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Wetlandcsin

AsiaA booklet to accompany the

Map of Wetlands ofInternational Importance

in Asia

Produced byWetlands International -Asia Pacific

andThe World Bank

CONTENTS

FOREWORD ...

COOPERATING AGENCIES ................................ iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................. v

INTRODUCTION ................................ 1

What are Wetlands? .1

WETLANDS IN ASIA . . 3

Geographical and Cultural Diversity .3The Biodiversity of Wetlands .3The Decline of Biodiversity .5Wetland Protected Areas .7Frameworksfor Biodiversity Conservation of Wetlands .8

ACCOUNTS OF THE SUB-REGIONS OF ASIA .11

Middle East .12North and Central Asia .15East Asia .17South Asia .22South East Asia .27

ACTION PROGRAM FOR THE CONSERVATION OF

WETLANDS IN ASIA .31

The Kuala Lumpur Statement .31Action Program .32Actions by Government Agencies .32Actions by Development Assistance Agencies .34Actions by Non-Governmental Organisations .35

BIBLIOGRAPHY .. 36

The World Bank i

Wetlands in Asia

TABLES

1 - Major Threats to Wetlands in Asia ................. ........................................ 5

BOXES

1 - Wetland Benefits ......................................................... 62 - Principal Obligations of Contracting Parties to the Ramsar Convention ................. 73 - Wetlands of Lower Mesopotamia, Iraq ................................ .......................... 134 - Azraq Oasis Conservation Project, Jordan .................................................. ....... 145 - Taymyr Peninsula, Russia ......................................................... 156 - The Aral Sea .......................................................... 167 - Poyang Lake, China ......................................................... 188 - Qinghai Tibetan Plateau, China ......................................................... 199 - Kushiro Marsh, Japan .......................................................... 20

10 - Great Rann of Kachchh (Kutch) ................ 2......................................... 211 - The Ganges Brahmaputra Floodplain ............................. ............................ 2312 - Keoladeo Ghana National Park, India ................................ ......................... 2413 - The Sundarbans .......................................................... 2514 - Mekong Floodplain and Delta .......................................................... 2815 - Tasek Bera, Malaysia ......................................................... 2916 - Danau Sentarum, Indonesia .......................................................... 30

ii Wetlands International - Asia Pacific

FOREWORD

This booklet and the accompanying map represent an initial output of collabora-tion between Wetlands International through its Asia-Pacific operations (formerlyAsian Wetland Bureau) and the Environment Department of the World Bank.

The purpose is to enhance awareness of the importance of, and issues facing wet-land ecosystems inAsia. Wetlands in this region provide goods and services worthbillions of dollars on a potentially sustainable basis and an important source offood for a high proportion of the population of the region.

Wetlands International is dedicated to promoting the wise and sustainable use ofthe wetlands throughout the region and providing technical advice and assistanceto local agencies to further this aim. The World Bank is also firmly committed tothe goal of environmentally sound and sustainable development and recognizesthat wetlands are one of the most important ecosystems for both biodiversity con-servation and human development.

This publication has been produced on the occasion of the 6th Conference of Con-tracting Parties to the Ramsar Convention in Brisbane, Australia in March 1996.We hope it will assist in implementing the objectives of the Convention in its 25thAnniversary Year.

Both the Bank and Wetlands International are happy to hear from any party in theregion needing advice or assistance. We hope that other technical assistance andfunding agencies as well as governments, NGOs and local communities will alljoin the collective effort to conserve and wisely use the wetlands of the region.This is a major challenge given the pace of wetlands loss in Asia.

Faizal Parish Colin ReesExecutive Director Land, Water and Natural Habitats

Wetlands International - Asia Pacific DivisionEnvironment Department

The World Bank

The World Bank iii

COOPERATING AGENCIES

Wetlands International is a not for profit organization governed by a global Board,represented by member countries, international organizations and wetlands spe-cialists. Wetlands International draws together and builds upon the strengths ofits three founding organizations, which date back more than 40 years. WetlandsInternational - Asia Pacific is the regional headquarters and is situated in KualaLumpur, Malaysia. The organization played a pivotal role in the development ofthe Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance and continuesto provide technical support. Other major program activities include assessmentsof wetlands and their resources, research and conservation of migratory waterbirds,support to regional and national action plans for the conservation and wise use ofwetland materials. The mission statement of Wetlands International is "to sustainand restore wetlands, their resources and biodiversity for future generationsthrough research, information exchange and conservation activities worldwide."

The World Bank is a multilateral development institution whose purpose is toassist its developing country members to improve the social and economic wellbeing of their people in concert with the protection of the natural environment.Responding to the concerns of its members, the Bank began to fully integrate en-vironmental concerns into its work in 1987. Today the Bank is carrying out some$3.2 billion in loans and credits in natural resource management projects (whichare guided by its new Water Resources Management, Natural Habitats and Envi-ronmental Assessment policies), including support of wetlands conservation andrehabilitation. Additional support for wetlands is provided through the GlobalEnvironmental Facility, in partnership with the Bank. Currently $27.5 million hasbeen allocated for this purpose under the GEF pilot phase.

iv Wetlands International - Asia Pacific

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The map "Wetlands of International Importance in Asia" and the accompanyingbooklet "Wetlands in Asia", were coordinated and compiled by Ganesh Kumarand John Howes (Wetlands International -Asia Pacific) based on information pro-vided by many individuals involved in research and management of wetlands inAsia. National and regional experts consulted for the choice, position and impor-tance of wetland sites are listed below; to these, the compilers are particularlyindebted.

The high-quality color map was prepared by Jeffrey Lecksell (World Bank) withthe primary digitizing of all the sites done by Sivaji Paremeswary and RichardDorall, GIS Laboratory, Institute of Advanced Studies, University of Malaya. TonyWhitten offered comments, Tomoko Hirata designed the cover, Jim Cantrelldesktopped the production and Clare Fleming provided advice on editing andprinting. Mitos Benedicto, Kuldip Kumar, Sumalita Keris and Daljit Kaur assistedwith the typing. The entire exercise was overseen by Faizal Parish and MuraleeMenon (Wetlands International-Asia Pacific) and Colin Rees (Environment De-partment, World Bank).

Anna-Marie Bernhard, IUCN, SwitzerlandBishnu Bhandari, World Conservation Union, NepalGordon Claridge, Consultant, AustraliaJon Davies, University Brunei Darussalam, Brunei, DarussalamRebecca D'Cruz, Wetlands International-Asia PacificStephen Floss, Prince of Songhla University, ThailandWim Giesen, Wetlands International-Asia PacificBrij Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru University, IndiaRoss Hughes, International Institute for Environment Development (IIED),

United KingdomRoger Jaensch, Wetlands International-Oceania ProgrammeAbedullah Jan, Ministry of Environment, Urban AffairsUmeed Khalid, Ministry of Environment, Urban Affairs Forestry and Wildlife,

PakistanSatoshi Kobayashi, Technical Officer, Ramsar BureauMaurice Kottelat, Consultant, SwitzerlandVitaly G. Krivenko, Research Institute of Nature Conservation, RussiaManokaran, FRIM, Malaysia

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Wetlands in Asia

Taej Mundkur, Wetlands International-Asia Pacific (WI-AP)Bernard O'Callaghan, Wetlands International-Asia PacificMike Ounstead, Wetlands International-IndonesiaNarendra M.B. Pradhan, Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conserva-

tion, NepalCrawford Prentice, Wetlands International-Europe, Africa and the Middle EastMarcel Silvius, Wetlands International-Asia PacificBeotriz Silvo, Ecological Sciences Department, UNESCO, FranceNyoman Suryadiputra, Wetlands International-IndonesiaEugeny E. Syroechkovski, Jr., RussiaVesna Vujinic, UNESCO, France

vi Wetlands International - Asia Pacific

INTRODUCTION

This booklet accompanies a map-Wet- mense, for unless decisive steps arelands of International Importance in taken to counter the effects of naturalAsia-and provides an overview of in- resource destruction, the Asia region isternationally important wetland sites, expected to lose a higher proportion ofincluding brief coverage of their biodi- its species than any other part of theversity, threats to their survival and ex- world. Meeting this challenge success-isting frameworks for their conserva- fully will depend upon the strength oftion. The status of wetlands in the five partnerships forged and commitment tosub-regions (Middle East, North and conserving wetland biodiversity for theCentral Asia, East Asia, South Asia and benefit of global, national and local com-Southeast Asia) is briefly described and munities.some of the important sites and ex-amples of wetland uses are highlighted. What are Wetlands?The booklet concludes with a suggested Wetlands are very diverse ecosystemsAction Program for the Conservation of and mean different things to manyWetlands inAsia and highlights options and Pean therest thinito isfor action by government agencies, people. Perhaps the best definition isthat used by the Convention on Wet-development assistance agencies and lands of International Importance Espe-NGOs. Details on Ramsar and World ciHeritage sites, Biosphere Reserve and alya aefw aia,cmolHeritage sites, Bios r R v ad .known as the Ramsar Convention. Thismajor wetlands indicated on the map states that wetlands are:may be found in directories of wetlandsof international importance (IUCN,1987; Scott, 1989; Scott and Poole, 1989; "areas of marsh,fen, pea tland or1987d Scott, 19895). Scott and Poole, 1989 water, whether natural or artificial,and Scott, 1995). permanent or temporary, with

It is hoped that this exercise will water that is static orflowing,help promote the implementation of the fresh, brackish or salt, includingRamsar Convention on Wetlands of In- areas of marine water, the depth ofternational Importance in the Asia re- which at low tide does not exceedgion through the formulation of prior- six metres"ity regional and national projects andthe identification of investment oppor- This definition is very broad andtunities which contribute to the main- includes: coastal zone ecosystems suchtenance of wetland biodiversity and as coral reef flats, seagrass beds, inter-sustainable use. The challenge is im- tidal mud- and sandflats, mangrove for-

The World Bank 1

Wetlands in Asia

ests, estuaries and rivermouths; and, (Great Barrier Reef Marine ParkAuthor-freshwater habitats such as rapids, ity, The World Bank and IUCN, 1995).marshes, swamp forests, floodplain There is an increasing appreciationlakes as well as saline marshes and salt that wetlands as traditionally under-lakes. For the purposes of this exercise, stood have not always covered impor-coral reefs and other exclusively marine tant areas of freshwater biodiversitysystems have been excluded; they have where there is no special waterfowl inter-been effectively covered under the re- est The balance is being redressed in Asiacent publication A Global Representa- through an Asia-wide assessment of fresh-tive System of Marine Protected Areas water biodiversity (Kottelat, in press).

2 Wetlands International - Asia Pacific

VVETLANDS IN ASIA

Geographical and Cultural land area. Such high population densityDiversity has led to increasing dependence on

wetlands and to heavy pressure on theseAsia is the largest continent covering systems. Many major civilisations havenearly 30% of the world's land area. It evolved in the river valleys and wet-encompasses several major bio-zoogeo- lands. The Tigris-Euphrates Valley ingraphical zones, including the wet and Iraq is the legendary site of the Gardenhumid tropics, the northern tundras, the of Eden, and the lower Mekong flood-Himalayan range and the arid deserts plain was the centre of the powerfulof central Asia. Asia is also unique be- Khymer Kingdom some 2500 yearscause it is fringed by more than 20,000 ago. Modern civilisations throughoutislands, mostly in the South-East Asian Asia, particularly in China and India,archipelagos of Indonesia and the Phil- were also founded and remain depen-ippines. dent on fertile floodplains to support an

Many of the world's great rivers agrarian culture based on rice and fishhave their headwaters in Asia's back- production. Today it is estimated thatbone of mountain ranges. To the north more than 2 billion people in Asia de-flow the Ob, Irtysh, Yenisei and Lena; pend on wetland crops and fish as theirto the east, the Amur, Yellow and main staple and protein sources; inYangtze; and to the south, the Tigris, many places human densities reachEuphrates, Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, 2,000+ people per square km in the rich-Irrawaddy and Mekong. Asia also in- est rice growing areas. Only in the rela-cludes the world's largest inland body tively remote areas of North and Eastof water, the Caspian Sea; its deepest Asia, such as parts of Mongolia, Chinalake, Lake Baikal; its largest delta and and Russia, do wetlands remain rela-wettest and most flood prone area, the tively unused or undisturbed by man.combined Ganges, Brahmaputra andMeghna River deltas; and the most ex- The Biodiversity of Wetlandstensive mangrove forest in theSundarbans of India and Bangladesh. Wetlands are among the most complexNot surprisingly such geography has ecosystems in the world; they also haveproduced enormous biological and cul- high biological diversity. Only about 6%tural diversity throughout the conti- of the earth's surface is covered by wet-nent. lands but they provide habitats for about

Asia houses over 60% of the 20%ofknownspecies,anditisbelievedthatworld's population in only 14% of its a large number remain undescribed.

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Wetlands in Asia

Asia is a global center of diversity been recorded whilst in the waters infor a number of habitats and species and around them more than 230 speciesgroups. For example, Asia is recognised of freshwater fish have been identified.as the global centre for mangrove diver- There are some 830,000 km2 of peatsity and evolution. The region has over bogs and swamps in the Former So-60 species of true mangroves compared viet Union and about 900,000 km2 ofwith 7 to 12 in tropical Africa and the marshy ground subject to seasonalAmericas. Malaysian and Indonesian flooding. In the Middle East, the mostmangrove forests are considered the extensive wetlands occur in Iraq, whereworld's most diverse with over 200 the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers createplant species associated with these eco- a vast complex of shallow lakes andsystems. Apart from mangrove biodi- marshes.

Wetlands containenormous biodiver-sity. Peat swampforests have manyspecialised andendemic species, thefish Betta livida isfound in the NorthSelangor Peat SwampForest, Malaysia.

versity, Asia has the most diverse coral Asian wetlands are also importantreefs in terms of numbers of reef build- habitats for many other animals includ-ing species and reef fish species, as well ing exceptional species of fish, amphib-as the most biologically diverse sea ians, reptiles, mammals and birds. Forgrass communities. example, the only species of freshwater

In South-EastAsia, freshwater eco- seal in the world, the Baikal Seal (Phocasystems such as rivers, lakes and swamp sibirica) is endemic to Lake Baikal, Rus-forests are among the largest and best sia; the Chinese River Dolphin (Lipotesdeveloped in the world, but are also bo- vexillifer) is found only in the river sys-tanically very diverse with a high de- tems of eastern China, in peninsulargree of species diversity. Peat swamp Malaysia, Hairy-nosed Otter (Lutraforests in South-East Asia cover nearly sumatrana) may now be restricted to30 million hectares compared to only peat swamp forests; half the 60 fish spe-one million hectares in Amazonia. In cies, as well as 10 shrimps, three crabssome swamp forests more than 150 tree and a snake, known from the Malilispecies per one-tenth of a hectare have Lakes, Sulawesi, are endemic; and many


Introduction

species of migratory and resident ture, industry, energy and human settle-waterbirds are confined to wetland ment (Table 1). Other reasons for losshabitats for various stages of their life- include the overexploitation of plantshistories. and animals, invasion by introduced

Although wetlands have high fish, species, air and water pollution, and themammal and bird biodiversity, their prospect of climate change. Ultimately,true biodiversity significance can be however, the current threat to biodiver-measured by their importance for inver- sity results from a complex variety oftebrates. This is because many inverte- underlying social, economic, political,brate phyla are either aquatic or pre- and cultural forces and trends operat-dominantly aquatic at some stage of ing on local, national, and internationaltheir life history and in many cases the scales. These influences are so complexwetland food chain is dependent on in- that it is probably not an overstatementvertebrate biomass. For instance 60 to refer to them as being "rooted in themolluscs are endemic to the Malili contemporary human condition" (SouleLakes; in Lake Baikal a large percent- 1991). Economic externalities, adverseage of the invertebrate fauna is endemic government policies, human popula-and even in a relatively well studied tion growth, and poverty are among thepart of Asia such as Hong Kong recent most powerful of these influences, andstudies have revelaed that 10% of ma- these factors are themselves stronglyrine invertebrates remain undescribed. interconnected.

More than half of Asia's wetlands

The Decline of Biodiversity have been lost and more than half of themangroves in the Indo-Malayan realm

In Asia, apart from hunting, the most have been cleared, many for conversionimportant direct cause of biodiversity to aquaculture ponds (Scott 1989, andloss in wetlands is habitat destruction Scott and Poole, 1989). About 80% offrom draining and filling, destroying the remaining wetlands are in sevencoastal areas for development, and con- countries: Bangladesh, China, India, In-verting natural ecosystems for agricul- donesia, Myanmar, Papua New Guinea,

Table 1Major Threats to Wetlands in Asia

IncidenceThreat (% of sites)Hunting and associated disturbance 32Human settlement/encroachment 27Drainage for agriculture 23

i Pollution 20Fishing and associated disturbance 19Commercial logging/forestry 17Wood cutting for domestic use 16Degradation of watershed/soil erosion/siltation 15Conversion to aquaculture ponds or salt pans 11Diversion of water supply 9Overgrazing by domestic stock 9

Source: Scott, D.A. and Poole, C.M. 1989.

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Wetlands in Asia

............. .................................................. ..... .... .. ................... .......... ..... ..... ........ ............ ............... ......... ..... ................... ..................... . .......... ......... . . ..... ............ .....................................

Box 1Wetland Benefits

In addition to their high biodiversity and cultural significance, wetlands arehighly productive ecosystems that provide important benefits for humansocieties in Asia today, namely:

* Water Supply: Either through direct extraction by people and communi-ties, through groundwater recharge of underground aquifers or by sup-plying other wetlands lower in the catchment.

* Flow Regulation: Through primary flood control where wetlands storefloodwater and release it in a controlled manner.

* Prevention of Saltwater Intrusion: Both through surface and groundwater.* Protection from Natural Forces: Providing a physical barrier to erosive

waves, storm surges and winds along coastal and river banks.* Sediment Traps: Through the deposition of sediments in wetland basins.* Nutrient Traps and Toxicant Removers: Through deposition of sediments

and absorption by vegetation.* Food and Natural Products: In situ examples include food from fish, shell-

fish, turtles, birds, fruit or vegetables; construction materials such as reed,bamboo, palm fronds, wood, thatch and matting, resins, dyes, poisonsand drugs. Ex situ examples include nutrients exported to another site,migratory fish, shrimps, birds and marine mammals.

* Energy: In the form of hydroelectricity, peat, fuel wood, dung, driedplants, etc., and direct power for water mills.

* Water Transport: For moving goods and people.* Gene Banks: For commercial uses and for the maintenance of wildlife

populations.* Recreation and Toursim Benefits: By providing areas of rich biodiversity or

outstanding beauty and resources such as coral reefs, fish and birds forpleasure/pursuit.

* Socio-Cultural Significance: By providing aesthetic landscapes, an asso-ciation with religious and spiritual beliefs and activities, wilderness areasand historical sites.

* Research and Education Benefits: By providing areas for scientific research,type localities and education resources.

* Maintenance of Existing Processes and Systems: Such as a global carbonsink, microclimate stability and prevention of acid sulphate soils.

Many of these benefits are not only essential to local communities but also toindustrial and agricultural processes. It is imperative that wetlands are usedwisely to maintain these benefits.

Source: Davies, Jon and Clairidge, G.F. 1993.

and Viet Nam. Of the wetland sites of with those in Bangladesh, coastal China,international significance, more than Malaysia, the Philippines, and Sri Lankahalf are reported to be under pressure, the most threatened. At least 50 per-


Introduction

cent of all sites are moderately or se- Asia, where Bhutan, Nepal, India, Sriverely threatened in Cambodia, Indone- Lanka, and Pakistan have a significantsia, Lao P.D.R., Myanmar, and Pakistan. proportion of their wetlands underRelatively untouched wetlands are some form of protection. In Southeastfound only in New Guinea, where less Asia only Indonesia has a reasonablethan 20% of the sites are considered at proportion of its wetlands protected.risk. The Asian countries with the least wet-

land protection are Cambodia, Lao

Wetland Protected Areas P.D.R., Mongolia, Myanmar, and VietNam (Scott and Poole 1989).

About half of the wetlands of interna- While the creation of protected ar-tional importance in the Asia region, eas in Asia has been successful to a cer-representing nearly 15 percent of the tain extent, an analysis of the threats tototal wetland area, are included in pro- the sites shows the sole or principletected area networks, although many threat is frequently from an externalcountries in South and East Asia are source beyond the management capac-under-represented. Greater protection ity of the reserve. This has obvious impli-has generally been provided in South cationsfortheirplanningandmanagement.

Box 2Principal Obligations of Contracting Parties

to the Ramsar Convention

1. To designate wetlands for the List of Wetlands of International Importance(Article 2.1), to formulate and implement planning so as to promote conser-vation of listed sites (Article 3.1) and to advise the Bureau of any change intheir ecological character (Article 3.2), to compensate for any loss of wet- iland resources if a listed wetland is deleted or restricted (Article 4.2), to usecriteria for identifying wetlands of international importance and to estab-lish "shadow" lists.

2. To formulate and implement planning so as to promote the wise use of wet-lands (Article 3.1), to make environmental impact assessments before trans-formations of wetlands, and to make national wetland inventories.

3. To establish nature reserves on wetlands and provide adequately for theirwardening (Article 4.1), and through management to increase waterfowlpopulations on appropriate wetlands.

4. To train personnel competent in wetland research, management andwardening (Article 4.5).

5. To promote conservation of wetlands by combining farsighted national poli-cies with coordinated international actions, to consult with other Contract-ing Parties about implementing obligations arising from the Convention,especially about shared wetlands and water systems (Article 5).

6. To promote wetland conservation concerns with development aid agencies.

7. To encourage research and exchange of data (Article 4.3).

Source: Ramsar, 1989.

The World Bank 7

Wetlands in Asia

'yTasek Bera isMalaysia's only

Frameworks fo idivriy1designated Ramsarsite. The lakecontains manyunique habitatssuch as thisPandanus swam p.

Frameworks for Biodiversity 1997-2002 has been prepared. ThroughConservationof Wetlandsthe Plan, the Convention's long-stand-

ing technical work on wetlands is ex-A number of documents and conven- tended and a new catalytic role is es-tions have attempted to provide guid- tablished for development assistanceance on the conservation of wetland re- agencies. By adopting the Plan, thesources and their environmentally Convention's work will become moresound management. Foremost is the closely related to the broader concernsConvention on Wetlands of Interna- of the Convention on Biological Diver-tional Importance Especially as Water- sity and the UN Commission on Sus-fowl Habitat (Ramsar, 1971) (See Box 2). tainable Development.Under this convention contracting par- The Plan defines a number of newties undertake to use all wetland re- directions covering: the inclusion ofsources under their jurisdiction wetlands in national, provincial and lo-sustainably and to designate for conser- cal planning and decision-making (in-vation at least one wetland of interna- volving local communities and the pri-tional importance under criteria pro- vate sector); the crucial importance ofvided by the Convention. By February education and public awareness of wet-1996, the 92 contracting parties had des- land values and functions; the reinforce-ignated 777 sites covering more than 53 ment of the capacity of institutions ofmillion hectares. The Convention pro- each Contracting Party to achieve con-vides a useful instrument at the disposal servation and wise use of wetlands; theof the international community to en- need to include in the Ramsar List moresure environmentally sound manage- sites from under-represented wetlandsment of water resources, especially categories; and the need to ensure thatthose that are shared by two or more the ecological character of listed sites isnations. As the demands and expecta- maintained (or restored if necessary).tions of the Parties to the Convention Effective implementation of the Planhave continued to rise against limited will require full participation of the keyresources, a Strategic Plan for the period institutions in each country concerned


Introduction

with water resources management. conservation bodies and developersOther international agreements with a list of 947 wetland sites having

include the 1973 Convention on Inter- international importance. It also iden-national Trade in Endangered Species of tifies and outlines conservation priori-Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which ties and offers recommendations for im-covers wildlife trade, and the Conven- mediate action. Two companion vol-

umes also cover portions of the Asiation on the Conseration of Migratory region-A Directory of Wetlands in theSpecies of Wild Animals (Bonn, 1979). Mefiddle East (Scott, 1995) and a Direc-

The Directory of Asian Wetlands tory of Wetlands of Russia and the Cen-(Scott, 1989) provides governments, tralAsianRepublic, under eparation.

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ACCOUNTS OF THE SUB-

REGIONS OF ASIA

The Asian continent has been divided Southeast Asia. The condition of wet-into five sub-regions for convenience lands in each sub-region is discussednamely, the Middle East, North and and some of the important sites and ex-Central Asia, East Asia, South Asia and amples of wetland uses are highlighted.

The World Bank 11

Wetlands in Asia

The Middle East consists of thirteen ers, the Tigris and the Euphrates,nations, stretching from Syria and Leba- traverse Iraq from northwest to south-non in the west to Afghanistan in the east, uniting as the Shatt al Arab water-east and the Republic of Yemen in the way shortly before entering the Gulf.south. Much of the area is exceptionally Dam-building in central Iraq has con-arid and as such wetlands have tradi- verted several large saline depressionstionally played an important role in the into huge water-storage basins, the mostdevelopment of human societies. Much important being Lakes Tharthar,of this is due to their value as freshwa- Habbaniya and Rezzaza. In their lowerter, drinking and irrigation water sup- courses, the Tigris and Euphrates cre-ply and for the natural resources they ate a vast complex of shallow lakes andsustain (such as fish, waterbirds and marshes, the Mesopotamian Marshes,reed). However, in recent years, expand- home of the famous "Marsh Arabs."ing human populations and increased Iran also possesses a great diver-pressures on wetland resources for do- sity of wetlands. In the north, there ismestic and industrial uses as well as an almost unbroken chain of freshwa-large scale agricultural irrigation has led ter lakes and marshes, brackish lagoons,to increased pressure. To compound irrigation ponds and rice paddiesthese pressures, oil pollution is a con- stretching along the southern edge oftinuous threat within the coastal waters the Caspian Sea. Lake Orumiyeh is aof the Gulf, both on a major scale (as vast hypersaline lake with spectacularwas witnessed during the Gulf War) and breeding colonies of pelicans and fla-on a smaller scale due to the heavy ship- mingos. Although the lake is too salineping use and oil exploration. to support any plants or animals other

The most extensive wetlands in the than the algae Enteromorpha sp. and theMiddle East occur in Iraq. Two great riv- brine shrimp Artemia sp., the numerous


Accounts of the Sub-Regions of Asia

Box 3Wetlands of Lower Mesopotamia, Iraq

As they near the Gulf, the Tigris and Euphrates rivers create a vast complex ofshallow lakes and marshes. Within the marshes, the principal activities are buf-falo rearing, fishing, hunting, rice cultivation and mat-weaving. Water buffaloprovide milk, butter, yoghurt, meat and dung: for most of the year, they grazein the reed-beds, but in winter they remain tethered on platforms and are fedwith cut reed shoots. Fishing occurs throughout, and accounts for over 60% ofthe inland fish catch in Iraq. Waterfowl hunting is also very important to thelocal economy, with enormous numbers of waterfowl being harvested on a com- |mercial basis each year, and providing a livelihood for many people. Reeds areused in the construction of floating islands for villages and woven to providematerials for house construction, fencing and packaging. Reeds are also har-vested commercially to provide pulp for paper. The elaborate network of riversand canals is used extensively for boat transportation and, until recently, pro_vided the only means of travel between the many settlements in the marshes.Rice is cultivated in shallow wetlands, and some vegetables, especially toma-toes, are grown on artificial islands within the marshes. Reclaimed areas ofmarsh and the adjacent irrigated plains are widely cultivated for millet, rice,wheat, barley, sugar cane and dates.

The diversion of water from the Tigris and Euphrates for irrigation has reducedthe size of wetland habitats. Parts of the marshes have been reclaimed for agri-culture and oil exploration; recent wars have also had adverse affects. As nospecial measures have been taken by the Iraqi government to conserve thesemarshes, their continued survival as one of the finest and most extensive natu-ral wetland ecosystems in Asia is in doubt.

small fresh and brackish water lakes within an internal drainage basin, theyand marshes along the rivers entering are predominantly freshwater. The sys-the lake support abundant aquatic veg- tem is fed by the Helmand River which,etation and are very rich in wildlife. during long periods of drought, sup-

In the very heart of the great plies sufficient water to flood only thedeserts of eastern Iran and western Af- uppermost of the lakes. The only otherghanistan lies a vast complex of fresh- wetlands of note inAfghanistan are twowater lakes and reed beds in the Seistan salt lakes in the eastern highlands,Basin. These wetlands are unusual in Dasht-i Nawar and Ab-i Istada, re-that although the three main lakes, the nowned for their huge colonies ofHamun-e Helmand, the Hamun-e breeding greater flamingosPuzak and the Hamun-e Sabari, lie Phoenicopterus ruber.

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Wetlands in Asia

Box4Azraq Oasis Conservation Project, Jordan

Until recently Azraq Oasis was an exceptional example of an oasis wetland in anarid region. Azraq, with its permanent freshwaters and springs has always beena rich habitat being recognized internationally for its populations of migratorybirds and several indigenous plant and fish species. Traditional activities in-cluded livestock-rearing, reed-cutting, fishing and salt extraction.

However, massive extraction of groundwater for water supply and irrigation,especially since 1982, has resulted in the loss of all spring flow, and the formerextensive spring-fed marshes have almost disappeared. The recently initiatedAzraq Oasis Conservation Project endeavors to halt further degradation of theaquatic ecosystems in the oasis and to restore as much of the wetlands as pos-sible with a view to maintaining the biological diversity of this unique wetlandecosystem. Although in the early stages of restoration, Azraq Oasis has comeback to life and presents a vivid example of the potential for success in restoringoasis wetlands.



A~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ K

w o 4~- -- X

NORTH AND CENTRAL ASIA

North Asia is dominated by the vast along the coast creating myriads of shal-expanses of the Russian tundra, to the low lakes and ponds. Extensive bogs,east of the Ural Mountains. The region dominated by mosses and sedges, oc-also includes Kazakhstan and cur in depressions and on gentle slopesMongolia. The area possesses vast wet- with a permanent supply of water fromlands, including three ofthe world's ten largest _ _ _lakes, the Caspian Sea, the Box 5Aral Sea and Lake Baikal, Taymyr Peninsula, Russiaand three of its longest riv-ers, the Irtysh, Amur and The most extensive tundras in Russian Arctic oc-Lena. cur on the Taymyr Peninsula, most of which is in-

cluded in a nature reserve of over 1.3 million hect-The tundra zone ex- ares. It contains the full range of tundra ecosys-

tends from the High Arctic 1tems from barren Arctic wilderness in the north towildernesses of Severnaya forest-tundras in the south. The dwarf larch for-Zemlya, Novosibirskye ests in the southern part of the reserve are remark-Ostrova and Wrangel Is- able in being the world's most northerly forests,land in the Arctic Ocean while Lake Taymyr is the largest lake in the Rus-south through the tundra sianArctic. Other regions of the Arctic tundra withproper of the Mid-Arctic to important wetland areas include the Yamal Penin-the shrub-tundras and for- sula and Gydan Peninsula in the west; the delta ofest-tundras of the Low Arc- the Lena River and lower basins of the Indigirkatic. Wetlands abound, with and Kolyma River in Yakutia; and the Chaun Ba-spring snowmelt flooding sin, Wrangel Island and coastal zone of Chukchivast expanses of low-lying (Chukotka) Peninsula in the east.land in river valleys and _

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Wetlands in Asia

melting snow. The intense cold in win- The greatest concentrations ofter causes cracking of the surface, pro- freshwater lakes and marshes occur inducing characteristic polygon fens and the north, in the Ob and Irtysh, and far-bogs. ther south, along the Tobol and Ishim

The two Rivers. Themain types of _ largest wet-wetland are Box 6 land of this re-nutrient-rich The Aral Sea gion is Lakepeat swamps The Aral Sea, once the world's fourth largest Tengiz, a shal-and nutrient- lake, now ranks only sixth. TheAAmu and Syr low salinepoor peat rivers which flow into the lake have had so lake noted forbogs. The much of their water diverted for agriculture its largeformer occur that there is not enough remaining to coun- b r e e d i n gin dead arms teract evaporation from the lake surface. As population ofof rivers and a result water levels have fallen and salinity greater fla-in old oxbow has increased. At present rates of inflow the m i n g o slakes, around Aral will continue to shrink and by the year (Phoenicoptemsmargins of 2000 will be reduced to two-thirds of its ruber), andlakes and in present size. Declining drinking water qual- L a k eany depres- ity, high salt content of the air, and high lev- Kourgaldzhin,sion where els of pesticide residues applied to prevail- a complex ofthere is a ing cotton fields, impact on the state of hu- lakes andgood supply man health in the Aral Sea basin.channels witho f water. varying sa-Some are forested with dense willow linities, some supporting abundantthickets; others with more open forest aquatic vegetation and extensive reedof birch, alder and larch. The peats are beds.rich in minerals and support an abun- On the Chinese border, lies Lakedant growth of aquatic vegetation such Khanka (Xmghai Hu), the largest lakeas sedges, cattails and reeds. in northeastern Asia. This shallow,

The most extensive region of lakes, freshwater lake is fringed by extensiveswamps and bogs in the middle and reed beds, willow thickets and peatlower basin of the Ob and Irtysh River bogs.in western Siberia, and cover about 1.8million km2 (695,000 sq. miles). This is CentralAsia Si a natural extensionthe great "duck factory" of western Si- othe North asian be edt toberia, producing many of the ducks the west by the Caspian Sea and to thewhich winter in the Mediterranean Ba- east by the high altitude plateaus ofsin, the Middle East and South Asia; it North West China. The area includesis thus comparable with the prairie pot- the dry and arid grasslands ofhole country of North America. Other Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, the Kyrgyzimportant wetlands for breeding Republic and Tajikistan of which littlewaterbirds occur along the middle and information on its wetlands is available.lower courses of theAmur River, on the The high altitude Issyk-Kul Lake in thenorth end of Sakhalin Island and in the Kyrgyz Republic and Krasnovodsk andcoastal lowlands of the Kamchatka Pen- North-Cheleken Bays in Turkenistan areinsula. the only two Ramsar sites.



AL . ^~~~~~~~~~~A

EASTASIA -i

East Asia covers the Oriental biogeo- T natural and artificial-and 2 million hect-graphical region and includes the ares of coastal salt marshes and mudflats.

People's Repub- Red-crowned cranelic of China, Ja- (Grus japonesis)pan, Hong Kong in display postureand the Korean at the internation-peninsula. 4 ally important

ThePeople's Kushiro Marsh inRepublic of - I Japan.China comprises Kover 80 per cent

of this region(and indeed .over 20 per cent <k it

of the whole of -Asia), and has <9more than 20million hectares ;.

of wetlands.These include 11million hectaresof marshes andbogs, 12 millionhectares oflakes-both _

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Wetlands in Asia

TWetlands such asPoyang Lake, Chinaprovide importantresources for local

communities.

ensures that grass-lands remaintfertileand nutritious forgrazing livestock.

Some of the largest freshwater (Amur), Sungari and Wusuli (Ussuri)marshes in Asia occur in north-eastern rivers. Other extensive systems of fresh-China. There are over one million hect- water lakes and marshes include theares of marshes on the Sanjiang (Three Zhalong Marshes and Xiang HaiRivers) Plain alone and this region, Marshes. All three of these wetlands aresometimes know as the Plain of Reeds, of great significance as breeding andconsisting of a vast complex of shallow staging areas for huge numbers offreshwater lakes, reed beds and peat waterbirds, including four endangeredbogs near the confluence of the Heilong species of cranes.

Box 7Poyang Lake, China

Poyang Lake is a large freshwater lake with associated marshes and wet grass-lands, south of the Yangtze River in central China. Poyang stores up floodwatersfrom the Yangtze River and other rivers during the rainy season and plays a vitalrole in flood protection. It supports a significant commercial fishery and a smallfreshwater pearl industry, as well as providing valuable grazing land for domes-tic water buffalo. Local villages cut grasses and aquatic vegetation for fodder,fuel and thatching; during the dry season, many parts of the wetlands are culti-vated for vegetable crops and rice. The lake is world-famous for its winteringpopulation of the endangered Siberian Crane (Grus leucogeranus) and many otherwaterbirds. The construction of dykes to prevent seasonal flooding, as well as thereclamation of land for agriculture and the removal of the water for irrigation, hasresulted in the loss of some wetland habitat. In the long term, however, dammingprojects on the Yangtze River and other source rivers could have a much moredrastic impact upon the lake.

The main land-use activities are fishing, cattle grazing, cutting of grass and aquaticvegetation for a variety of purposes, and small-scale cultivation of vegetable cropsand rice.



Many wetlands inAsia have beenconvertedfor riceproduction. Fresh-water wetlandsensure the survivalof many wild ricevarieties which areessential to main-tain the geneticpool.

The alluvial plains of the Yellow In south China, around Lunming,and Yangtze River Basins in eastern Yunnan Province, are relatively smallChina contain the greatest concentra- lakes, some important for wintering wa-tion of large freshwater lakes in the terfowl but also with notable endemiccountry. The Yangtze Basin in particu- fish. One, Lake Dianchi, has (or perhapslar is famous for its lakes, such as the had) twelve fish species confined to itsDongting Hu, the Wuhan Lakes, waters.Poyang Hu and Shengjin Hu. All are Most of China's 2.1 million hect-freshwater, and many are fringed with ares of coastal marshes and mudflats oc-extensive reed beds. They all have huge cur in three main areas in the north-atnumbers of communities dependent the mouth of the Yangzte River andupon them for water, fish and other along the adjacent coast; around the es-products. tuary of the Yellow River; and the es-

Box 8Qinghai Tibetan Plateau, China

The Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau of western China is the largest high-altitude pla-teau in the world. It is dotted with innumerable lakes, ponds and bogs, andincludes the sources of several of the world's greatest rivers: the Yellow, Yangtze,Mekong and Salween in the east, and the Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra inthe south. Much of the plateau consists of inland drainage systems, and most ic.r the larger lakes are saline in nature. Qinghai Lake in the east is the largestsaline lake in China.

This whole region of China is undergoing desiccation as the uplift of theHimalayas increasingly blocks the inflow of moist trade winds from the south;

i as a result most of the lakes of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau are shrinking in size, iand the largest lake in Xingjiang, Lop Nur, has dried out completely in recentyears.

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Wetlands in Asia

Box9Kushiro Marsh, Japan

Kushiro Marsh, in the lowlands of eastern Hokkaido, is a marshy floodplain alongthe Kushiro and Akan Rivers, with several small freshwater lakes, extensive reedbeds, sedge marshes and peat bogs.

The marsh is one of the largest and most important natural wetlands remainingin Japan, supporting a very rich and diverse fauna. The shallow marshes areparticularly imnportant as a breeding and wintering area for the endangered red-crowned crane (Grus japonensis). The entire Japanese population of these birds

I breeds in eastern Hokkaido and the great majority of the birds winter in theKushiro area.

The clearing of forests for agriculture and the straightening and deepening ofrivers in the catchment area have led to increased siltation in the marshes, exces-sive flooding in spring and drought in summer. Road-building and the urbansprawl around Kushiro City have also resulted in loss of wetland habitat. TheRamsar site is located in the centre of the marsh where all the rivers converge.Several feeding stations have been established for the wintering cranes, and largequantities of food have been provided every year since 1952.

tuarine system of the Shuangtaizi, Liao ened with large scale reclamationand Hun Rivers. Most of the rivers flow- projects. Already several of the mosting into the Yellow Sea carry large important estuaries and bays have beenamounts of sediment, resulting in rapid bounded and filled to create new landbuildup of deltas and continuous cre- for development.ation of new wetlands. Japan possesses a large number of

Mangroves still occur patchily natural wetlands, although most havealong the coast as far north as central been adversely affected by developmentFujian province and the west coast of in recent decades. Most of its lakes areTaiwan, and are particularly well pre- very small, Lake Biwa in central Honshuserved in the Deep Bay of Hong Kong. being a notable exception, it is one ofThe famous Mai Po Marshes Nature Re- the few lakes in Japan of pre-glacial ori-serve incorporates a portion of this man- gin. There are several other large lakes,grove ecosystem along with a large area mostly of volcanic origin, in Hokkaido.of adjacent shrimp ponds. Extensive freshwater marshes still

Most of the Korean Peninsula is persist in some of the most remote ar-mountainous and the only large wet- eas, particularly in eastern Hokkaidolands are located along the west and and contain the majority of thesouth coasts, where there are numer- country's coastal lagoon and saltous estuaries and shallow sea bays with marsh systems of which Lake Furen isextensive intertidal mudflats and the largest. Elsewhere, most of the low-many small offshore islands. Due to land marshy habitats and coastal la-high pressure for more land area, in- goons have been drained for agricul-tertidal areas along almost the entire tural land.west coast of South Korea are threat- Japan's largest areas of intertidal



mudflats are in estuaries and bays along of this habitat has been lost to develop-the Pacific coast, such as the Bay of To- ment. Mangrove swamps are confinedkyo and Inner Isa Bay, where there are to the Amami Island and Ryukyu Islandparticularly large tidal ranges, but much in the south.

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Wetlands in Asia

India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, numerable small water-storage reser-Bhutan, Maldives and Sri Lanka, are voirs and irrigation ponds, known asrich in wet- tanks, thatlands and constitute thebiodiversity Box 10 only signifi-and with Great Rann of Kachchh (Kutch) cantbodiesofever-increas- The Great Rann is a vast saline plain stretching standing wa-ing human eastward from the eastern edge of the Indus ter over muchpressures on delta. India's frontier with Pakistan passes of the sub-all natural through the northern edge of the Rann. The I continent'sh a b i t a t s. grasslands, salt marshes and mangrove swamps f arid interior.There are an are extensively graded by domestic livestock Other majorestimated 33 particularly camels. The Great Rann is critical w e t 1 a n dmillion hect- as a refuge for the Indian wild ass (Equus types includeares of wet- Hemionus khur), a threatened subspecies of the the coastal la-lands in the Asiatic wild ass. Other mammals include the | goon systemsIndian sub- . chinkara gazelle (Gazella dorcas sp.) and wolf of peninsulacontinent (ex- (Canis lupus). The Asian population of the lesser India and Sricudinge aGrea flamingo (Phoeniconaias minor) is centered on the Lanka andunder rice Great Rann of Kutch. the salt lakecultivation), systems ofthe riverine, flood plain and deltaic wet- Pakistan and western India.lands of the Indus, Ganges and Mangrove forests once occurredBrahmaputra accounting for a large pro- along the coasts of the subcontinent, butportion of them. However, throughout these have been drastically reduced inthe rest of the subcontinent there are in- extent, and are now largely confined to



Box 11The Ganges Brahmaputra Floodplain

I The Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers unite Bangladesh to form one of the largestI delta systems in the world with the flood plain covering over 30 percent of the

country. The wetlands of the floodplain include rivers, irrigation canals season-ally flooded cultivated plains freshwater lakes and marshes (boars and beels),small water storage reservoirs and fish ponds. The major rivers are the

I Brahmaputra Jamuna, Ganges Padma and Meghna, and their various tributar-ies and distributaries. Vast areas of the low lying alluvial plains between the i

I major rivers are flooded during the rainy season. The flood waters remain forbetween two and five months. As the waters recede, most of the exposed land iscultivated for rice and jute.

Apart from the rivers, the most important natural wetlands of the flood plain iare beels. These saucer-shaped depressions usually retain water throughout the Iyear and range in size from a few hectares to many thousands of hectares. Fish-ing is very intensive with annual production up to 1000 kg per hectare recorded.The margins of the beels, boars and rivers are leased on an annual basis for thecultivation of rice and during the dry season, large numbers of domestic live-stock, mainly cattle and buffalo, graze in the wetlands.

the remoter portions of the Indus and plain, there are often extensive wetlandsGanges-Brahmaputra Deltas and the known as terai such as those along theAndaman Islands. Rapti and Narayani Rivers in the Royal

There are relatively few wetlands Chitwan National Park in Nepal andin the Himalayas, other than the river along the Manas River on the border be-systems and a scattering of small, fresh- tween Bhutan and India.

water lakes and bogs at medium to high The Indus is one of the great riv-altitudes. However, where the rivers ers of Asia, rising in Oinghai Tibet andleave the foothills and spread out on the flowing to the delta in the Arabian Sea.

The Great Rann ofKachchh (Kutch) isa famous breedinggroundfor thelesserflamingo(Phoenicopterusminor) and greater ;flamingo (P. ruber).Locally the area is r

known as "Fla- -

mingo City".

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Wetlands in Asia

Virtually all of Pakistan's wetlands de- thickets. The recent construction ofpend to some extent on this river and huge reservoirs on the larger rives hasits tributaries. For centuries, water from added to the extent of wetland habitat.this river has been tapped for irrigation Some of these dams and barrages, suchusing an elaborate system of canals. as Chashma and Taunsa, have devel-This system now extends almost oped a rich growth of aquatic vegeta-throughout the plains of Pakistan and tion and now support important com-carries water year-round to cultivated mercial fisheries and large concentra-land and to many natural wetlands tions of waterbirds.

Box 12Keoladeo Ghana National Park, India

Keoladeo Ghana, or Bharatpur as it is often known, is the mostfamous wetland in India, and is situated at the western edge ofthe Ganges plain. The Park is located in one of the most denselypopulated regions of India. The park however is relatively wellwooded and there are many artificial islands with trees to en-courage colonial nesting waterbirds. Keoladeo Ghana was des-ignated as a Ramsar site in October 1991. Formerly local vil-lagers had grazing rights within the Park but these were re-scinded in 1982. Current land use is designed to enhance thelong term value of the site for scientific study, recreation andwildlife oriented tourism.

Nearly all wildlife tours to India from overseas make an obliga-tory visit to Bharatpur, and the economic potential of this grow-ing market is yet to be fully realized. Revenue derived fromwildlife tourism is bound to increase if the park can be main-tained as an outstanding location for wildlife viewing. Corre-spondingly, the Park could play an even greater role in expand-ing ecological awareness among a large and increasing portionof Indian society, if managed appropriately.

which would otherwise have dried out In the east, the delta of the Indusduring the dry season. Some natural River merges into the vast saline la-wetlands are now linked to the canal goons and salt flats of the Great Rannsystem and managed for specific pur- of Kutch, which are famous for theirposes; for example, Haleji Lake is main- large breeding colonies of flamingos.tained as a stopgap water supply for Most of the wetlands of northernKarachi. In addition, the unintentional India lie within the basin of the Gangesseepage of water from the canal and ex- River, which also originates in Tibet andcess water from irrigated land have cre- flows to its mouth in the Bay of Bengal.ated large areas of new wetland habitat The alluvial plain of the Gangeson the once arid plains. Many of these stretches from Calcutta to Amritsar,are freshwater or brackish wetlands comprising a vast lowland, studdedwith extensive reed beds and tamarisk with innumerable small water freshwa-



Mangroves are the lifeblood ofmany coastal communities.

- X 5i i They provide timber, fuel,-' wood, medicines and fodder,

they supportfish and shellfishproductivity and help preventcoastal erosion and stormdamage.

Box 13The Sundarbans

The Sundarbans is part of the world's largest delta, formed fromsediments deposited by three great rivers, the Ganges,Brahmaputra and Meghna, converging in the Bengal Basin. Themangroves of the Delta are the largest continuous block in theworld and have been exploited since time immemorial. Theprincipal activities are fishing, collection of wild honey andbeeswax, and timber extraction, pulpwood and firewood. TheSundarbans provide vital breeding and nursery grounds for alarge proportion of the fish and crustaceans that make up theextremely important marine fishery in the Bay of Bengal. Themangrove forest also protects the densely settled agriculturalareas to the north from the full force of cyclonic storms andtidal waves.

The Sundarbans support a very rich and diverse fauna, includ-ing a substantial population of estuarine crocodiles and theworld's largest single population of royal Bengal tigers-noto-rious for their man-eating tendencies.

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Wetlands in Asia

ter lakes with luxuriant vegetation. One Kerala, although most of the originalof the most famous waterbird sanctu- mangrove swamps have now disap-aries in Asia, the Keoladeo Ghana Na- peared.tional Park (Bharatpur) lies on the rim In marked contrast, the east coastof the Gangetic Plain in Rajasthan. is relatively low-lying with extensive al-

Near its mouth, the Ganges unites luvial floodplains and deltas. There arewith another of Asia's great rivers, the several very large brackish lagoons onBrahmaputra, whose floodplain con- the coast, notably Chilka Lake andtains some of the countries finest wet- Pulicat Lake, and freshwater lakes in thelands. The Brahmaputra Valley retains interior of the deltas,notablyKolleru Lake.relics of natural ecosystems which have Some well-preserved areas of man-all but disappeared from the remainder

of Idia Th cobine flodpain ofgrove forest remain, as at BhitarkanikaofIda h obndfodlivs in in the delta of the Brahmani and Baiterani

the Ganges and Brahmaputra Rivers and at Coringa in the GodavariBangladesh and West Bengal comprise lthe largest deltaic system in the world. Delta.The entire region is crisscrossed with an The principal coastal wetlands ofintricate network of rivers, streams and Sri Lanka are estuaries and lagoons,canals. many of which contain small patches of

In the western part of peninsular mangrove forest. Although there are noIndia, the narrow coastal plain is fed by natural lakes in Sri Lanka, there arerivers rising in the Western Ghats, and some 12,500 hectares of small floodplainthere are several important lagoon sys- lakes, known as villus, particularlyin thetems, such as the Cochin Backwaters in Mahaweli river system to the east.



SOUTH EAST ASI

Southeast Asia is a very diverse region, rivers have been almost entirely con-both in terms of its natural resources verted to agricultural land. The largestand cultural communities. Much of this lake in central Thailand, Beungdiversity has evolved because the area Boraphet, was formed by the dammingis characterized by many archipelagos. of a large swamp, and constitutes theFor instance Indonesia contains over single most important wintering site for17,000 islands and the Philippines 7,100. ducks in the country. The largest wet-

Most of the major wetlands of land in the south is Lake Songkhla, amainland SoutheastAsia are situated in series of shallow coastal lagoons withthe lower basins and deltas of the ma- fresh and brackish water. There are alsojor rivers of the Irrawaddy, the Chao many estuarine systems with mangrovePhraya, the Mekong and the Red River. swamps and mudflats along the coast,The most extensive wetlands of Malay- the most extensive and species-rich oc-sia, Indonesia and the Philippines are curring along the west coast.typically coastal mangrove swamps The Mekong is one of the great riv-with their associated mudflats, and of- ers of Asia, the twelfth longest in theten freshwater and peat swamp forests world and sixth in terms of discharge.which occur to the landward of the man- It rises from the Qinghai-Tibetan Pla-grove forest. Vast areas of mangrove teau in China, and flows through Laos,forest and swamp forest are found in the Thailand and Cambodia on its way toremoter areas of Sumatra and Borne-, its delta in Vietnam. In northern Cam-although they are now under great pres- bodia, the river enters a fluviatile low-sure from logging. land landscape with broad floodplains

In south-central Thailand, the once and extensive backwater swamps,extensive wetlands on the floodplain of many of which remain flooded through-the Chao Phraya and several other large out the dry season. The Great Lake and

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Wetlands in Asia

The Great Lake inCambodia is ahighly productivewetland system.High fish produc-tivity is maintainedby the floodedforests surroundingthe lake.

Tonle Sap River, in central Cambodia, of the Mekong, and is surrounded by aform an integral part of the Mekong broad belt of freshwater swamp forest.floodplain system. The Great Lake is The Red River (Song Hong) is thethe largest lake in Southeast Asia and largest river in northern Viet Nam. Itlies in a vast shallow basin to the west carries a very large silt load giving the

Box 14Mekong Floodplain and Delta

The Mekong Delta a is vast fertile plain with extensive floodplain wetlands, wherefreshwater swamp forests are dominated by paperbark trees (Melaleuca spp.), man-grove forests and intertidal mudflats.

The delta includes some of the most productive agricultural land in SoutheastAsia and also supports a major fishery involving over 200 species of fish as well asmany shellfish and shrimp. The forests constitute an important resource, and alsoplay a very important role in coastal protection in a region prone to typhoons.The marshes support the rare eastern sarus crane (Grus antigone sharpii), and themangrove and paperbark forests provide nesting sites for large numbers of colo-nial waterbirds.

Rapid growth in human population and intensive development of the delta foragriculture pose major threats. Developments upstream on the Mekong River,including hydroelectric, flood-control and irrigation projects, are changing the hy-drology of the delta: water quality, and therefore the fishery, are affected by in-dustrial and domestic wastes, pesticides and fertilizers. Six reserves have beenestablished in Vietnam to protect representative examples of wetland ecosystems,and large areas of former mangrove and paperbark forest have been replanted. Insome areas, following the failure of agricultural conversion, considerable effortshave been made to restore wetlands to their natural condition.

28 Wetlands International -Asia Pacific


...... ... ......... .... .. :. . ................. ..... .......... .. .... ......... ... .................... ... .... ....... .. ... .... ................................ . ... ... ... .... ... ......

Box 15Tasek Bera, Malaysia

Tasek Bera, Malaysia's first Ramsar site, is one of only two major natural fresh-water lake systems in peninsular Malaysia. The lake, and its associated marshesand freshwater and peat swamp forests, encompass an estimated 6,150 hectares.Tasek Bera is a dendritic complex occupying extensive sinuous arms of water,and wide areas of reed and swamp forests in between patches of raised ground.More than 75% of the swamp area is vegetated.

water its reddish color. Almost the en- eastern coast, the lower reaches of cer-tire delta has been converted to agricul- tain rivers in Sarawak, and in parts oftural land and aquaculture ponds, or peninsular Malaysia. The most exten-drained for forestry and urban devel- sive freshwater swamp forests, how-opment, and very little natural wetland ever, occur in Irian Jaya, in the huge riv-habitat remains, except for a few rem- erine swamp forest of the Manberambo,nants of the mangrove and mudflat eco- Rouffaer and Digul rivers. In the Southsystem along the outer coast. This area, East of Irian Jaya these wetlands gradu-known as the Xuan Thuy Nature Re- ally change to seasonally inundatedserve was designated as Viet Nam's first Melaleuca and open grassland savan-Ramsar site. nas, which include some of the richest

The principal wetland systems waterbird areas of the region. The rich-throughout peninsular Malaysia and est and most extensive peat swamp for-the Greater Sundas (Borneo, Sumatra, ests are in Sumatra and Borneo.Java and Bali) are mangrove swamps The Philippines formerly sup-and intertidal mudflats, freshwater ported extensive mangrove forests, tidalswamp forests and peat swamp forests, mudflats and coastal swamps, but thesealthough locally there are some impor- have been severely degraded as a resulttant freshwater lake systems. The most of conversion to shrimp ponds and rec-

extensive mangrove forests occur along lamation for agriculture. The countrythe eastern coast of Sumatra and in West is rich in freshwater lakes, many of

and East Kalimartan, in South Sulawesi which are of volcanic origin. The larg-and Central Java (Segara Anakan). est lake in the Philippines is Laguna deSome of the largest mangrove swamps Bay near Manila. This shallow fresh-of the world occur in Irian Jaya, includ- water lake, formerly an extension ofing over 250,000 hectares in Bintuni Bay Manila Bay, has been extensively devel-and even more along the south coast. oped for its fisheries, and about 70 perMost are still in a pristine stage, al- cent of the lake's surface has been en-though the last decade has seen the al- closed in fish pens. The Agusan andlocation of huge forestry concessions. Liguasan Mashes in Mindanao are ofThere are still some significant stands major importance to biodiversity con-in the states of Perak, Selangor Kedah servation.and Johor in peninsular Malaysia. More than one third (150 million

The largest areas of freshwater ha.) of Papua New Guinea is classifiedswamp forest occur in the lowlands of as wetland. The largest wetland systemSumatra and Kalimantan, along Sabah's in the country, occupying 4.5 million

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Wetlands in Asia

hectares, is the Fly River Floodplain and forest (notably Melaleuca spp.) but isits numerous oxbox lakes and lateral dominated by herbaceous swamp com-lakes. The largest of the lateral lakes is monly comprising the reeds PhragmitesLake Murray which at 65,000 hectares karka and Saccharum sp. No comprehen-is the largest lake in the country and one sive surveys of wetland fauna have beenof the largest bodies of freshwater in conducted and most information is an-Oceania. The lake system is most ex- ecdotal. Crocodiles, both Estuarinetensive in the middle reaches of the Fly Crocodylus porusus and New GuineaRiver Floodplain-the "Middle Fly" re- Freshwater C. novaeguineae, remaingion. Floodplain vegetation in the relativelycommon. Atleastl20fishspe-Middle Fly includes fringing swamp cies occur in the system.

Box 16Danau Sentarum, Indonesia

This area, with its numerous lakes and many interconnect-ing water courses, acts as a buffer for flood waters fromthe Kapuas River. The lakes are generally shallow andephemeral and comprise an extensive flood plain bearinga close similarity to the Great Lake system in Cambodia.

The area was declared a Wildlife Reserve in 1982 but as yetthere is very little protection. The main land uses are fish-ing, shifting cultivation, rice agriculture and hunting.About 2,800-3,500 people live in some twenty villageswithin the reserve, most being dependent on fisheries fortheir livelihood.

Illegal logging, heavy hunting pressure and considerablehuman disturbance from the many small villages in thearea are major threats. The forests are also very suscep-tible to fire, and many hundreds of hectares have been lostto forest fires in recent years.


ACTION PROGRAM FOR THE

CONSERVATION OF WETLANDS

IN ASIA

The previous sections of this booklet "...work together to prevent furtheroutlined the status and importance of loss and degradation of wetlands, to ensurewetlands in the different regions of Asia, their wise use, and to maintain, restore andgiving examples of their uses and infor- appropriately enhance wetland biodiversitymation on some of the key sites. This andfunctions."concluding section presents a suggestedaction program for the future conserva- As such the Conference recom-tion of wetlands in Asia. It begins with mended:a summary of the nine recommenda- * That governments develop policiestions agreed by participants at the first and legislation to ensure the sustain-International Conference on Wetlands able use of wetlands, recognising best,and Development, 8-14th October 1995, multi-sectoral practice, in both pub-Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The recom- lic and private sectors, and that plan-mendations (popularly referred to as the ning for the conservation and devel-"Kuala Lumpur Statement") were for- opment of wetlands should be under-mulated by 360 participants represent- taken at the appropriate interna-ing Government, NGOs and other agen- tional, national and local levels.cies from 60 nations world-wide andprovide the way forward. The section * That the co-operative spirit of thisthen concludes with a more detailed Conference be further developedoverview of actions available to the through partnership between the pri-Governments of Asia, development as- vate sector, local communities, non-sistance agencies and NGOs. governmental organisations govern-

ment and development agencies toThe Kuala Lumpur Statement help establish specific mechanisms

and methods for the wise use of wet-Participants at the first International lands to be promoted and appliedConference on Wetlands and Develop- throughout the world;ment, 8-14th October 1995, Kuala Lum-pur, Malaysia, urged governments, in- * That the planning of land-use, watertergovernmental organisations, regional management, economic developmenteconomic organisations, local commu- and conservation should be inte-nities, NGOs, the private sector and oth- grated at catchment scale, includingers to: coastal areas, taking into account

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Wetlands in Asia

hydrological, ecological and human and involved from the outset in de-interrelationships and needs; velopment;

That activities likely to affect wet- * That international co-operationlands should proceed only after con- should be enhanced to assist the ex-sideration of environmental assess- change of information and expertise,ment and include appropriate review to develop site networks, flywaystages. Prior socio-economic and en- management agreements and conser-vironmental impact analysis of indi- vation strategies, such as the Asia-vidual project components should be Pacific Waterbird Strategy, and tocarried out and taken into account implement action plans to protectduring the implementation phase. wetlands and their wildlife, especiallyLong-term and cumulative impacts, waterbirds;and the effectiveness of wetland man- That improved programmes shouldagement and restoration, should be be developed providing education,monitored and fed back into reviews training, information materials andof these procedures. mechanism to improve the level of

* That more resources should be pro- awareness and capacity to implementvided to enhance understanding, wetland conservation and sustainableknowledge and awareness of wet- use, for example, the establishment oflands, to establish their true eco- an annual World Wetlands Day to ef-nomic, social, cultural and ecological fect popular mobilisation. Particularvalues and to promote greater appre- attention should be given to thoseciation of their intrinsic worth. people living in and around wetlands,

to other users of those wetlands, to* That to build upon the environmen- decision makers and to wetland man-tal framework negotiated at the agers.United Nations' Conference on Envi-ronment and Development in Rio de Action ProgramJaneiro in 1992, incremental costanalysis is recognised as a valuable This section draws heavily on docu-tool for choosing between alternative ments published by Dugan (1990),AWBdevelopment options, and should be (1992), Ramsar (1989), and the Worldgiven high priority to assist the wise Bank (1995) and should be consulted foruse of wetlands and the conservation elaboration.of their biodiversity.

. .. ~~ActinbyGvrm t* That, recognising the importance of ions by Governmentcultural heritage, local practices and Agenciesindigenous knowledge, it is essential As a first stage each countryto identify ways in which the liveli- should be encouraged to review the sta-hood of local people in wetland areas tus of its wetlands and the effectivenesscan be maintained and improved of conservation and protection efforts.while safeguarding wetlands and Subsequently, concerned agencies thentheir resources for the benefit of fu- collaborate in determining the reasonsture generations. In order to ensure for wetland loss and review develop-sustainable use of wetlands and avoid ment programs under their jurisdiction.adverse impacts, local people should Attention should also be given to po-be integral to the planning process lices favouring interventions in natural


Action Program for the Conservation of Wetlands in Asia

systems. A wide range of national po- port.lices, laws and regulations can create"perverse" incentives that discourage fImproved planning and managementconservation, even as other policies are for all development projects likely tointended to provide incentives to con- affect wetlands. This should be sub-serve. These "perverse" policies include ject to an environmental assessmenteconomic and social policies such as in collaboration with local communi-land ownership and resource tenure ties, paying careful attention to tra-policies, and sectoral policies in agricul- ditional management approaches toture, forestry, fisheries, energy and in- wetlands and their resources. Thedustry. assessments should be made widely

Thetr production.of a National Wet available as part of consultation withThe production of a National Wet- affected parties and NGOs. River

land Action Plan must be the ultimate basin planning and coastal zone man-goal of all countries focusing primarily agement provide pragmatic instru-on actions to conserve the natural func- ment foriue ofawetln resourments for use of wetland resourcestions and values of wetland ecosystems and these and other tools should bethrough sound management and sus- developed and implemented to facili-tainable use of resources. Key elements tate this process.include:• The survey and inventory of a * Enhanced institutional capacity. In-

country's wetlands, including the vestment is needed to strengthen in-identification of sustainable and de- stitutional resources to enable staff tostructive uses. Critical information on design and implement environmen-wetlands of international and na- tally sustainable development ac-tional importance will enable govern- tions. Management capacity shouldments and development assistance be reviewed and priorities for train-agencies to take account of these pri- ing identified.orities in deciding investment. Such * Improved protection is required toinformation can constitute the found- conserve ecosystems and sites judgeding of a database for monitoring evi- to be of highest priority and/or mostdence of ecological change and for endangered. National and regionaldesigning research programs. programs that set priorities should be

* A review of policy and legislation implemented and critical wetlandsconcerning wetlands. The govern- protected in reserves governed byments should review agricultural, management plans developed withinwater and other relevant policies to an integrated system of protected ar-determine how they contribute to eas. A first step may involve estab-wetland loss and how they may be lishment of a National Wetlands Man-changed. New conservation policies agement Committee.should consider costs and benefits ofwetland conservation versus conver- * International collaboration. Coun-sion. For example, policies to pro- tries should identify their shared wet-mote allocation of water to wetlands land resources and develop manage-ecosystems and encourage the resto- ment approaches using the Ramsarration of degraded sites may need to Convention as a guide for collabora-be developed and implemented. Leg- tion. Opportunities for exchange ofislation should be formulated to pro- information and transfer of technol-vide the necessary institutional sup- ogy in wetland conservation and

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Wetlands in Asia

management and encouraged. Gov- source management agencies andernment conservation agencies in as- protected area administrations andsociation or with conservation and systems.environmental NGOs should assist To enhance these and other chal-development assistance institution in lenges facing wetlands conservation,reviewing the impact of current poli- the World Bank is broadening its in-review and practicesandimplementing volvement in biodiversity conservationcies and practices and implementig to assist countries to meet their obliga-actions supportive of wetland conser- tions and aspirations. In particular, thevation. Bank will try, whenever possible, to use

Further details on the approach are its policy dialogue, country economicprovided by the IUCN (1990), Wetlands and sector work, and country assistanceInternational - Asia Pacific (Asian Wet- economic and sector work, and coun-land Bureau [1992] and the Ramsar try strategies to help countries main-Convention's "Towards the Wise Use of stream biodiversity within national andWetlands" [1993]). sectoral policies and programs. The

success of such an endeavour will, in

Actions by Development part, depend on how well the Bank canbuild on past experience. It will depend

Assistance Agencies also on how effective the Bank is in its

International assistance agencies such continuing efforts to forge substantiveas the World Bank can greatly assist partnerships with governments, the UNwetlasnte onerlBaonk cand theaty sus agencies and other aid organisations,wetlands conservation and their sus- academic institutions, NGOs and localtainable use by providing financial as- communities involved in conservationsistance to national governments and, and sustainable development.increasingly, to local governments and To assist its client countries toNGOs. Two concerns are particularly mainstream biodiversity, the Bank andimportant: other development assistance agenciese Biodiversity conservation and manage- are exploring ways to better:

ment is not just an ecological concern. * integrate biodiversity conservationFor many countries, sustainable and sustainable use within overallutilisation and conservation of biodi- policy dialogue and country assis-versity is intrinsic to socio-economic tance strategy;development. Especially for the ru- .a tral poor, biological resources often adjushng traditonal economic andprovide the single most important sector work to include biodiversitycontribution to their livelihoods and priorities and issues (possible in thecontibuton t thir lvelioodsand context of better addressing global ex-welfare in the form of food supplies, ternalities);medicines, shelter, income, employ-ment, and cultural integrity. * reflect biodiversity objectives in the

* Successful biodiversity conservation de- design of individual investmentpends on sound policies (pricing, taxa- projects across all sectors of thetion, land tenure) and effective institu- economy;tional and social arrangements (laws, * enhance environmental assessmentregulations, and the roles of the state, practices;private sector NGOs, local communi-ties and indigenous people) provision * support the development of the hu-for which often falls outside the tra- man resources and the institutions areditional conservation domain of re- required to facilitate the


Action Programfor the Conservation of Wetlands in Asia

mainstreaming of biodiversity; and ing.

adapt internal operational procedures * Protection and management. Manyand practices to better support the NGOs own and manage wetland re-mainstreaming of biodiversity in de- serves and have developed innova-velopment work. tive management measures for wet-

land ecosystems. NGOs should iden-Actions by Non-Governmental tify critical wetland sites and manage-Organisations ment problems not covered ad-

equately by government measures,Non-governmental organisations and pursue actions to protect and(NGOs) can play a major role in sup- manage these sites effectively.porting government and developmentand agency efforts in wetland conser- * Dissemination of information. Invation. In some instances they are par- many countries the greatest strengthticularly well placed to show leadership of NGOs is in public awareness.and take initiatives to be followed up NGOs should review the informationby governments. NGOs should carry activities of others and prepare pro-out their own review of wetland con- grams that fill important gaps. Workservation in their country and then iden- with schools and colleges, and withtify actions needed to be taken by Gov- the general public through campaignsernment, NGOs, and other institutions and media events is likely to be par-at national and international levels. ticularly effective, and will draw

There are a number of areas where upon the unique qualities of manyNGOs are likely to be particularly ef- NGOs.fective: * Providing training opportunities.

* Policy review. Although national NGOs can assist governments to in-policies are set by Governments, crease the technical abilities of re-NGOs can help by reviewing agricul- source staff through the implementa-tural, water, tax and other policies tion of national and regional trainingleading to wetland loss, by recom- programs.mending changes, and by disseminat- Interational collaboration. NGOs

ing these to the wider public, should encourage their Government

* Building public support. NGOs can to join the Ramsar Convention and togenerate public awareness of policy use the Convention to increase inter-issues, and site specific conservation national, regional and local supportproblems and either support govern- for wetland conservation.ment action or press when it is lack-

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Wetlands in Asia

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Asian Wetlands Bureau (AWB) IWRB. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Au-1992. Action Programme for the thority, The World Bank and IUCN.Conservation of Wetlands in South 1995. A Global System of Marineand West Asia. Kuala Lumpur, Protected Areas. Washington, D.C.,Malaysia. USA.

AWB. 1994, Priorities in Wetland IUCN, 1987. A Directory of Wetlands ofAWB.n994,ervaiorits in WutlEand AInternational Importance. Gland,Conservation i South-East Asia: Switzerland.Selected Recommendations for James, R.F. 1991. Wetland Valuation:Action. Ramsar South-East Asia Guidelines and Techniques. PHPA/Regional Workshop. 29 March- AWB Suamtra Wetland Project

1 April, 1994. Indoesia. AWB, Kuala Report No. 31. Asian WetlandLumpur, Malaysia. Bureau - Indonesia, Bogor, Indone-

Claridge, G.F. (compiler). 1993. Wet- sia.lands for the Lao P.D.R.: An Interim Ramsar, 1989. Report of Working GroupInventory. IUCN Working Paper. on Criteria on Wise Use. RamsarIUCN, Bangkok. Convention Bureau, Gland, Switzer-

Davies, J. and Claridge, G.F. (eds). land.1993. Wetland Benefits. The Potential , 1993. Towards the Wise Use of

for etlads o SuportandMainain Wetlands. Gland, Switzerland.for Wetlands to Support and Maintain Ramsar Centre Japan. 1995. PublicDuevelopment. Asian Wetland Bureau Awareness of Biodiversity in WetlandP ublication No. 87; IWRC Special in Asia. Ramsar Centre Bureau.Publication No. 27, Wetlands for the Scott, D.A. (ed). 1989. A Directory ofAmericas Publication No. 11. Asian Wetlands. IUCN, Gland,

Dugan, P. (ed.). 1990. Wetland Conser- Switzerland, and Cambridge, U.K.vation: A Review of Current Issues .1993. A Directory of Wetlands inand Required Action, Gland, Swit- Oceania. IWRB, Slimbridge,zerland. Gloucester, U.K.. 1993. Wetlands in Danger. Mitchell -. 1995. A Directory of Wetlands in the

Beazley in association with IUCN - Middle East. rUCN, Gland, Switzer-The World Conservation Union, land and IWRB, Slimbridge, U.K.London, U.K. . 1989. A Status Overview of AsianLondon, U. . Wetlands. AWB Publication No. 53,F 9layson, M. and Moser, M. (eds). Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.1991 Wetlands. Facts on File, . 1993. Action Programmefor theLondon, U.K. Conservation of Wetlands in China.


Bibliography

Soule, M. 1991. Conservation: Tactics Bank Assistance Strategyfor Imple-for Constant Crisis. Science, 253 menting the Convention on Biological(5021): 744-750. Diversity. Environment Department

World Bank. 1995. Mainstreaming Paper No. 29, Washington, D.C.,Biodiversity in Development: A World USA.

The World Bank 37

Wetlands Inteinatioi�.i Ai.a RacifteInstitute of Adsanced Studies oPT)University *f Malaya50603 Kuala LumpurMe1ays�aTel: +603 7572176/756FaK: +603 757t�5�mail: aw�@pop4arin�.nW

E The Worki Bank�Land, Water & Natural Ha�it.ts )ivi�i�ntEnvironment Department1�I8 H Street, NWWashington, DC 2043$� USATelephone; (20244$&'27 15

.... Fax: (�02)477-O568�-n,a�: [email protected]@INTERNET

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World Bank Documentdocuments.worldbank.org/curated/en/195181468764979870/pdf/multi-page.pdf · printing. Mitos Benedicto, Kuldip Kumar, Sumalita Keris and Daljit Kaur assisted with