What Is Motivation? Motivation: Is a set of forces that energize, direct, and sustain behavior Can come from: –Internal “push” forces or –External “pull”

What Is Motivation?

Motivation:

• Is a set of forces that energize, direct, and sustain behavior

• Can come from:– Internal “push” forces or– External “pull” forces

Sources of Motivation (Ex. 10.1)

Needs For security For self-esteem For achievement For power

Attitudes About self About job About supervisor About organization

Goals Task completion Performance level Career advancement

Needs For security For self-esteem For achievement For power

Attitudes About self About job About supervisor About organization

Goals Task completion Performance level Career advancement

INTERNAL (PUSH FORCES)

INTERNAL (PUSH FORCES)

EXTERNAL(PULL FORCES)

EXTERNAL(PULL FORCES)

Characteristics of THE INDIVIDUAL

(examples)

Characteristics of THE INDIVIDUAL

(examples)

Characteristics ofTHE WORK SITUATION

(examples)

Characteristics ofTHE WORK SITUATION

(examples)

Feedback For security For self-esteem

Work load

Tasks Variety Scope

Discretion How job is performed

Feedback For security For self-esteem

Work load

Tasks Variety Scope

Discretion How job is performed

Immediate social environment Supervisor(s) Workgroup members Subordinates

Organizational actions Rewards and

compensation Availability of training Pressure for high levels

of output

Immediate social environment Supervisor(s) Workgroup members Subordinates

Organizational actions Rewards and

compensation Availability of training Pressure for high levels

of output

Characteristics of THE JOB

(examples)

Characteristics of THE JOB

(examples)

Motivation Theories

How different variables can combine to

influence the amount of effort put forth by

employees.



employees.

Equity TheoryExpectancy Theory

Social Cognitive TheoryGoal-Setting Theory



Personal needs that workers attempt to satisfy.

Features in the work environment that satisfy

a worker’s needs.



a worker’s needs.

Maslow’s Need HierarchyMcClelland’s Acquired

Need TheoryHerzberg’s Two-Factor Theory


Need TheoryHerzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

FocusFocus

TheoriesTheories

Content TheoriesContent Theories Process TheoriesProcess Theories

Content Theories of Motivation



a worker’s needs.



a worker’s needs.


Need Theory

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory


Need Theory

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

FocusFocus

TheoriesTheories

Content TheoriesContent Theories

Theories Focusing onINTERNAL Factors

Theories Focusing onINTERNAL Factors

Theory Focusing onEXTERNAL FactorsTheory Focusing onEXTERNAL Factors

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory

Self-Actualization

Esteem

Belongingness

Safety

Physiological

• Humans have five needs arranged in hierarchy of strength and influence

Individuals:• Satisfy most basic

(prepotent) needs first• Move to the next level of

needs after preceding needs is satisfied

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

• ERG = existence, relatedness, growth

• Different levels of needs can be active at the same time

• People can move back to a lower level need even after a high level need has been met

Growth

Relatedness

Existence

Maslow’s and Alderfer’s Needs Theories

Highest-order needs

Most essential (prepotent) needs

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Categories

Alderfer’s Needs Hierarchy Categories

Self-actualization

Esteem

Belongingness

Safety

Physiological

Growth

Relatedness

Existence

Acquired Needs Theory

• Individuals have three “learned” needs: Power, affiliation, achievement

• People with need for achievement:– Work on tasks of moderate difficulty– Take moderate risks– Take personal responsibility for one’s own

actions– Receive specific and concrete feedback on

one’s own performance

Two-Factor Theory

Recognition

Achievement Growth

ResponsibilityNature of the work

Motivators: Factors directly related to doing

a job

Hygiene Factors: Elements associated with conditions

surrounding the job

Job

Relations with co-workers

Working conditions

BenefitsCompensation

Supervision

Effects of Hygiene Factors and Motivators

Hygiene-FactorsExtrinsic factors

related to conditions surrounding

the job

Hygiene-FactorsExtrinsic factors

related to conditions surrounding

the job

MotivatorsIntrinsic factors related to the doing of the

job itself

MotivatorsIntrinsic factors related to the doing of the

job itself

Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied

From the state of being neither satisfied nor dissatisfied, motivators can impel an employee’s motivation and performance to higher levels

Hygiene factors must be satisfied first, leading to a state of being neither satisfied nor dissatisfied

Job Characteristics Model

Core JobCharacteristics

• Skill variety• Task identity• Task significance• Feedback• Autonomy

Core JobCharacteristics

• Skill variety• Task identity• Task significance• Feedback• Autonomy

Critical Psychological States

• Experienced meaningfulness of the work• Experienced responsibility for outcomes of the work• Knowledge of the actual results of the work activities

Critical Psychological States

• Experienced meaningfulness of the work• Experienced responsibility for outcomes of the work• Knowledge of the actual results of the work activities

Outcomes

High:• Internal work motivation• “Growth” satisfaction• Work effectiveness• General job satisfaction

Outcomes

High:• Internal work motivation• “Growth” satisfaction• Work effectiveness• General job satisfaction

Process Theories of Motivation



employees.



employees.





FocusFocus

TheoriesTheories

Process TheoriesProcess Theories

Equity Theory

Focuses on individuals’ comparisons of their own circumstances to those of others

• Inputs (age, experience, education, etc.)• Outcomes (salary, benefits, titles, perks,

etc.)• Ratios of an individual’s input/outcome

versus that ratio of another person or people

Equity Theory

Adapted from Exhibit 10.8

IF: IS: THEN: AND I AM MOTIVATED TO:

The ratio of my outcomes to my inputs

Equal to the ratio of the other’s outcomes to inputs

I am satisfied

Do nothing.

The ratio of my outcomes to my inputs

Less then (<) the ratio of the other’s outcomes to inputs

I feel dissatisfied

Choose between:• Increasing my own outcomes• Decreasing my own inputs• Reevaluating the other’s inputs• Changing the referent• Leaving the situation

Expectancy Theory

• Focuses on thought processes people use when faced with choosing among alternatives

• Three variables affect motivation:– Effort-to-performance (E P): probability that certain

effort leads to certain performance– Performance-to-outcome (P O): probability that

certain performance leads to certain outcome– Valence (V): anticipated value that a person attaches

to the outcome

Effort = (E P) x (P O) x V

E P(I believe high effort will lead to good performance)

E P(I believe high effort will lead to good performance)

P O(I believe high performance will lead to recognition from my supervisor)

P O(I believe high performance will lead to recognition from my supervisor)

Components of Expectancy Theory

EffortEffort PerformancePerformanceOutcome

(V: I do or do not value recognition from my supervisor)

Outcome(V: I do or do not value recognition from my supervisor)

E = effort P = performanceO = outcome V = valence

Social Cognitive Theory

Self-efficacy: • A person’s confidence that he or she can

accomplish a given task in a specific situation

• Three dimensions:– Magnitude, strength, and generality

• High self-efficacy beliefs are associated with better work-related performance

Self-efficacySelf-efficacySelf-efficacy

Social Cognitive Theory: Methods to Increase Self-efficacy

VicariousLearningVicariousLearning

Physiological orPsychological

Arousal

Physiological orPsychological

Arousal

VerbalPersuasion

VerbalPersuasion

EnactiveMasteryEnactiveMastery

Self-efficacySelf-efficacy

Adapted from Exhibit 10.10

Goal-Setting Theory

• Human action is directed by conscious goals and intentions

• Two basic premises:– More challenging (higher or harder) goals, if

accepted, result in higher levels of effort than easier goals

– Specific goals result in higher levels of effort than vague goals

The Role of Reinforcements and Consequences

Motivation TechniqueMotivation Technique

To encourage good behavior or performance

To encourage good behavior or performance

To discourage poor behavior or performance

To discourage poor behavior or performance

PositiveReinforcement


NegativeReinforcement

NegativeReinforcement PunishmentPunishment ExtinctionExtinction

Reinforcements and Consequences

• Desirable consequences that increase the likelihood of behavior being repeated in the future

• Rewards given should be:– Equitable– Efficient– Available– Not exclusive– Visible– Reversible



Example:• Salesperson

performs well gets an extra bonus for the year


performs well gets an extra bonus for the year


• Removal of undesirable consequences that increase the likelihood of behavior being repeated in the future




who performs well is removed from territory that has difficult customers


who performs well is removed from territory that has difficult customers


• Unwanted consequences following undesirable behavior to decrease the likelihood that it will be repeated

PunishmentPunishment


who performs poorly is fired or demoted


who performs poorly is fired or demoted


• The absence of positive consequences for behavior, lessening the likelihood of that behavior in the future

ExtinctionExtinction

Example:• Salesperson tells

a tasteless joke and is ignored in the hopes of discouraging such joking

Example:• Salesperson tells

a tasteless joke and is ignored in the hopes of discouraging such joking

Social Influences on Motivation

Organization’sCulture

Organization’sCulture

SupervisorsAnd

Subordinates

SupervisorsAnd

Subordinates

ImmediateWorkGroup

ImmediateWorkGroup

MotivationMotivation

Influence of Values and Attitudes Toward Work

• Values– Affect what kinds of behaviors individuals will

find rewarding and satisfying

• Attitudes toward work– Work centrality

• Degree of general importance that working has in the life of an individual

• Differs between cultures

Documents

What Is Motivation? Motivation: Is a set of forces that energize, direct, and sustain behavior Can come from: –Internal “push” forces or –External “pull”