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THE IMPACT OF GLOBAL MEDIA ON AMERICAN AND CHINESE

CULTURES:

AN AXIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OFAMERICAS GOT TALENTAND CHINAS

GOT TALENT

SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL

IN PARTIAL FULLFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE DEGREE

MASTER OF ARTS

BY

JUNLIANG WU

ADVISOR: JAMES W. CHESEBRO

BALL STATE UNIVERSITY

MUNCIE, INDIANA

MAY 2012


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Table of Content

Title Page 1

Table of Contents 2

List of Tables 3

Acknowledgements 4

Chapter One: Introduction 5

Chapter Two: Literature Review 22

Chapter Three: Methods 41

Chapter Four: Findings 53

Chapter Five: Major Conclusions, Limitations, and Recommendations

for future study 77

Reference 87


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List of Tables

Table 1.1- Rankings ofAmericas Got TalentFinal Shows 9

Table 1.2- Rankings ofChinas Got TalentSeason Premier and Final 10

Table 2.1- Summary of Connotations of LTO Differences Found in

Surveys and Other Comparative Studies of Values 30

Table 2.2- Eleven American and Chinese cultural values 35


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Acknowledgements

I would like to acknowledge my appreciation to Dr. James W. Chesebro for his

guidance and confidence towards the completion of this thesis. I am also grateful to Dr.

Maria Williams-Hawkins and Professor Christopher Flook for their constructive criticism

in the writing of this thesis and for helping me to develop this research. I would also like

to thank my family and friends for their constant support and patience.


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Chapter One: Introduction

If there is one format of television program that would attract millions of people,

the Got Talent reality television show must be one of them. In June 2006, the U.S.A

debuted the talent show in the world-Americas Got Talent, which featured different

kinds of performance from dancers, magicians, comedians, and other performers of all

ages competing for a substantive monetary prize.Americas Got Talentbecame one of

the most popular reality shows in American television industry and this Got Talent

concept started spreading and was accepted by international television audiences. With

such growing influence, China launched the Chinese version of talent contest- Chinas

Got Talentin July 2010. Chinas Got Talentcompletely adapted the same production

format and contest rules fromAmericas Got Talent. It quickly became popular among

young Chinese people and achieved tremendous successes in Chinese television

industries.

Regardless of the originating cultures, this format of talent show intrigues various

audiences across multiple cultures. In other words, a global popular television program

has been discovered, working successfully across American and Chinese cultures.

American and Chinese might have established some sort of common values. Hence, this

thesis focuses on the changing nature of cultural values that are occurring in some nation-

states and that appears to be stimulated and fostered by the global entertainment industry.


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Some specific arguments are central to this position. First, global media programs are

exerting powerful influences on their diverse international audiences. These influences

are increasingly linking into what can be understood and identified as a new international

or global popular culture. Second, as these global media programs have become

international hits, they gradually contribute to the power of the existence and influence of

a global popular culture, a new cultural system that appears fully capable of affecting

nation cultural values. Third, for some individuals in various countries, both national

culture and global popular culture are equally important and simultaneously influencing

individual value. Fourth, at this point in time, we can illustrate that with the impact of

global popular culture, American and Chinese cultural values appear to have more

commonalities. These foundational and common values appear to make two cultures

more understandable and acceptable to Americans and Chinese.

In all, this thesis argues that a dual cultural system, combining national culture

and the global popular culture, is emerging and can exist when individuals are exposed to

the global entertainment industry. These two cultures need to be considered when

assessing international entertainment images for their potential socialization influences.

In other words, we are at the verge of a potentially massive international transformation,

and this transformation--if the entertainment industry is any indication--could potentially

influence the nature of cultural values within the world.

Preview of Chapter One

This chapter is divided into three parts. Part one provides introductions of

Americas Got Talentand Chinas Got Talent, including the formats, performances, and


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public reflections of those two reality programs. Because the two talent contest television

programs are popular in two different cultures, part two explores various critical

definitions of culture, global culture and popular culture. According to various definitions

of culture, value is the core concept of culture and this study examines culture in an

eclectic approach, especially focusing on axiological perspective. Hence, part three

provides various important definitions of value.

Talent Contests

Television is a significant cultural institution, which may indicate what the culture

is and how it interacts with other cultures. Among all kinds of television programs, the

reality show probably is one of the most popular television genres in most Western and

Eastern societies. Today, almost every country airs local as well as imported reality

shows, or local productions of imported formats (Cohen, J., Weimann, G., and Bar-Sinai,

I. 2009). The common features of reality shows, according to Booker (as cited in Cohen,

J., Weimann, G., and Bar-Sinai, I. 2009), are that they are shows in which producers

create a common theme, structure and frame around a certain topic (e.g., dance, singing,

business), but the events that take place within this structure are new and unpredictable as

they depend on the actions and behaviors of the real people-people who use their real

social identity on television. Most of the time, reality shows attract people by some sort

of competitions that lead to prizes, which could be a desired job, a modeling or recording

contract, and so on. Dauncey (1996) and Wong (2001) explained the reality model could

potentially empower audiences by allowing them to participate directly or from home.


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Talent contests or audition type shows are one format of reality television shows.

The talent show is a revolutionary entertaining programing, which provides a possibility

for audiences to become potential entertainers. Among all talent shows, the Got Talent

series are significant and have spawned over many countries such as America, China,

Canada, and Korea. The following section provides details ofAmericas Got Talentand

Chinas Got Talent.

Americas Got Talent.

Americas Got Talentdebuted in June 2007 and it was the first full series of this

Got TalentTelevision format conceived and owned by Simon Cowell.Americas Got

Talentmaintains the idea of discovering acts or other performances that have never been

seen in the history and these acts and performances provide entertainments to audiences.

The host and judges ofAmericas Got Talentclaim that it provides a platform for

ordinary people who have talent and who want to show off their creative, challenging,

and exciting acts.

The selection processes ofAmericas got talentare divided into four parts:

producers auditions, preliminary auditions, Las Vegas Week (quarterfinals), and finally

live shows. The producers audition is untelevised and held in theaters. This round is held

several months before the judges audition in cities. Following the producers auditions,

contestants will audition in front of three celebrity judges who will select 48 acts to the

next round audition-the Las Vegas week. Despite the traditional stage competition,

Americas Got Talenthas created an online video audition: the YouTube special audition,


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providing easy access for all talented people in the world. The final live show normally

takes place over two nights: one for final competition and the other one for results.

It might be appropriate to say thatAmericas Got Talenthas adopted and

employed the concept of theAmerican dream, which emphasizes that life should be

better, richer, and fuller for everyone. Interpreting this concept, life should provide

opportunities according to ability or achievement, regardless of social class or

circumstances of birth (Adams, 1931). Hence, this open-call format ofAmericas Got

Talenthas often been a popular one for television industry in the United States, reflected

in the national rankings of American television programs. TheAmericas Got Talenthas

kept millions of TV viewers and was the number one show in fall season since the first

season in 2005. Table 1.1 provides the rankings ofAmericas Got Talent, which identifies

it is the one of the most successful and popular shows in the United States.

Table 1.1 Rankings ofAmericas Got TalentFinal Shows

Season

Season

finale TVSeason

Finale

viewers (inmillions)

Rank

Season

Averageviewers (inmillions)

1 2006 12.05 #1 10

2 2007 13.87 #1 12

3 2008 12.55 #1 11.38

4 2009 15.53 #1 11.91

5 2010 16.41 #1 11.02

Chinas Got Talent.

Chinas Got Talentfirst launched in July 2010 by Dragon TV, a regional satellite

television station in Shanghai. China produced many talent shows before China Got

Talent, and most of them continue to be popular. Super Girl, for example, was one of the


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most popular talent shows aired on Human Satellite Television Station, the second

biggest television network after China Central Television (CCTV) owned by the Hunan

provincial government from 2004-2006 in China. It was open to any female amateur

contestants regardless of ages and the levels of singing. The previous final seasons of

Super Girlhave drawn more than 400 million viewers (Jacobs, 2011). Similarly, Chinas

Got Talenthas achieved remarkable success through receiving positive feedback from

Chinese audiences. Table 1.2 provides the national rating ofChinas Got Talent, which

suggests Chinas Got Talenthas been extremely popular and caught the publics attention

since it is debuted.

Table 1.2 Rankings ofChinas Got TalentSeason Premier and Final1

SeasonSeasonPremier

Nationalaudience

ratingRank

SeasonFinal

Nationalaudience

ratingRank

1 July 25,2010

1.37 2 Sep 26,2010

5.70 1

2 May 01,2011

2.1 2 July 10,2011

5.947 1

With such positive reactions, Chinas Got Talentis designed to attract a larger

audience and spread more Chinese culture. For instance the third season ofChinas Got

Talentholds auditions in London and Liverpool / Manchester in November (Sun, 2011).

In result, Chinese culture intrigues international audiences and more global elements are

integrated into Chinas Got Talent.

In terms of format and contest rules, Chinas Got Talentcompletely duplicates the

selection process from theAmericas Got Talent. The pre-audition stages are held by

Note: Seasonal rankings are based on average total viewers per episode ofChinas Got Talenton Dragon


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separate untelevised producers' auditions which come to various provinces across China.

At any time during the audition, the judges may present his/her disapproval to the act by

pressing a buzzer which lights a large red X on the stage. If all the judges press their

buzzers, the act must end immediately. Starting from the semi-finals, the three judges

cannot completely decide who would be able to go to the final stage. The competition

system switches the power to one professional group which consists of 50 representatives

of audiences. Each representative votes for the contestants if they like their acts. The

three judges, in this round, have 10 votes, which largely give their rights to support their

favorite contestants. In the final stage, judges do not have the right to decide who would

be the first-place winner. The final winner is reached by receiving votes from audience

through text messages.

The most popular performances in Chinas Got Talentare singing and dancing.

Contestants regularly decide to show their talents in singing and dancing. Bai Shuping, a

sixty-five-year-old Chinese grandmother, created a viral sensation of Michael Jackson by

showing her Jackson moves. In contrast, Chinese traditional artistic performances are not

salient among the young performers in the contest. Tang Kangmin plays a Chinese

traditional music instrumentKou Xuan () which is a tiny harmonica. She was

recognized well in her first performance, but only achieved sixth place in the final

contest. By observing public reactions to all performances, western acts evidently have

dominated the Chinas Got Talentand convinced Chinese audience to learn and to spread

those acts through the television and the internet.

In all, the two successful Got Talent shows are well-accepted and unbelievably

popular in two American and Chinese cultures. Contestants in Americas Got Talentand


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Chinas Got Talentact similarly, mostly focusing on dancing and singing. Hence, it may

appropriately claim that this talent format television program is acceptable by American

and Chinese audiences. This phenomenon may also suggest that the global television

programming is affecting American and Chinese cultures by developing and generating

more cultural commonalties. Up to this point, it is essentially to present the importance of

a culture to all individuals, and therefore, part two offers various critical definitions of

culture.

Definitions of Culture

Culture is defined as a combination of human creations with emphasis on

enumeration of content such as histories, traditions, symbols, ideas, values, attitudes, and

behavior. From a wide range perspective, Kluckhohn and Kelly (1945) defined culture as

a complex whole which includes artifacts, beliefs, art, all the other habits acquired by

man as a member of society, and all products of human activity as determined by these

habits (p.82). Herskovits (1948) further stated:

Culture is essentially a construct that describes the total body of belief, behavior,

knowledge, sanction, values, and goals that mark the way of life of any people.

That is, though a culture may be treated by the student as capable of objective

description, in the final analysis it comprises the things that people have, the

things they do, and what they think (p. 625)

In recent studies, vast majority of scholars have agreed that culture is imperative

to determine individual behavior and values. Hall (1976) recognized culture is a word,

which stands for the sum of earned behavior patterns, attitudes, and material things. Kim


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(1993) focused on the structural and socialization function and he discussed that culture

is significant because it is mostly through culture that human groups organize, direct, and

pattern their behavior. Indeed, culture is a complex system that reflects the complexity of

patterns such as behavior and values and defines how individuals act in various

situations. These wide range definitions provide preliminary evidence that culture sets

regulations for individual behaviors and eventually affecting ones value and cognitive

systems. The advantages of knowing broad definitions are to have a general view of what

culture is and what function it has. However, a precise definition of culture sometimes

provides better understandings and deeper interpretations.

The popular definitions of culture often associated with norms, symbols, and

values. Ting-Toomey and Oetzel (2001) defined culture as a learned meaning system

that consists of patterns of traditions, beliefs, values, norms, and symbols that are passed

on from one generation to the next and are shared to varying degrees by interacting

members of a community (p.9). Kuper (1999) suggested that culture is essentially a

matter of ideas and values, a collective cast of mind. The idea and values, the cosmology,

morality and aesthetics, are expressed in symbols, and so-if the medium is the message-

culture could be described as a symbolic system. Chesebro (2008) further interpreted

culture as imposed to create or replicate a sense of coherence and system, culture is an

integrated pattern of symbol-using reflecting and constructing a system of values,

behaviors, technologies, and social institutions transmitted from one generation to the

next. In this regard, it is appropriate to consider that culture is symbolically constructed

and imposes the symbolic function, passing down our behaviors, values and other

distinctive human characteristics from one generation to the next.


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If a cultural system is constructed by symbols, value is considered as a core

concept of culture. Thomas (1937) once said culture is the material and social values of

any group of people, whether savage or civilized (their institutions, customs, attitude,

behavior reactions) (as cited in Kroeber and Kluckhohn, 1952). In this sense, cultural

value consists of diverse human activities in a group or society and it dominates

communicative methods by determining value systems. Kroeber and Parsons (1958)

cross-disciplinary definition of culture as transmitted and created content and patterns of

values, ideas, and other symbolic-meaningful systems as factors in the shaping of human

behavior and the artifacts produced through behavior (P. 583).

In all, culture is one of the most complex systems in human society. It is a

creation of dynamic contents such as traditions, social interactivities, and influence of

technology. In recent society, the rapid development of digital technologies and the

internet are the two major factors controlling and integrating different cultures.

According to YouTube statistics (2011), over 3 billion videos are viewed a day. Hence,

the internet and global media platform extend individuals ability of getting new

knowledge and exchanging information. Meanwhile, they reduce the feelings of

discomfort, frustration, and irritation and high level of anxiety when encountering people

from other communities or countries. This is the result of cultural globalization.

Accordingly, the next subpart provides definitions of global culture.

Global Culture and Globalization.

Aglobal culture is a cultural mixture which integrates commonality such as

attitude, behavior, and value from numbers of cultures. As countries exchange products


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and share information, cultural conflicts are being reduced and a global culture is being

constructed. Indeed, culture involves dynamic changes, especially in the world with

technology and the internet. However, people start establishing common attitudes,

behaviors and values by using such advantages. Koning (2009) understood interactivity is

one of the major characteristics of global culture and provided such definition:global

culture is expressed through cosmopolitan consumption practices and tastes, as well as

connection to international social network. Smith (1990) argued that supranationalism is

the greatest function of global culture. He suggestedglobal culture, by definition and

intention, is supranational and is capable of eroding cultural differences between

participants.

Two scholars have elucidated the major characteristics of global culture; others

focus on more precise functions that the wordglobalcan serve. Robertsons (1992), for

instance, has reported the concept ofglobalization focused on an intensified compression

of the world and peoples increasing abundance of global connections and general spread

of global phenomenon. Spybey (1996) argued thatglobalization in its structural

dimensions can be regarded principally as the nation-state system, cultural spreading,

world military order and other internationally dispersed activities.

Among numerous ways of defining globalization, Anthony Giddenss (1990)

definition is probably one of the best known and most comprehensive:

Globalization can thus be defined as the intensification of worldwide social

relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are

shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice verse (p.64).


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Recognizing the conception and the importance of global culture, a large number

of individuals, especially business merchants, have started creating and adopting global

cultural attitudes for expanding business corporations. Polson (2010), for instance,

discovered that the expansion of capitalist enterprise relies on a force of professionals

employed in sectors such as advertising, accounting, engineering, law, etc., who are bi- or

multi-lingual, willing to live abroad, and able to work in a multicultural team. These

groups of mobile/global elites, who live with cosmopolitan life styles that include

traveling first class or using private air craft, and their identity is not linked to any

specific society, but to membership of managerial circles of the informational economy

across a global cultural spectrum (Castells, 1996).

Given all of these conceptions and examples, it becomes clearer that globalization

could function as an important level of the communication process. Specifically, as this

thesis argues explicitly in chapter 4, this global level of the communication process can

potentially influence individual behavior and eventually change the concept of value.

Adapting from global culture, popular culture is merging and influencing national culture

by allowing people to share social values on multiple platforms.

Popular Culture.

Defining the notion of popular culture is important because this thesis examines

culture and cultural values from two television shows. Storey (2001) defined popular

culture as a simply culture which is widely favored or well liked by many people. In this

sense, popular culture refers to a quantitative index that the majority of people find

acceptable and enjoyable. Bennett and Storey (as cited in Parker, 2011) defined popular

culture in six dimensions 1) quantitatively superior, 2) qualitatively inferior, 3) mass


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culture, 4) a product of the people, 5) a battlefield for hegemony, or 6) a chimera to

deconstructed by postmodernism by many people.

The power and influence of popular culture in cultural system is profound. It is

playing a crucial role in creating public cultural identities and perceptions of other

cultures and groups. Film serves as a good point to demonstrate the concept of popular

culture that can be well received by global citizens. TakeKung Fu Panda for instance,

the film had received favorable reviews from audiences all over the world. Both films in

the series were well received by Chinese audiences who were impressed with the film's

faithfulness to their cultures. The film topped the box office in its opening weekend,

grossing $60,239,130 for a $14,642 average from 4,114 theaters, which was also the

highest-grossing opening for the DreamWorks film at the time. With the international

success and positive reputation it received, the 3D animationKung Fu Panda 2 was

released on May 26, 2011, which is 3 years after the original one. It has rocked the world

again with a gross of $159,014,430 in the United States and Canada, as of July 10, 2011,

as well as bringing its worldwide total to $563,014,430.

It may now be appropriate to identify the potential power and significance of

global popular cultural systems. In this regard,Facebook, can function as a particularly

vivid and significant example of global popular cultural system. It is known as one of the

biggest social networking platform in contemporary age and has been widely accepted by

most of internet users. Beginning in 2004,Facebookwas a social network that only

works for Harvard students. It quickly encompassed users at most university and college

campuses in the United States. Two-thirds of users log in at least daily and spend an

average of 20 minutes on the site (Freiert, M. 2007). In 2011,Facebookannounced that it


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has more than 750 million active users with 50% of them log onFacebookin any given

day and 250 million mobile users.Facebookplatform has been built in 190 countries.

There are more than 900 million objects that users are interacting with and the more than

1 billion pieces of content shared every single day.

AlthoughFacebookhas been blocked in China, numbers of internet users have

found ways including special software used to bypass the complex online censorship

system. Bill Bullock (cited from Levin, 2010) the chief executive ofWitopia, a Virginia-

based company that sells a VPN popular among expatriates in China for $60 a year, said

people want theirFacebookand Twitterand they are not going to tolerate a censored

internet. In addition, according to David Gordyansky (cited from Levin, 2010), founder

of the U.S-basedAnchorFree, about one million people in China are using the free VPN

Hotspot Shield, a software that helps users to bypass firewalls and access all content

without censorship, and the numbers of people who start to know how to use these types

of software are increasing.

In all, all of these particulars lead us to one of the key concepts in this thesis, the

word value. With the development of digital technologies, a global popular culture starts

to make an impact on national culture and eventually affect individual values. Therefore,

we should ask: Is the concept ofvalue changing? Is this change international? Are digital

technologies and systems, such as the internet, fostering these transformations throughout

the world? Does global popular culture generate universal values at least in the television

industry? Can Americans and Chinese share similar cultural values? With these questions

in mind, we should consider what we mean by the notion ofvalue.


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Definitions of Value

Kluckhohn acknowledged that the study of values seemed to merge with the study

of culture, and to engage with the same problems (as cited in Powers, 2000, p. 27).

Kluckhohn referred to was many theoretical and methodological problems still required a

better understanding of cultures and values to generate comprehensive answers. This

statement also points out that the study of value has been and will be crucial in the study

of culture. Indeed, as researchers (Kluckhohn, 1951; Hofstede, 2001; Schwartz, 1992)

consider value as the essential concept of culture, the relationship between two concepts

is inseparable. Hofstede (2001) described the manifestation of culture at different levels

by using an onion metaphor. On the outside layer lie symbols (i.e., words, gestures, and

objects), heroes (i.e., iconic representation of the admired in the culture), rituals (i.e.,

collective activities and teachings), and eventually values as the core concept of culture.

Indeed, culture may be defined more than value, yet value is the most important and

foundational part for culture. Schewartz (2006) noted that cultural value shapes and

justifies individual and group beliefs, actions and goals and further argued that studying

value directly is an especially efficient way to capture and characterize cultures (p. 139).

Hence, scholars tend to study cultural values and value orientation in order to understand

the essence of cultures.

Similar to culture, researchers (Kluckhohn, 1967; Hofstede, 2001) attempt to

define values in various ways. Kluckhohn (1967) provided a precise anthropological

definition: A value is a conception, explicit or implicit, distinctive of an individual or

characteristic of a group, of the desirable modes, means and ends of actions (p. 395).

Shearman (2008) probably provides the most comprehensive definition:


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Values are the beliefs that are held individually or collectively, perceived

consciously or unconsciously, communicated explicitly (verbally/articulately) or

implicitly (symbolically), used as the criteria for cognitive, affective, or

behavioral judgments to guide our choices out of available options, as they

influence society, while society influences them (p.4).

According to Shearman (2008)s definition, a few characteristics and qualities of

value are presented. First, value is something that can be either owned by individuals or

shared by a group of people. This statement could also be understood as values can be

held at different levels: ones that could be shared with someone in the group, others that

held by individuals. Second, value may express explicitly or implicitly. Some Eastern

cultures emphasize implicit messages, nonverbal cues, and symbolic behaviors, while

some Western cultures prefer to send direct message and express ideas by using verbal

cues. Third, values provide evaluative criteria and guide individuals to make decisions.

The values provide us with normative criteria, which deal with what is perceived as

normal, typical, and socially acceptable, and evaluative criteria, which refer to

individuals judgments regarding what is good or bad, what is true and false, and what is

desirable and undesirable (Shearman, 2008, p. 5). Fourth, value has an impact on human

behavior, which are guided by a set of expectations. People desire and want different

things, especially with different values in different cultures. Samover and Porter (2004)

explained: culture strongly influences your beliefs, values, and your worldviews: it is

reflected in your use of language, your nonverbal behavior, and how you relate with

others (p. 3). Fifth, value has impact on individuals, while individuals also affect cultural

values. On the one hand, children learn cultural values through social traditions and


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heritages. People tend to respect traditions and pass them from one generation to another.

On the other hand, new values would be generated through dynamic social activities.

Summary

This study examines two reality shows,Americas Got Talentand Chinas Got

Talentthat applied similar formats and structures and well accepted by audiences in

American and Chinese cultures. The analysis provides full recognition to the new cultural

system: global popular culture. With the rapid development of global media

programming and digital technology, the global popular culture is exerting powerful

influence on national culture and becoming important to individuals. Meanwhile, cultural

values serve as a core concept of culture. Global popular culture has affected American

and Chinese cultures by generating common values. Chapter two, the literature review,

presents statistical research on the topics of cultural variabilities and the concept of

emerging common values between America and China. In terms of methods of this

thesis, chapter three introduces an eclectic approach of mixing four methods used in this

research and presents the means in which these methods will be used to address the stated

research questions. Chapter four presents results and findings in two talent shows.

Chapter five gives major conclusions and limitations of this study. It also includes some

suggestions for the future study.


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Chapter Two: Literature Review

Thisthesis dissects the impact of global media on American and Chinese cultures,

mainly focusing on cultural values that are shared by Americans and Chinese. The world

is in a compression process and global media programing connects people from

different nations by establishing similar attitudes, belief, and eventually a set of values.

With such influences, individuals are given plenty of opportunities to know other

cultures. Hence, to effectively and accurately understand the impact of global media on

promoting and transmitting global popular culture and values, this chapter provides

research on the topic of culture and cultural values. Some previous studies directly

present tremendous differences between America and China in a cultural manner. Others

suggest that there are mixed areas between American and Chinese cultures.

Introduction of Chapter Two

The literature review is divided into two major parts. Part one reviews some major

contributions on cultural polarization, especially focusing on Hofstede (2001)s five

major cultural variabilities: power distance, individualism and collectivism, masculinity

and femininity, uncertainty avoidance, and long versus short term orientation. These five

cultural dimensions largely differentiate America and China in terms of cultural values

and social norms. Although cultural differences between America and China are


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enormous and absolute, the world globalization suggests that America and China have

established and developed commonalities and values in many domestic and international

situations. Accordingly, part two provides definitions of eleven core values and

commonalities found in both American and Chinese cultures.

Cultural Variabilities

America and China offer two study cases that have been frequently discussed and

used to describe the cultural differences between West and East. Indeed, it is common for

people to view American and Chinese cultures as polarized. American tourists are mostly

interested in Chinese historic relics such as the Great Wall, the Forbidden City, and the

Terra Cotta Warriors, whereas Chinese people love to have advanced technologies and

the modern life in the United States. Among all differences, five cultural value

dimensions significantly stand out: power distance, individualism and collectivism,

masculinity and femininity, uncertainty avoidance, and long-term verses short-term

orientation.

Power Distance.

Hofstede (2001) listed the power distance as the first dimension of cultural

difference between America and China. The concept ofpower distance initially was

defined by Dutch social psychologist Mauk Mulder (1977, as cited in Hofstede, 2011)

based on his power distance theory on laboratory and field experiments. He defined

power distance as the degree of inequality in power between a less powerful individual

and a more powerful other, in which individual and other belong to the same (loosely or


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tightly knit) social system (p. 90). Hofstede (2001) further redefined the concept based on

Mulders definition and suggested thatpower distance is the extent to which the less

powerful members of institutions and organizations within a country expect and accept

that power is distributed unequally (p.98).

Interpreting Mulder and Hofestedes definitions, it is obvious to see that both

scholars have realized that power distance is associated with social equality and

authority. In this sense, nations differentiate power distance as large power distance and

short power distance. Chesebro (2009) explained in a large-power-distance culture,

people feel dependent on those in authority and expect direction from them, whereas in

short-power-distance culture, people are more willing to challenge or even approach their

bosses. In short-power-distance culture, equalization is one of the most important

elements to be developed. In this sense, short-power distance societies tend to pay less

attention on authorization and more on equality. In contrast, large-power-distance

cultures promote the concept of obedience and tend to pay less attention on equalization

and more attention on authorization. Therefore, children are required to obey parents

teaching and should be dependent on teachers at school.

The power distance values between America and China are significant. China is

one of the large-power-distance cultures. According to Hofstede (2001), the power

distance value of China is at 80, which suggested that the Chinese society believes the

inequalities amongst people are acceptable. In this sense, the relationship between

subordinate and superior tends to be polarized into dependence and counter dependence

(Hofstede, 2001, p. 86). On the other hand, the power distance index value based on

Hofstedes (2001) study repeats that America scored low on this dimension (40), which


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suggested that Americans pursues liberty and freedom and focus on equal rights in all

aspects of American society and government.

Individualism and Collectivism.

In 1980, Hofstede initially conceptualized individualism-collectivism as a great

dimension representing the cultural difference between West and East. Hofstede (1980)

agreed that Chinese culture is a collectivistic culture, whereas American culture keeps the

individualism as its central value. By definition, individualism is generally defined as a

social pattern that consist of loosely link individuals who view themselves as independent

of collectives and collectivism refers to a social pattern consisting of closely linked

individuals who view themselves as parts of one or more collectives (family, co-workers,

tribe, nation) (Triandis, 1995, p.2). This individualism and collectivism represents the

degree to which individuals are integrated into strong and cohesive groups.

To discover the essences of individualism and collectivism, Kim (1994) employed

statistical analysis and demonstrated six values for individualism: Individuation,

Autonomy, Self-fulfillment, Freedom of choice, Uniqueness, Assertiveness, and six

values for collectivism: Relatedness, Interdependency, Succorance, Nurturance, Common

fate, Compliance. In a similar vein, Oyserman, Coon, and Kemmelmeier (2002) provides

a comprehensive content analysis sorting seven values of individualism: Independence,

Individual goal striving, Competition, Uniqueness, Self-privacy, Self-knowledge, and

Direct communication, and eight important components of collectivism: Relatedness,

Group belonging, Duty, Harmony, Seeking advice from others, Hierarchy, Preference for

group work, Contextualization.


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Driven by a strong sense of collectivism, the individual members of the Chinese

family tend to be more willing to submit their own self-interest to that of the family

(Huang, 2011). In China, it is common to see that a son is asked to inherit his fathers

business, whether he likes or not. The son may lack of knowledge or motivation to run

this family business, but a sense of collectivism, one for all and all for one, always

drives people to sacrifice their individual interests. The Western view of self, in contrast,

is driven by individualism as the main theme for life; it is natural that the West

encourages individuality, independence and autonomy (Huang, 2011). This individualism

is a cultural assumption shared by many Americans. It is very important for an American

to establish his or her independence and self-reliance. Parents raise their children to be

independent to stand on their own two feet (Storti, 1994). All individuals should be

guided by a duty to self and the obligations to do what he or she sees as morally right no

matter what beliefs the others follow.

Masculinity and Femininity.

The third dimension of cultural value is masculinity and femininity, which are

correlated with sexes, genders, and gender roles. Hofstede (2001) used the wordsex when

referring to biological functions andgenderwhen referring to social functions. Men and

women are born with tremendous biological differences. In society, people generally tend

to view men as average, taller, and stronger than women, while women have on average

greater finger dexterity and for example, faster metabolism, which makes them recover

faster from fatigue (Hofstede, 2001, p. 280). Accordingly, these absolute and statistical

biological differences allow women and men to serve different gender roles in society. In


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this sense, men are supposed to be assertive, competitive and tough; whereas women are

supposed to be more concerned with taking care of the home, the children, and people in

general- to take the tender roles (Hofstede, 2001, p. 280)

After providing the definition of sexes, genders, and gender roles, it is appropriate

to introduce the definition of masculinity and femininity. Hofstede (2001) stated:

Masculinity stands for a society in which social gender roles are clearly distinct:

Men are supposed to be assertive, tough, and focused on material success; women

are supposed to be more modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life.

Femininity stands for a society in which social gender roles overlap: Both men

and women are supposed to be modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of

life (p.297).

With the definitions of masculinity and femininity in mind, Chetwynd & Hartnett

(1978) noticed that the sex-role system is at the core of our cultural norms (p. 3). The

differences between masculine culture and feminine culture are depending on several key

values such as achievements and competitions. Chesebro (2009) claimed that a masculine

culture is tough, exhibiting aggressiveness, decisiveness, and competitiveness, and it

places greater value on achievement outside of the home, power, grandeur, and well-

defined gender roles. Chesebro (2009) further discussed that a feminine culture is tender,

exhibiting modesty, reticence, caring for others and concern for a favorable environment,

and it places greater value on nurturing, harmony, and interchangeable gender roles,

settle conflict by negotiation and compromise, and is relationship oriented.

In the category of masculine and feminine cultures, America and China are both

masculine societies. In this view, winning competition and receiving achievements and


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recognitions are significant in both cultures. Americans are willing to take challenges and

competitions in order to achieve success and become the best in the field. Americans

understand that everyone could be the best by hard work. Hence, during the competition,

they may ignore other important matters such as relationships. Similarly, Chinese people

would sacrifice family and leisure priorities for work. The Beijing Olympic Games, for

instance, was created by millions of people sacrificing family times and health for one

purpose: to present the best Olympic games in history.

Uncertainty Avoidance.

The fourth dimension of cultural value has been labeled as uncertainty avoidance.

The notion of uncertainty avoidance is largely associated with controllability and

predictability. Hofstede (2001) defined uncertainty avoidance as the extent to which the

members of a culture feel threatened by uncertain or unknown situations (p.161).

Chesebro (2009) suggested the low uncertainty avoidance culture is associated with a

preference for unstructured environments, more tolerant of experimentation and deviant

ideas, while members of high uncertainty avoidance cultures prefer structured situations,

conformity to formal rules and established norms, tend to have higher levels of anxiety,

often manifested in greater emotional expression and aggressiveness; and, they find it

difficult to relax.

According to Hofstedes (2001) empirical study, America and China belong to

two different categories. The American society is a low uncertainty avoidance culture.

Americans have cultivated a large degree of acceptance creative ideas, innovative

products, and are willing to try new and different activities, whether the future is


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predictable or not. Meanwhile, the low uncertainty avoidance affects education systems

in which the teaching process is determined. At school, teachers encourage students to

express original and creative ideas, no matter good or bad. Consequently, the United

States is one of the countries that won the most Nobel Prize recognition in academic

fields.

On the other hand, China is a high uncertainty avoidance culture. The old Chinese

saying Ju An Si Wei(), which urges everyone to be prepared for danger in

times of safety and to be vigilant in times of peace, reflects a tradition of Chinese people

not accustomed unstructured environments and unpredictable situations. Television

stations in China, for instance, are state owned. The Chinese government has full ability

to control the content aired on all TV channels. Television programing is censored before

it is aired because unpredictable results certainly might cause negative social impact and

unnecessary harmful activities.

Long- Versus Short-Term Orientation.

The last dimension of a national cultural value is identified as long-versus short-

term orientation. This value dimension was found in the answers of student samples from

23 countries around 1985 to the Chinese Value Survey (Hofstede, 2001, p.351).

Hofstede (2001) provided definitions of long and short-term orientations:

Long Term Orientation stands for the fostering of virtues oriented towards future

rewards, in particular, perseverance and thrift. Its opposite pole, Short Term

Orientation, stands for the fostering of virtues related to the past and present, in


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particular, respect for tradition, preservation of face and fulfilling social

obligations (p. 359)

Hofstede (2001) further pointed out key values of long-term orientation and short-

term orientation. The long-term orientation consists of values including persistence

(perseverance), ordering relationships by status and observing this order, thrift, and

finally, having a sense of shame. The opposite pole, short-term orientation, includes

values of personal steadiness and stability, protecting your face, respect for tradition, and

reciprocation of greetings, favors, and gifts. Hofesde (2001) concluded connotations of

major differences between long-term orientation and short-term orientation, as Table 2.1

provided.

Table 2.1 Summary of Connotations of LTO Differences Found in Surveys and

Other Comparative Studies of Values.

Low LTO High LTO

Quick results expected. Persistence, perseverance

Status not major issue in relationships. Relationships ordered by status and this

order observed. Nice people know how to spend. Nice people are thrifty, sparing with

resources.

Shame is not a common feeling. A sense of shame common.

Personal steadiness and stability Personal adaptability.

Protection of ones face Face considerations common but considereda weakness.

Respect for traditions. Adaptation of traditions to newcircumstances.

Reciprocation of greetings, favors, andgifts.

Reciprocation considerations areproblematic, risk of overspending.

Children should learn tolerance andrespect for other people

Children should learn thrift.

Leisure time important Leisure time not so important.

Most important events in life occurred in More important events in life will occur in


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past or occur in present future

Students consider persistent not animportant personality trait.

Students consider persistent an importantpersonality trait.

Small share of additional income saved. Large shared of additional income saved

Investment in mutual funds Investment in real estate.

With knowing the major differences between long-term orientation and short-term

orientation, it is important to find out which category American and Chinese cultures

belong to. According to Hofstedes (2001) long-term and short-term orientation index,

the United States scored 29 on this dimension and employs short term oriented culture. In

this sense, the short term oriented culture makes Americans focus on current time and

quick results are expected. American business, for instance, measure the performance on

a short-term basis, which takes the results is a major concern. Meanwhile, Chesebro,

Kim, & Lees (2007) study suggest that the United States has primarily used competition

in the short run, and confrontation in the long run, as its strategies in dealing with North

Korea nuclear testing problem. Ding (2007) provides a good example of how short-term

orientation affects Americans life: American audiences still enjoy weekly broadcast

prime time episodes on major broadcasting networksWithout a doubt, these

broadcasting networks would have changed their programming model immediately if

most audiences were not satisfied with the current situation (p. 71).

China scored 118, which definitely identified that China is a future orientated

country in which perseverance and thrift are appreciated. The concept of long-term

orientation was derived from Confucian Work Dynamism. The values of long-term

orientation inherent to Confucians teaching consisted of four key principles (Hofstede,

2001):


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First, The stability of society is based on unequal relationships between people.

Second, The family is the prototype of all social organizations.

Third, Virtuous behavior toward others consists of not treating others as one

would not like to be treated oneself.

Fourth, Virtue with regard to ones tasks in life consists of trying to acquire skills

and education, working hard, not spending more than necessary, being patient, and

persevering.

Indeed, the current Chinese society frequently employs a long-term orientation.

The five-year plans of Peoples Republic of China are a series of economic development

initiatives. The key characteristic is mapping strategies for economic development,

setting growth targets, and launching reforms. For instance, on March 14, 2011, the

Chinese government passed the twelfth five-year plan. According to Xinhua Newspaper,

the official press agency of Chinese government, the twelfth five-year plan calls for a

shift away from an economy based on exports and public works projects to one powered

by consumer spending and focuses on rising inequality between poverty and wealth.

Meanwhile, Chesebro, Kim, & Lee (2007) pointed out that China uses a consensus or

compromise strategy, a different communication strategy from that which most other

countries employed, in the short run and collaboration in the long term in dealing with

North Korea nuclear testing problem.

In all, the five cultural value dimensions provide preliminary evidence suggesting

that American and Chinese cultures are polarized. America is a culture of low power

distance, low uncertainty avoidance, and focusing attention on individualism,

masculinity, and using short orientated strategies, while Chinese culture stands on the


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opposite side of American culture. The only common cultural value between America

and China is that both cultures are masculine cultures. With such evidence, it may

doubtlessly say that American and Chinese cultures are tremendously different. With the

development of globalization, however, recent studies present the theory of cultural

polarization may have limitations. Accordingly, part two provides studies suggesting that

America and China are actually linked and interacted by some sets of universal values,

which provide some new insights and allow to have a better understanding of each

culture.

Global Values

With the rapid development of technology, information is being shared without

physical restrictions. Take social networking as an example;Facebookhas had 800

million registered users of which 75% are outside of the United States (Facebook

Statistics, 2011). Communication and interaction are becoming more frequent and easier

betweenFacebookusers from different nations. Hence, it is not hard to conclude that the

world is associated and connected with global media programs and this globalization is

affecting American and Chinese cultures and making them more relative and common.

From an academic perspective, the values of individualism and collectivism no longer

absolutely differentiate American and Chinese culture. Scholars (Moemeka, 1998; Lim,

Kim and J-Kim, 2010) found that both individualism and collectivism scales could not

produce assumptions that East Asian culture is more collective than Western culture, and

that Westerners are more individualistic than East Asians.


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Moemeka (1998) argued that the authenticity of collectivism as the cultural basis

for Africa as well as Asia, and claims both individualistic and communalistic cultures

have their own types of collectivism, suggesting collectivism constitutes an outer layer of

culture derivable both from individualism and communalism. Lim, Kim and J-Kim

(2010) conducted an empirical study which was developed on Moemekas model of

cultural dimensions and revealed that individualism and collectivism both exist in Korean

culture and American culture. Oyserman,Coon, and Kemmelmeiere (2002) found that

Americans, the prototypical individualists, appeared as collectivistic, similar to Japanese

and Koreans societies. These latter groups were no less individualistic than North

Americans. These findings preliminarily prove that individualism and collectivism are

not fully dichotomous.

These studies suggest both cultures have individualism and collectivism, but

revealed in different ways. American and Chinese cultures may not be totally paradoxical

and dichotomous; rather, there are foundational and common values which link two

cultures and build a common ground for Americans and Chinese. Indeed, taking

advantage of the internet and global media programs, the chance of knowing American

and Chinese cultures is becoming even more normal and frequent. In result, the two

polarizing cultures would be easily understood to Americans and Chinese by having

some sharable and universal values in both cultures.

Rokeach (1972) believes that there is a small set of human values that can and

should be shared by most people because they are important to determine ones attitudes

and behaviors. Schwartz (1992) identified 11 motivationally distinct value types that are

likely to be recognized within and across cultures and used to form value priorities.


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Those 11 value types are: self-direction, stimulation, hedonism, achievement, power,

security, conformity, tradition, benevolence, universalism, and spirituality. He further

recognized that this set of value types is relatively comprehensive, encompassing

virtually all the types of values to which individuals attribute at least moderate

importance as criteria of evaluation. Among all the value types, Schwartz (1992)

assembled evidence from 20 countries showing that power, achievement, and tradition

types were universal, as they emerged in all countries. The hedonism, self-direction,

universalism, and security types were found in 95% of countries, and the stimulation,

benevolence, and conformity types were found in 90% of the countries (p. 38).

Accordingly, the studies of Schwartz (1992) and other scholars have preliminarily

proved that values can be shared across countries and cultures. The following eleven

values, as Table 2.2 presented, is developed from Hofestede (2001) and Schwartz s

(1992) studies, pointing out commonalities between American and Chinese cultures.

Table 2.2. Eleven American and Chinese cultural values

Categories Values Definitions References

PowerDistance

Equality A guarantee to eachindividual of precisely thesame share of an essential

resource, such as food.

Burrell, J. 2010.Evaluating Shared

Access: Social equalityand the circulation ofmobile phones in rural

Uganda. Journal ofComputer-Mediated

Communication 15 (2010)230-250

Individualismand

Collectivism

Individualism A social pattern that consistof loosely link individualswho view themselves as

independent of collectives

Triandis, H. C. (1995).Individualism and

Collectivism. Boulder,CO; Westview.


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Collectivism A social pattern consisting ofclosely linked individualswho view themselves as

parts of one or morecollectives (family, co-

workers, tribe, nation

Triandis, H. C. (1995).Individualism and

Collectivism. Boulder,CO; Westview.

Masculinityand

Femininity

Achievement Reach the summit, win therace

Vendler, Z. (1957). Verbsand times, PhilosophicalReview , 66 : 143-160

Competition The effort of two or moreparties acting independently

to secure the business of athird party by offering the

most favorable terms

Merriam-Webster Onlinedictionary

UncertaintyAvoidance

Creativity Uniqueness and imagination Schwartz, S.H (1992).Universals in the content

and structure of values:Theoretical advances and

empirical tests in 20countries. Advances inExperimental Social

Psychology

Transparency Openness, letting people seethe process creation of those

products

Allen, D, S., (2008). TheTrouble withtransparency:

The challenge of doingjournalism ethics in a

surveillance society.Journalism Studies, Vol.9,

No 3.

Long-term andShort-termorientation

Pleasure/Enjoyment

A judgment for which theunderlying dimensionrepresents degrees of

preference.

Parducci, A., (1995).Happiness, Pleasure, and

Judgment: The ContextualTheory and Its

Applications.Psychology Press.

Spirituality Fantasy Something imaginary, notgrounded in reality

Bormann, E.g. (1985).The force of fantasy:

Restoring the American

dream. Carbondale,Illinois: Southern Illinois

University Press

Morality/Ethnic To coexist with others, showrespect for them as part of

Pasquali, A. (1997) TheMoral Dimension of


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ones life, and give ananthropological dimension to

one of the supremecategories of understanding-

relation

Communicating,Communication Ethnicsand Universal Values,

Sage Publications

Universality Globalization The widening, deepeningand speeding up of

worldwideinterconnectedness, in allaspects of contemporary

social life, from the culturalto the criminal, the financial

to the spiritual

Held, D., McGrew, A.,Goldblatt, D., & Perraton,

J. (1999). Globaltransformations: politics,economics, and culture.Cambridge, UK: Polity

Press.

The value of equality is reflected in the concept of power distance. Hofstede

(2011) stated that culture sets the level of power distance at which the tendency of the

powerful to maintain or increase power distances and the tendency of the less powerful to

reduce them will find their equilibrium (p.83-84). In a low power distance culture, people

tend to view others as friends and equality is emphasized, whereas in high power distance

culture, inequalities amongst people are acceptable and relationships may be considered

one of the most important social matters.

As Moemeka (1998) presented, individualistic and collectivistic values exist in

different manners in most cultures. Accordingly, American and Chinese cultures are not

extremely individualistic or collectivistic; instead, both cultures have realized the value of

independence and collaboration. For instance, American education attaches importance to

collaborative work. Teachers require students to work together in order to compete at

various projects. The Chinese educational system, on the other hand, focused on

independence. More often, students are required to complete homework assessments

individually so that teachers can exam if they understand the knowledge.


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Masculinity and Femininity highlights two individual values: achievement and

competition. In high masculine culture, society and ones social value will be decided by

achievement and competition. Children are expected to be the best in school, and

therefore, classrooms become sports arenas. In this category, America and China have

scored closed numbers 62 and 66 representatively which illustrate America and China

competition and achievements are attentive in both countries.

The uncertainty avoidance category has contained two values: creativity and

transparency. In American and Chinese societies, people are more willing to accept

advice and try something new and different. Simultaneously, transparency promotes

creativity. A high transparent environment must be provided so that more people can

share ideas and eventually make innovative products.

The long-term and short-term orientations, from some extent, determine ones

pleasure and happiness. Materialism is one of the most importance values for American

culture. McEdwards (1971) explained well-being means that more Americans can buy

more bathtubs, refrigerators, and autos than ever before (p. 175), Nowadays, Americans

are reassured of their good life only if they have the financial ability to buy tablets such

as iPad or smart phones such as iPhone 4s for various purposes. The internet and

advanced technology provide a comfortable environment, which entertains people and

provides a better condition for living in American society. Similarly, although Chinese is

a short-term orientated culture, Chinese people desire pleasure more than anything else.

With the economic development, Chinese people are becoming richer. Their increasing

financial ability allows them to buy nice cars and big houses.


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Fantasy and morality are two values that are derived from spirituality. Every

culture has fantasy, which possibly can be shared by group of people. Bormann (1985)

once said that when a group of people have a shared fantasy theme, they have charged

their emotional and memory banks with meanings and emotions that can be set off by a

commonly agreed upon cryptic symbolic cue (p.6). In American and Chinese society,

having a supernatural power is becoming a common fantasy, as reflected in magical films

and Kung Fu movies. Likewise, morality sets certain rules for restricting human

behaviors in ways that society can accept. For instance, plagiarism is considered immoral

in both American and Chinese cultures. Students face different penalizations depending

on various situations and school regulations.

The last value is globalization, which has been commonly realized by most people

and countries. Several researchers noticed that (Appadurai, 1990; Featherstone, 1990;

Marvin M. Kraidy, 1999; Marwan M. Kraidy, 2005; Tomlinson, 2000) the theory of

cultural globalization assumes that the hybrid culture has the power to challenge and

break the dominant culture of national states and that hybrid culture is richer, and more

resistant, democratic, diverse, and heterogeneous than cultures of national states (as cited

in Wang, 2005). Indeed, cultural globalization helps learn from others strong points to

offset weakness. Some major fields such as economy and education found that

interactions between America and China brought benefits. Accordingly, Americans and

Chinese are having a better and deeper understanding of each culture through these

positive interactivities.

Summary


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Throughout all the literature reviews, cultural differences between American and

Chinese cultures are tremendous and conspicuous. The five major cultural value

perspectives: power distance, individualism and collectivism, uncertainty avoidance,

masculinity and femininity, and finally, long-term and short-term orientation, explicitly

explain that both countries have established their own unique histories, traditions, and

value systems.

Although some scholars have provided strong evidences of supporting cultural

differences between America and China, others believe that nations could have similar

values and establish commonalities. In this study, eleven values: equality, individualism,

collectivism, achievement, competition, creativity, transparency, pleasure, fantasy,

morality, globalization represent core values for both American and Chinese cultures and

preliminarily presented the some limitations of cultural polarizations. To prove the shared

values of American and Chinese cultures, chapter three outlines the methods that are used

in this study.


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Chapter Three: Methods

Although the U.S and China are two remarkable countries preserving unique

cultures and cultural values, global media programming and the internet have brought

people and cultures closer than ever before. The new generations of American and

Chinese are growing and relying on the Internet. They make new friends on social

networks and learn cultures through computers and television programs. Global

entertainment programming provides easy access for Chinese and Americans to exchange

cultural values. In this process of creating global audience, the concepts of culture and

cultural values have been dramatically changed and new cultural values are emerging in

American and Chinese cultures.

With internet and global media programming, Americans and Chinese find more

and more common ground. The relationships between the two countries are becoming

more interactive. From a geographical perspective, the areas of China and the U.S. are

literally the same. The U.S. has 379 million square miles and China has 370 million

square miles. From an economic perspective, both countries are relying and depending on

each other. The New York Times reports the American trade deficit with China grew to

$29 billion, its largest level ever (Brustein, 2011). Meanwhile, the US-China Business

Council (2010) published that United States is the top export destination and top trade

partner for China. From a historical perspective, America and China are both young.


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Campbell has argued that criticism is epideictic in the end and deliberative and

forensic in means (p. 4-13). That is, the intent, objective, and purpose of criticism

is to praise/dispraise, judge, or evaluate (Jasinski, 1992, p. 198).

The concept of criticism not only extends the meaning of experience, but reflects

symbolic and cognitive systems. Chesebro and Bertelsen (1996) further elaborated the

concept of criticism:

Criticism is a practice, but it also constitutes a body of guidelines, techniques, and

applied illustrations that can be used to analyze communication technologies as

symbolic and cognitive systems (p. 58).

Although critics purposively describe, interpret, and evaluate their activities,

Broke and Scott (1980) noticed that the function of the critic is to indicate, point out, and

draw the attention of others to the phenomenon.

With more or less awareness of the implications of his activity, the critic endows

with meaning the phenomenon to which he attendsIn taking responsibility for

his shapings, the critics purpose becomes interpretive. Finally, the critic

judges(p.18)

Chesebro and Bertelsen (1996) further examined examples of critical discourse

and identified 11 key features ofcriticism (p. 61-67).

1. Criticism is a form of extensional discourse.2. Criticism is epideictic.3. Criticism is deliberative.4. Criticism is reason giving.5. Criticism is self-reflexive and ideological.


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6. Criticism is persuasion7. Criticism assesses the effectiveness of the communicative act8. Criticism involves an appreciation of form.9. Criticism constitutes an exploration of the applied and theoretical.10.Criticism is a form of self-exploration and self-expression.11.Criticism is entertainment.Indeed, criticism describes, interprets, evaluates, and eventually extends the

meaning of communicative acts. Critics describe the original communicative acts and

interpret them based on previous experiences and knowledge. In the process of

interpretation, criticism introduces and adds understandings of the experience which

discovers the potential meaning that may not be found without critical analysis. Critics

not only collect information, but judge and evaluate the value of communicative acts. In

this sense, criticism is persuasive. It provides reasons and gives evidences to convince

audience arguments. Towards to the end, criticism extends and applies the values of

communicative acts to reflect cultural significances. Ding (2007) asserts that criticism

assesses the meaning and value of the communicative act to society and to a culture not

just data collection but a critical view provides a statement of meaning and value and

importance to a culture (p. 39). Criticism is relied on critics.

As Chesebro and Bertelsen (1996) argued that criticism is a self-exploration and

self-expression, critics are crucial to judgments and evaluations. A critic must admit who

he/she is. Cultural background and life experience are most important to this study. I was

born and raised in China, speaking Chinese and watching Chinese television programs. I

was taught in China and requested to be modest in behavior and respect authority.


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Meanwhile, I grew up in Shanghai- a city where Western and Eastern cultures are mixed.

Additionally, as one of the Millennials, I grew up with the internet and various digital

technologies which extend my capability of knowing and understanding other cultures.

Since the idea of social networks started disseminating, I have benefited from seven

platforms:Facebook, Twitter, Google+,LinkedIn,Renren,Kaixin, and Weibo

(micoblog). I made friends from numerous countries and learned their cultures through

online communication.

Knowing cultures through the internet might be selective, inaccurate, and

prejudiced. Accordingly, I decided to come to and live in the U.S. Face-to-face

communication is a complement to online interaction. Meeting with new American

friends, joining American cultural traditions, and immersing in American college

education helped me observe a real American culture. Combining my experience gained

from the Internet and real life in the United States, I have obtained a better understanding

of American culture. From the experiences of both cultures, I have generated a strong

sense of feeling that both American and Chinese cultures are becoming similar.

In all, criticism provides better understanding of American and Chinese culture.

Four methods: content analysis, media criticism, analog criticism, and axiological

analysis are employed in this study. Each of the five methods is explained in detail and

described the function of their use throughout the rest of this chapter.

Content analysis

Content analysis is important to this study. It obtains knowledge and finds new

understanding of the two talent shows in two cultures. Krippendorff (2004) defined


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content analysis as a research technique for making replicable and valid inferences from

text (or other meaningful matter) to the content of their useAs a research technique,

content analysis provides new insights, increases a researchs understanding of particular

phenomena, or informs practical actions (p. 18).

The text in Krippendorffs definition refers to other meaningful matter to

indicate that in content analysis works of art, images, maps sounds, signs, symbols, and

even numerical records as data. In this study, content analysis is used to analyze and

compare the formats ofAmericas Got Talentand Chinas Got Talent. The two talent

shows were chosen because they represent the front-runners in the entertainment

industry. Hansen, Cottle, Negrine, and Newbold (1998) further stated:

The purpose of content analysis is to identify and count occurrences of specified

characteristics of dimensions of tests, and through this, to be able to say

something about the messages, images, and representations of such tests and their

wide social significance (p.95).

According to Ding (2007), in cultural study, content analysis is an important

method to be used to examine how the two talent television shows were laid out in front

of the audience in the different culture backgrounds. Ding (2007) continued arguing that

content analysis is employed to compare the details of two talent shows, a procedure

which reveals new insight of two cultures. Therefore, discovering and interpreting the

content acquired fromAmericas Got Talentand Chinas Got Talentprovides a better

understanding of two cultures and an easier approach to find common values. With

obtaining knowledge from content, media criticism provides another new insight from a

technological perspective.


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Media Criticism

Digital technology improves human life. Today, people rely on different media to

exchange information. The Pew Internet & American Life Project(2011) found that one

third of American adults-35%-own smartphones, frequently using them to check emails

or log on social networks. Likewise, computers become daily necessary for the Chinese.

People do various activities on the internet. According to the International Data

Corporation (IDC), the premier global provider of information technology, China has

passed the U.S. in PC shipments in the second quarter of 2011.

Therefore, technology is becoming the center for both Americans and Chinese.

Hence, as a method, media criticism is powerful and important to this study. The subjects

of this study are two television production shows. Employing media criticism greatly

evaluates similarities and differences in terms of interpreting communicative messages.

Scodari and Thorpe (1992) predetermined what media criticism should and should not be:

Simply stated, legitimate media criticism involves the intellectual, subjective

analysis and/or evaluation of media artifacts, policies, technologies, and/or

institutions by disinterested persons who do not stand to personally profit as a

consequence of their specific criticism (p.3).

Chesebro and Bertelsen (1996) argued that media criticism is the product of

consistent application of critical principles to media technologies as communication

systems. They further proclaimed the goal of media criticism:

The goal of the analysis of communication technologies is the explication of

cognitive, behavioral, and motivational dimensions and the consequences of


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communication media in an effort to enhance the quality of human symbol using

(p. 70).

Indeed, viewing the same program through different media platforms alters

individuals cognition, behavior, and motivation. Most audiences watchAmericas Got

Talentand Chinas Got Talenton traditional television sets. With the development of

digital technologies, however, media programming is no longer limited by a single

device. People have multiple access such as computers and mobile devices to watch the

two shows. In this study, media criticism interprets messages and acts which provide new

insights of how media affects ones attitude, behavior, and values.

Meanwhile, Chesebro and Bertelsen (1996) suggested that media criticism

functions in six ways (p. 71-74):

First, media criticism can reveal the subtle and unnoticed complex stimuli

embedded in media experiences.

Second, media criticism can reveal how media systems affect human cognition.

Third, media criticism can reveal the effects of media systems, particularly their

effect on individuals and society.

Fourth, media criticism can alter the communication process by introducing

quality-control components into the media communication system.

Fifth, media criticism can create counterarguments to the messages generated by

media technologies.

Sixth, media criticism can generate individual, rather than social class, reactions

to media experiences, energizing the media user in an attempt to shift him or her from an

inactive to an active role.


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Through the six functions, media criticism exposes new insights of media

experiences and the influence of value systems. The knowledge gained from media

criticism helps to lead a better understanding of how media systems powerfully alter

individual attitude, cognition, perception, and eventually values. Gathering all knowledge

and insights, analog criticism analyzes and compares the similarities and differences

acquired from content analysis and media criticism.

Analog criticism

Analog criticism, as a method, is used to allow this research to compare the two

talent shows and find similarities and differences of each television show. Rosenfield

(1968) used analog criticism to compare two remarkably similar speeches addressed by

Presidents Richard Nixon and Harry Truman. Rosenfield (1968) stated:

The generic resemblance of the two speeches (both may be classified as mass-

media apologia) invites what may be called analog criticism-comparing the

speeches in such ways that each address serves as a reference standard for the

other (p. 435).

In this study,Americas Got Talentand Chinas Got Talentare classified as talent

shows, belonging to a reality television programming.Americas Got Talentand Chinas

Got Talentserves as a reference standard for each other. Rosenfield (1968) further

addressed the advantages of using analog criticism:

The objective of such a method of comparison and contrast is two-fold: to specify

the fundamental anatomical features which relate the two speeches and to assess

the relative artistic merit of each speech, compared to the other (p. 435).


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In this research, analog criticism allows to recognize both similarities and

differences of each television show. As Rosenfield (1968) suggested: comparison of these

particular speeches is fruitful on several countsSecond, the identification of similar

qualities in the two messages suggests the critic certain constants operating in an

otherwise undefined form (p. 435). Thus, employing analog criticism greatly helps to

generate a better understanding of similarities and differences of American and Chinese

cultural values.

Axiological analysis

Last but not least, this study is so grounded on American and Chinese cultural

values. The essential question of this study is if American and Chinese cultures have had

commonalties, regarding to cultural values. As Chesebro (1973) explained:

Each cultural system can be viewed as a distinct rhetorical genre; an axiological

analysis of each genre would now allow us to identify the competing sets of value

judgments. (p. 15).

Chesebro (1973) further argued that in order to distinguish the value orientation of

each culture, rhetorical critics traditionally examine discourse from an axiological

perspective, which allows the rhetorician to identify, as Redding and Steele put it, those

values which function as premises for persuasion. Hence, an axiological analysis would

help to find out cultural values of each country.

Meanwhile, Angeles (1981, p. 4) argues that the study of aesthetics might include

the "analysis of the values" in terms of "our experience of and judgments about things

made by humans or found in nature which we call beautiful." Indeed, an aesthetic


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analysis of the values should be well considered in a study of culture. A low level of

aesthetic value was one of the major reasons that Super Girlwas terminated. According

to Liu Zhongde, a standing committee member of the National Committee of the Chinese

Peoples Political Consultative Conference, claimed that contestants dressed "in vulgar

fashion" that was socially "harmful", especially to young people's "aesthetic values". He

further found "a vulgar trend" among candidates in the recent years "Many young people

tried to appeal to the audience by making fools of themselves. Their behavior not only

sullied themselves, but also degraded art". Chinas Got Talent, on the other hand,

provides a cultural instruction by presenting noble values through the show. In this

analysis, however, a strict view of axiology is employed here as defined by Angeles

(1981) as "The analysis of values to determine their meaning, characteristics, origins,

types, criteria, and epistemological status (p. 22).

This research treatsAmericas Got Talentand Chinas Got Talentas two cultural

icons, representatively reflected American and Chinese cultural values. Both countries

produce the shows by carrying out cultural values. Thus, employing axiological analysis

is particularly important, as it takes a more critical perspective to explaining and

identifying two cultures by values.

Summary

This study employs an eclectic approach to answering the five questions posed in

the chapter one: Is the concept ofvalue changing? Is this change international? Are

digital technologies and systems, such as the internet, fostering these transformations

throughout the world? Does global popular culture generate some sets of universal values


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at least in television industry? Can Americans and Chinese share similar cultural values?

This type of approach allows for the use of a combination of four distinct methods:

content analysis, media criticism, analog criticism, and axiological analysis. Content

analysis is used to scientifically find new insights in two talent shows and examine

cultural values through it. Media criticism allows discovering the change of American

and Chinese cultural values from a technological perspective. Analog criticism helps to

recognize the similarities and differences of the two shows. Finally, axiological analysis

reveals the American and Chinese cultural values, reflected in Americas Got Talentand

Chinas Got Talent. Chapter four presents findings ofAmericas Got Talentand Chinas

Got Talent.


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Chapter Four: Findings

This chapter presents findings to answer the five research questions presented in

chapter two. Based on an eclectic approach that links four research methods, this chapter

presents the idea of emerging global popular culture and common cultural values

grounded in American and Chinese societies. This research begins by examining the

findings from an axiological content analysis ofAmericas Got talentand Chinas Got

talent. Throughout the axiological content analysis, it is initially noticed that the two

talent shows are literately the same, as they both belong to same series of reality

competition television shows and have the same production formats. Moreover, it

explores American and Chinese cultural values r

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