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World War I
Chapter 28
04/20/23 1
The Seeds of WarSection 1
• What were the main causes of WW 1?– Competition for resources and territories– Nationalism– Militarism– Alliances
04/20/23 2
Terms to Define
• Militarism: glorification of war and the military
• Conscription: compulsory (mandatory) call up of civilians for military service
• Alliance System: defense agreements among nations
• Entente: friendly understanding between two nations
04/20/23 3
People to Know
• Otto von Bismarck– First Chancellor of the
German Empire– Crafty statesman
04/20/23 4
Otto von Bismarck
Places to Locate
• Morocco
• Alsace-Lorraine
• Bosnia-Herzegovina
04/20/23 5
Section Theme
• Cooperation: European powers form a series of alliances before World War I
04/20/23 6
French Prime Minister Briand
Overview
• In the summer of 1914, assassination sparked the beginning of WWI
• Competition for resources
• Nationalism• Militarism• Alliances
04/20/23 7
European Countries in the War
04/20/23 8
Overview
• WW I was known as the Great War and “the war to end all wars”
• WW I brought significant changes
• Empires toppled and European dominance of the world shaken
04/20/23 9
Funeral of Archduke Ferdinand
European Rivalries
• Since the mid-1800s industrialization and expansion led to intense competition among the countries of Europe– Each sought what was
best for growth
04/20/23 10
European Rivalries
• During the 1800s, Great Britain, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Italy all sought to acquire new markets and to establish and expand global empires
04/20/23 11
European Rivalries
• Competition turned to hostility as one power crossed another in its efforts to accomplish its goals– Britain wanted to maintain its lifelines to its empire
and ensure no other nation would threaten it– France wanted to add minerals to its economy by
acquiring Morocco
04/20/23 12
European Rivalries
• Competition…– Germany had “eyes’ on the Ottoman Empire– Austria-Hungary wanted land in the Balkans– Russia wanted control of Dardanelles near the black
sea and more influence over Manchuria
04/20/23 13
Nationalism
• Growing spirit of nationalism brought tensions– Germany had united– France wanted Alsace-Lorraine back, lost after
Franco-Prussian War– In Austria-Hungary, Slavic nationalists were attracted
to Pan-Slavism (Slavs needed to develop their culture and become a nation)
• New nation would be carved out of current Austria-Hungary• Neighboring Serbs supported the Slavs in their efforts
04/20/23 14
Slavic Nationalism
• Austria-Hungary was alarmed by Serbian activities in the Balkans and was concerned that a Yugoslav state would harm the security of the empire
• In 1908 Austria-Hungary annexed the Slavic territories of Bosnia-Herzegovina (east of Serbia), once of the Ottoman Empire
04/20/23 15
Slavic Nationalism
• The Serbs were threatened by the Austria-Hungary move into Bosnia-Herzegovina– Serbs called on the Russian for help
(historically their ally)– Russia turned away Serb calls for help
• Russia made secret deal with Austria-Hungary that its war ships could have access to the Dardanelles
• Russia still weak from war with Japan
04/20/23 16
Slavic Nationalism
• Russia turned away Serbia (more)– Russia agreed Austria-Hungary could have
Bosnia-Herzegovina– Russia persuaded Serbs to retrain
themselves– Russia discovered Austria-Hungary made its
move before the final deal could get done• Russia was very angry it had been “duped”
04/20/23 17
Balkan Wars
• The first Balkan War further inflamed the Serbs (1912)– Serbia wanted Albania
as a warm water outlet to the sea
– Serbia was not awarded Albania after the war—resentment grew
04/20/23 18
Balkan Wars
• Second Balkan War, Albania made independent…more frustration for the Serbs– Russia not able to
support the Serbs in either war…Russians were humiliated
• Austria-Hungary worried about its future role in Europe
04/20/23 19
Militarism
• European powers spent much time assessing each other’s military strength. Diplomats maneuvered to win new allies, military leaders argued for increased spending, and all nations but Britain adopted conscription
• With tensions rising, so did militarism, the glorification of war and the military; very much associated with setting state policies
04/20/23 20
Militarism
• Each nation believed that its national security depended entirely on new technology and military readiness
04/20/23 21
Heavy field gun
Militarism
• Each nation’s actions caused a reaction in the other nations– Germans expand their navy– Britain felt threatened as an island nation
04/20/23 22
Alliances
• Along with militarism came a hardening of alliance systems – Defense agreements among nations– Otto von Bismarck created the Three
Emperors League to isolate France• Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia• Didn’t last long because of conflict between Russia
and Austria-Hungary in the balkans
04/20/23 23
Alliances
• With the crumbling of the Three Emperors’ League, Bismarck created a new and stronger alliance with Austria-Hungary
04/20/23 24
Otto von Bismarck
Alliances
• In 1882, Italy joined the Austrian-German alliance—now became the Triple Alliance– Italy wanted allies against France– Italy angry about France occupying Tunis in
Africa– Italy concerned that France would aid the
pope with whom they were having a dispute
• All agreed to aid of the other if threatened
04/20/23 25
Alliances
• France and Russia developed friendlier relations and another alliance began to develop– They developed an alliance to aid each other
if attacked by Germany or Austria-Hungary
• France and Great Britain (1904) developed an alliance called the Entente Cordial—not a full fledged alliance (friendly understanding)
04/20/23 26
Alliances
• These agreements developed into the Triple Entente– Loose alliance between France, Russia, and
Great Britain– Great Britain joined because of the perceived
threat to its naval fleet and its empire
04/20/23 27
Alliances
• The establishment of the Triple Alliance: (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and the Triple Entente (Russia, France, and Great Britain) threatened the peace of the continent. A minor conflict now had the potential to involve all major European powers in war
04/20/23 28
Alliances
Triple Alliance
• Germany• Austria-Hungary• Italy
Triple Entente
• Russia • France• Great Britain
04/20/23 29
The Spark
Chapter 28
Section 2
04/20/23 30
Terms to Define
• Ultimatum: a set of final conditions that must be accepted to avoid severe consequences
• Mobilization: the gathering and transport of military troops and fighting equipment in preparation for war
04/20/23 31
People to Meet
• Francis Ferdinand
• Gavrilo Princip
• William II
• Nicholas II
04/20/23 32
Section Theme
• Tensions between the two European alliances erupt into a Europe-wide conflict
04/20/23 33
Austrian dead
Overview
• What series of events provided the spark that ignited World War I?– The assassination of Archduke Francis
Ferdinand– Declarations of war– Mobilization of Austria-Hungary, Russia,
Germany, France, and Britain
04/20/23 34
Overview
• Until 1914, a false optimism prevailed in Europe– Most people didn’t think there would be war– Absence of war for long time lulled people into
thinking there couldn’t be one– Social reforms and scientific discoveries
made people think all was well…other ways to solve problems
– War was “triggered” in the Balkans
04/20/23 35
Trouble in the Balkans
• On June 28, 1914, Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian emperor, and his wife were assassinated in Sarajevo (capital of Bosnia-Herzegovina) by members of a secret Serbian nationalist group
04/20/23 36
Trouble in the Balkans
• Archduke Ferdinand had actually planned on giving more voice to the Slavs
• Voice equal to Austrians and Hungarians
04/20/23 Archduke Ferdinand
Trouble in the Balkans
• Seven assassinations had been placed along the route of their ride in a convertible through the streets– All members of secret Serbia nationalist group
called the Black Hand– The first assassins’ attempt did not work
04/20/23 38
Trouble in the Balkans
• The car made a wrong turn and Gavrilo Princip (gah*VREE*loh*PREEN*seep) shot them
04/20/23 Gavrilo Princip39
German Support
• Although the assassination had not occurred in Serbia, Austria-Hungary held the Serbs responsible. Germany , through Emperor William II, assured Austria-Hungary that it would give its full support to any actions taken against Serbia
• Germany had approved any actions Austria-Hungary wanted to take
04/20/23 40
Declaration of War
• On July 23, Austria-Hungary gave Serbia an ultimatum: to cooperate in an Austro-Hungarian investigation of the assassination or face war. – They were given 48 hours. – Serbian leaders, outraged, rejected demand; Austria-
Hungary responded: declared war on Serbia July 28, 1914
– Both countries issued general orders for mobilization: the gathering of troops and equipment to prepare for war
04/20/23 41
A European War
• Believing falsely the others would back down at the last moment, the major European powers pushed each other to the brink of war
04/20/23 42
Archduke Ferdinand Funeral
A European War
• Russia immediately announce its support for Serbia. On July 30, Czar Nicholas II ordered a general mobilization of his armed forces against both Austria-Hungary and Germany– Russia new it would really lose face with the Slavs if it
backed down again– Russia also had the backing of France
04/20/23 43
A European War
• On July 31, Germany ordered Russia to cancel its mobilization order or face war. After France gave its support to Russia, Germany declared war on both countries
• Britain was undecided for a while and still hoped to use negotiations
• The Germans marched into Luxembourg and demanded passage across Belgium
04/20/23 44
A European War
• Belgium was a neutral country and its neutrality had been guaranteed by an 1839 treaty signed by Great Britain, Russia, France, and Germany– Germany invaded Belgium anyway– The Brits protested the invasion of Belgium– The German Chancellor called the treaty “a
scrap of paper”– The Brits enter the war August 4, 1914
04/20/23 45
A European War
• Most European believed war was a matter of defending their country’s honor or upholding “right against might”
• Few people imagined how long the war would last
• The war seemed to have no clear objective
• The entire world was dragged in
04/20/23 46
The War
Chapter 28
Section 3
04/20/23 47
Section Theme
• Conflict: The European war is transformed into a war that engulfs much of the world; the global conflict directly affects many civilians as well as soldiers
04/20/23 48
Terms to Define
• Belligerent: warring
• Propaganda: ideas or rumors used to harm an opposing cause
• War of attrition: tearing done the other side by constant attacks
• Trench: ditch
• Contraband: prohibited goods
04/20/23 49
People to Meet
• Alfred von Schlieffen
• Helmuth von Moltke
• Joseph Jacques Joffre
• Henri-Philippe Petain
• Winston Churchill
• Woodrow Wilson
04/20/23 50
Places to Locate
• Paris • Tannenberg • Verdun • Gallipoli
04/20/23 51
Overview
• Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria became known as the Central Powers
• Great Britain, France, Russia, Serbia, Belgium, Japan, and Montenegro became known as the Allied Powers (or Allies)
• None of the powers were really ready for what happened
• The Europeans thought the war would be over by Christmas
04/20/23 52
The Schlieffen Plan
• Germany’s invasion of Belgium on August 3 was part of a strategy designed by the German General Alfred von Schlieffen, who believed that the Germans could defeat the French in six weeks and then move on to the Eastern Front and fight against Russian forces– Schlieffen believed the Russians would take
longer to mobilize
04/20/23 53
The Schlieffen Plan
• Germany encountered far more resistance in Belgium than anyone expected; furthermore, Russia mobilized far more quickly that Schlieffen had estimated– The German commander, Helmuth von
Moltke, was surprised by the resistance– Advance was delayed until August 20th
04/20/23 54
The Schieffen Plan
• The German troops were held up further when they met British and French forces in the north of France and in Alsace-Lorraine
04/20/23 55
French shelling of German positions
The Battle of the Marne
• France struggled to recover after their defeat at Alsace-Lorraine– French general Joseph Jacues Joffre pulled
back to Paris to fortify his army’s position– The French counter-attacked and pushed the
Germans back 50 miles (called on French taxis to help move troops)
• This battle was called the Battle of the Marne• The German retreat from the Battle of the Marne
signified the abandonment of the Schlieffen Plan
04/20/23 56
The Battle of the Marne
• The battled signified not only the abandonment of the Schlieffen Plan, but that neither side could win easily
04/20/23 57
A Russian Disaster
• Russia sent troops into battle even before fully mobilized– Russia’s speedy invasion of East Prussia
diverted German troops from the attack against the French and British
– At Tannenberg in present day Poland, the Russians suffered a disastrous defeat
• The Russian army was encircled and destroyed
04/20/23 58
Years of Deadlock
• After the Battle of the Marne, the Germans and the Allies began a series of battles
• Each was attempting to reach the North Sea first: known as “the race to the sea” – Reaching there, one could outflank the other
• In November, the war reached a stalemate• To protect themselves in the war of attrition,
soldiers on both sides dug trenches• Through 1915 casualties mounted
04/20/23 59
Years of Deadlock• All the belligerent (warring) nations now
had to adjust their plans– To produce the weapons, food, ammunition,
etc.– Civilians had to enter the war effort—became
a total war– To raise morale, newspapers gave even the
smallest victories big headlines– Governments used propaganda
(ideas/rumors) to harm an opposing cause—to portray the enemy as beastly and inhuman
04/20/23 60
Trench Warfare
• The war turned into a war of attrition– Each side tries to wear down the other
through constant attacks– Trenches spread 500 miles: Switzerland to
North Sea– In the middle: “no man’s land”– Trench warfare: rats, disease, filth, barbed
wire, death
04/20/23 61
Trench Warfare
• At the Battle of Ypes, the Germans introduced poison gas– Yellow-green chlorine gas– Wind carried gas into French trenches
• Blindness, choking, vomiting, torn lungs, death
04/20/23 62
Verdun and the Somme
• In February 1916, the Germans staged a surprise attack against French forces at Verdun– After 6 bloody months, with the French
holding firm, the Germans finally abandoned the attack
– French General Henri-Philippe Petain (pay*TAN) ralled the troops with “they shall not pass”
– Both sides had half a million casualties
04/20/23 63
Verdun and the Somme
• Later, the British, aided by a small French force, launched a similar attack against the Germans in the Somme River Valley north of France– Terrible and inconclusive
• Germans: 500,000 men• British: 400,000• French: 200,000
– French introduce tank: made little difference—too clumsy, slow at the time—generals didn’t know best use for them
04/20/23 64
The Eastern Front
• Less entrenched, more mobile, no advance– Germany and Austria-Hungary made
determined efforts to remove Russia from the war
04/20/23 65
The Eastern Front
• As the least industrialized of the European powers, Russia did not have the resources and skills to fight a modern conflict– Russians forced to give up huge land mass – Russians suffered huge amounts of casualties– Russians promised access to the Dardanelles
04/20/23 66
The Eastern Front
• Inspired by the agreement for the Dardanelles, the Russians rebuilt their army– Their offensive against Austria-Hungary was
very successful• Took many cities• Lost a million men and most of their supplies• Helped the Western front: Germans had to transfer
men and supplies
04/20/23 67
Gallipoli Campaign
• Winston Churchill, Secretary of the British navy asked, “are there not other alternatives than sending our armies to chew barbed wire in Flanders?”– His plan, take Constantinople, cut supplies to
and defeat Austria-Hungary, help Serbia, and defeat the Ottomans
– Bad planning and the reinforced Turks caused the Allies to withdraw
04/20/23 68
On the Seas
• The British had been dominating the seas—stopped ships from carrying contraband (prohibited goods)
• Great Britain’s blockade of all ports under German control was very effective– Germans calling it “the hunger blockade”– Old saying: “All is fair in love and war”
04/20/23 69
On the Seas
• To wear down British sea power, the Germans introduced submarine warfare
• In 1915 the U-boats began to strike civilian and commercial ships, including the British passenger ship, the Lusitania
04/20/23 70
Submarine Warfare
• Lusitania– About 1200 killed– 128 Americans– Germans argued Lusitania carried weapons– President Woodrow Wilson threatened to
stop diplomatic relations with Germany• Germans responded by ending unrestricted
submarine warfare
04/20/23 71
United States Enters War
• Until this point, Americans were divided about whether the United States should enter the war– Many Irish were anti-British– Many German Americans sided with the
Germans– Others: Brits, Scots, etc., sided with the Allies
• Most Americans believed President Wilson: this was a European conflict
04/20/23 72
United States Enters War
• Germans did not want America to enter the war– But they announced they would sink
merchants ships going to Western or British ports
• Wilson broke diplomatic relations
04/20/23 73
United States Enters War
• The Zimmerman telegram– German foreign minister Arthur Zimmermann
sent telegram to Mexico: Germany would help Mexico regain New Mexico, Texas, and Arizona after a German victory
– Zimmerman proposed Mexico talk to Japan about joining Central Powers alliance
04/20/23 74
United States Enters War
• Zimmermann telegram…more– The British government had intercepted
the telegram and passed it to the American government
– The American newspapers printed the message
– The message heightened the anti-German attitudes in the U.S.
04/20/23 75
United States Enters War
• After German ships sink four American merchants ships, President Wilson asks Congress for a declaration of war and calls upon Americans to help “make the world safe for democracy” American financial aid and military intervention led to an eventual Allied victory
04/20/23 76
The Russian Revolution
Chapter 28
Section 4
04/20/23 77
Read to Find Out
• Main idea: A series of key events led to the Russian Revolution
• Terms to Define: provisional government, communism
• People to Meet: Nicholas II, grigori Rasputin, Alexander Kerensky, Vladimir Ilyinch Lenin, Leon Trotsky
• Places to locate: Petrograd, Siberia, Poland, Ukraine
04/20/23 78
Overview
• Russia devastated by war
• Over one fourth of the soldiers had to pick up weapons of the dead enemy to fight
• Resources went to supply the army
• The situation helped topple the autocratic czar and bring in Communism
04/20/23 79
Fall of the Czar
• Czar Nicholas II and his wife already not popular– Bad policies– Reliance on mystic healer, Grigori Rasputin– Two relatives of the czar assisted in killing
Rasputin in December, 1916– Public anger mounted as a result of shortages – Protesters in Petrogad demanded food and
an end to the war
04/20/23 80
Fall of the Czar
• Ordered to put down the riots, troops fail to fire on protesters– Many troops joined the rebellion
• With the country slipping into chaos, the czar finally abdicated on March 15
• The Mrch revolution cost feww lives and took place without the leadership of it revolutionary intellectuals
04/20/23 81
The Provisional Government
• After taking power, the middle-class provisional government soon had a socialist rival for power, the Petrograd Soviet. The Soviets, led by the Petrograd Soviet, called for immediate peace, the transfer of land to peasants, and the control of factories by workers. As the war went on, the soviet program gained great popularity
04/20/23 82
The Provisional Government
• Middle class government consisted of Duma middle class
• The majority of the Petrograd were Mensheviks—the most radical were the Bolsheviks
• Alexander Kerensky, moderate, moved freely between the two government classes
• The provisional government did not withdraw from the war– It didn’t carry out its promised reforms and lost much
popular support
04/20/23 83
Lenin
• A variety of provisional groups, including the Bolsheviks, vied to fill the power vacuum
• The Mensheviks outnumbered the Bolsheviks, but were not good planners– Believed the masses would create the
revolution, but nothing happened
04/20/23 84
Lenin
• The radical Bolsheviks believed revolution could be introduced by force– They believed a small group of revolutionaries
supported by a small group of peasants could force change
– Lenin urged them to try• Lenin’s brother had been hanged for conspiracy to
kill Alexander II• Lenin dedicated his life to revolution
04/20/23 85
Lenin
• Lenin—more– 1895, government had arrested Lenin and
exiled him to Siberia– After release, he wrote revolutionary articles
from Britain, Germany and Switzerland– Lenin return to Russian to lead the March
1917 revolution• A special train was given him for his travels and
leadership activities
04/20/23 86
Lenin
• Lenin’s slogan was: “peace, land, and bread”
• Promised to withdraw Russian from the war
• Wanted the Soviets to be the only government: ‘all power to the Soviets”
04/20/23 87
The Bolshevik Revolution
• In November 1917,the Bolsheviks overthrew the provisional government in the name of the Soviets: the revolution was largely bloodless– Bolshevik soldiers, sailors and workers took
over the main post office, phone system, power generating plants, and shot a battleships guns at the winter palace of the former czar
04/20/23 88
The Bolshevik Revolution
• Despite the Bolsheviks overthrowing the government, they received votes for only 225 seats in the election for a provisional government—the Social Revolutionaries received 420– By force, the Bolsheviks dissolved the assembly in a
day – Bolsheviks claim power
• End private property, distribute land to peasants, gave workers control of factories and mines
04/20/23 89
The Bolshevik Revolution
• They began calling themselves Communists– Their political viewpoint was based on the
writings of Marx and Lenin, communism– Wanted an international movement to spread
communism around the world
04/20/23 90
Civil War—The Bolsheviks “Bail” in March 1918
• Russia sought peace with Germany by giving up much western territory and a third of it population
• The new Bolshevik government “bails” itself out of the war in March, 1918, and moves toward their international communistic conquests
04/20/23 91
Civil War: Reds and Whites
• During the early months of 1918, Russia also slipped into a civil war between the Communists (the Reds) ad their political opponents (the whites). During the upheaval, the Communists imposed a policy called “war communism” and used terror as a weapon against their opponents– Communist leaders, Leon Trotsky, used force
and education to foster loyalty of communists
04/20/23 92
Civil War: Reds and Whites
• The Whites promised to defeat the Reds and get Russian back into the war– Received support from the Allies, including the United
States– Did not help the Whites and stirred distrust against
the West– Three grim years of revolution
• Whites suffered from lack of unity, were outnumbered, etc. The White armies admitted defeat in 1921—Lenin extended communism throughout the war-ravaged country
04/20/23 93
Peace at Last
Chapter 28
Section 5
04/20/23 94
Read to Find Out
• Ultimately, the Treaty of Versailles was unsuccessful
• Terms to Define: convoy, armistice, reparation, mandate, cordon sanitaire
• People to Meet: T.E. Lawrence, Ferdinand Foch, Woodrow Wilson, georges Clemanceau, Davis Lloyd George, Vittorio Orlando
• Places to Locate: Fiume
04/20/23 95
Overview
• Russia’s withdrawal from the war was offset by the United States entering– Here come “the Yanks”– Boosted Allied morale and provided much
need resources– Took time to build American army, but navy
was immediate help• Admiral William S. Sims introduced the concept of
a convoy—the protection of ships from German U-boats
04/20/23 96
Overview--more
• Convoy—– Clusters of merchant ships were surrounded
by war ships
• Increased use of mines and the airplane change the way the war was fought
04/20/23 97
Peace at Last: Turning the Tide
• Until the Americans arrived, the fighting along the trenches on the Western Front continued without lasting gains on either side
• Both British and Germans were reaching the end of their reserves
04/20/23 98
Turning the Tide: Total War
• The demands of large-scale war required the efficient use of human and natural resources– Governments carried out the principle of total war,
directing all people and resources to the war effort– Governments recruited, drafted, trained, and supplied
large armies– Governments borrowed money, raised taxes, placed
price controls on items, banned strikes, rationed food, and censored the press in an effort to control public opinion and keep morale high
04/20/23 99
Turning the Tide: Total War
• Women play important part in the war– Took men’s placing in factories making
munitions and supplies– Became nurses and joined the armed forces– Work proved the abilities of women– Although many had to leave those jobs after
the war, the point was made– Their contributions boosted self confidence in
the long term, and many countries after the war were ready to grant the woman’s vote
04/20/23 100
Turning the Tide: Global War
• European imperialist nations obtained needed resources from empires
• In Asia and Africa, allied forces won victories that took control of German colonies
• Asians and Africans expecting citizenship for their help were disappointed
04/20/23 101
Turning the Tide: Global War
• Arabs help Allies defeat the Ottoman Turks– Arabs seeking freedom– T.E. Lawrence, British officer, harassed Turks
and provided intelligence information to Allies which led to downfall of Turks
– Unknown to the Arabs, the British and French had made plans in the 1916 Sykes-Picot Agreement to divide the defeated Ottoman Empire among themselves
04/20/23 102
Peace at Last: End of Fighting
• Allied breakthrough comes July 1918– French General Ferdinand Foch stops
German offensive 40 miles from Paris– With American forces now in place, the Allies
launch a counter attack on the Germans and push them back to the German border
– In September, German generals tell the Kaiser the Central Powers can’t win the war
04/20/23 103
Turning the Tide: End of fighting
• The collapse of other Central Powers follows– Ottoman Turks asked for peace after an Allied
drive through the Balkans– Austro-Hungarian military collapses after their
defeat in Northern Italy– Although the German army stood firm, morale
in Germany gave way. On November 11, the Germans signed an armistice (agreement) to end the fighting
04/20/23 104
Effects of the War
• The war shattered aristocratic order and increased social and political instability– Nine million soldiers and thirteen million civilians – Mass deaths or killings of (for example) the
Armenians by the Turks in 1915– Boundaries redrawn in parts of the world
• Armenian soldiers removed from ranks of Turks and deported them to labor camps
• Roped civilians together and sent them into desert • One million Armenians died
04/20/23 105
Restoring the Peace
• The hopes of many Europeans and North Americans focused on United States President Woodrow Wilson and his fourteen points peace plan– Freedom on the high seas and of trade– Self rule for all nations– Establish “general assembly of nations” to
work out problems
04/20/23 106
Restoring the Peace
• Wilson’s 14 points—more– Limitations on arms– An end to all secret alliances– No annexations, no contributions, and no
punitive damages
• Germany believed the 14 points were the basis of peace negotiations—a framework– Great Britain and France had issues with the
proposal
04/20/23 107
Restoring the Peace
• Objections by Great Britain and France– Brits: objected to open high seas– French: Wanted the Germans to pay
reparations—payments for damages
04/20/23 108
Restoring the Peace: The Paris Peace Conference
• In January 1919, delegates of 27 nations met to work out the peace accords: most decisions made by these men – President Wilson– Georges Clemenceau– David Lloyd George– Vittorio Orlando
04/20/23 109
Restoring the Peace: The Paris Peace Conference
• There was a large gap between the idealistic goals of Wilson and the nationalistic goals of the French, British, and Italian leaders. Wilson gave in on key points to ensure acceptance of the League of Nations
04/20/23 110
Restoring the Peace: The Treaty of Versailles
• The Treaty of Versailles spelled out the details of the Allied settlement with Germany– Lloyd George and Clemenceau prevailed in their goal
to punish Germany• Reduced the size of Germany; return Alsace-Lorriane • Reduced the army• Banned conscription and manufacture of major war weapons • France would control the coal rich Saar Basin, while Allies
would occupy the Rhineland
04/20/23 111
Restoring the Peace: The Treaty of Versailles
• Treaty—more– The Allies would establish an independent
Poland out of lands held by Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia
– Stripped Germany of its overseas colonies• Great Britain and France divided the African
colonies• Australia and New Zealand split the Pacific islands
south of equator• Japan took pacific islands north of equator
04/20/23 112
Restoring the Peace: The Treaty of Versailles
• Treaty—more– France and Great Britain wanted Germany to
accept full responsibility for the war• Pay full reparations
– The Allies signed the agreement on June 28, 1919
• Only four of Wilson’s points were in tact: the most important was the Covenant of the League of Nations
04/20/23 113
Restoring the Peace: Other Settlements
• The Allied Powers signed separate peace agreements with Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Turkey with the greatest attention given to territorial matters: New nations emerged in Eastern Europe from the ashes of the old German, Russian, and Austro-Hungarian empires. The Allies regarded these countries as a quarantine line (cordon sanitaire) against potential threats from Russia or Germany. In the Middle East, Great Britain and France divided what was left of the Ottoman empire
04/20/23 114
Restoring the Peace: Other Settlements
• Ottoman Empire divided—– The Arabs did not receive the independence
that Great Britain had promised• Palestine Transjordan and Iraq became British
mandates• Lebanon and Syria became French mandates
04/20/23 115
Bitter Fruits
• A general disillusionment set in after the war: slogans rang hollow– “the war to end all wars”– “To make the world safer for democracy”
• Many people found themselves to be minorities within new nations
• Many thought they would be accepted citizenship in independent nations
• Those defeated were embittered by loss of territory and prestige
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Bitter Fruits
• The Germans felt a deep sense of resentment– The provisions of the treaty left Germany
weakened, humiliated, and deprived of great power status
– Two decades later, this resentment would burst forward in greater resentment
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