits, there is little discussion on compensating the JFM communities for the environmental services they render through improved forest protection and ecological restoration. The need for such compensation becomes particularly significant when these communities are helping to restore highly degraded forests that supply very little forest produce. This paper documents the limited scope for on-site benefits to support JFM and explores opportunities for revitalizing the program through a focus on compensating forest fringe communities for providing environmental services.

This study documents the impact of joint forest management (JFM) on forest conservation and poverty reduction. The JFM was developed as a response to forest degradation and its impact on the ecology and livelihoods of poor people dependent on forests. The JFM performance in the study area resulted not only to better access in the forests and livelihoods but also augmentation in the local economy. With increased income, literacy rate went up significantly whereas out-migration reduced. There was significant improvement in the regeneration of forests and the biodiversity. The better moisture and soil sonservation resulted in increased water table which led to better irrigation facilities for the adjoining agriculture field leading to increased agriculture yield. The poverty stricken villages changed into prosper villages.

This paper explores the role of forest resources in improving the livelihood status of forest dependent people in and around two forest ranges of Sylhet Forest Division of Bangladesh. We conducted an intensive field survey from early-May to mid-August, 2010. We collected primary information through community profiles and household interviews using a semi-structured questionnaire focusing on socio-demographic, livelihood activities and overall impacts on forest resources. A total of 58 respondents from two forest range (36 from Kulaura and 22 from Habiganj-2 range) were interviewed. Data analyses show that overall, 26% and 33% of the people, are totally dependent on forest for their livelihoods in two range, respectively. About 42 plant speceies belonging to 32 families were used by the people among trees were dominated (50%) followed by herbs 29%. People collecting forest resources especially NTFPs and building material helps them meet important household needs and sources of income such as leaves and medicinal herbs, food for livestock, fruits, fuelwood and honey; while also supporting the production of secondary goods like processed or prepared food (animal and vegetable), baskets and other crafts. It concludes that both research on the use of forest resources and co-management practices should be implemented through forest dependent people to continue to live in and around the study areas in a sustainable manner.

Although the JFM concept is becoming popular more and more all over India, there is no well defined methodology to evaluate the functioning of JFM. As a result, it is not possible to evaluate JFM functioning and to find out the level of success of the JFM. Therefore, an attempt has been made to bring out a concept paper on JFM that enables evaluation of JFM in systematic manner. The concept and functioning of joint forest management are discussed with reference to three systems operating in JFM - the forest supporting system, life supporting system and JFM supporting system. The inter-relationships among these three systems and the methodology of evaluating each system are discussed. The use of the methodology in evaluating the JFM functioning at local level and state level are also given. This paper will pave way for improving the evaluation method of JFM by making use of the concepts explained here.This paper reviews status, policies and programmes for fringe forest development in India and gives a vision statement for the development of fringe forests of the country, based on global and regional events which have changed the emphasis in the forestry sector in the way stakeholders perceive how forests should be managed in future and how dovetailing ongoing activities, programmes and resources of the line departments can develop rainfed social and ecological capital of the country in a holistic manner for a win-win situation for all concerned.Joint forest management (JFM) was introduced into Orissa on 1st June 1988 by JFM resolution. It involves sharing forest benefits and forest management responsibility between the state and the community, and it currently covers 1,061,705 ha. Government of Orissa's efforts for encouragement of participatory forest management through people's participation by different JFM models have positive impacts on forest management and livelihood of forest dwellers but still there is need of continuous effort to recognize peoples' institutions (Pls) with an optimistic approach of development practitioners for JFM programme to make it more people-centric. This study suggests that empowerment of the user group, peoples' institutions, greater devolution of power, functionaries and funds, active participation of the stakeholders, due weightage to entitlements of the community, etc. are likely to benefit the forest-dependent poors most in future and sustainable management of forest.

Forest-fringe communities usually depend on forest to meet their day-to-day sustenance and biomass needs. More than a third of notified forests in India are being managed under joint forest planning and management (JFPM) programme involving forest-fringe communities and state forest departments. These jointly manged forests have degraded due to over-use in the past. At present the focus of management in such jointly managed forests is on their rejuvenation and rationalized use. By implication, in the long term JFPM is carbon positive approach, and biodiversity conservation and livelihoods strengthening are its byproducts. REDD+ (Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation plus) envisions the same with added incentives from tradable carbon units that would improve the flow of revenue benefits for forest-fringe communities. Under the emergeing REDD+scenario, JFPM is likely to provide a ready foundation to initiate REDD+that is likely to enhance the resilience of forests as well as communities in face of climate change. Forest management under REDD+regime is not likely to be much different from that under JFPM at the ground level however its administration is expected to involve several anticipated issues and other completely new issues. The present study looks at the present forest management regime under JFPM to assess the opportunity for forest-fringe communities to participate in REDD+programme.

Five villages undertaking joint forest management (JFM) were chosen in Uttara Kannada district, Karnataka for assessing regeneration in plantations and nearby natural forests of the village, Species number, stem density, diversity index, similarity in species composition in less distrubed and disturbed forests and plantations in the village were compared. Stem density was low in all the disturbed forests; however, the species number was low in disturbed forests of three villages and high in two villages. Plantations showed lower diversity values compared to the adjacent natural forests. Regeneration in all less disturbed forests was better compared to the disturbed counterparts. Villages were ranked based on number of landless families, per capita forest available and number of cut stems. Assessment of village forests using ranks indicates that parameters such as per capita availability, cut stems in the forests may determine the success of JFM.Joint forest management (JFM) relies on low cost option for regeneration of degraded forest patches. We review here criterion-based assessment of these community development carbon sinks in four villages of Narmada district, Gujarat. Forest villages were ranked based on primary and secondary plant analysis, carbon sequestration rate, forest per household, landless families and gochar land available per Animal Cattle Units (ACU). Weightage was given to each criterion and changing the weightage value resulted in the changes in rank of the villages. This study highlighted the significance of planning strategy in success or failure of any JFM activity in restoration of forest areas of these villages.Historical background has been given showing the advances made up to the last Hirakud Seminar. While the Roorkee Seminar refused to allocate any fund for soil conservation measures from the project estimate, the Hirakud Seminar recommended 2 to 5 per cent of the River Valley Project funds for the purpose. Grounds have been given for considering soil and water conservation as an integral and essential part of any River Valley Project. It has been shown that merely constructing dams will result in more frequent and devastating floods after some time if the forests in the catchment are not specially managed and protected. Concrete proposals have been outlined for achieving this purpose. Special attention may be given to the resolution proposed at the end of this paper.

The management problems of sal (Shorea robusta) forests under conversion to uniform, selection and coppice workings have been presented along with the application of the sampling techniques for tackling the same. The forests under conversion to uniform are still stated to be far from a uniform forests. Determination of increment, structure and amount of growing stock is emphasized to be necessary. Laying out tree-increment plots as representative samples and their measurement in full is suggested for finding the increment. In order to check up the forecasts of growing stock and its structure by partical enumerations, it is suggested that the girth of trees be recorded and posted in control forms at the time of their fellings. A regeneration sampling is advocated before clear-felling the sal overwood. Adoption of a financial rotation and its adherence is explained. The growing stock and increment figures of sal forests have been compared to the French and Swiss forests. The working of Biolley's methode ducontrole in Swiss forests has been described from a personal experience. The prerequisites of its adoption in other regions have been presented. It has been suggested to operate Biolley's check method through a set of representative samples - the linear increment plots. The specific problems of of over-maturity and understocking of sal forests under selection working have been explained along with the need for adjusting to an optimum structure. Two characteristic features of the coppice forests, viz., their immaturity and under-stocking have been described. A lesser yield is advocated in favour of capitalisation. For contending against under-stocking it is claimed that sowing of sal seeds a couple of years in advance of the coppice fellings may suffice. The role of working plans in long term investigations on the quality and quantity of timber, on production and ecological trends of forests and on efficacy of silvicultural systems has been stressed. It has been emphasized that a working plan must ensure a continuity of its provisons in order to attain the dynamic equilibrium conditions of the forest with its size.

There must be concerned drive to increase forestry production to off-set the crisis created by shortage of these raw-materials as envisaged by National Commission on Agriculture. Bastar Forests, which make 3 per cent of the country's forest area and 7.19 per cent of the growing stock, have largely remained unexploited. Inspite of strategic location, hospitable terrain, availability of natural resources and presence of industrial pre-requisites, these forests have remained unexploited in absence of industrial planning. In order to utilize these forests on anything like the scale possible industrial planning was taken in hand. The total forested area was divide into intensive and non-intensive areas and five industrial catchments were carved out for industrial wood supply to the consuming centres keeping maximum economics in transporation and production costs. All industrially sought-after species which can profitably be grown in the area were selected for specific areas and intensive forestry was prescribed to mobilise these resources under a phased programme.

We are at an epoch making period in the forest history of our country; either we make it a turning point or continue to move towards an ecological disaster. All that was genuinely believed to be good forest management, has turned out to be ruinous, in light of the new knowledge and new understanding. Even at present, tropical forests are inadequately understood at best and misunderstood at worst. Few are aware that there are friendly trees, enemy trees and neutral trees in nature. Clear cutting is unsuitable; man-made forests of one or two species have proved to be destructive of ecology. A large number of tree species is endangered, and a larger number has become rare, not to speak of numerous shrubs, herbs and grasses. The country is faced with a situation in which quality seeds of quite a few non-commercial species are difficult to come by. The composition of the forest and, the architecture and alignment of different species within an ecosystem, have been radically altered. The result is the undermining of the protective, productive, human, cultural and environmental functions. The paper describes how and why did all this happen. The ecological implications of the vegetational changes on soil, water, wildlife and vegetation have been described. In absence of Base-Line Surveys and adequate research, only observations of the author have been indicated qualitatively. It is hoped that this document will stimulate research and generate debates and discussions for a better tomorrow. Participation by all concerned, particularly experts from related disciplines, is imperative.

The idealisted concepts of a normal forest and sustained yield (of one/two timbers) which aim at simplifying sensitive and complex ecosystems which nature took millions of years to evolve, have failed. The conversion of multi-canopied, multi-species and multi-aged natural crops into one-canopied, one or two species of one age gradation has missed the tropicality and its human dimension of tropical forests. This has contributed directly and indirectly to the degradation and destruction of forests, unwittingly though. The productivity, protectivity, biodiversity and humanity functions have been jeopardised. Most of all, the management has created a human tragedy for about 60 million forest dwellers in India. One ha of a natural forest can support and sustain atleast 20 tribal families. More policing, more investment, more of man-made forests and community forestry; despite them, the destruction has exacerbated. Tropicalising, indigenising and homanising tropical forest management systems, associates indigenous people with all aspects of management, make the most use of their traditional knowledge. They know more about natural forests than we foresters do! Integrate use all of common propety resources for the benefit of the local people. Burden of industrial wood production be substantially transferred from forests to farms. Experts have to reinvent tropical forestry. It is fallacious to assume that the suggested approach would bring down revenue, employment and total production. In any case, the present level of timber production (one/two species) is not sustainable!

Investments in forestry plantations are long term investment. In such ventures/projects the tree growth is limited by the natural factors, whereas growth of money is governed by numerous market forces. For optimal returns form forestry plantations, it is necessary to follow a management scheme/plan which is evolved after considering the implications of demand-pattern, rate of tree growth and economic return in terms of sustainable utilization. For sound economic sustainability, it is also essential that there exists a rational basis for pricing of the final product; i.e., timber. In this paper an attempt has been made to study and analyse the above concept by taking an example of a teak plantation and using the figures as observed in the timber market survey conducted at Jabalpur.

Biodiversity is a concept covering all levels of biological organisation, including genes, species and ecosystems. The impact of human disturbances on forest biodiversity must be assessed. Inappropriate forest harvesting operations can lead to loss of ecosystem integrity. Revision of forest management systems may be required to conserve biodiversity.The worldwide concern over global warming led to the formation of United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1992 to deal with GHG emissions. As per the Kyoto protocol of 1997, the industrialized countries are expected to reduce the GHG emissions by 5.5% by 2008-12 over 1990 levels. Such countries are expected to buy carbon credits from developing countries under the clean development mechanism (CDM). Global negotiations are on for operationalisation of the CDM mechanism. Afforestation and reforestation have already been included under CDM, and forest conservation activities are also likely to be considered under adaptation measures. A study was carried out to estimate the creation of carbon sinks and sequestration achieved in community-protected forests of Sambalpur Forest Division, Orissa. The results have shown that 1.53 to 3.01 tonnes of carbon is being sequestered per ha per year with only protection, which can be enhanced through proper implementation of the management prescriptions. Enormous opportunities exist to sequester carbon and to mitigate climate change patterns through regeneration in India's forests.

Haryana state is one of the pioneers in practice of JFM and the experience is about three decades old. Some of the very successful models of the concept that have demonstrative affect on similar areas have been established and continue to function to this date. Replication of this has not occurred to the expected level as certain conditions necessary for success are lacking. Loss of importance of catalysts because of change in technology and user preferences is causing anxiety regarding very survival of the concept. Investment already made is to be consolidated in as short a time as is possible as life of a productive asset in fragile areas is limited. Natural forests and slow-and low-producers, therefore, can support insignificant number of rural population. Capital generated because of new investment is to be used as quickly as possible for creating alternative productive opportunities that are not related to forests as a resource base. Over-drive of the concept has earned criticism and team spirit is yet to be fully harnessed within forest department. The most important land based activity, viz., agroforestry has so far not attracted attention of the wise people professing JFM. When extended to productive agricultural land with sufficient government efforts for creating demand for the produce, synergy would bloom.

The paper highlights the establishment of joint forest management (JFM) in India with particular emphasis on Madhya Pradesh. The process of JFM, which is in vogue in the state of Madhya Pradesh since early 1990s, has many laudable achievements to its credit. The first part of the paper focuses on the impact of JFMs on social, economical and ecological fronts. It also emphasizes the role of women in JFM. The author emphasizes the fact that since the foundation of a solid participatory approach has been laid in the state of Madhya Pradesh and a process of social change is taking place in the state, it is perhaps time to think in terms of community forest management (CFM), at least in those communities, which are functioning in an effective manner. The author, however, cautions against over enthusiasm in this transformation, as not all JFMCs are functioning effectively. The process of transformation is a slow and gradual process and can be achieved only through proper implementation of the JFM program involving all stakeholders, particularly pro-active NGOs.

The need to institutionalize certification system in forest management, even though it may require some additional expenditure, is esential not only to ensure the sustenance of the desired quality of forests but also to secure the future of forestry in our country. As the first step, the principles, criteria and indicators should be woven into the existing system of working plan preparation, implementation, and its monitoring through control forms duly buttressed by inclusion of certification parameters with the simultaneous institution of an independent agency for performing the certification job.Establishment of dependency relationship among various products of the forest can provide the framework for developing a sustainable forest management plan. In the absence of such relationship a compromise can be accepted by developing a set of criteria and indicators of forest measures. Thus, sustainable forest products harvest and biodiversity conservation goals can be achieved simultaneously. A forecast of the availability of forest products will assist in developing marketing plans. A framework for sustainable forest management has been suggested considering forest-stand diversity index, compactness index and forest maturity index.Haryana Forest Department (HFD) was pioneer in implementing joint forest management (JFM) in 1990. Benefit sharing under JFM was key for which people participated in the programme. In a span of eight years number of Hill Resource Management Societies (HRMS) were established and became self-sustaining through the income generated by sale of bhabbar (Eulaliopsis binata) and other activities. However, in 1998 HFD came out with a new sharing system of the produce obtained from JFM activities. In the new system HRMS had a share of only 45% of the total revenue generated. Most of the HRMS collapsed post 1998 due to lack of sufficient income. Repercussion of introduction of new sharing system on existence of HRMS and on forest resources was analysed. It was found that the new sharing system is detrimental for the existence of HRMS. Forests established with the cooperation of people are no more managed by the people as a result fire incidences have increased in the bhabbar yielding forest post 1998 JFM resolution.

It is increasingly clear that for long-term success of all types of forestry programmes, identification of the social factors that affect adoption by local communities is necessary. People's participation on a decentralized, self-helf basis is required for conservation and rational utilization of existing forest resources as well as for establishing a tree cover on degraded forest lands and introducing trees into traditional agricultural systems. If local people collaborate, the forest cover can be safeguarded and the environment stabilized. Tree growing can then be integrated or extended, to lands beyond forest boundaries, such as private farm lands and communal lands. In addition, this integration of people into forest management programmes can facilitate the supply of forest goods and services to rural communities at more reasonable costs. How social forestry programme in India can involve local participation has been discussed in this paper.The impact of extraction on sustainability of forests under joint forest management in West Bengal has been assessed by comparing productivity and extraction of NTFPs in terms of biomass. Study conducted on productivity of certain fuelwood producing species show that perfect protection leads to dominance of a particular species on the one hand and decreases level of total production on the other. Earmarking certain species for fuelwood by some Forest Protection Committees has certainly some positive impact on forest ecosystem, but lack of attention towards a valuable species like Bassia latifolia leads to total elimination of the species.Haryana Forest Department (HFD) was pioneer in implementing joint forest management (JFM) in 1990. Benefit sharing under JFM was key for which people participated in the programme. In a span of eight years number of Hill Resource Management Societies (HRMS) were established and became self-sustaining through the income generated by sale of bhabbar (Eulaliopsis binata) and other activities. However, in 1998 HFD came out with a new sharing system of the produce obtained from JFM activities. In the new system HRMS had a share of only 45% of the total revenue generated. Most of the HRMS collapsed post 1998 due to lack of sufficient income. Repercussion of introduction of new sharing system on existence of HRMS and on forest resources was analysed. It was found that the new sharing system is detrimental for the existence of HRMS. Forests established with the cooperation of people are no more managed by the people as a result fire incidences have increased in the bhabbar yielding forest post 1998 JFM resolution.

Establishment of dependency relationship among various products of the forest can provide the framework for developing a sustainable forest management plan. In the absence of such relationship a compromise can be accepted by developing a set of criteria and indicators of forest measures. Thus, sustainable forest products harvest and biodiversity conservation goals can be achieved simultaneously. A forecast of the availability of forest products will assist in developing marketing plans. A framework for sustainable forest management has been suggested considering forest-stand diversity index, compactness index and forest maturity index.

Joint forest management (JFM) approach has been adopted by the Odisha Forestry Sector Development Project (OFSDP) to achieve twin objectives of restoration of degraded forests as well as improvement of livelihood of the forest dependent population through formation of the Vana Samrakshyana Samitis (VSS) facilitating community participation. The use of remote sensing, differential GPS and GIS techniques helps in identification od degraded forests, generation of the matic data sets, data analysis and presentation of map based forestry information in scientific and contemporary methods. The process facilitates geo-referencing of the data sets to provide accurate map feature reference to the earth coordinates with sub-meter level of accuracy. The geo-database along with the GIS based map information system were utilized by the JFM project for preparation of the micro plan and also tracking/monitoring of the implementation of forestry development programmes and can be a evolved into a MRV system under REDD+. The system also facilitates periodic impact analysis through temporal analysis of the satellite images.

The Andaman and Nicobar Forest Department has started the Andaman and Nicobar Space Application Cell (ANSAC) where geo-database related to various natural resources are developed and updated. Spatial and non-spatial data from various sources like existing management maps, toposheets were digitized and georeferenced. Field survey data, GPS points of important features, etc. were pooled together to develop this geospatial database including thematic maps and data developed by various institutes of national repute are also being used effectively. These database are being used by the Andaman and Nicobar Forest Department for scientific forest management as well as by the Andaman and Nicobar Administration for developing various information systems, working plan maps and for planning and policy decision making.

Single variable; i.e; forest density, is generally used by the foresters to evaluate forest management outcomes. Joint forest management (JFM), has given a role to local communities in forest management. This indicates towards the requirement of a multivariate approach to assess outcomes that includes both ecological and anthropogenic variables. In the study carried out in 24 JFMCs in 3 districts of Madhya Pradesh, having sal (Shorea robusta), teak (Tectona grandis), and miscellaneous forests, the outcomes were compared on both single variable of forest density and multiple variables (Index Value arrived at by Principal Component Analysis). On single variable 1/3rd of the 24 JFMCs were found to have better outcomes but when multivariate approach was used the number of JFMCs increased to 12 (half of 24 villages). Multivariate approach indicates more realistic assessment as social context variables are also used. Moreover, this assessment reflects the capacity of these 4 additional JFMCs to contain anthropogenic influences while being weak on the technical aspects of forest management. Thus multivariate approach gives a tool in the hands of policy makers and forest managers to make precise policy interventions - on technical or social aspects - in a particular JFMC. However, more studies would be required before it is adopted.

"People-partnered, Govt. - owned" Joint Forest Management model of participatory benefit-sharing forest protection in India is under threat, even in West Bengal, where it had overwhelmingly been successful. Rising opportunity cost, due to the differential generated from spiraling appreciation in alternate use value of the forest lands and produce, vis-à-vis stagnancy in the volume of accruable per-capita stipulated benefits available from protecting the forests, is one of the major deterrents in this respect. To offset this, the hypothetical possibility of enhancing benefits by linking this with the newly emerging financial avenues like the REDD+ payments regime, etc. has its limitations. Excessive value addition to these resources may attract risks of dispossession to the participating communities. Alongside this, forest-fringe community development, resulting from the on-going JFM-support programme, has caused economic upliftment of the people in certain areas, that has generated a potency towards greater community assertion. Thus in accordance with the Herzberg's two-factor Theory, enhancement of benefits to the community should go hand in hand with policy reforms, ensuring greater devolution of tenural, benefit-sharing and other participatory rights, to sustain JFM regime into the future.

Present study signifies relative hydrological and economic contribution of Joint Forest Planning and Management (JFPM) programme in semi-arid tropical India towards groundwater recharge. A majority of dugwells/open wells have failed to yield water in hardrock areas of India due to advent of deep borewells, low rainfall and poor recharge. Field data were collected for 2008 from a population of farmers possessing irrigation wells in selected villages with and without JFPM programme. Logarithmic net returns, descriptive statistics and ANOVA reveal that the net returns to land, irrigation water and expenditure for irrigation water increased due to groundwater recharge caused by the JFPM programme. JFPM has contributed towards 100 per cent functioning of all borewells and dug wells with no negative externality in JFPM village valued in terms of well failure. Incremental net returns due to JFPM (of Rs. 13342 per acre) are at least 100 per cent higher than that of Watershed Development Programme, WDP (of Rs. 6343 per acre) and JFPM + WDP (of Rs. 6822 per acre). Groundwater yield of dug wells was just 10 per cent lower than that of deep borewells, demonstrating potential of JFPM in recharging dug wells. Groundwater cost was 35 per cent lower in JFPM compared with control village, due to groundwater recharge. Net return per rupee of cost of groundwater was the highest for JFPM dug well (Rs. 11.3) followed by JFPM borewell (Rs. 8.42), JFPM + WDP (Rs. 3.26), WDP (Rs. 3.05) and control farmers (Rs. 1.04). JFPM has successfully recharged groundwater in irrigation wells and can be replicated in hard rock areas benefiting scores of farmers at relatively low cost.

Indigenous knowledge is a belief, a part of tradition, and an important part of the lives of the poor. It is formed due to close propinquity of the aboriginal communities to natural resources along with generations of experience in natural resource and management. This paper is an attempt to broaden the list of traditional practices available at the local level, and to strengthen such views in forestry mangement science. This knowledge could be an extremely useful tool not only in involving them in forest management and development programmes, but improving their general economic condition and ensuring the long-term sustainability of forest management in the area. The paper proceeds to suggest the ways and means to incorp the ways and means to incorporate their knowledge in the current forest management strategies.

Uncertainty and multiple risk are typical aspects of forest management. Applications of risk analysis are surprisingly rare, in spite of the rich assortment of sophisticated forest planning tools that are available today. Forest scenario planning may reduce uncertainty in management outcomes by anticipating the future in a systematic way, thus reducing the likelihood of unexpected events. It can also improve the chance that future developments wil agree with specified objectives. Numerous techniques are available for generating and evaluating scenarios of forest development. Some of them are limited to applications in simple forest production systems while other are suitable for any type of forest management. Risk is defined as the expected loss due to a particular hazard for a given area and reference period. An expected loss may be calculated as the product of the damage and its probability. Risk analysis, risk evaluation and risk management are formal procedures for quantifying, evaluating and managing risk within a given hazard domain. Applications of risk analysis in forest management planning are scanty and greater emphasis needs to be placed hazard prediction. This article discusses some aspects of risk analysis.

The paper reports the results of the analysis of floral composition and similarity index of six recovering dry tropical forest stands, protected by the local community, for 4-, 6-, 8-, 10-, 12- and 20-year periods in the Koraput region of Odisha, India. A minimum of 67 plant species was recorded in 6-year recovering forest stand, while 4-year stand exhibited 72 plant species. Total number of plant species increased from 6-to 20-year stand exhibiting the highest number of 91 species in 20-year stand. The polled number of all plant species in all the stands was 173 under 151 genera and 57 families. Total number of herbaceous species declined from 34 in 2-year stand to 24 in 20-year stand.

Keywords

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Environment, Industry, Social forestry.

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Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Conservation, Biodiversity, Tribes, Communities, Shifting cultivation, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam.

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Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Rural communities, Sustainability, Organisations, Non timber forest products, Orissa, India.

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Agroforestry systems, Social forestry, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Forest nurseries, Planting stock, Liquid manures

Mortality, Shisham (Dalbergia sissoo), Plantations, Fungal disease (Fusarium solanii), Dieback, Joint forest management (JFM), participatory management

Joint forest management, JFM, Participatory management, Participative management, Silviculture, Social forestry, Forest policy

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Shisham (Dalbergia sissoo), Ecological disturbance, Water stress, Nutrient uptake, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi

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Joint forest management, JFM, Participative management, Participatory management, JFM, Regeneration, Ecology, Social forestry, Forest decline, Shorea robusta, Non-timber forest products (NTFP), Soil conservation

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Ecological balance, Coppice, Biodiviersity, West Bengal, Shorea robusta, Madhuca indica, Terminalia tomentosa, Terminalia bellirica, Pterocarpus marsupium, Dalbergia latifolia, Ficus bneghalensis, Holarrhena antidysenterica, Mallotus philippensis, Ziziphus mauritiana.Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Institutions, Biomass, Non-wood forest products, Orissa, Cassia fistula, combretum decandrum, Diospyros sylvatica, Smilax macrophylla, Zizyphus oenoplia, Aegle marmelos, Azadirachta indica, Pterocarpus, Cassia fistula, combretum decandrum, Diospyros sylvatica, Smilax macrophylla, Zizyphus oenoplia, Aegle marmelos, Azadirachta indica, Pterocarpus marsupium, Pterospermum heyneanum, semecarpus anacardium, streblus asper, strychnos nuxvomica, syzygium cumini, Terminalia belerica, Terminalia chebula, Lannea coromandalica, Madhuca indica, Diospyros melanoxylon, Emblica officinalis, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Lagerstroemia reginae, Marsupium, Pterospermum heyneanum, semecarpus anacardium, streblus asper, strychnos nuxvomica, syzygium cumini, Terminalia belerica, Terminalia chebula, Lannea coromandalica, Madhuca indica.Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Communities, Sustainability, Marketing, Employment, Dendrocalamus strictus, Haryana.

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Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Training, Communities, Participatory management.

Joint forest management, JFM, Participatory management, Forests, Biodiversity, Rights, Concessions

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Communities, Sustainability, Haryana, Acacia catechu, Anogeissus latifolia, Acacia nilotica, Lannea coromandelica, Eulaliopsis binata, Chrysopogon fulvus.

Joint forest management, JFM, Participative management

Forest management, Participatory manangement, Joint forest management (JFM), Communities, Pollution, Erosin, Wildlife, Watershed management.

Forest management, Participatory management, Institutions, Community development, Social interaction, Planning, Decision making, Communities, Nepal.

Forest management, Participative management, Sustainability, Watershed, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management.

Forest management, Participatory management, Rural communities, Forestry development, Productivity, Environmental factors, Recreational activities, Protection, Pollution, Germanay.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Indicators, Institutions, Projects, Arunachal Pradesh.

Forest management, Joint forest management (JFM), Social interaction, Participatory management, Culture, Conflict, Communities, Institutions, India.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Institutions, Communities, West Bengal, Acacia auriculifermis, Azadiracheta indica, Butea monosperma, Diospyros melanoxylon, Acacia mangium, Eucalyptus hybrid.

Joint forest management, JFM, Participative management, Participatory management, Rural areas, Rural women, Socioeconomic status

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Communities, Sustainability, Watersheds, Haryana, Acacia catechu, Anogeissus latifolia, Dalbergia sissoo, Acacia lucophloea, Acacia modesta, Acacia nilotica, Toona ciliata, Ehretia laevis, Haloptelea integrifolia, Diospyros melanoxylon, Bombax ceiba, Emblica officinalis, Bauhinia spp.

Forest management, Participatory management, Community forestry, Institutions, Sustainability, Income, Rural society, Nepal.

Sustainable forest management, Agro-forestry system, Machharia village, Mandla forest division, Madhya Pradesh, Habitat destruction, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management

Joint forest management (JFM), Forest management, Ecology

Forest management, Participative management, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Silvopastoral systems, Non-wood forest products, India, Acacia nilotica, Ailanthus excelsa, Albizia amara, Artocarpus, Azadirachta indica, Dalbergia sissoo, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, Erythrina variegata, Ficus hookeri, Grewia optiva, Leucaena leucocephal, Morus alba, Prosopis cineraria, Quercus incana, Salvadora oleoides, Zizyphus nummularia.

Forest management, Participative management, Non-wood forest product, Medicinal plants, Productivity, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Withania somnifera, Abelmoschus moschatus, Asparagus racemosus, Gloriosa superba.

Tree breeding, Grassland improvement, Fodder crops, Forest lands, Cenchrus ciliaris, Chrysoppogon fulvus, Silvipastoral systems, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management

Joint forest management, JFM, Participatory management, Participative management, Forest policy, Community forestry

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Communities, Empowerment, Indicators, Institutions, Madhya Pradesh.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Institutions, Shifting cultivation, Conservation, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management.

Participative management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Forest management, Policy

Forest management, Participative management, Non-wood forest products, Research, Training, Sustainability, Institutions, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Institution, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Conflict, Sustainability.

Forest management, Participatory management, Community forestry, Institutions, Indicators, Conflict, Community development, Nepal.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Communities, Institutions, Social forestry, India.

Plural society, Forestry, Synergism, Analytical methods, Participatory management, Social forestry

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction. Social Participation, Institutions, Conflicts, Sustainability, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Gujarat, Tectona grandis, Butea monosperma, Azadirachta indica, Diospyros melanoxylon, Grewia tiliaefolia, Cassia fistula, Miliusa tomentosa.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest mangement, JFM, Participatory management, Institutions, Socio-economics, Environment, Sustainability, Participatory rural appraisal, Communities, Haryana, Bamboo spp., Eulaliopsis binata.

Development projects, Forestry, Green house gases, Joint forest management (JFM), Biodiversity

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Social Forestry, Non-wood forest products, Rehabilitation, Institutions.

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Waste lands , Afforestation, Communities, Funding, Social forestry, Fuelwood , Fodder.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Communities, Institutions, Projects, Tectona grandis, Bamboo, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Anogeissus latifolia, Terminalia tomentosa, Petrocarpus santalinus, sterculia urens, Madhuca latifolia, Buchanania lanzan, Emblica afficinalis, Terminalia spp., Zizyphus spp.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Institutions, Conflict.

JFM committees, Jigat, Gambier katha, Natural dyes, Forest biomass, Uncaria gambier, Machilus macrantha, Litsea chinensis, Non wood forest products, Participatory management, JFM

Joint forest management (JFM), Community forest management, Participatory management, C.D.M. Forests, Degraded lands, Carbon sequestration

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Institutions, Sustainability, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), JFM.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Sustainability, Non-wood forest products, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management.

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Institutions,Protection, Forests,West Bengal, West Bengal, West Bengal,

Joint forest management, JFM, Participatory forest management, Forest protection, Soil conservation, Pterocarpus santalinus, Cuddapah, Andhra Pradesh

Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Ecotourism, Biodiversity, Technology, Chhattisgarh

Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Ecology, Environment, Dhanturi, Kaliakuva, Gujarat

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Working plans, Training, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Haryana.

Joint forest management (JFM), Participative management, Microplans, VFC, village forest committees, Soil erosion, Biodiversity, Aravalli hills, Haryana

Joint forest management (JFM), Participative management, Social forestry, Farm forestry, Forest management plans (FMP), Sanjhi van yojana (SVY), Dhauladhar, Himachal Pradesh

Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Participative management, Law

Joint forest management, JFM, Participatory management, Participative management, Forest policy, Forest resources

Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Silviculture, Ecology, Grazing, Nomadism, Jammu and Kashmir

Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory forest management, Participative management, Forest resource, Training, Madhya Pradesh

Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Forestry, Fire control, Buldhana, Dongar Khandala, Maharashtra

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Institutions, Conservation, Economic development, Participatory rural appraisal, Non timber forest products, India.

Joint forest management (JFM), Community forest management,Panchayat, Forest damage

Forest management, Participative management, Wildlife parks, Institutions, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management.

Joint forest management (JFM), Participative management, Forest resource, Sacred woodlots, Welfare services, Salukhera, Udaipur, Rajasthan

Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory forest management, Ecology, Hydrology, Forest economics, Biodiversity, Forest Policy, Tamil Nadu.

Joint forest management (JFM), Participative management, Shifting cultivation, Forest damage, Melaghar, Kathalia, Tripura, Assam, Northeast India

Joint forest management (JFM), Participative management, Microplan, NTFP, NGO, Strip plantations, Math, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh

Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Van Panchayat, Bhalson, Siakempty, Chamoli, Uttaranchal

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Watershed management, Sustainability, Institutions, Conflict, Environment, Working plans, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management.

Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, NTFP, NGO, Panchayats, Regeneration, Shorea robusta, Forests,, West Bengal

Non timber forest products (NTFP), Non governmental organisations (NGO), Conservation, National forest policy, Joint forest management (JFM), Honey, Silk, Medicinal plants

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Sustainability, Forest policy, Institutions, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Communities, Protection, Social forestry, Institutions.

Joint forest management, JFM, Participatory management, Participative management, Training, Community, Social institutions, Tamil Nadu.

Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Participative management, Biodiversity, Ecosystems

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Institutions, Madhya Pradesh, Constraints, Participatory management.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Institutions, Working plans, Conservation, Monitoring, Socio economics, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management.

Forest Management, Participative Management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Participatory rural appraisal, Institutions, Wildlife.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Forestry, Institutions, Conflict.

Forest management, Participative management, Monitoring, Medicianl plants, Institutions, Participatory rural appraisal, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Training, Socio-economics, Surveys, Participatory rural appraisal, Accountibility

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Communities, Conflict, Institutions.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Institutions, Research, Conflict.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Institutions, Ghana, Khaya ivorensis, Heritiera utilis, Tieghemella heckellii, Entandophragma angolense, Nauclea diderichii, Entandophragma utile, Ceiba pentandra, Cedrela odorata.

Forest management, Participative management, Institutions, Sustainability, Socio-economics, Non-wood forest products, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, India, Acacia auriculiformis, Casuarina equisetifolia, Tectona grandis, Pinus spp., Eucalyptus spp., Terminalia crenulata, T. paniculata, T. tomentosa, Emblica officinalis, Syzygium cumini, Buchanania lanzan, Careya arboria.

Forest management, Participative management, Wildlife parks, Projects, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Institutions.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Sustainability, Institutions, Communities.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation Joint forest management (JFM), Institutions, Training, Cedrus deodara, Pinus wallichiana, Pinus roxburghii, Abies spp., Picea spp., Robinia spp., Populus spp., Salix spp., Alnus spp., Quercus spp.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social Participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Methodology, Institutions, Participatory rural appraisal, Tribal society, Non-wood forest products, Buchannia lanzan, Emblica officinalis, Tamarindus indica, Syzygium cumini, Bombax ceiba, sapindus emarginatus

Joint forest management, JFM, Participative management, Participatory management, Non timber forest products (NTFP), Biomass, Shorea robusta, Terminalia bellirica, Diospyros melanoxylon, Eucalyptus, Nayagram, West Bengal

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Sustainability, Communities, Institutions, Social forestry, Socio-economics, Conflict, Employment, Haryana.

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Communities, Institutions, India.

Forest management, Participative management, Institutions, Social interaction, Social participation, Forest policy, Sustainability, Conflict, Monitoring, Joint forest management (JFM), JFM.

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Institutions, Projects, West Bengal, Haryana.

Forest Management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Afforestation, Institutions, Non-wood forest products, Punjab, Acacia catechu, Eulailopsis binata, Shorea robusta.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Social forestry, Sustainability, Organisations, Pilgrimages, Toursim.

Forest management, Participative management, Institutions, Social forestry, Sustainability, Participatory rural appraisal, Watershed management, Farm forestry, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Tamil Nadu.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Participatory rural appraisal, sustainability, Institutions, Acacia nilotica, Tamil Nadu.

Joint forest management (JFM), Participative management, Forestry practices, Arid zones, Gujarat, Rajasthan

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Institutions, communities,Sustainability, Non timber forest products, Shorea robusta, Tectona grandis, Diospyros melanoxylon, Terminalia chebula, Terminalia belerica, West Bengal.

Forest management, Participative management, Forest policy, Training, Institutions, Monitoring, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management.

Forest management, Participative Management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Institutions, Monitoring, Training, Maharashtra.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Institutions, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Comunities, Ecosystem, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal.

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Institutions, Non timber forest products, Working plans, West Bengal.

Forest management, Participative management, Sustainability, Institutions, Mangroves, Silvicultural system, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Gujarat, Prosopis juliflora, Acacia spp., Zyziphus spp., Commiphora wightii.

Joint forest management (JFM), Cost-benefit analysis, NTFP, Microplanning, NGO, Forest participative management

Forest management, Participative management, Institutions, Watershed, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, West Bengal.

Joint forest management, JFM, Participatory management, Participative management, Forest policy, Forest fragmentation, Rural communities

Joint forest management, JFM, Participative management, Participatory management, Community, Non timber forest products (NTFP), Bharuch, Gujarat

Forest Management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Institutions, Social forestry, Non-wood forest products, Karnataka, Tectona grandis, Casuarina equisetifolia, Acacia aureculifornis, Bamboo, canes.

Joint forest management, JFM, Participatory management, Participative management, Regeneration, Western Ghats, Uttarakannada

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Communities, Institutions, Karnataka.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Communities, Institutions, Conflict, Gujarat.

Forest mananagement, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Employment, Institutions, Protection of forests, West Bengal, Tectona grandis, Dalbergia sissoo.

Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Silviculture, Agroforestry, NTFP, Land use, Participative management

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Communities, Institutions.

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Sustainability, Institutions, Marketing, Silvicultural systems, Communities, Latin America, Hevea brasiliensis, Cedrelinga catenaeformis, Caryocar glabrum, Schlizolobium amazonicum, Clarisia racemosa Cedrela odorata.

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Biodiversity, Conservation,Community development, Deforestation, Institutions, Nepal.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Wildlife parks, Tribal society, Institutions, Shorea robusta, Bihar.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Working plans, Non-wood forest products, Social forestry, Gujarat.

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Community forestry, Institutions, Madhya Pradesh.

Forest Management, Participative management, Social participation, Social interaction, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Institutions, Community forestry.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Communities, Sustainability, Cottage industry, Socio-economics, Haryana, Anogeissus latifolia, Acacia catechu, Acacia leucophloea, Lannea grandis, Ehretia laevis, Aegle marmelos, Casearia tomentosa, Dendrocalamus strictus.

Forest management, Participative management, Institutions, Social participation, Social interaction, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Orissa.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Socio-economics, Rural development, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Maharashtra.

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Communities, Institutions, Nepal.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Forest policy, Surveys, Institutions, wildlife, Funds, Accounting.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Social interaction, Social participation, Participatory management, Empowerment, Institutions, Communities.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Mangroves, Sustainability, Communities, Institutions, Documentation, Gujarat.

Community forest management, Community forests, Silviculture, Mahogany, Swietenia macrophylla, Land use, Mexico

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Conflict, Wildlife parks, Censuses, Institutions, Andhra Pradesh.

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Biodiversity, Conservation, Community development, Buffers, Non-governmental organizations, Latin America, Africa, Asia.

Forest management, Participative management, Monitoring, Institutions, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, India.

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Institutions, Fuel and fodder crops, West Bengal.

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Ecosystem, Institutions.

Joint forest management, JFM, Participatory management, Participative management, Planning, Rural communities

Forest management, Participative management, Tribal society, Communities, Surveys, Forest products, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Maharashtra.

Joint forest management (JFM), Participative management, Evaluation, Monitoring, Forest statistics

Forest Management, Participative Management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Monitoring, Institutions, Sustainability, India.

Forest management, Participative management, Projects, Institutions, Funding, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Andhra Pradesh, Tectona grandis, Shorea robusta, Bamboo.

NABARD, R and D project, Germplasm, Models, Agroforestry, Tree breeding, Clonal propagule, Pune, Dehradun, Pant Nagar, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management

Biodiversity, National planning, Regional planning, Forest ecology, Gene banks, Seed banks, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management

Indicators, Forest resources, Forest policy, Forest management, JFM, Participatory management

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Institutions, Community forestry, Women workers.

Joint forest management, JFM, Participatory management, Participative management, Ecology, Economics, Biomass production, Farm forestry, Community forestry

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Institutions, Organizations, Conflict.

Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, NTFP, Biodiversity, Tribal society, Bastar, Chhattisgarh

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Institutions, Participatory rural appraisal.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Institutions, Sustainability, Community, Employment, Monitoring, India.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Shifting cultivation, Tribal society, Manipur, Lily, Lilium mackliniae, Actinodaphlne abovate, Dalbergia wattii, Illicium manipurence, Prunus wattii, Pyrus wattii

Forest Management, Participative Management, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Particpatory management, Institutions, Taungya, Tectona grandis.

Participatory forest management, Community, Joint forest management (JFM), Forest management committees, Watershed, Cameroon

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Conservation, Diversity, Non wood forest products, Institutions, Sustainability, Shorea robusta, Tectona grandis, Cedrus deodara, Pinus roxburghii

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Institutions, Conflict, Sustainability, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Forest policy, Organisation, Non wood forest products.

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Communities, Biomass, Deforestation, Afforestation, Conservation, Institutions.

Forest management, Social interaction, Social participation, Participative management, Social forestry, Institutions, Productivity, Sustainability, Non-wood forest product, Joint forest mannagement, JFM, Shorea robusta, Pterocarpus marsupiu, Medhuca latifolia, Diospyros melanoxylon, Schleichera oleosa, Terminalia tomentos, Holoptelia integrifolia, Acgle marmelos, Bridelia retusa, Bombax ceiba, Cleistanthus collinus

Forest management, Participative management, Projects, Institutions, Social interaction, social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Social forestry, Orissa.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Institutions, Watershed development, Rajasthan.

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory rural appraisal, Social forestry, Farm forestry, Data collection, Communities, Institutions.

Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Silviculture, NTFP, Evaluation, Growth models

Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, NTFP, Combretum, Acacia, Eucalyptus, Evaluation

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Institutions, Training, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Madhya Pradesh, Dendrocalamus strictus, Terminalia tomentosa, Gardenia latifolia, Wrightia tinctoria.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Institutions, Projects, Non-wood forest products, sustainability, Madhya Pradesh.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Wildlife parks, Biodiversity, Ecosystems, Communities, Conflict, Emblica afficinalis, Ficus benghalensis, carissa carandus, spindus mukorossi, Feronia limonia, Syzygium Cumini, Zanthoxylum alatum, Panthera leopersica.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Institutions, Productivity, Sustainability, Projects, Joint forest management (JFM), JFM.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Tribal society, Environment, Employment, Rajasthan.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Forest policy, Institutions, Joint forest management (JFM), Data collection.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Wildlife parks, Institutions.

Forest management, Participative management, Socail interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Projects, Forest fires, Institutions.

Forest management, Participatory management, Fuelwood, Community development, Community forestry, Social forestry, Institutions, Organizations, India.

Forest management, Participatory management, Rural communities, Community development, Institutions, Employment, Ethnic groups, Social interaction, Conflict.

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Employment, Institutions, Conservation, Data collection, Maharashtra.

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Waste land, Development programmes, Communities, Afforestation, Fuelwood, Fodder.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), JFM. Participatory management, Institutions, Conflict, Communities, Haryana.

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Perception, Social interaction, Institutions, Women's status, West Bengal.

Forest management, Participative management, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Indicators, Performance, Institutions.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Institutions, Communities, Feasibility studies, Cost benefit analysis, Fish farming, Haryana.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Institutions, Maharashtra.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Institutions, Forest policy.

Forest management, Participative management, Forest policy, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Communities.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Communities, Community forestry, Wildlife parks, Sustainability.

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Institutions, Economic development, Empowerment, Social interaction, Conservation, Jharkhand.

Process documentation, Joint forest management (JFM), Community participation, Phillipines, Haryana

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Documentation, Processing, Sustainability, Instituions, Data Collection, Reports, Utilization.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Bihar, Institutions.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Institutions, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Indicators, Productivity, Socio-economics, Haryana, Diospyros, melanozylon, Dendrocalamus strictus, Lantana camara.

Forest management, Participative management, Projects, Cost benefit analysis, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management.

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Institutions, Mangrove forests, Sundarbans, Agriculture, Irrigation, Fisheries, Health, Family Planning, Veterinary Services.

People's participation, Carbon sink, Biomass, Sodic soil, Dalbergia sissoo, Prosopis juliflora, Eucalyptus spp.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Institutions, Forest policy, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management.

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Sustainability, Community forestry, Institutions, Communities, Canada.

Forest management, Participatory management, Forestry practices, Degradation, Communities, Conflict, Community development, Projects, United States.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Conflect, Sustainability, Managers, Environment.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Essential oil, Tribal society, Medicinal plants, Acorus calamus.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Sustainability, Working plans, Human resources, India.

Joint forest management, JFM, Participatory management, Participative management, Non timber forest products, Forestry practices, Women workers. Bhurukhandi, West Bengal

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Regeneration, Degradation, Madhya Pradesh

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Watersheds, Institutions, Harvesting, Haryana, Acacia catechu, Anogeissus latifolia, Dalbergia sissoo, Acacia leucophloea, Eulaliopsis binata.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Research, Forest policy, Guidelines, Tribal soceity.

Joint forest management (JFM), Silviculture NTFP, Ecosystem, Pasturelands, Timber models, Micro plans

Joint forest management (JFM), Non wood forest products (NWFP), Sample plots, Medicinal plants, Schematic model, Prticipatory management

Forest management, Participative management, Research, Sustainability, Medicinal plants, Conservation, Productivity, Rural development, Ecosystems, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Uttar Pradesh.

Research, Forest policy, Silviculture, NWFP, Community participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Participative management, Participatory management

Forestry, Non timber forest products (NTFP), Village federations, Community forest management, Human resource development, Biodiversity, Joint forest management

Joint forest management (JFM), Participative management, NTFP, Research projects, Market research, Canopy, Participatory management

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Institutions, Non-wood forest products, Rural develoepment, Employment, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal.

Forest management, Participatory management, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Nitrogen fixation, Degraded land, Rehabilitation, Uttaranchal.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Institutions, Agriculture, manure, Acacia auriculiformis.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Communities, Institutions, Forest fires, Biomass, Sustainability, Vegetation, Haryana.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Training, Institutions, Non-wood forest products, Productivity, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Haryana.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Non-wood forest products.

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Institutions, conflict, Non timber forest products, West Bengal.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Institutions, Tribal society, Ecosystems, Environment, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management.

Joint forest management (JFM), Participative management project, Conservation, Westernghats, Village forest committees (VFC)

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Degradation, Afforestation, Protection, Orissa.

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Communities, Institutions, Tribal society, Gender relations, West Bengal.

Mortality, Shisham (Dalbergia sissoo), Plantation, Water stress, Fungal disease, Agroforestry, Gonda, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management

Forest Management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Silvicultural system, Non-wood forest products, Gujarat, Tectona grandis, Acacia catechu, Terminalia tomentosa, Butea monosperma, Madhuca indica, Diospyros melanoxylon, Buchanania, lanzan, Casia tora.

Forest management, Participative management, Institutions, Sustainability, Silvicultural research, Non-wood forest products, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Bambusa arundinacea, Dendrocalamus strictus, Calamus spp., Daemonorops spp., Plectocomia spp., Korthalasia spp.

Forest management, Participative management, Germplasm, Hybridization, Vegetative propagation, Silviculture research, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management.

Forest management, Participative management, Sustainability, Silvicultural system, Non-wood forest products, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Pinus roxburghii, Shorea robusta

Forest management, Participative management, Silvicultural systems, Non-wood forest products, Research, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Silvicultural system, Environment, Sustainability, Uttar Pradesh, Shorea robusta, Boswellia serrata, Hhardwickia binata, Acacia catechu, Buchanania lauzan, Legerstrocmia parviflora, Diospyros melanoxylon, Butea monosperma, Hollarrhaena antidysentrica.

Silviculture, Non timber forest products (NTFP), Joint forest management (JFM), Bamboos, Canes, Participative management

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Conservation, Silviculture, Research, Working plan, Sustainability, India, Eucalyptus spp., Cryptomeria japonica, Populus spp., Leucaena leucocephala, Casuarina equisetifolia, Bambusa bambos, Bambosa nutans, Dendrocalamus strictu.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Sustainability, Institutions, Silvicultural system, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Rajasthan.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Social forestry, Communities, Institutions, Karnataka.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Socio-economics, Institutions, Projects, Constitution, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Madhya Pradesh.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Institutions, Organizations, Participatory rural apprasial.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Socio-economics, Lac, Mushroom, Sunn-Hemp, Participatory management, Tectona grandis, Dendrocalamus strictics, Lantana camara, Woodfrdia fruticosa, Anogeissus latifolia

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Socio-economics, Rajasthan, Azadirachta indica, Albizia lebbek, Dalbergia sissoo, Moringa oliefera, Pongamia pinnata, Zizyphus mauritiana, Acacia nilotica, Cordia myxa, Citrus sp., Emblica officinalis, Casia fistula, Delonix regia, Tamerindus indica, Syzygium cumini, Prosopis juliflora, Prosopis cineraria, Zizyphus numularia, Acacia senegal, Terminelia undulata, Caparis decidua.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Socio-economics, Indicators, Sustainability.

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Economic development, Institutions, West Bengal.

Forest management, Participative management, Institutions, Social participation, Socio-economics, Employment, Rural development, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Orissa.

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Communities, Institutions, Uttaranchal, Pinus roxburghii, Quercus leucotrichophora, Rhododendron arboreum, Alnus nepalensis.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Institutions, Non wood forest products, West Bengal.

Forest management, Participative management, Watersheds, Training, Institutions, Projects, Afforestation, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Tamil Nadu.

Forest Management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Non-wood forest products, Institutions, Tripura, Shorea robusta, Tectona grandis.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Institutions, Communities, Sustainability, Santalum album, Tectona grandis, Pterocarpus marsupium, Terminalia paniculata, Lagerstroemia lanceolata, Dalbergia latifolia, Karnataka.

Joint forest management, JFM, Participatory management, Participative management, Community developments, Community forestry

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Projects, Institutions, Funds, Surveys, Common lands.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Institutions, Projects, Training, Monitoring, Common lands.

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Institutions, Forest policy, Rural development, Conservation.

Forest management, Participative management, Indicators, Productivity, Biomass, Institutions, Nutrient cycling, Ecology, West Bengal, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Shorea robusta, Combretum roxburghii, Hollarrehna antidysenterica, Ehretia laevis, Lantana camara, Antidesma aciduim, Heliseteris isora

Forest management, Participative management, Institutions, Conflicts, Funding, Auditing, Accountability, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management.

Joint forest management, JFM, Participatory management, Participative management, Non timber forest products (NTFP), Biodiversity,Biomass, Community forest management, CFM

Forest management, Participative management, social participation, Social interaction, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Sustainability, Community forestry, Orissa.

Forest management, Participatory management, Community forestry, Communities, Institutions, Sustainability, Nepal.

Forest management, Sustainability, Indicators, Communes, Community forestry, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Mexico

Sustainable forest management, Ecosystem, Ecology, Social values, Joint forest management (JFM), Australia, Participatory management

Sustainable forest management (SFM), Forest damage, Community participation, Biosphere reserve, Regeneration, Joint forest management

Joint forest management (JFM), Community forest management, Medicinal plants, NTFP, Biodiversity, Tamil Nadu.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Social Particiption, Social interaction, Institutions, Communities, Tribal society, Sustainability, Employment, Madhya Pradesh.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Productivity, Grazing, felling, Communities, Maharashtra, Tectona grandis, Hardwickia binata.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Institutions, Training, Participatory rural appraisal, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Institutions, Leases, Marketing, Employment, Harvesting, Haryana, Acacia catechu, Dodonaea viscosa, Eulaliopsis binata.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Afforestation, Projects, Forest policy, Institutions, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Tamil Nadu.

Conservation, Biodiversity, Pastoralism, Environmental education, Ecotourism, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Participative management, High altitude (Himalaya)

Shorea robusta, Pterocarpus marsupium, Terminalia tomentosa, Emblica officinalis, Ougeinia oojeinensis, Ficus racemosa, Gmelina arborea, Mitragyna parviflora, Trewia nudiflora, Dillenia pentagyna, Slichera triguga, Carissa spinarum, Holarshena antidysentrica, Bauhinia vahlii, Combretum decandrum, Butea superba, Madhuca indica, Anogeissus, latifolia

Joint forest management (JFM), Forest Protection Committee, Economic viability, Midnapore, West Bengal

Forest management, Participative management, Institutions, Conflict, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management.

Forest management, Participatory management, Forest administration, Organizations, Communities, Employment, Conservation, Institutions, Community forestry, Portugal.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest menagement, JFM, Participatory management, Firewood, Industries, Projects, Calophyllum tomentosum, Toona ciliata, Dipterocarpus indica, Vateria indica, Michelia champaka.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Communities, Tribal society.

Forest management, Participatory management, Peasant workers, Organizations, Forestry development, Production, Protection, Communities, Ethiopia.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Institutions, Training, marketing, Non wood forest products, Dendrocalamus strictus, Bambusa arundinacea, Oxytenanthra stocksii, Calamus pseudotenuis, Calamus thutii, Dalbergia latifolia, Gmelina arboria, Calicoptris floribunda, Phoenix sylvistris.

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management, JFM, Non-timber forest products, NTFP, Institutions, Planning , Data, Employment.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Institutions, Sustainability.

Joint forest management, JFM, Participatory management, Participative management, Economics, Forest protection, Jungle Mahals, West Bengal

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Communities, Institutions, Community forestry, Conflicts, Nepal.

Joint forest management, JFM, Participatory management, Ecotourism, Panchayats, NTFP, Wildlife, Sanctuaries, National parks

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Watershed management, Training, Monitoring, Modules.

Forest management, Participative management, Conflict, Institutions, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management.

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Tribal society, Non wood forest products, Agricultural development, Live stock, Cottage industry, Madhya Pradesh, Terminalia alata, Terminalia chebula, Anogeissus latifolia, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Syzygium cumini, Diospyros melanoxylon, Mallotus phillipensis.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Conflict, Tribal society, Conservation, Institutions.

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Tribal society, Conflict, Protection, Ecosystem.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Institutions, Training, Funding.

Ecosystem, Exotics, Conservation, Plantation forestry, Poplars, Fraxinus, Juglans, Quercus, Canada

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Conflict, Institutions, Projects, Social forestry, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir.

Joint forest management (JFM), Wood products, Secondary timber species, Wood preservatives, Solar seasoning kiln, Wood properties, Participatory management

Joint forest management, JFM, Participatory management, Non-timber forest products (NTFP), Biodiversity, Valuation, Economics, Community forestry

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Projects, Watershed management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management.

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Sustainability, Panchayats, Institutions, Communities, Uttaranchal.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Institutions, Marketing, Social interaction, Social participation, Festival, Tectona grandis, Memecylon edule, Cane, Bamboo.Forest management, Participative management, Vegetation, Communities, Protection, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Participatory management, Tectona grandis, Dendrocalmus strictus, shorea robusta, Ixora parviflora, Aristada spp., Butea monosperma, Diospyros melanoxylon, Anogeissus latifolia, Woodfordia fruticosa, Buchnania lanzan, Hollarhena antidysenterica, Gmelina arborea, Brachiera strata, Legerstroemia parviflora, Boswellia serrata, Barleria cristata, Cassia tora, Cassia fistula, Aegle marmelos, Tectona grandis, Dendrocalmus strictus, shorea robusta, Ixora parviflora, Aristada spp., Butea monosperma, Diospyros melanoxylon, Anogeissus latifolia, Woodfordia fruticosa, Buchnania lanzan, Hollarhena antidysenterica, Gmelina arborea, Brachiera strata, Legerstroemia parviflora, Boswellia serrata, Barleria cristata, Cassia tora, Cassia fistula, Aegle marmelos.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Projects, Livestock.

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Institutions, Funds, Rajasthan.

Forest management, Participative management, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Institutions.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Institutions, Non-wood forest products, Sustainability, India.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Institutions, Cultivation, Cottage industry, Lac, Fish production, Irrigation.

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management (JFM), Waste land, Development programme, Biomass, Communities, Leucaena leucocephala, Eucalyptus hybrid, Azadirachta indica, Sesbania grandiflora, Moringa pterygosperma, Tamarindus indica, Acacia arabica, Anacardium occidentale, Mangifera indica, Artocarpus integrifolia, Prosopis juliflora.

Forest management, Participatory management, Community forestry, Institutions, Economic development, Social status, Livestock, Employment, Forest products, Awarness, Nepal.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Institutions, Watershed, Shifting cultivation, Tribal society, Socio-economics, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, India.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Sustainability, Institutions, Communities, Haryana, Livestock, Bamboo spp., Eulaliopsis binata.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Training, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, India.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Socio-economics, Agriculture, Livestock, Employment, Institutions, Harayana.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Institutions, Empowerment, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Institutions, Participatory rural apprisal.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Institutions, Productivity, Afforestation, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Uttranchal, Ficus palmata, Myrica esculenta.

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management, JFM, Resolution, Forestry, Gender relations, Institutions, Community, West Bengal.

Forest management, Participative management, Social interaction, Social participation, Joint forest management (JFM), Socio-economics, Afforestation, Madhya Pradesh, Participatory management, Madhuca latifolia.

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management (JFM), Participatory management, Marketing, Communities, Yields, Cost benefit analysis, Leases, Institutions, Eulaliopsis binata.

Forest management, Regeneration, Socioeconomics, Energy conservation, Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu

Ecosystems, Sustainability, Environmental protection, Forest management, Resource management, Valuatiion, Himachal Pradesh

Geographical Information Systems, Global Positioning Systems, Remote sensing, Application, Technology, Management science, Forest management, Chhattisgarh

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management, JFM, Institutions, Sustainability, Communities, Empowerment, Rural population, Afforestation, Projects, Tamil Nadu, India

Forestry, Research, Development, Silviculture, Sustainability, Forest management, Participative management

Forest management, Participtative management, JFM, Institutions, Soil, Characteristics, Soil fertility, Nutrient content, Ranchi, Bihar

Regeneration, Behavior, Trees, Species, Population structure, Joint forest management, JFM, Institutions, Villages, Forests, Protection, Artificial regeneration, Madhya Pradesh, India

Forest management, Planning, Remote sensing, Geographical information systems, GIS, Vadodara, Gujarat

Vegetation, Flora, Forest management, Growing stock, Regeneration,

Cedrus deodara, Species diversity, Regeneration, Forest management

Joint forset management, Environmental management, Social benefits

Forest management, Participative management, Joint forest management, JFM, Institutions, Sustainability, Motivation, Interaction, Income, West Bengal

Forest management, Participatory management, Joint forest management, JFM, Protection, Conservation, Biodiversity, Institutions, Shifting cultivation, Nagaland

Forest management, Economic viability, Economic evaluation, Market economics

Climatic change, Mitigation, Joint forest management

Joint forest management, Components, Evaluation

Fringe forests, Forest management, Conservation, Forestry development

Forest resources, Forest management, Socioeconomic status, Local population, Bangladesh

Joint forest management, Social participation, Socioeconomic status, Vegetation management, Orissa

Deforestation, Environmental degradation, Joint forest planning and management, Communities

Forest plantations, Joint forest management, Planning, Assessment

Forest management, Afforestation, River valleys

Shorea robusta, Forest management, Coppice, Bihar

Forest management, Intensive farming, Economics, Bihar

Tropical forests, Ecology, Forest management, India

Forests, Species diversity, Regeneration, Joint forest management, Uttara Kannada

Forest management, Impact, India

Biodiversity, Forest management, Conservation

Forest management, Forest policy, Carbon sequestration, Orissa

Joint forest management, Research, Haryana

Joint forest management, Impact, Madhya Pradesh

Timbers, Forest management, Demand functions, Economics analysis, Rationalization

Forest management, Working plans, Certification

Biodiversity, Forest management, Certification, Conservation

Joint forest management, Social benefits, Haryana

Social forestry, Forest management, Social participation, India

Joint forest management, Social benefits, Haryana

Non-wood forest products, Joint forest management, Extraction, Sustainability, Productivity, Biomass production, West Bengal

Forest products, Forest management, Sustainability, Conservation

Forest management, Community involvement, Multivariate analysis

Forestry development, Joint forest management, Geographical information systems, Remote sensing, Japan International Cooperation Agency

Forest management, Monitoring, Remote sensing, Geographical information systems, Global positioning systems, Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Forest cover, Joint forest management, Community forestry, Participation, West Bengal

Watershed management, Joint forest management, Groundwater recharge, Karnataka

Forest management, Risk assessment, Optimization

Vegetation, Regeneration, Joint forest management, Odisha

Forest management, Tribal society, Indigenous knowledge, Socioeconomics, Andhra Pradesh

Documents

[XLS] · Web viewPrusty, B.C. In :National Workshop on Managing Common lands for Sustainable Development of our Village: A Search for Participatory Management Models, Bhubaneswar,