Afghanistan National Guidelines forWASH in Emergency

-ANGWE-

Version 4.0 | Jan 2018

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Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster Afghanistan National WASH Cluster

Contribution:The realization of Afghanistan National Guidelines for Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in Emergencies (ANGWE) was coordinated by the members of the following WASH Cluster Coordination team:

1. Ramesh Bhusal, UNICEF – WASH Cluster Coordinator2. Frederic Patigny, WHO – WASH Co-lead3. Rashid Yahya, DACAAR – WASH Co-lead 4. Wahdatullah Momand, UNICEF – WASH Cluster IMO

While the document was primarily written, and collated by Frederic Patigny and Ramesh Bhusal, the other two members of the coordination team also provided their valuable support by proof reading and organizing the document in the form now presented. Valuable contribution also came from Mr. Rolf Luyendijk, UNICEF Chief WASH who encouraged the coordination team to take the challenge of pulling the dossier together by utilizing the experience of working in emergencies in Afghanistan and the knowledge of the local context and culture to make the product relevant to Afghanistan and internationally acceptable.

The coordination team is thankful to the following WASH Cluster Technical Working Group (TWG) members who spare their valuable time in reading the document line by line and providing constructive inputs to make the product suitable for the context: Mr. Abdul Halim, Director CoAR; Eng. Mir Afzal, WASH Manager ZoA; Eng. MEHRABI, Deputy WASH head, ACF; Eng. Yaqoob Rauf, WASH Head, CAID; Eng. Mohammad Arif Basiri, WASH Engineer DACAAR; Mr. Haroon Rashid, national co-lead MRRD and Mr. Muhammad Salahuddin, Humanitarian Officer, OCHA.

Special thanks to Eng. Ghulam Qader, the Director of RuWatSIP, MRRD for his continuous support and guide and nominating Eng. Aziz Ahmad Joyan, a senior in the RuWatSIP team to review the document from MRRD’s prospective. Notably, especial thank goes to Eng. Joyan for his hard work in thoroughly reviewing the document.

Thanks to all WASH Cluster partners for your encouragement to the Coordination Team to come up with this document, your contribution and feedback on draft document and importantly your commitment to use the document, made this dossier a reality. Appreciation also goes to Senior Humanitarian Office of USAID/OFDA for providing support to WASH Cluster, without which this document would not have been developed.

Finally, full appreciation goes to UNICEF Afghanistan country office whose leadership and commitment to continually support the cluster system for a timely and quality response to affected population through improved coordinating and local capacity building is a priority.

Ramesh Bhusal Cluster Coordinator Jan 2018

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Foreword by MRRD (Minister of RRD)

The Government of Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (GOIRA) is placing a high priority to the sector that is evident by approving the national policy on rural water supply and sanitation (RWSS) and embedding it’s implementation in the national flagship programme, ‘the Citizen Charter’. Provision of safe water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) is amongst the first needs of population affected by humanitarian situation. In absence of water and sanitation, the affected population is not only forced to travel long distances to meet their needs but also often forced to use contaminated water sources and practice open defecation, thus exposing to life threatening diseases like cholera and diarrhea. Hence prevention of waterborne diseases, protection of dignity and alleviation from drudgery are the fundamental objectives for WASH services during and after emergency.

These objectives can be better met by adhering to the minimum standards in terms of access, quality and quantity of services rendered to the affected population. The Afghanistan National Guidelines for Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in Emergencies (ANGWE) will play a critical role in guiding and abiding the wide range of WASH partners in planning and delivering services in line with international humanitarian norms and standards (SPHERE) and in consistent with local practices and values.

National leadership in sector coordination (including humanitarian response) is vital for sustainability and ownership of the WASH programme. This can be materialized through enhanced national and sub-national capacity to effectively coordinate emergency preparedness and response. And this guideline will provide a sound basis for that.

Though I am endorsing this document on behalf of Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development (MRRD), the lead ministry in WASH and WASH in Emergency (WinE) sector, but the emergency responses are multi-sector and multi-agency interventions, hence the use and adherence of standards depicted in this document are for all those ministries and national and international agencies that are involved in WinE.

I commend the lead role taken by MRRD and WASH Cluster with UNICEF support in coordinating wide range of national and international partners in compiling this very valuable manuscript. The immediate task of MRRD and WASH Cluster is to develop a dissemination plan including training of relevant national partners on the use of the guidelines.

I wish and remain committed to successful promotion and application of the guidelines for better WASH service delivery to our people affected by emergencies.

Mujeeb Rahaman Karimi Minister of Rural Rehabilitation and Development (MRRD)

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ACRONYMSACBAR Agency Coordination Body for Afghan Relief & DevelopmentACF ACTION CONTRE LA FAIMALCS Afghan Living Condition SurveyANDMA Afghanistan National Disaster Management AuthorityANGWE Afghanistan National Guidelines for WASH in EmergencyARCS Afghan Red Crescent SocietyBMC Basic Medical CareBoQ Bill of QuantityBORDA Bremen Overseas Research and Development AssociationCBS Community Based SchoolCCHF Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic FeverCDC Community Development CouncilCERF Central Emergency Reserve FundCHF Common Humanitarian FundCHW Community Health WorkerCLA Cluster Lead AgencyCTC Cholera Treatment CentreCWSAF Comprehensive WASH Situation Assessment FormDA District AdministratorDACAAR Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan RefugeesDEWS Disease Early Warning SystemDPD Dethyl Paraphenylene DiamineDRR Disaster risk reductionEED Environmental Enteric DysfunctionEIA Environmental Impact AssessmentESNFI Emergency Shelter and Non-Food ItemsFSAC Food Security and Agriculture ClusterFRC Free residual chlorineGAM Global Acute MalnutritionGEP Gender equality programmingGoA Government of AfghanistanGPS Global Positioning SystemHC3 Health Communication Capacity CollaborativeHC Humanitarian CoordinatorHCT Humanitarian Country TeamHEAT Household Emergency Assessment ToolHFs Health FacilitiesHDPE High Density PolyethyleneHH HouseholdHNO Humanitarian Need OverviewHRP Humanitarian Response PlanHRT Humanitarian Regional Team

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HWTS Household Water Treatment SystemIACP Inter-Agency Contingency PlanIASC Inter-Agency Standing CommitteeICCT Inter-Cluster Coordination TeamICRC International Committee of the Red CrossIDP Internal Displaced PeopleIRS Indoor Residual SprayingLLIN Long Lasting Insecticidal NetsMDPE Medium Density PolyethyleneMoE Ministry of EducationMoPH Ministry of Public HealthMRRD Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and DevelopmentMSF Médecins Sans FrontièresNCA Norwegian Church AidNFI Non-Food ItemsNGO Non-Governmental OrganizationsNHCDM National High Commission for Disaster ManagementOCHA Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian AffairsOCT Operational Coordination TeamOD Open DefecationPDMC Provincial Disaster Management CommitteePoUWT Point of Use Water TreatmentPRRD Provincial Department for Rural Rehabilitation and DevelopmentRA Rapid AssessmentRAF Rapid Assessment FormSAG Strategic Advisory GroupSAM Severe Acute MalnutritionSSWM Sustainable Sanitation and Water ManagementUN United NationsUNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for RefugeesUNICEF United Nations Children FundUSD United States DollarVBDs vector-borne diseaseWASH Water, Sanitation and HygieneWCC WASH Cluster CoordinationWHO World Health OrganizationWinE WASH in EmergencyWRAF WASH Rapid Assessment FormWSP Water and Sanitation ProgramWTU Water Treatment UnitWEDC Water Engineering Development Centre

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CONTENT

Scope of the Document……………………………………………………………8Introduction………………………………………………………………………..9Access to Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) services……………………...9The humanitarian situation………………………………………………………...9Emergency WASH scenario………………………………………………………10Emergency WASH thresholds…………………………………………………….11Emergency WASH response mechanism…………………………………………12Coordination of WASH emergencies……………………………………………..12Roles and responsibilities of WASH Cluster……………………………………...14WASH Emergency Standards……………………………………………………..17Technical Guidance………………………………………………………………..20TG-1 (Timeframe for assessments and forms)…………………………………….21TG-2 (Additional check lists for specific situations)……………………………...25TG-3 (Essential steps in rapid assessment)………………………………………..29TG-4 (Hygiene and Water Kits Distribution)……………………………………...33TG-5 (Hand washing (with soap)………………………………………………….36TG-6 (Hygiene promotion campaign)……………………………………………..38TG-7 (Water quality monitoring in emergency situation)…………………………40TG-8 (Water bulk chlorination)……………………………………………………44TG-9 (Cleaning and disinfecting hand-dug wells)………………………………...46TG-10 (Point of Use Water Treatment and safe storage)……………………….....48TG-11 (Rehabilitation of boreholes and hand dug wells)……………………….....52TG-12 (Water mass-distribution)……………………………………………….….57TG-13 (Defecation field “cat method”)……………………………………….…...60TG-14 (Shallow trench latrine)……………………………………………….……62TG-15 (Improved trench latrine “shallow and deep”)……………………….…….64TG-16 (Emergency Household Pit Latrines)……………………………….……..67TG-17 (Emergency bathing facilities)……………………………………….…….69TG-18 (Vector control measures in emergencies)………………………………....70TG-19 (Emergency waste management)……………………………………….….72TG-20 (Wastewater removal and pre-treatment)………………………………….74TG-21 (Wastewater final disposal)………………………………………………..76TG-22 (Emergency WASH in health care facilities)……………………………...79TG-23 (Emergency WASH in Schools)……………………………………….…..81TG-24 (WASH and Cholera) ………………………………………………….…..83TG-25 (WASH and Nutrition)………………………………………………….….85TG-26 (WASH in urban contexts)…………………………………………….…...86TG-27 (WASH in cold weather conditions)………………………………….……87Cross-Cutting Issues………………………………………………………….……90TG-28 (Emergency WASH and Gender)…………………………………….….…91TG-29 (Emergency WASH and Protection)………………………………….……93TG-30 (Emergency WASH and Disabilities)……………………………………...95TG-31 (Emergency WASH and Environment)……………………………………97TG-32 (Disaster Risk Reduction)………………………………………………….98TG-33 (Community participation in emergency)…………………………………100TG-34 (Humanitarian Performance Monitoring)…………………………………102Annexes (Needs Assessment Tools) 103-106

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SCOPE OF THE DOCUMENT

The Afghanistan National Guidelines for WASH in Emergency (ANGWE) was developed to strengthen the overall emergency response mechanism by harmonizing the provision of WASH services in disaster situation in Afghanistan. The main objectives of the ANGWE are summarized as follow:

Enhance equity in delivering the quality and timely services to affected population by ensuring that the needs of all beneficiaries are addressed with a standardized minimum essential service package regardless of locations and type of disaster.

Contribute in ensuring accountability and transparency to affected populations and donor by defining cluster’s engagement guide the partners in delivering harmonized quality services.

Support partners in developing logical frameworks for emergency responses and delivering quality services by streamlining the main cross-cutting issues throughout their project cycle.

Reinforce monitoring and evaluation of WASH emergency projects by providing standards and guidelines to report against.

Provide a sound basis for emergency response preparedness and contingency planning.

The ANGWE will also contribute to the ongoing transition process by strengthening the WASH Cluster coordination mechanism at national and sub-national level by clarifying the roles and responsibilities of each partner, including Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), United Nations agencies (UN), Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development (MRRD) and Afghanistan National Disaster Management Authority (ANDMA) of the Government of Afghanistan and other stakeholders at national and sub-national levels.

This is a living document and meant to be updated / reviewed every five years or earlier when there is a major policy change in humanitarian and disaster management portfolio of the country.

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INTRODUCTION

Background

Access to Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) servicesWater supply services in Afghanistan are limited and access to improved water infrastructures is among the lowest in the world. According to the Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) of WHO-UNICEF 2015, the proportion of the population using an improved water source is 55%, with important differences between rural (47%) and urban areas (78%). With only 32% of the population having access to improved sanitation (rural: 27% and urban 45%), the situation with regard to sanitation continues to be very poor. Safe hygiene behaviors like hand washing with soap at critical times is practiced by less than 30% of people in 24 out of 34 provinces (ALCS 2014-2015).

As a result, water-borne diseases like diarrhea that has strong association with chronic malnutrition among children are a matter of concern (HNO, 2017). Globally, Afghanistan has the fourth highest diarrheal mortality rate and approximately nine percent of all deaths among children under-five (U5) are due to diarrheal diseases (Aluisio, 2015). Diarrheal diseases, if not treated, also traps young children in a vicious circle of malnutrition and diarrhea leading to chronic malnutrition and potential death. In Afghanistan, more than a quarter of all provinces have acute malnutrition rates above 15%, with 1.3 million children U5 who will require treatment for acute malnutrition in 2017 (HNO, 2017).

In a country like Afghanistan, a lack of access to water and sanitation affects women disproportionately. Women are often vulnerable to harassment or violence when they have to travel long distances to fetch water, use shared toilets, or practice open defecation in absence of toilet at home. Recent researches in Afghanistan also suggested that poor water environment was associated with higher maternal mortality.

Nearly 25% of all health facilities lack basic services. Recent assessments suggested that access to safe water is lacking in about 23% of health facilities in Eastern Region and in 33% in Southern Region. In the same regions, only one third of health facilities have access to a sufficient number of toilets (WHO, 2016).

The humanitarian situationAfghanistan remains one of the most dangerous and violent, crisis ridden countries in the world (Global Peace Index, 2016). As a consequence, the country is facing increasing numbers of people on the move and near to one third of the country is hardly accessible to most of the humanitarian actors. In 2016, the conflict has led to unprecedented levels of displacement, reaching a record high of 630,000 by end of December – the highest number recorded to date (HRP 2017). Fifty six percent of the displaced are children and face particular risk. Multiple form of gender based violence are reported, affecting individuals in hosting and displaced communities alike (HRP 2017).

Afghanistan is also a natural disaster prone country which is frequently affected by floods, earthquakes, landslides, avalanches, extreme temperatures, cyclic droughts and epidemics (table 1). There is an average of eight significant natural disasters per year. Humanitarian

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needs of Afghan people are exacerbated by underdevelopment coupled with conflicts and frequent natural disasters.

In its response plan 2017, the WASH Cluster estimated that 2.3 million people were in needs of assistance for WASH and targeted 1.1 million people. The priority objective of the WASH cluster was to ensure timely access to a sufficient quantity of safe drinking water, the use of adequate and gender sensitive sanitation, and appropriate means of hygiene practices by the affected population (HRP 2017).

Emergency WASH scenarioBased on the most recent Humanitarian Needs Overviews (HNOs) and the disaster historical background of Afghanistan the WASH Cluster Inter-Agency Contingency Plan (IACP) developed in 2015 and updated in 2017, identified five mostly likely scenarios to be considered for developing WASH preparedness and response plans (table 1). These scenarios are: 1. Flash-floods, 2. Earthquake, 3. Avalanches and landslides, 4. droughts and 5. Population displacement due to conflict and returnees.6. Outbreaks of cholera may also be considered as controlling and preventing epidemics involves a rapid WASH response.

Table 1: Scenarios for WASH-related emergencies based on recent figures and WASH Cluster contingency plan.Disaster /Scenario

Population affected

Locations

(flash-)Flood

170,000 14 provinces are frequently affected by moderate and high floods: Takhar, Badakhshan, Faryab, Baghlan, Balkh, Hirat, Jawzjan, Sari-Pul, Samangan, Ghor, Nangarhar, Hilmand, Kabul and Badghis. (WASH Cluster IACP).

Earthquake 50,000 Very high risk: BadakhshanHigh risk: Takhar, Kunduz, Samangan, Baghlan, Punjsher, Kapisa, Loghar, Laghman, Kabul, Kunar, Nuristan, NangarharMedium risk: Paktiya, Maydan Wardak and Parwan

Avalanche Landslide

11,000 12 provinces are regularly affected by landslides and avalanches of various scales. Badakhshan, Balkh, Bamyan, Faryab, Ghor, Kunar, Takhar, Dykundi, Baghlan, Laghman, Nuristan and Sari Pul.Badakhshan, Takhar, Ghor and Sar-e-pul were the four provinces which were affected by landslides having significant negative impact

Drought 100,000 12 provinces are expected to suffer from recurrent droughts and heat waves: Samangan, Balkh, Faryab, Jawjzan, Bamyan, Ghazni, Wardak, Ghor, Farah, Badghis, Herat and Helmand.

Population displacement

350,000

(+ 500,000)

Conflict displaced IDPs: average displacement over last five years is about 350,000, particularly in Eastern and Southern Regions.

Afghan returnees from Pakistan: situation in 2016 saw the highest number of returnees from Pakistan (630,000 returnees). Estimation for 2017/2018 will remain in the range of 500,000 returnees per year.

Outbreak Average 5outbreaks per

year on

Number of Acute Watery Diarrhea/Cholera outbreaks reported: 9 (2016), 4 (2015) and 7 (2014). Average number of case estimated at 500.Priority provinces: Badakhshan, Takhar, Daykundi, Ghazni, Ghor,

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Kandahar and Zabul (source: DEWS 2016).

Emergency WASH thresholdsAt community level, The WASH Cluster agreed on eligibility criteria and emergency thresholds for the triggering the first phase cluster’s response. These thresholds were established based on past disaster caseloads. They should trigger minimum WASH Cluster’ response packages depending on the type of disaster (table 2).

Table 2: WASH Cluster response thresholds for the most common disasters and minimal response packages.Type of disaster

Indicator Response threshold

WASH Cluster’s response (first phase-response)

Flash-flood Number of people in need

≥100 Investigation: all rumors Assessment: all situations with ≥100 people Clean water: min 15 l/p/d Hygiene promotion implementation; with

hygiene kit distribution if needed. Appropriate emergency sanitation or adequate

toilet facilities if needed:o A maximum of 20 people use each

toilet/drop-hole or, if possible;o 1 family latrine per household.

Earthquake Number of people in need of WASH

≥100

Avalanche Landslide

Number of people in need of WASH

≥100

Drought Number of people in of WASH need

≥1,000 If more than 1,000 people are at risk of displacement due to lack of access to drinking water, prevalence of chronic malnutrition and risk of acute diarrheal diseases.

Conflict displaced people (IDPs)

Number of people in need WASH in informal settlements

≥70 Investigation: all rumors Assessment: all situations with ≥70 people Clean water: min 15 l/p/d Hygiene promotion implementation; with

hygiene kit distribution if needed. Appropriate emergency sanitation or adequate

toilet facilities if needed:o A maximum of 20 people use each

toilet/drop-hole or, if possible;o 1 family latrine per household.

IDPs represent ≥20% of

the community

Returnees from Pakistan and Iran

Number of people in need of WASH in informal settlements

≥70

IDPs represent ≥20% of

the community

Cholera Confirmed case ≥1 Investigation: all rumors Clean water: min 15 l/p/d Hygiene promotion implementation; with

hygiene kit distribution if needed. WASH in health facilities and treatment

centers in affected areas.

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Emergency WASH response mechanism

Coordination of WASH emergencies

The WASH-related emergency response mechanism is organized at both national and sub-national levels (Figure 1).

The National High Commission for Disaster Management (NHCDM) is the lead government body responsible for disaster management and assistance. The NHCDM is comprised of 19 members, including line ministries such as the Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development (MRRD), which is the key line ministry for WASH, the Ministry of Public Health (MoPH) and the Ministry of Education (MoE), the Afghan National Disaster Management Agency (ANDMA) and the Afghan Red Crescent Society (ARCS). The NHCDM is responsible for directing initial relief efforts, the development of related policy, Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) and search and rescue.

The NHCDM is replicated at the sub-national level through Provincial Disaster Management Committees (PDMCs) comprised of line department representatives who organize and coordinate the response under the supervision of the governor and with support from the humanitarian community. The Provincial department for Rural Rehabilitation and Development (PRRD) is the replication of MRRD at sub-national level for WASH response capacity across the PDMCs varies, however, depending on staffing, security and the geographical remoteness of provinces. Overall, both the NHCDM and PDMCs find it difficult to meet the full extent of the needs of affected populations present across the country given resource limitations and expanding conflict. This trend has been on the rise since 2016.

To support the emergency coordination mechanism, the cluster system was established in Afghanistan in 2008. There are currently six clusters, including: Emergency Shelter and Non Food Items (ESNFI), Food Security and Agriculture (FSAC), Health, Nutrition, Protection and Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH).

Cluster meetings occur monthly at the national level and are coordinated by the respective cluster lead agencies through Cluster Coordinators. Meetings are attended by cluster partners, members and observers and aim to strategize and coordinate humanitarian activities at the cluster or sector level, as well as to share information on challenges and bottlenecks faced at the operational level. Clusters have strategic advisory groups to inform high level strategy and direction of the group, while many clusters also have technical working groups depending on emerging needs.

The clusters coordinate through the Inter-Cluster Coordination Team (ICCT) in the area of common concerns as well as in the harmonization of emergency preparedness and response. Inter-cluster coordination is a collaborative forum to assure coherence in achieving common objectives, avoiding duplication and ensuring areas of need are collectively prioritized where possible.

The ICCT meeting takes place at the national level on a monthly basis and is guided by the Humanitarian Country Team (HCT) which serves as a strategic, policy-level and decision-making forum that guides principled humanitarian action in Afghanistan. The ‘core’ HCT is composed of the Humanitarian Coordinator (HC), six representatives of UN humanitarian

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agencies (including those with cluster lead responsibilities), six representatives of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and one donor representative and representative of the UN Secretariat (OCHA). Agency Coordination Body for Afghan Relief & Development (ACBAR) and IFRC are also present as observer. The HCT guides the ICCT.

At the regional level, humanitarian coordination is facilitated through a number of mechanisms including humanitarian regional teams (HRT) and operational coordination teams (OCT). The coordination of provincial government agencies including NGOs is led by Provincial Disaster Management Committee (PDMC) where PRRD represents the WASH sector.

The community level emergency response mechanism is primarily governed by District Administrator (DA) who chairs the district level disaster response and coordination meetings. The DA in coordination with PRRD (WinE focal points) and district shuras plan and coordinate WASH response. Community Development Councils (CDC) is the most important stakeholders in ensuring service delivery to the affected population together with humanitarian NGOs active on the ground.

Figure 1: Emergency coordination mechanism in Afghanistan, as it applies to the WASH emergency response mechanism.

Note: Currently the chief executive of the unity government is leading the NHCDM

In Afghanistan, the WASH Cluster is led by UNICEF, the Cluster Lead Agency (CLA) and co-led by MRRD and other partners (WHO and DACAAR since 2013). This is a medium term arrangement and a transition plan has been developed to progressively transfer the WASH emergency coordination mechanism from cluster to sector (figure 2).It is envisage

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Cluster CDC and DDA

d that the transition process will start from sector lead agency (MRRD) taking the cluster coordination leadership and ultimately leading to WASH emergency coordination being merged into sector coordination. The development of guidelines and standards was considered one of the major benchmark on the roadmap to transition.

Figure 2: Two models for the coordination structure at national level for the WASH emergency response mechanism. Model 1(current): coordination mechanism organized and operationalized through a WASH Cluster. This arrangement is currently prevailing since the establishment of the WASH Cluster in 2008. The WASH Cluster is led by UNICEF, the Cluster Lead Agency (CLA) and co-led by national Government and two other cluster’s partners.

Model 2 (transition achieved): government-led coordination structure where the cluster coordinator is embedded in WASH sector (MRRD) and leads inter-agency WASH response mechanism. The CLA will provide support, especially when emergency thresholds are largely breached and additional capacity in coordination is needed.

Roles and responsibilities of WASH ClusterThe national level coordination focus on strategic aspects of WASH Cluster activities contributing to the coherence of the overall emergency preparedness and response. The core functions of the cluster at country level are:

Supporting service deliveryo Provide a platform to ensure that service delivery is driven by the agreed

strategic priorities.o Develop mechanisms to eliminate duplication of service delivery.o Integrating early recovery from the outset of the humanitarian response.

Informing strategic decision-making of the Humanitarian Coordinator / Humanitarian Country Team (HC/HCT) for the humanitarian response

o Needs assessment and response gap analysis.o Identify and address emerging gaps, obstacles and cross-cutting issues.o Response prioritization, grounded in needs analysis and review of previous

responses. Planning, strategy and technical guidance

o Develop sectoral plans, objectives and indicators that directly support realization of the HC/HCT strategic priorities.

o Develop, apply and adhere to context-specific standards and guidelines.o Clarify funding requirements, prioritization, and cluster contributions for the

HC/HCT’s overall humanitarian funding considerations (e.g. flash appeal, Common Humanitarian Fund, CERF, etc.).

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o Provide technical guidance and support to cluster partners. Advocacy

o Identify advocacy concerns to contribute to HC/HCT messaging and action.o Undertake advocacy activities on behalf of cluster participants and the affected

population. Monitoring and reporting the implementation of the cluster strategy, work plan and

results; recommend corrective action where necessary. Contingency planning / preparedness / capacity building in situations where there is a

high risk of recurring or significant new disaster and where sufficient capacity exists within the cluster.

A Strategic Advisory Group (SAG) has been set up to assist the WASH Cluster in facilitating decision making. The SAG is supporting the WASH Cluster’s coordination in:

Providing strategic guidance. Maintaining national level partnerships and equitable representation of diverse

WASH sector interests within the cluster. Keeping the response moving, i.e. proactively review and adjust). Collectively representing the WASH Cluster interests and position including

advocating for resources and provisions. Setting performance standards and indicators.

Participating agencies (national and international) accept to support the WASH cluster in fulfilling its mission that primarily consist in supporting emergency response and recovery activities; working in partnership to prevent and reduce WASH-related morbidity and mortality, ensuring evidence-based actions, gap-filling and prioritization; and enhancing accountable, predictable and effective emergency WASH solutions. Without constant and consistent commitment of cluster participants, predictable coordination will not be achieved.

The minimum commitments for participation in WASH Cluster include: A common commitment to humanitarian principles, the principles of partnership

through for example cluster-specific guidance and internationally recognized programme standards.

Demonstrate an understanding of the duties and responsibilities within the cluster and any guidance specific to the cluster itself.

Active participation within the cluster and commitment to consistently engage in the cluster’s collective work. This includes regular participation in cluster meetings.

Capacity and willingness to contribute to the cluster’s strategic response plan and activities, which must include inter-cluster coordination and cross-cutting issues.

Commitment to work cooperatively with other cluster partners to ensure an optimal and strategic use of available resources, including sharing information.

Willingness to take on leadership responsibilities of sub-national and/or working groups, as needed and as capacity and mandate allow.

Contribute to developing and disseminating advocacy and messaging targeted at various actors, including but not limited to affected communities, the Government of Afghanistan (GoA), donors, the HCT, cluster lead agency and the media.

Readiness to participate in actions that specifically improve accountability to affected populations.

These minimum commitments for participation in country-level WASH Cluster provide a common basis of understanding of what organization commit to bring to clusters at the

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country level through their participation. All cluster partners, including CLA in their potential role as implementer alongside other agencies, have common, mutual responsibilities to reach the objective of effective and timely humanitarian response for affected people and reporting back to cluster on the progress, lessons and challenges.

The sub-national level (at province level) coordination focuses on the detail of planning and implementation of WASH related interventions. It is also at this level that contingency planning, emergency preparedness (including capacity building) and early recovery can practically be achieved. The sub-national level helps in facilitating effective information exchange, monitoring of the emergency situation, progress of the WASH response and adherence to agreed standards. Governments or WASH Cluster and its partners have responsibility to support and build the capacity of sub-national WASH Cluster (or coordination mechanism).

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WASH EMERGENCY STANDARDS

The aim of WASH intervention in emergencies is to reduce the transmission of faeco-oral diseases and exposure to disease-bearing vectors through the provision and promotion of:

1. Good hygiene practices;2. Safe drinking water;3. Proper excreta disposal.

The desired outcome of the WASH intervention can be achieved through optimal use of water supply, sanitation facilities and practice of safe hygiene behavior by people of all sex and age, based on the standards defined and contextualized to Afghanistan.

Standard 1: Hygiene promotion implementation

a). Affected men, women and children of all ages are aware of key public health risks and are mobilized to adopt measures to prevent the deterioration in hygienic conditions and to use and maintain the facilities provided.

Key indicators All facilities provided are appropriately used and regularly maintained. All people wash their hands after defecation, after cleaning a child’s bottom, before eating

and preparing food Representatives from all user groups are involved in planning, training, implementation,

monitoring and evaluation of the hygiene promotion work.

b). The disaster-affected population has access to and is involved in identifying and promoting the use of hygiene items to ensure personal hygiene, health, dignity and well-being.

Key indicators Women, men and children have access to hygiene items and these are used effectively to

maintain health, dignity and well-being. All women and girls of menstruating age are provided with appropriate materials for

menstrual hygiene following consultation with the affected population.

Standard 2: Access and water quantity

All people have a safe and equitable access to a sufficient quantity of water for drinking, cooking and personal and domestic hygiene. Public water points are sufficiently closed to households to enable use of the minimum water requirement.

Key indicators Average water use for drinking, cooking and personal hygiene in any household is at least

15 liters per person per day. The maximum distance from any household to the nearest water point is 500 meters. Queuing time at a water source is no more than 30 minutes

Standard 3: Water quality

Water is palatable and of sufficient quality (free from bacterial and chemical contamination) to be drunk and used for cooking and personal and domestic hygiene without causing risk to health

Key indicators There are no fecal coliforms per 100ml of water at the point of delivery and use and free

from chemical contamination according to who standards.

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Any household level water treatment options used are effective in improving microbiological water quality and accompanied by appropriate training, promotion and monitoring.

There is no outbreak of water-borne or water-related diseases.

Standard 4: Water facilities

People have adequate facilities to collect, store and use sufficient quantities of water for drinking, cooking and personal hygiene, and to ensure that drinking water remains safe until it is consumed

Key indicators Each household has at least two clean water collecting containers of 10-20 liters, one for

storage and one for transportation. Water collection and storage containers have narrow necks and/or covers for buckets and

other safe means of storage, for safe drawing and handling, and are demonstrably used.

Standard 5: Environment free from human feces

The living environment in general and specifically the habitat, food production areas, public centers and surroundings of drinking water sources are free from human fecal contamination.

Key indicators The environment in which the affected population lives is free from human feces. All excreta containment measures are at least 30 meters away from any groundwater

sources. The bottom of any latrine or soak-away pit is at least 1.5 meters above the water table.

Toilets are used in the most hygienic way possible and children’s feces are disposed of immediately and hygienically.

Standard 6: Appropriate and adequate toilet facilities

People have adequate, appropriate and acceptable toilet facilities, sufficiently close to their dwellings, to allow rapid, safe and secure access at all times, day and night.

Key indicators Toilets are appropriately designed, built and located to meet the following requirements:

They can be used safely by all sections of the population, including children, older people, pregnant women and persons with disabilities.

They are sited in such a way to minimize security threats to users, especially women and girls, throughout the day and the night.

They provide a degree of privacy in line with the norms of the users. They allow for the disposal of women’s menstrual hygiene materials and provide

women with the necessary privacy for washing menstrual hygiene material. They are sufficiently easy to use and keep clean and do not present a health hazard

to the environment. Use of toilets is arrange by household(s) and/or segregated by sex. A maximum of 20 people use each toilet.

Standard 7: Individual and family protection against vector-borne diseases

All disaster-affected people have the knowledge and the means to protect themselves from disease and nuisance vectors that are likely to cause a significant risk to health or well-being.

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Key indicators All populations have access to shelters that do not harbor or encourage the growth of vector

populations and are protected by appropriate vector control measures. All people have access to insecticide-treated mosquito nets use them effectively. All food stored at the household level is protected from contamination by vectors such as

flies, insects and rodents.

Standard 8: Collection and disposal of domestic waste

The affected population has an environment not littered by solid waste and has the means to dispose of their domestic waste conveniently and effectively.

Key indicators All waste generated by populations living in settlements is removed from the immediate

living environment on a daily basis, and from the settlement environment a minimum of twice a week.

At least one 100-liters refuse container is available per 10 households, where domestic refuse is not buried on site.

Standard 9: Drainage work

People have an environment in which health risks and other risks posed by water erosion and standing water are minimized.

Key indicators Water point drainage is well planned, built and maintained. This includes drainage from

washing and bathing areas as well as water collection points and hand washing facilities. Shelters, paths and water and sanitation facilities are not flooded or eroded by water.

Standard 10: WASH in SchoolsAll schools and learning centers should have safe and equitable access to adequate quantity of water for drinking, personal hygiene of the pupils and to keep the school toilet clean and hygienic.

Key Indicators (see technical guide 24 for detail) 10 liters per day per pupil (5 liters per day for drinking and hand washing & 5 liters per day

for toilet cleaning in case of public toilet); At least one toilet for girls and one for boys in schools as a minimum. Recommended one

toilet for 25 girls and one toilet with urinal for 50 boys.

Standard 9: WASH in Health Posts All health facilities and therapeutic feeding centers should have safe and equitable access to adequate quantity of water for drinking, personal hygiene of the patients, staff and carers to maintain the health facility clean (including toilet) and hygienic for providing quality health and nutrition care.

Key Indicators (see technical guide 23 for detail) For health facility – at least 5 liters per outpatients and 40-60 liters per inpatients per day. For therapeutic centers - 30 liters per inpatients per day15 liters per carer per day At least one toilet cabin to 20 beds or 50 outpatients or 20 children (bed)

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TECHNICAL GUIDANCE

The Technical Guidance provides the specific action points to consider when applying the minimum standards in different situations and at different stage of emergency. In total, there are 34 Technical Guidance (table x).

TG#1 Timeframe for assessments and formsTG#2 Additional check lists for specific situationsTG#3 Essential steps in rapid assessmentTG#4 Family Hygiene and Water KitsTG#5 Handwashing with SoapTG#6 Hygiene Promotion Campaign TG#7 Water Quality Monitoring in EmergencyTG#8 Water Bulk-chlorination TG#9 Cleaning and Disinfecting Hand Dug-wellTG#10 Point of Use Water Treatment and Safe storageTG#11 Rehab of Borehole and Hand Dug-wellTG#12 Water Mass-Distribution TG#13 Defecation Filed, ‘Cat Method’TG#14 Shallow Trench LatrineTG#15 Improved Trench LatrineTG#16 Emergency Family Pit LatrineTG#17 Vector Control in Emergency TG#18 Emergency Bathing Facility TG#19 Emergency Waste Management TG#20 Wastewater removal and pre-treatment TG#21 Wastewater final disposal TG#22 WASH in Health Care FacilitiesTG#23 WASH in SchoolTG#24 WASH and CholeraTG#25 WASH Nutrition TG#26 WASH in Urban Context TG#27 WASH in Cold Weather TG#28 Gender in Emergency WASHTG#29 Emergency WASH and protectionTG#30 Emergency WASH and disability TG#31 Emergency WASH and environment TG#32 Disaster Risk Reduction TG#33 Community ParticipationTG#34 Humanitarian Performance Monitoring

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Technical Guidance #1Timeframe for assessments and forms

Assessment is a major component in responding to emergency. A continuous process of needs assessment, analysis and monitoring is required throughout the early response stages of both a rapid-onset disaster or in complex emergencies (WCC Guideline).

Figure 3:broad timeframe for WASH related assessment and monitoring activities

Within the first 1-2 days following a rapid-onset disaster, a pre-cluster assessment must be undertaken by whoever is on the ground at the time and cluster coordination team must be informed about the main findings. This is a very quick and light assessment of the situation likely to be before the multi-cluster team arrives and probably undertaken by the local government and any other humanitarian partner on the ground.

Within one week (maximum two weeks) of a rapid onset disaster, additional data will normally be gathered through a rapid assessment process, which will often be a multi-cluster rapid assessment (i.e. HEAT/Household Emergency Assessment Tool in Afghanistan). In some circumstances, a WASH specific rapid assessment tool can also be used, if the nature of the damages is specific to WASH or the size of the disaster is bigger. The WASH Cluster will advise on the use of appropriate tool as demanded by the situation.

Up to six months after the disaster, many WASH agencies will be undertaking their own comprehensive WASH sector in-depth assessment to assess the effectiveness of response and prepare for the post-disaster and/or recovery phases.

Pre-cluster assessment

Within the first 2 days following a rapid-onset disaster, a pre-cluster assessment must be undertaken by whoever is on the ground at the time. The assessment at such an early stage would draw information from anecdotal evidences, secondary data, and/or possibly a visit to the affected area using a simplified assessment form. The objective of the pre-cluster assessment is to prepare for a rapid assessment by identifying key resources to be contacted and areas to be visited and address the acute life-saving needs during the first days after the onset of the disaster.

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Figure 4: WASH Cluster standard form for pre-cluster assessment

The Cluster recommended tool for pre-cluster assessment (Figure 4) aims at collecting basic information by those on the ground at the time of onset emergency and or talking to local informants. The information can also be collected by asking key questions to key informants by telephone.

After information have been collected, it is recommended that the person or agency fills the this form and sends to the WASH Cluster Coordination team at provincial and national level to be shared with all partners for next steps: Cluster led rapid assessments and mobilization of resources for immediate response, especially those managed by the WASH Cluster.

Rapid Assessment

The Rapid Assessment (RA) must be undertaken within one week (maximum two weeks) after the onset of a disaster. This type of assessment is needed to identify the key risky practices and factors that might increase vulnerability of affected populations and impediment the likely success of both the provision of WASH facilities and hygiene promotion activities. This assessment can be either inter-cluster or WASH Cluster specific depending on the nature and scale of damage. For emergencies such as flood or landslides where damage is limited to water system without affecting the habitats, WASH specific Rapid Assessment Form (RAF) could be used (table 4). However, if the disaster encompasses wider aspects of community (shelter, food, health, education, etc.), it is recommended to conduct a multi-cluster rapid assessment.

Multi-Cluster Rapid Assessment

In Afghanistan, the Household Emergency Assessment Tool (HEAT) is used when a multi-cluster assessment has to be conducted. It is a household based questionnaire where seven

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questions are directly related to WASH (table 3). However please note that the agencies or groups of agencies conducting the multi-cluster assessment using HEAT are expected to complete all 42 questions of the survey. See ANNEX I for detail.

Table 3: WASH Cluster section from the HEAT (Household Emergency Assessment Tool)Question Options for answers Related indicator

6.1 Do you currently have access to enough water?

Drinking: Yes/NoHygiene: Yes/NoCooking: Yes/No“Enough” should represent an approximate minimum of 15liter per person per day

% of population with access to at least 15 liters per day per person of safe water for drinking, cooking and personal hygiene.

6.2 What are your main source(s) of water?

Hand pumpOpen wellStream or riverPiped waterKandasOther

6.3 How far away is the water source?

On foot (in minutes)By other transport (in km)

6.4 Who in the family principally collects water?

6.5 Do you have access to an appropriate latrine?

Yes/NoAppropriate latrine means one cabin for 20 people, gender separated and hygienic (no flies and no smell)

% of people with access to hygienic and gender separated toilets.

6.6 Type of latrine Community latrineFamily latrineFamily latrine (VIP) Open defecation

% of people practicing OD

7.5 Does the family have a need for:

Direct Observation: Water container: At least two containers, narrow-necked or with cover

Hygiene supplies: Is there soap available (can they show soap in one minute?)

% of people with access to water and soap for hand washing

(WASH-Specific) Rapid Assessment

In parallel to the multi-cluster HEAT, the WASH Cluster also developed a WASH specific rapid assessment form (RAF). The WASH-specific RAF (see Annex I) allows the collection of 14 key indicators at community level, for prioritization of location and activities (table 4).

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Table 4: WASH-specific rapid assessment questions and indicators

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Indicator Unit Strategic question1 Proportion of household

with access to a source of safe drinking water

% Where do you source your drinking water?What other source do you use and for what usage? (with a list of typical types of sources)

2 Quantity of water used per person per day for drinking, cooking, hygiene and laundry

Liters/ person/ day

How much water do you use per person per day in your household? / estimate critical thresholds (<5l/p/d, 5 to 15l/p/d, >15l/p/d)

3 Average time to access to a safe water point

Minutes Q: How far is located your drinking water source? / estimate critical thresholds (less than 5 minutes, between 5 to 15 minutes, more than 15 minutes)

4 Proportion of household possessing at least one clean narrow-necked or covered water container for drinking water

% Q: Do you have at least one narrow-necked or covered water container for exclusive drinking-water use?DO: is it narrow-necked or covered?

5 Average total capacity of water collection and storage containers at HH level

Liters Which is the total water storage capacity at HH level (# of containers * volumes = m3 or liters)

6 Proportion of household possessing soap

% Q: do you possess soap for washing and hygiene?DO: can they produce the soap within one minute?

7 Proportion of women, men, boys and girls washing hands with water and soap after contact with faeces and before handling food

% Q: do you have soap / ashes / sand for hand washing? If yes, have you used it today? If yes, what did you used it for?

8 Access to appropriate bathing facilities

None/ Limited/ Sufficient

Q: do you have access to a bathing / washing area? HH or communal? Do you feel safe and your privacy is respected using this bathing facility?

9 Proportion of household having received a hygiene kit within a year

% Q: do you possess hygiene items that were part of a hygiene kit distributed less than a year ago?DO: can they produce hygiene items that are part of the hygiene kit?

10 Proportion of households where food is safely stored and prepared

% Q: the last time you prepared food, what steps did you go through? Can you show me where you keep this food?

11 Proportion of household with access to a functioning toilet

% Do you have access to a functioning toilet?

12 Presence of human feces on the ground on and around the site

Yes/No Q: if no toilet is accessible or used by the HH members, where do HH members go to defecate?DO: is there presence of faeces within the HH compound? [often on edge of compound or behind house]

13 Proportion of toilets that are clean

% DO: in and nearby toilets, no presence of faeces on floor or surrounding access paths, no presence of stagnant water in and out toilets, no overflowing of black-water

14 Presence of faecal-oral disease

Outbreak/ High or significant increasing incidences

Q: how many times have you had diarrhea or stomach problems in the last month (last 2 weeks)?Or obtain the data directly from the health structure

Comprehensive WASH Situation Assessment Form (CWSAF)

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The assessment of the WASH situation is recommended upon the completion of the initial response, but no later than six months. This assessment is intended for understanding the effectiveness of response and changes in situation of the population with respective to WASH services and practices. This will help identifying the emerging needs and develop an appropriate plan for restoration and recovery phase for smooth bridging of humanitarian and development divide. See recommended template for CWSAF in Annex II

Recommendation on use of different needs assessment tools

Table 5: Comparison between the different forms and template recommended for rapid assessment

Tools When Why 1 Pre-cluster

assessment Acute phase of an emergency

(immediate); Within the first 48 hours of the

onset of emergency;

To understand the extent of damage (who, where, what);

To mobilize the resource To inform the key partners

/donors; To plan rapid assessment

2 Inter-Cluster Rapid Assessment (HEAT)

Within 72 hours of the onset emergency, but no later than 7 day;

When people’s need is beyond WASH (more than one sector);

More relevant in population displacement (e.g. IDPs) ;

When number of household involved is ≤ 200;

When IDPs are interspersed with host communities

To trigger the response by verifying the extent and scale of need;

To mobilize inter-cluster resources;

When household level assessment is more relevant (e.g. cash based transfer, support for latrine building)

3 WASH Rapid Assessment Form (WRAF)

Within 72 hours of the onset emergency, but no later than 7 day;

When damage and needs are limited to water system or WASH only;

When IDPs /returnees family number is ≥ 200;

When the WASH needs of the affected families is homogenous (all need same service)

To minimize the time required for rapid assessment;

To allow space for observing the WASH needs and practice of the community;

To be able to identify the potential sources of water for response

4 Comprehensive WASH Situation Assessment Form (CWSAF)

Between 3 – 6 months from the onset emergency;

When restoration and recovery is necessary (e.g. flood or landslide);

When affected population are going to be displaced for longer period (remain in the current settlement)

To understand the effectiveness of the response;

To understand the changes in situation including WASH practices;

To identify the longer-term needs and gaps;

To develop the restoration and recovery plan

Technical Guidance #2

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Additional check lists for specific situations

These check list are primarily for use to assess needs and describe local conditions in floods, diarrheal disease outbreak and displacement of population contexts. These check lists should be used as a complement to the standardized assessment templates.

Flash-floods

Diarrheal disease outbreak

Population movement and camps

General Relevant Relevant Relevant How accessible are the affected locations? How functional is the communication system (phone, TV, radio, etc.)?

Y Y

How safe and secure are the affected locations? Y Y YHow many people are affected (number of houses destroyed / affected)? Disaggregate the data by sex, age, disability, etc. Get information from health facilities, CDCs and other local sources.

Y Y Y

Which proportion of the population is displaced? In what type of location (camps, host community, etc.)?

Y Y

Are people expected to move further? Y YWhat are the current, prevalent or possible water and sanitation-related diseases? What is the likely extend and expected evolution of the problem?

Y Y Y

Who are the key people to consult or contact? Y Y YWho are the vulnerable people in the population and why? Y Y YIs there equal access for all to the existing facilities including at public places, health centers and schools?

Y Y Y

What are the formal and informal power structures (e.g. community leaders, elders, women’s groups)?

Y Y Y

Who are the potential supporting partners in the location? Y Y YAre weather forecasts available for the coming days? What is the likely scenario?

Y Y

Hygiene PromotionWhat water and sanitation practices were the population accustomed to before the disaster?

Y Y Y

Do people generally wash their hands after defecation and before food preparation and eating? Are soaps available?

Y Y Y

What practices are harmful to health, who practices these and why (e.g. Open Defecation)?

Y

What are the existing formal and informal channels of communication and outreach (community health workers, traditional birth attendants, traditional healers, mosques, etc.)?

Y Y Y

What access to the mass media is there in the area (radio, television, video, newspapers, etc.)?

Y Y Y

What segments of the population need to be targeted (mothers, children, community leaders, etc.)?

Y Y Y

What non-food items (hygiene and water) are available and what are the most urgent based on preferences and needs?

Y Y Y

Water SupplyWhat are the current water supply sources for the majority Y Y Y

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of the users?What proportion of water point was damaged by floods? YWhat proportion of water point was contaminated by flood?

Y

What proportion of water point remains available for the population?

Y Y

How much water is available per person per day? How did this number decreased following the floods?

Y Y Y

What is the daily/weekly frequency of water availability? Y Y YIs the water available at the source sufficient for short-term and long-term needs for all groups in the population?

Y Y Y

Are water collection points close enough to where people currently live? Are they safe?

Y Y Y

Is the current water supply reliable? How long will it last? Y Y YDo people have enough water containers of appropriate size and type?

Y Y Y

Is the water source contaminated or at risk of microbiological contamination?

Y Y Y

Is disinfection necessary, even if the supply is not contaminated?

Y Y Y

Are there alternative sources of water nearby? Y Y YAre there any obstacles to using available water supply sources?

Y Y

Is it possible to tanker water if water sources are inadequate or unavailable?

Y Y Y

Who are the other users currently using the water sources? Is there a risk of conflict if the sources are utilized for the new populations?

Y Y

Excreta disposalWhat proportion of sanitation points (toilets) was destroyed?

Y

What proportion of sanitation points (toilets) remains in use?

Y Y

What is the current defecation practice? If it is open defecation, is there a designated area? Is the area secure?

Y Y Y

What are current beliefs and practices, including gender-specific practices, concerning excreta disposal?

Y Y Y

Does the current defecation practice a threat to water supplies?

Y Y Y

What local materials are available for constructing toilets? Y Y YAre people prepared to use pit latrines, defecation fields, trenches, etc.?

Y Y Y

Is there sufficient space for pit latrines, trenches, etc.? Y Y YIs the terrain where people live a sloped land or a plain area?

Y Y

What is the level of the ground water table? Y Y YAre soil conditions suitable for on-site excreta disposal? Y Y YWhat environmental consideration should be assessed? Y Y YVector controlWhat are the vector-borne disease risks? Y YIs it necessary to control flies by chemical means? What programmes, regulations and resources exist for vector control and the use of chemicals?

Y

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Solid waste managementIs accumulated waste a problem? Y YHow do people dispose of their waste? What type and quantity of solid waste is produced?

Y Y

DrainageIs there a drainage problem, e.g. flooding of dwellings or toilets, polluted water contaminating living areas or water supplies?

Y Y Y

Is the soil or terrain prone to water logging? Y Y YDo people have the means to protect their dwellings and toilets from local flooding or rain and wastewater flow?

Y Y

Are water points and bathing areas well drained? Y Y

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Technical Guidance #3Essential steps in rapid assessment

The broad timings for an assessment process are: 1-3 days – organization and briefing / training of assessment teams 1-3 days – data collection in the field 1-2 days – data processing, analysis and report preparation.

Note: one of the key recommendations for a rapid assessment survey is to focus on critical issues and keep the survey short and simple.

Organization of assessments

The preparation phase has the below main objectives: Define the broad scope of assessment: geographical coverage, timing, number of

assessment teams, key information needs, and information sources. Define common standards, objectives and indicators taking into account;

o Access to and availability of safe drinking water and water storage;o Access to and availability of water for personal hygiene / household use;o Access to means of safe hygiene practices;o Access to and means of excreta disposal.

Ensure that the information provided takes account of, and complements assessments planned by the government and/or other clusters.

There should be an agreement among WASH Cluster partners on the form that will be used for the assessment or together with other relevant clusters if a joint rapid assessment is undertaken.

The WASH Cluster will need to agree which agencies participate in the assessment on its behalf. As time in the field will be limited, ensuring that assessment team members have clear and specific roles and responsibilities will help to get the most out of a rapid assessment.

A pre-prepared field work plan is useful in outlining: Allocation of assessment teams to specific locations; Site details, e.g. location, GPS coordinates, and sequence of visit; Means of travel, time allowed, and fieldwork time at each locations; Arrangements and equipment for eating, drinking, sleeping; Access, security, and communication arrangements.

Data collection, processing and analysisData will be collected through a combination of focus group discussions, key informant interviews and observation. On arrival, meet with local and traditional authorities or leaders. This also provides an opportunity to gather background data. Take care not to raise community expectations about the level of support that might be provided. Use participatory approaches where possible, but at least with a sample of sites or households. Provide feedback to local and traditional authorities before leaving on the use of information and next step.Key points for effective data collection and processing:

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Use appropriate sampling if there is a significant difference between households; Disaggregate data by age and gender; Triangulate – verify data collected from three different sources or people; Consider disaster impacts – at household, community and society levels; Highlight bias – in information, methodologies and findings;

Data processing should be managed by a pre-identified Information Management focal point. Where communication channels allow, sending summary assessment data back from the field on a daily basis will help speed up the overall assessment process. Data analysis should be undertaken by a Cluster steering group for the inter-agency and inter-cluster assessment and comparison between the different locations.

Reporting and dissemination of assessment findings

The main principles underlying rapid assessment are speed, brevity, transparency, and focus on concrete recommendations. Reporting on rapid assessment findings is a crucial to allow the triggering of the response the sooner possible. Tips for assessment reporting are:

Keep reports short and simple; Briefly outline assessment methodology, highlighting any gaps, bias, assumptions and

limitations; Tabulate information in a summary table capturing the critical and essential findings; Present clear, evidence-based conclusions; explain the problems, impact, needs, and

recommended actions; Disseminate promptly and widely, and publicize findings in local languages and at

community level where needed; Presentation of information in a coherent and consistent manner will strengthen the

analysis of humanitarian needs and improve opportunities for advocacy and mobilizing funding.

Mobilizing WASH emergency items from the Cluster

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Once an assessment has been conducted, needs identified and findings shared with the clusters, partners can request and receive emergency items from the WASH Cluster to provide immediate support to affected population.

Figure 5: WASH Supply standard release form to mobilize WASH emergency items from cluster’s warehouses

However, there are pre-requisite conditions to this entitlement: Requesting partner should be an active cluster partner; Requesting partner regularly conducts /or participates in join assessments; Assessment reports and identified needs are regularly shared with the cluster; Requesting partner checks the availability of the supplies with DACAAR (stock

holder) either at the national or sub-national level, and is responsible for mobilization of goods from DACAAR warehouse to the project location;

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Cluster verifies and approves the request as necessary; Partner submits the goods receipt by beneficiaries at the end of the distribution.

Figure 6: Supply distribution form to mobilize emergency WASH items from Cluster’s warehouses, based on needs assessment.

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Technical Guidance #4Hygiene and Water Kits Distribution

Hygiene and Water Kits are often the supplies that are needed to be delivered first during an emergency. They have an important role to play in preventing disease outbreaks and help those affected by conflicts or disaster to carry out their essential daily activities such as collecting and storing water and maintaining personal hygiene. Some items are live saving such as jerry cans or soap and other items may simply contribute to people’s sense of dignity in difficult circumstances such as toothbrush and sanitary pads.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTSWhen distributing Hygiene or Water Kit, ensure that;

The content of the kit is as per the recommendation of the cluster. In case of any changes required, a strong justification should be provided to obtain the cluster’s approval.

A post distribution survey /evaluation is conducted or planned to probe the beneficiary satisfaction.

GUIDELINES Hygiene and water kits do not have the same purposes and must be distributed based on

needs identified through rapid assessment and some key criteria:o Distribute hygiene kits to:

Displaced population lacking access to essential supplies for maintaining personal hygiene;

In time of cholera (or Acute Diarrheal Disease) outbreak, all categories of population lacking access to basic sanitation facilities and hygiene items;

o Distribute water kits to: Displaced population forced to use the water from unprotected sources of

which quality is suspicious, water from damaged and/or contaminated supply systems;

All categories of people bound to use raw water (often turbid and contaminated) from river or pond in time of cholera (or Acute Diarrheal Disease) outbreak;

The cluster recommended hygiene kit should have all the essential items to meet the hygiene needs of the family including that of women, adolescent girls, boys, men and elderly people. While distributing hygiene kits, it’s anticipated that the families have access to potable water within 500 me distance from their inhabitation. Hygiene kit includes the items needed for collection and storage of water for personal and family hygiene.

The cluster recommended water kit should have all essential items to collect, treat and safely store the water.

Based on situation and needs analyses, hygiene and water kits can be distributed together, or separately when only one of the kit is needed.

A registration list of beneficiary households has to be maintained (indicating male, female, anyone with a disability or special needs, children, elderly people and other vulnerable groups (e.g. female or child headed household) and the total number of household/population.

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Ideally, existing registration lists can be used (e.g. those for food distribution) or local leaders or volunteers can be identified in each location to help for registration. This can be cross-checked by random visits to some of the registered households to verify information given.

A plan for distribution management, task allocation to various teams, recording and security needs to be drawn up. A distribution venue must be identified.

A distribution schedule detailing dates/time, distribution sites, targeted beneficiaries, items needed, and the responsible persons for every site must be prepared.

Information about the time, place and nature of the distribution must also be communicated to the affected population via their traditional, religious and/or political leaders, should also be made known.

If necessary, organize and train separate teams to carry out demonstrations or provide information on assembly and use of items distributed.

Monitor beneficiary satisfaction with the distribution process and the hygiene items, and observe the use of the items provided. This can be done by randomly selecting a percentage of household for interviews and/or through focus group discussion.

The WASH Cluster recommended content of the Hygiene and Water Kits is presented below (table 6 and 7). If deemed necessary, the actual content can deviate from the recommended list provided there is a strong justification for change.

The consumables in the Kits are defined based on the needs of a family for one month, additional consumables may be distributed if needs remain critical after few weeks of response.

Table 6 : Afghanistan WASH Cluster Hygiene Kit. Content for a family of 7 members.

Item Description Unit Quantity1 Bathing soap Hand washing and bathing (125gm bars) Piece 72 Plastic soap case Piece 13 Laundry soap Washing clothes and sanitary clothes

(200 gm bars) Piece 7

4 Plastic jerry can Capacity 10-20 liters, for water transportation and storage

Piece 2

5 Plastic bucket Capacity 10-20 liters, for water transportation

Piece 1

6 Plastic mug Capacity 2 liters, for handling water Piece 17 Soft cotton clothe Piece of 2m², dark color Piece 28 Toothbrush adult Standard, large Piece 39 Toothbrush children Standard, small Piece 410 Toothpaste Standard, tube of 125 g Piece 211 Towel Standard, 40 x 70 cm Piece 512 Shampoo Bottle 250 ml Piece 213 Sanitary pad Normal size, for menstrual hygiene, box

of 12BOX 2

14 Hygiene promotion material

Minimum essential messages on hygiene SHEET 5

Table 7 : Afghanistan WASH Cluster Water Kit. Content for a family of 7 members.

Item Description Unit Quantity1 Plastic mug Capacity 2 liters, for handling water Piece 42 Plastic jerry can Capacity 10-20 liters, for water

transportation and storagePiece 2

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3 Plastic bucket Capacity 10-20 liters, for water transportation

Piece 1

4 Handwashing soap Handwashing and bathing (250 gm bar) Piece 75 Water purification

tabletsTo treat 105 liters of water per day - -

6 Instruction leaflets About water chlorination Piece 2

ELEMENTS FOR PROJECT DESIGN

Scenario Community with 5,000 individuals affected by flash flood. Houses have been destroyed and hygiene kits are needed for the entire population.

Inputs Needs: distribution of hygiene kits for 5,000 individuals – 715 families Hygiene kits: 715 Equipment for distribution site (wooden poles and plastic sheeting,

table, chairs, note book, pen and drinking water): 1Time and human resources needed

For the census (if required): 251 households to be sampled 3 days with a team of 11 people (5 teams of 2 and one supervisor)

For the distribution: 1 day with a team of 5 people

Costing estimate (excluded of transport and programme support)

Unit cost per kit: USD 25Cost for a census (5,000 individuals): USD 576Cost for the distribution site: USD 250Total cost for the distribution: (715*25) + 576 + 250 = USD 18,701

Additional information and references: UNICEF, 2007: WASH-related non-food items. A briefing paper (online). UNICEF, 2009: Global WASH Cluster. Introduction to hygiene promotion in emergencies. Tools

and approaches (online).

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Technical Guidance #5Hand washing (with soap)

Hand washing with soap is the simplest way to prevent a variety of pathogens from entering our bodies. In a household setting, a hand washing station is a designated space bringing together water and soap to wash hands, ideally in close proximity to a latrine. Convenient and easy access to both water and soap at critical times is a key behavioral determinant of hand washing with soap among women and children. If a busy mother needs to look for soap before preparing a meal, or a child does not have easy access to water and soap after using the latrine, the probability of hand washing with soap actually taking place is lower.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTSWhen installing hand washing station, ensure that:

The design and the location of hand washing station has been discussed and accepted by the beneficiaries, and ensure the water outlet of the water container is protected from contamination.

Soap and water must be available at all times for compliance to hand washing, at least throughout the emergency period.

Hygiene messages focusing on hand washing have been delivered in parallel to the installation of handwashing stations.

GUIDELINES Promotion of handwashing at critical times is an absolute priority in emergency

situations. Critical times include after using toilets, after cleaning the bottom of a child, and before eating and preparing food. There should be a constant source of water close to the handwashing stations / points.

Simple handwashing devices can be made from readily available materials and manufactured with little or no cost (figure 7).

Figure 7: Examples of simple handwashing station designsLeft: simple system with water flowing from a 20-50 liters container (1, 2) standing on a 0.5m high support (3). Wastewater is collected in a 10-12liters bucket under the tap (4) and soap is always available and attached to a support to avoid theft.

Right: water is available in a 20 l bucket (1) and must be poured in a perforated container (e.g. a 2 l plastic bottle) (2) that is strongly fixed to a support (3). Waste water can be collected in a separate bucket, a drainage or a small infiltration pit (4).

The success of establishing handwashing routines in a family or community vitally depends on how attractive the facilities are designed and constructed. The acceptance of handwashing is strikingly increases if facilities are conveniently located, clean and properly functioning.

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Hand washing is only hygienic if water outlet is not contaminated during its use. Hanging up the container instead of putting it on floor effectively avoids contamination of the outlet.

In health care settings, the staff should not walk more than 20m before reaching a hand washing station (or similar; e.g. alcohol based solution).

Elements of design

Scenario Community with 5,000 individuals affected by flash flood. Houses have been destroyed for 50% of the families and they lost their all properties and living in a makeshift shelter with no handwashing facility available.

Inputs Needs: Distribution of hygiene kits to 2500 individuals (358 families) Hygiene kits: 358 (all families that have lost house will be given kits) Families should be mobilized to build a handwashing stand using local

materials. One handwashing station for 20 people (3 families). If needed one 20liter jerry cane or bucket fitted with tap can be provided. Items such wooden, wooden stand /table can be source locally as needed.

Time and human resources needed

2-3 days with a team of 5 people to promote, support and supervise the installation of handwashing

Costing estimate (excluded of transport and programme support)

Cost of bucket / Jerry Cane fitted with tap: 4 USDCost of personnel: 5 x 3 days x 25 = 375 USDCost for the buckets /jerry canes to 358/3 = 120 stations (120 * 4) : 480 USD

Note: The total cost to cover 358 families is 855 USD, i.e. 0.34 USD per person. This may not be even needed if community is well mobilized to contribute with the local resources.

Additional information and references: Hulland et al., 2013: Designing a handwashing station for infrastructure-restricted communities in

Bangladesh using the integrated behavioral model for water, sanitation and hygiene interventions. BMC Public Health (online).

SSWM, 2017: Sustainable Sanitation and Water Management. Simple handwashing devices (online).

WSP, 2010: Water and Sanitation Programme. Global scaling up hand washing program. Insights from designing a handwashing station for rural Vietnamese households (online).

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Technical Guidance #6Hygiene promotion campaign

Hygiene promotion is the planned, systematic attempt to enable people to take action to prevent or mitigate WASH-related diseases and provide a practical way to facilitate community participation and accountability in emergencies. Hygiene promotion ensures that optimal use is made of the WASH facilities that are provided. The priority focus of hygiene promotion in an emergency is the prevention of diarrhea through safe disposal of excreta, effective handwashing and reducing the contamination of household drinking water.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTSHygiene promotion campaigns are full packages that should:

Ensure community participation: consult with affected men, women and children on design of WASH facilities including handwashing stations. Identify and respond to vulnerability (e.g. children, pregnant women, elderly or those with disabilities).

Ensure proper use and maintenance of facilities: Feedback to engineers/technicians on design and acceptability of facilities. Establish a voluntary system of cleaning and maintenance. Lay the foundation for longer term maintenance by identification, organization and training of water and sanitation committees.

Ensure the distribution of hygiene kits when relevant. Ensure the optimal use of hygiene items.

Promote community and individual action. Train outreach system of hygiene promoters to conduct home visits. Organize community dramas and group activities with adults and children. If culturally required have separate groups for men and women. Use available mass media e.g. radio to provide information on hygiene.

Collect, analyze and use data on appropriate use of hygiene items, optimal use of facilities including handwashing stations and community satisfaction.

GUIDELINES Hygiene promotion will depend on the existing situation and what is feasible in terms of

population customs, culture and resources and the level of public health risk. At all time, the emphasis should be on mobilizing people to take action.

Hygiene promotion is a process composed of several steps from assessment and planning to activity implementation and monitoring (table 8).

Table 8: Hygiene promotion steps

# Step Key issues/activities/questions1 Assessment

Based on rapid assessment, identify risk practices and get an initial idea of what the community knows, does, and understand about water, sanitation and hygiene

Consult women, men and children separately

Which specific practices allow diarrheal microbes/other diseases to be transmitted

Which practices are the most harmful? What specific hygiene needs do men, women, and children

have?

2 Planning Select practice(s) and

hardware for intervention Which risk practices are most widespread? Which will have the biggest impact on public health? What can be done to enable change of risky practices?

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3 Define target audiences (this may be all the community with priority focus on those who care for young children) and stakeholders

Who employs these practices? Who influences the people who employ these practices?

For example, teachers, community leaders, religious leaders, community volunteers, etc.

4 Define initial mode of intervention

Determine initial key messages and channels of communication

What mass media methods are available? For example, 60% of people has radios but they are often used by men.

What methods do the target audiences trust? For example, traditional leaders, community volunteers, etc.

Where/how can men and women be accessed? For example, water points, religious gathering, etc.

5 Recruit/identify and start to train fieldworkers and outreach system

What capacity (systems, skills and approaches) already exists in government/national NGOs?

6 Implementation Begin implementation and

continue assessing situation Distribute hygiene kits; Mobilize beneficiaries to build handwashing stations Emphasis initially on providing information and use of

mass media (e.g. radio spots, campaigns and home visits). Organize group meetings/interviews and discussions with

key informants and stakeholders to initiate a more interactive approach.

7 On-going assessment Develop baseline Understand motivational

factors/refine key messages

Preferably obtain quantitative data Carry out systematic collection of qualitative data using

participatory methods (be careful not to overwhelm communities with over questioning).

What motivates those who currently use safe practices? What are the advantages of the safe practices?

8 Monitor Are hygiene kits being used/are people satisfied with them? Are toilets being used/are people satisfied with them? Do men and women feel safe when accessing facilities? Are people washing their hands? Is drinking water in the home free from contamination?

9 Implementation Refine communication plan Rapidly adapt intervention

according to the findings of monitoring

Continue training Continue monitoring

Emphasis more on interactive methods (e.g. group discussions using mapping, three piles sorting, etc.).

Identify and train longer term structures (e.g. committees); Children and women are continuously involved in mass

campaign and monitoring of behavioral practices.

Hygiene promotion campaign must not be confounded with awareness campaign. The ultimate aim of a public-awareness campaign is to ensure that households have at least one person who knows how to prevent a specific disease and what to do in case symptoms occur. This effort will also include community meetings and distribution of information in health centers, schools and markets – as well door-to-door visits and children’s activities in local communities.

Additional information and references: UNICEF, 2009: Global WASH Cluster. Introduction to hygiene promotion in emergencies. Tools

and approaches (online).

Technical Guidance #7Water quality monitoring in emergency situation

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People who are traumatized by an emergency event and in a poor health are particularly vulnerable to water related diseases including those which are spread through the drinking water. Water quality analysis is often required in emergency situations to determine whether water is safe to drink. Monitoring water quality in emergency situations should focus on what is realistic during the various stages of an emergency.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS

In emergency situations, water should: Be chlorinated in the initial phase as it is assumed to be contaminated and population

may have a higher sensibility to pathogens due to stress conditions. Have a turbidity below 5 NTU (below 10 NTU in acute phase of the emergency and if

no other safer option exists). Have a Free Residual Chlorine concentration close to 0.5 mg/l.

GUIDELINES

Even before analyzing water quality, a sanitary survey of water sources is recommended to evaluate the risk of contamination. It is an assessment of conditions and practices that may constitute a public health risk. Assessment covers possible sources of contamination to water at the source, in transport and in the home, defecation practices, drainage and solid waste management. Community mapping is a particularly effective way of identifying where the public health risks are. Several check lists are available for conducting a sanitary survey (figure 8).

Figure 8: Example of sanitary survey check list (ACF).

Parameters that should be tested in emergency situations are the turbidity, the Free Residual Chlorine concentration and the pH to adjust the contact time before distributing water to the population (table 9).

Table 9: Water quality parameters of importance in emergency situation.Parameters Guide values RemarksTurbidity Less than 5 NTU Less than 10 NTU in acute phase if no other safer option

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1. Presence of latrine within 30m form the well2. Nearby latrine located on higher ground than

the well3. Presence of other source of pollution within

10 m of the well (excreta, solid waste, etc.)4. Unsafe methods to take water from the well5. Insufficient well head to prevent entry of

wastewater6. Cracks or/and breaks in concrete of well head7. Well apron large enough (more than 1 m Ø)8. Poor drainage and stagnant water near the

well9. Cracks in apron10. Walls of the well inadequately sealed11. Damaged drainage channel12. Inadequate fence allowing animals to access

the well head.

exists. If the water is too turbid, chlorination is not effective.

Chlorine Residual (FRC)

Around 0.5 mg/l Between 0.2 mg/l and 0.5 mg/l is the usual range. Above 1 mg/l water may be rejected by population

due to the bad taste Below 0.2 mg/l water may not be safe for drinking

after it has been stored in householdspH Around 7 Measuring pH is important when water is chlorinated.

If pH is <8 allow a contact time between chlorine and water of 30 minutes before distribution.

If pH is >8 allow a contact time between chlorine and water of 60 minutes before distribution.

Fecal coliform 0 CFU per 100 ml It is not a priority to test fecal coliform at the early stage of an emergency as water should be chlorinated.A sanitary survey can provide information on whether a water source is at risk of contamination. Bacteriological tests can be conducted one month after the onset of disaster using portable equipment.

Testing Free Residual Chlorine The quickest and simplest method for testing chlorine residual is the DPD (Dethyl

Paraphenylene Diamine) indicator test, using a comparator (figure 9). A tablet of DPD (dpd 1) is added to a sample of water, coloring it in red. The stronger the color, the higher the concentration of chlorine in the water. Several kits for analyzing the chlorine residual in water are available commercially.

Chlorination is only one defense against disease, however, every effort should be made to protect water sources from contamination, and to prevent subsequent contamination during collection, storage and usage.

There is no point in chlorinating pipe networks if the water supply is intermittent. Nearly all piped systems leak and when the water supply is turned off, the pressure will drop and contaminated water will enter the system through the leaks in the pipe joints. All intermittent water supplies should be assumed to be contaminated and measures taken to disinfect water at the point of use.

In a closed system that provide water for 24 hours, by adding chlorine in reservoir, pressure breakers and springs (or other source) as per the guidelines will minimize the risk of water contamination.

Like of point source like dug-well and borehole can also be chlorinated if the water quality monitoring result indicates fecal contamination.

In case of any disaster the WASH committee under CDC in the village or community is responsible to check the integrity of the water system for leakage, defects or potential new hazards as the result of the disaster. CDC needs to be mobilized in identifying the risk and implementing appropriate solution.

Figure 9: Measuring Free Residual Chlorine (FRC) concentration using a chlorine tester.

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Testing turbidity of water Turbidity is the cloudiness or dirtiness of water caused by suspended particles. Turbid

water (above 5 NTU) should not be chlorinated because the particles in suspension can protect micro-organisms from the disinfectant action. If the turbidity exceeds 5 NTU (10 NTU in acute phase), a pre-treatment such a sedimentation or filtration should be done before the chlorination is started. Some simple techniques can be made using locally available material (figure 9).

The simplest and cheapest method to measure turbidity is to use a turbidity tube. The turbidity tube is a long and narrow graduated tube, in transparent plastic with a black ring or cross printed on the bottom (box 10). If a laboratory or a turbidity tube are not available, some simple techniques can be made using locally available material (box 11).

Figure 10: estimating turbidity with a turbidity tube

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Operation: Fill the turbidity tube completely (until the 5

NTU mark) with the water to be tested. Try to detect via the opening and through the

mass of water the black ring or cross at the bottom of the tube. This has to be done with the tube in vertical position.

Remove gradually water from the tube (if necessary) until the black mark on the bottom can be detected.

Read the result by comparing the water level in the tube and the graduation present on the tube wall. This has to be done with the tube in vertical position.

A: black cross or ring detectionB: gradual removal of water from the tubeC: reading of the result

Figure 11: estimating turbidity with locally available material

Equipment: A clean container with a dark-colored interior surface, such as a

dust bin, and with a minimum depth of 50 cm A bucket A copper coin with an approximate diameter of 2.5 cm A long measuring pole or steel tape measure

Method:1. Place the coin in the bottom of the container2. Add the water a little at a time (a). At regular intervals, wait for

the surface of the water to calm and check to see if the coin is still visible (b). When it can no longer be seen (c), measure the depth of the water (d).

If the depth of the water is less than 32 cm, the turbidity is likely to be greater than 20 NTU.

If the depth of the water is between 32 and 50 cm, the turbidity is likely to be between 10 and 20 NTU.

If the depth of the water is greater than 50 cm, the turbidity of the water is likely to be less than 10 NTU.

Additional information and references: Sphere Oxfam: water quality analysis in emergency situations ACF MSF

Technical Guidance # 8

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Water bulk chlorination

Water should be treated with a residual disinfectant such as chlorine if there is a significant risk of source or post-delivery contamination. Chlorination is one of the best methods for disinfecting drinking water because it is relatively simple, effective, easy to monitor and it has a remnant effect. Chlorination is effective against most enteric bacteria and plenty but not all viruses (e.g. Hepatitis E).

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS

When chlorinating water for drinking purposes; The turbidity of the water should be below 5 NTU before it is chlorinated; For piped water supplies, or all water supplies at times of risk of diarrheal epidemics,

the chlorine residual at the end of the treatment should be 0.5mg/l; In case of specific diarrheal epidemics, the chlorine residual at the end of the

treatment should be at least 1mg/l.

GUIDELINES

Measure the turbidity of the water to check whether chlorination will be effective. Never chlorinate turbid water above 5 NTU because suspended particles can protect micro-organisms.

Most of the chlorine-generating products have a chlorine concentration that is too high to be easily manipulated. To facilitate the use of chlorine, it is recommended to first dilute the powder/granules down to a 1% chlorine solution (often called stock or mother solution). Dilution rates for common chlorine-generating products are presented in the table 10 below.

Table 10 : preparation of mother/stock chlorine 1% solution with some common chlorine generating products(adapted from MSF)

Chlorine-generating product Preparation of 1% chlorine solutionCalcium hypochlorite (HTH) with 65-70% active chlorine

15 gm per l liter of water or 1 level soupspoon per l

Sodium DiChloro-isoCyanurate (NaDCC) with 1gm active chlorine per tablet

10 tablets per l of water

Sodium DiChloro-isoCyanurate (NaDCC) granules with 55% active chlorine

18 gm per l of water

Sodium hypochlorite (bleach) with 5% active chlorine

200 ml per l of water or1 volume of bleach for 4 volumes of water

Sodium hypochlorite concentrate with 15% active chlorine

67 ml per l of solution or1 volume of concentrate for 14 volumes of water

To precisely determine how much 1% chlorine stock solution should be added to a measured volume of water, a jar test (or modified Horrock test) should be performed. As a rule of thumb, the dosage presented in table 11 apply and can be adjusted based on chlorine residual measurement.

Table 11: Estimated volume of 1% stock solution to add to a certain volume of water to

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obtain a residual concentration of 0.5 mg/l or 1 mg/l in drinking water.

Drinking water with a chlorine residual of 0.5 mg/l

Drinking water with a chlorine residual of 1 mg/l

Volume of 1% stock solution to add

To treat 1 l of water: 0.1 – 0.2 mlTo treat 100 l of water: 10 - 20 mlTo treat 1,000 l of water: 100 -200 ml

To treat 1 l of water: 0.2 – 0.4 mlTo treat 100 l of water: 20 - 40 mlTo treat 1,000 l of water: 200 – 400 ml

After chlorination of water, wait for the required contact time before distributing the water to population as chlorine needs time to inactivate pathogens present in the water:

o If pH < 8, FRC of 0.2 – 0.5 mg/l after a minimum contact time of 30 minuteso If pH > 8, FRC of 0.4 – 1 mg/l after a minimum contact time of 60 minutes

Chlorine-generating products must be stored in restricted access area sheltered from heat, light and humidity. Look for a specific storage space away from equipment that could be damaged by corrosion.

In the acute phase of an emergency, a controlled bucket chlorination system can be setup when required. Water is collected by individuals from an unprotected and/or contaminated source (e.g. open well, lake, river, flooded borehole) is disinfected directly in their own recipient. It is an effective method as long as the water isn’t too turbid. As controlled bucket chlorination is labor intensive, it should be restricted to short-term emergency use only. A bucket chlorination system can be set up by training several chlorinators and their supervisors. Typically, one supervisor can manage a maximum of 30 chlorinators, although this will vary according to the situation. In practice, one chlorinator should be able to treat at least 2 buckets of water per minute.

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Technical Guidance # 9Cleaning and disinfecting hand-dug wells

This activity is recommended when a contamination is suspected to have occurred punctually, for example after a flash-flood. It can also be recommended in water-related diseases outbreak situation. If the well shows important damages and/or is constantly exposed to risk of contamination, this activity will only have temporary benefits. It is an emergency approach designed to rehabilitate wells so that they produce water of similar quality to that supplied before the disaster.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS

After the well has been cleaned and disinfected; The turbidity of the water should be below 5 NTU; The Free Residual Chlorine (FRC) concentration should be below 0.5mg/l; The shaft, the wellhead and the apron of the well should be clean

GUIDELINES

The wells that should be cleaned and disinfected first are the ones that are used most and that are easiest to repair. Meet with community leaders and ask them which wells serve each section of the community and select the most commonly used. If necessary, produce an inventory of existing wells (step 1).

Remove polluted water and debris from the well using either buckets and/or pumps. Clean the well lining (step 2) using a brush and chlorinated water. Simple rehabilitation

works can also be done at this stage. Place a 150mm layer of gravel in the base of the well to protect it from disturbance. Measure the turbidity of the well to check whether chlorination will be effective. Never

chlorinate turbid water above 5 NTU because suspended particles can protect micro-organisms. If the turbidity of the well water is greater than 5 NTU, remove the water from the well and allow the well to refill with water and test the turbidity levels again. If the water is still turbid, the problem cannot be solved immediately. However, it is probably safe to allow local community to begin using the well as the water quality should be at least as good as it was before the disaster.

For the disinfection, the chlorine compound most widely used is often in granule or powder that contains 60 to 80% chlorine (HTH or HSCH). The dosage and the method recommended by WHO is presented in figure 12 below and represent approximately a disinfection with a 1.5% chlorine solution. If other chlorine products are used, the dosage needs to be adapted accordingly.

The workers that will be in contact with high chlorine concentration should wear full protective clothing and a breathing apparatus and should be provided with a strong air flow if they have to entre inside the well. The full protective clothing is composed of a pair of boot, an overall with long sleeves, a facial protection, a helmet and rubber gloves.

Before water is extracted for consumption, remove all water from the well (highly concentrated) using a pump or a bucket, let the well refill and wait for a further 30 minutes and measure chlorine concentration (step 4). If the FRC concentration is less than 0.5mg/l it is likely that the well has been restored to its original condition. If the

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concentration is greater than 0.5mg/l, remove all the water from the well again and repeat the process.

Do not allow anyone to use the well during the cleaning process. The water will have a strong concentration of chlorine that will give it a bad taste and could be dangerous.

Figure 12 : calculating chlorine dosages for disinfecting a well using high concentration chlorine products

Disinfection will not provide residual protection and therefore measures to ensure safe collection, handling and storage at home are highly recommended.

The disinfection of a well may only propose temporary measures and should be followed, if needed, by measures for permanent rehabilitation

ELEMENTS OF PROJECT DESIGNScenario 1,000 families (7,000 individuals) with 14 hand-dug water wells in need of

cleaning/disinfection. Average volume of water in water wells is 20m³.Inputs Needs: cleaning and disinfecting 14 hand dug wells:

Dewatering pump kit (1) Brush (4) 20l buckets (12) 42kg of chlorine 70% (150g per m³) Personal protective equipment kit (6) Turbidity tube (or other method) Chlorine tester

Time and human resources needed

Four workers and one supervisor to cover a minimum of 2-4 wells per day (depending on proximity between wells).

Costing estimate USD 1,067 (excluded of transportation and programme support costs).

Additional information and references: ??

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Technical Guidance #10Point of Use Water Treatment and safe storage

When use of a centrally operated treatment system is not possible, point-of-use water treatment (PoUWT, also called Household Water Treatment) at household level must be used as an option. The different types of PoUWT options to reduce diarrhea and improve the microbiological quality of stored household water include boiling, chlorination, solar disinfection, filtration and flocculation/disinfection.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS

The minimum requirements when delivering PoUWT services Should cover a period of at least two months and provide at least 15litre per day of clean

water; Should provide at least two 20 liters narrow necked (or covered) water containers; Hygiene promotion and explanation of products must be provided in parallel to the

distribution of the products.

GUIDELINES

Water Storage

Whatever the treatment method used, water must be stored in clean, covered containers and kept in the cool and dark place.

Wide-necked containers such as a bucket fitted with a tight fitting lid are the best as they are easy to clean between uses.

It is important to encourage users to wash their hands with soap before handling drinking water and to fit a tap to the storage container so that water can be poured directly into a cup or a bowl.

Filtration

Filtration removes contamination by physically blocking particles while letting the water pass through.

Membrane filters can be highly efficacious in removing even smaller organisms such as viruses. Manufacturer’s instructions on use must be adhered to as often such filters require regular cleaning.

Slow sand filters have sometimes been used in emergency response. However, this technology is not recommended for first phase responses as it cannot be assemble rapidly, requiring time for concrete curing, media preparation, etc. Most importantly, weeks, or even months of regular use are necessary for the biological colonies to develop within the filter.

Rapid sand filters (figure 13) may be assembled inside clay, metal or plastic containers. The vessels are filled with layers of sand and gravels and pipework arranged to force the water to flow upwards or downwards through the filter. This type of filtration may be very efficient to remove turbidity but additional treatment such as chlorination may be necessary to remove pathogens.

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Boiling

Boiling water is an effective way to disinfect small quantities of water (even when turbid) if it is performed correctly. The water should be brought to a rolling boil for at least one minute, augmented by one minute for each altitude increase of 1,000 m by sea level.

This treatment measure consumes a lot of energy.

Solar disinfection

Ultra-violet rays from the sun will destroy harmful organisms present in the water. A one- or two-liter plastic container should be filled with clear water and exposed to

direct sunlight. The length of time needed for inactivation of pathogens will depend on the transparency of the container, intensity of sunlight, and clarity of the water.

This method requires long period of full sunlight to be effective. This can be improved by painting one side of the bottle black or by placing it on a black corrugated iron sheet in order to increase the temperature of the water as well. The exposure time to full sunlight still needs to be 6-8 hours.

The water must be cooled and shaken vigorously before use.

Three pots method

The simplest method is storage in a covered pot. If the water can be stored for at least two days, it will contain considerably fewer bacteria because these slowly die off due to conditions on the pot that are normally not suitable for their survival and multiplication.

Figure 13: the three pot method where water from pot three is the safest and has remained into

Each day when new water is brought to the house:(a) water stored in pot 2 is slowly poured in pot 3, and pot 2 is washed out.(b) water stored in pot 1 is slowly poured in pot 2, and pot 1 is washed out.(c) water collected from the source is poured in pot 1. The water can be strained through clean clothes.

Chemical treatment

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Chlorine is the most commonly-used chemical to disinfect water. With appropriate dosing, chlorine will kill most viruses and bacteria.

There are several different sources of chlorine for household use: in liquid, powder and tablet forms. They vary in size and strength so different quantities are required depending on the formulation.

Always follow the manufacturer’s instructions for use. To prevent misuse, clear instructions must be given.

A few companies have developed compounds that both remove suspended particles and disinfect water. Such compound contains a chemical that helps suspended particles join to make larger, heavier ones that will settle to the bottom of the container. It also contains chlorine that disinfects the water after settlement has occurred. Such products are also known as PUR Sachets by practitioners.

Figure 14: flow diagram for deciding the use of chemical treatment at household level

Table 12: recommended distribution plan for some common HWTS technologies and items. Several options may be combined together if relevant and depending on the context.

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Items Quantity per family

Possibility to distribute per village* through leaders

Rational/remark

Family filters (ceramic or membrane)

1 No Preferably household with a pregnant woman and/or under 6months

Chlorine tablet for 5 liters (33 mg active chlorine), tablet

1,260 tablets

(126 blisters of 10 tablets)

Yes Each pill = 5 liters15l/d // 2 months

Chlorine tablet for 10 liters (67 mg active chlorine), tablet

630 tablets

(63 blisters of 10 tablets)

Yes Each pill = 10 liters15l/d // 2 months

Flocculent/ disinfectant powder for 10 liters, sachets

315 sachets Yes Each sachet = 10 liters15l/d/ 1 month only This option should be replaced as soon as possible with sustainable supply system or chlorine tablets.

Water Kit 1 Yes Standard Cluster recommended water kit

* In acute emergency situation, household distribution may be too time consuming

Hygiene promotion

Benefits of providing safe drinking-water will be lost if users do not know how to handle water safely. Changing unhygienic behavior is just as important as the provision of clean water. Emergencies can provide a good opportunity to introduce or reinforce (new) hygiene practices such as those who relate to handwashing and safe storage and handling of water.

Additional information and references

Sphere ICRC

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Technical Guidance #11Rehabilitation of boreholes and hand dug wells

Rehabilitation of existing boreholes and dug wells is an essential component of emergency response in Afghanistan. Boreholes are resistant to many forms of disasters. Although the components above ground may be damaged, the narrow opening at the top of the borehole often prevents contamination of the water source or damage to the pump components below ground. The main exception to this is damage caused by earthquakes, which can be greater below ground than what can be seen at the surface.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS

After the rehabilitation of a borehole or a hand dug well, the following should apply: The well should be equipped with a handpump, correctly sealed to the surface apron and

all the equipment should have been installed as per MRRD/ RuWatSIP specifications. One well equipped with a handpump should provide water to a maximum of 20

households (with a flow of at least 17 liters / minute). Affected population must be made aware of and provided with all necessary means to

maintain and sustain the systems provided. Before the well is put in use by the communities, the well should be disinfected as

rehabilitation works may have contaminated the surrounding aquifer.

GUIDELINES

Rehabilitation of damaged drilled borehole and hand dug wells is a possible emergency approach designed to produce water of similar quality to that supplied before the disaster.

The guidelines from MRRD/RuWatSIP must be strictly followed as per the WASH manual available on the MRRD website.

a) Work specifications for construction/rehabilitation of dug well with hand pump include (figure 15):o Concrete rings are needed for lining of unstable stratum only. Stable soil do not

need lining.o The concrete rings are reinforced with three loops of 3 mm GI wire M: 100. They

should be installed with proper backfilling and vertical alignment. o Each well should be equipped with one top ring at the mouth of the well.o Rising main, PVC 63 mm dia. (Class – B) B.S. 3505 – 1968. o Type of handpump is depending on the depth of the well:

Afridev/Kabul handpump for depth less than 15 m. Afridev/Indus handpump for depth beyond 15 m.

o The minimum water column in a dug well should be 4 m in wet season and 2 m in dry season.

o The concrete for apron and drainage flume should be Plain Cement Concrete (PCC) M: 150.

o All concrete elements should be vibrated during mould casting.

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Figure 15: guidelines for designing and rehabilitating hand dug wells fitted with hand pumps. The drawings below show the main components only.

b) Work specifications for construction/rehabilitation of borehole with hand pump include (figure 16):

o Well drilling diameter should be at least 8”.o The minimum water column in a borehole should be kept at 10 m.o The gravel pack for the filter pipe should be free of soil and other material and

sorted 2 – 8 mm granular sizing.o The filter pipe, PVC 110 mm dia. (Class – B) B.S. 3505 – 1968. o Backfilling material for casing pipe should be from the well excavated material

without coarse granular that can damage the pipe.o Rising main, PVC 63 mm dia. (Class – E) B.S. 3505 – 1968.

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o Type of handpump is depending on the depth of the well: Afridev/Kabul handpump for depth less than 15 m. Afridev/Indus handpump for depth between 15 and 45 m. Afridev/Pamir handpump for depth beyond 45 m.

o The concrete for apron and drainage flume should be Plain Cement Concrete (PCC) M: 150.

o All concrete elements should be vibrated during mould casting.

Figure 16: guidelines for designing and rehabilitating the borehole fitted with hand pumps. The drawings below show the main components only.

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Step for rehabilitating an existing borehole equipped with a handpump

Step 1: assessment

Meet with community leaders and carer of the water point and ask them which hand pumps serve each section of the community. Obtain any available records of the drilling of the borehole and the installation of the hand pump, particularly concerning the material used for lining the borehole, its overall depth and the depth of the screen.

Select the hand pumps that are most commonly used as a source of drinking water, provided an enough supply before the emergency and are likely to be easiest to repair.

Check for possible contamination or pollution of the groundwater. Damaged septic tank, latrines or rubbish piles may all be sources of contamination or pollution. If there is even a least suspicion of contamination or pollution, abandon the rehabilitation.

Assess the type and extent of damage to the top of the well. This includes damage to the pump, its connection to the riser pipe and borehole casing, the sanitary seal and the well apron.

Remove the hand pump and riser pipe from the borehole as per the manufacturer instructions.

Check the water level in the borehole. Ask the community what the water level was before the disaster. Earthquake in particular can cause a major change in groundwater levels. A significant lowering of the water level may require the riser pipe to be extended or, in the worst case, the abandonment of the boreholes.

Check for damage to the borehole casing and screen. Examine the pump riser pipe as it is extracted. If it is difficult to remove or has obvious signs of damage it is likely that the lining has been damaged. Borehole lining repair is difficult. For immediate improvement of the situation, stop the assessment and investigate alternative sources.

Estimate the amount of silt and debris in the borehole. Examine the bottom of the pump riser pipe to see if it is covered in silt. A clean pipe indicates that any silt that may have entered the borehole is lying below the bottom of the riser pipe.

Dismantle the pump and riser pipe to check for damage and worn parts. Estimate resources needed for repairs (personnel, equipment, time and material).

Step 2: repair the handpump and the borehole

Flush the sediments from the borehole. There are number of ways of doing this but the simplest method is jetting. Other methods are possible but require specialist skills and equipment and may not be applicable in emergency situations.

Check the top of the borehole casing for damage. If it is bent or twisted it will not be possible to install the pump correctly. In that case, cut away the damaged portion of the casing and weld a new piece into place.

Repair any damage to the pump and riser pipe. Take the opportunity to replace worn parts.

Re-assemble the pump and reinstall the borehole components. Check that the pump is working, the water produced is clear of silt and the flow rate is acceptable. If the water still contains silt, remove the pump and flush out the borehole again (figure 17 example of borehole cleaning). If, after two flushes, the borehole is still producing silty water, the borehole screen is probably damaged and no further attempt at repair should be made.

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Repair the clay sanitary seal at the top of the borehole and the drainage apron around the borehole to prevent intrusion of the surface water contaminating the ground water.

Disinfect the well before restitution to the community (TG 8).

Figure 17: Jetting boreholes for cleaning and rehabilitation.

The silt at the bottom of the well can often be dislodged by a strong jet of water. Set up a system similar to that shown in figure 17. The water jet will suspend the silt in the water flow and carry it to the surface as the water fills the hole. Continue pumping until the water flowing out of the top of the well is clear. From time to time lower the hose further into the borehole so that it remains close to the silt layer.

Additional information and references

MRRD

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Technical Guidance #12Water mass-distribution

In emergency settings where people are gathered in camps or informal/ formal settlements and communities affected by disasters, water supply will be simpler if it is done through a mass distribution system. Such system will allow a centralized chlorination of the water. Mass-distribution may include the installation and use of a water treatment unit or water tankering. In these situations, a temporary distribution system with emergency reservoirs, flexible piping systems and water collection tap-stands is needed.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS

The minimum requirements when providing large volume of water are; A minimum of 15 liters of treated water (safe water) is provided per person per day; One tap is used by 140 people (250 people if supplied by tinkering); Water tap-stand (or collection point) should be within 500m from the habitation; Water must be available for at least 6 hours a day (3 hours each in the morning and

evening). Water by tankering, at least 4 hours per day, two hours in each session; Water collection point /tap-stand must be spacious and with a proper drainage; If culturally appropriate, there must be a separate water collection points for women

and men.

GUIDELINES

Water supply tankering

Water tankering is expensive, often difficult to organize and to maintain. This should be the last resort (avoided as much as possible and replace as soon with other options). In most settings, the development of an alternative water systems, e.g. borehole with hand pumps, motored boreholes with overhead tanks. etc., will be cheaper in the long run.

Synchronize where possible the water delivery with the peak demands of the beneficiaries (e.g. early morning and early evening).

Select a water source considering its yield, its proximity to the delivery point, its access to water tankers and its water quality.

Chlorination within the water tanker can save a lot of time because the contact time needed for the disinfectant can start already during the transportation.

Water should not be directly distributed to people from tanker, instead it is offloaded into a reservoir (distribution tank) and distributed through taps depending on the number people. Emptying the tanker into tank and distributing through tap-stand not only helps smooth distribution but also minimizes the wastage of water.

Install adequate size and number distribution tanks fitted with 3 – 6 tap-stands to minimize queuing at the tap-stand (no one should wait longer than 15 minutes).

If a water source is located near population in needs, using a Water Treatment Unit (WTU) is an effective alternative to water tankering. There are several types and sizes of WTU. Most of them combine the use of chemicals for coagulation/flocculation and rapid sand filtration, followed by in-line chlorination. A WTU can easily be pre-positioned in an emergency-prone location and deployed when a disaster occurs.

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Temporary storage

Temporary reservoirs can be quickly operational: from a few minutes for a bladder or an onion tank or plastic tank till some hours for a reservoir with a frame.

A drainage system must be installed around the reservoir’s base and around the distribution points to avoid rapid deterioration.

Install a shadow net over the reservoir to protect it at least against direct sunlight. This helps to avoid that the water in the tank gets warm. It will also protect the plastic liner against UV-irradiation, which renders the material brittle over a prolonged period.

Build a fence to avoid kids playing with or on the reservoir. It is also strongly recommended to have an attendant at the reservoir for safety, operation and maintenance.

Metal construction scaffolding can be used to construct a water tower, permitting the relatively rapid installation of reservoirs on rather high elevations (e.g. 3 m). Only professional scaffolding should be installed on solid underground (preferably concrete foundations) to avoid the risk of collapse once the reservoir is filled. This solution is particularly useful where a centralized water supply system is required (e.g. in a health structure or a school or even in a camp).

Temporary distribution system

Even with the self-closing taps, spillage is inevitable. A proper drainage is essential as of the beginning of the installation.

Choose a site to install the tap-stand. The site must permit a good drainage for rain and spilled water, and must be easily accessible for the users, especially vulnerable groups.

The tap-stands must be connected to the reservoirs to ensure a correct pressure and flow (minimum of 10 l/ min) at the taps in creating the right height difference between the tap-stands and the reservoir and/or by choosing the right type and proper diameter of pipe.

In case the water flow at the tap-stand would be too high, it can be artificially reduced by installing a partially closed gate valve at its inlet.

If a soak away pit is chosen to dispose of the spilled water, allow a minimum distance of 3 m away from the tap-stands. During the first days of an emergency, the evacuation of the spilled water can be done via a gravel pit.

There are different models of tap-stands available, but most of them do have 6 self-closing taps.

ELEMENTS OF PROJECT DESIGNScenario 500 IDP families (3,500 individuals) living in an informal settlement

requiring water tankering for 30 days. Daily water demand calculation

Demand: 3,500 people x (15 l/p/d) = 52,500 liters / day (consider 10% wastage – actual need = 57,750 liters per day @

Cost of production and delivery of treated water

USD 50.00 per 5,000 liters treated water to the point of distribution. For 52,500 liters for 30 days = USD 15,750

a) Cost of production and delivery 4.45 USD per capita /month

Unit cost of distribution system

Cost of distribution system (water kits, storage and distribution tap-stand) for 500 families:Water Kit = 1.8 USD (except chlorine tablets) = USD 6,300Distribution tank 5000liter tank fitted with 6 taps (4 sets) @ 800 per set = USD 3,200. Total cost of distribution system: USD 9,500

b) Cost per capita for distribution system 2.72 USD

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Cost of monitoring and quality control

c) Cost of monitoring and quality control @ 20% for (a+b), i.e. 1.44 USD per capita.

Average cost of water supply by tankering

Total: a+b+c = 8.70 USD per capita per month (for first month).If tankering required for 2nd month item b is not need.

Elements of design for distribution systemNumber of tap-stands For tap-stands with 6 self-closing taps:

Maximum 140 people per tap, one tap-stand can be sufficient for 840 persons.

Storage capacity 5,000 liters storage capacity (this needs to be filled 2 – 3 times) Minimum flow at each tap At least 10l/min. A nearby reservoir should be installed at least

1.5m above the tap-stand.

Additional information and references: UNICEF, 2009: Global WASH Cluster. Introduction to hygiene promotion in emergencies. Tools

and approaches (online).

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Technical Guidance #13Defecation field “cat method”

It represents a very basic disposal method to avoid excreta to be spread all over communities or camp settings. This approach is only justified in the very early stages of emergency situation if it is acceptable to the beneficiaries. Safer and longer term solutions should be implemented rapidly. This emergency design is one of the easiest and fastest endorsed by MRRD, also called the “cat method”.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTSThe minimum requirements for a defecation field are;

Should be composed of defecation strips of a minimum of 0.85 m wide that should be used starting from bottom to front of the field. All the area is fenced with plastic walls higher than standing person.

Sizing of the field should allow a surface of 0.2 m² per person per day. There should be a handwashing point nearby the facility.

GUIDELINES Recommended for a situation where a rapid action is needed so that affected population

has an immediate access to an excreta disposal system on their arrival. The site selected should be located downwind and away from living areas (at least 10 m).

The site should be clearly marked and provided with enough space (about 0.5 m² / person day).

As per this method, an area is delineated where individuals dig a small hole to defecate and cover feces with soil as soon as possible to avoid breeding of flies and reduce odors.

It is recommended to allocate hygiene promoters (mind the gender) who should manage the correct use of the defecation field, guide people to the appropriate row and promote hand hygiene at the exit of the field.

It is strongly recommended that the defecation field is utilized according to a pattern in order to use the available space more effectively. Some poles and ropes, which position has to be changed after a while, will indicate the defecation zone in use (each row minimum 12 m long, about 1 m wide).

Defecation fields should be replaced as quickly as possible with a more hygienic system. They are not really suited during the rainy season as run-off water risks to spread the excreta. They should be protected against floods.

It is compulsory to build gender separate defecation fields. Lightning at the defecation field is highly recommended for safety/security reasons. If

not feasible, alternative should be provided, such as torches. In Afghanistan, traditionally people may not feel at ease to defecate at open place where a

number of individuals are squatting simultaneously. In this regard, for privacy plastic sheeting walls can be added to offer more privacy.

Poles must be strongly buried in the ground (minimum 0.3 m deep), especially in windy areas and seasons.

The advantages of a defecation field are that it is rapid to implement by users themselves, it requires minimal resources, and it provides an opportunity to get defecation sites in place almost immediately.

The constraints are the limited privacy, the considerable space needed, the difficulties to manage the occupation and the considerable potential for cross-contamination of users.

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Figure 18 : Defectionfield (“cat” method”) suggested emergency design, adapted from Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development (MRRD).

ELEMENTS OF PROJECT DESIGNScenario A community affected by floods has to relocate in a temporary camp. The

population is 1,200 people (50% are female).Two weeks will be needed to build family latrines for the community and a temporary solution is needed immediately such as defecation fields.

Inputs Total surface needed: 0.5 m² x 1,200 people = 600 m² per day. 600 m² x 14 days (2 weeks) = 8,400 m²

Suggested design (example): ten defecation fields with a unit surface of 840 m²Five fields allocated to women and five to men Suggested design for one site (example): 70 m long and 12 m large with 80 strips

Time and human resources needed

Installation of 10 sites in three daysSite supervisor: 3Daily workers: 30 (10 under each supervisor for installing the poles and plastic walls).

Costing estimate (excluded of transport and programme support)

Additional information and references: MSF, 2014: Médecins Sans Frontières. Public health engineering in precarious situation. MRRD, 2013: Rural Water Hygiene and Sanitation Implementation Manual Appendices, volume 2

version3 (online). MRRD, 2014: Rural Water Sanitation and Irrigation Program (RuWatSIP). Standard designs for

emergency sanitation facilities. Technical Guidance #14

Shallow trench latrine

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It represents another basic disposal method to avoid excreta to be spread all over communities or camp settings. This disposal system can last longer than the previous defecation field method as trenches have been dug to increase the volume available for excreta disposal. As for the previous method, shallow trenches latrine is only justified in the very early stages of the emergency situation when they are acceptable for the beneficiaries. Safer and more permanent solutions should be implemented rapidly.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTSThe minimum requirements for a shallow trench latrine are;

Should be composed of strips of a minimum of 1.25 m wide that should be used starting from bottom to front of the field. All the area is fenced.

Trenches should be 0.2 to 0.3 m wide and 0.15 m deep. Trenches should provide a length of 2.5 m of trench per 100 persons per day. There should be a hand washing point nearby the facility. There should be separated areas for males and females.

GUIDELINES Recommended for a situation where a rapid action is needed so that affected population

has an immediate access to an excreta disposal system on their arrival.

Figure 19: shallow trench latrine suggested emergency design, adapted from Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development (MRRD).

The site selected should be located downwind and away from living areas (at least 10 m). The site should be clearly marked and provided with enough space (about 2.5 m of trench

per 100 persons per day). In homogeneous soils, the bottom of the trenches should be at least 1.5 m above the

highest possible groundwater table.

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It is recommended to allocate hygiene promoters (mind the gender) who should manage the correct use of the trenches, guide people to the appropriate row and promote hand hygiene at the exit of the field.

Special latrines with facilities such as a seat and handrails should be built for physically impaired people as trench latrines cannot be used by some of them (incapable to squat). Potties are an alternative for children.

It is compulsory to build gender separated trench latrines. Lightning at the defecation field is highly recommended for safety/security reasons. If

not feasible, alternative should be provided, such as torches. In Afghanistan, traditionally people may not feel at ease to defecate at open place where a

number of individuals are squatting simultaneously. In this regard, for privacy plastic sheeting walls can be added to offer more privacy.

Once the trenches are nearly full (bottom of the trench covered with excreta), dismantle and backfill them. Don’t dig at this place for at least 1 year.

The objective should be to replace the trench latrines as quickly as possible with a safer and more hygienic system (e.g. improved trench latrine and simple pit latrine).

If people want to build their own facilities immediately, a shallow family trench can be an option. Apart from the size, the principle will be the same as for normal trench latrines.

The advantages of a trench latrine are that it is rapid to implement (on soft soil, one worker can dig 50 m of trench per day) and feces can be covered with soil. The constraints are the limited privacy, the considerable space needed and the difficulties to manage the occupation.

ELEMENTS OF PROJECT DESIGNScenario A community affected by floods has to relocate in a temporary camp. The

population is 1,200 people (50% are female).Two weeks will be needed to build family latrines for the community and a temporary solution is needed immediately such as defecation fields.

Inputs Four trench latrine sites located in strategic locations, each for 300 people (2 for females, 2 for males).Space needed for one site:

300 people x 14 days x 0.025 m per day per person Total for one site: 105 m of trench per site Total for four sites (2 for females, 2 for males): 420 m of trench

Time and human resources needed

Installation of 4 sites in two daySite supervisor: 2Daily workers: 32 (20 for digging the trenches and 12 for installing the poles and plastic walls).

Costing estimate (excluded of transport and programme support)

NA

Additional information and references: MSF, 2014: Médecins Sans Frontières. Public health engineering in precarious situations. MRRD, 2013: Rural Water Hygiene and Sanitation Implementation Manual Appendices, volume 2

version3 (online). MRRD, 2014: Standard designs for emergency sanitation facilities. RuWatSIP.

Technical Guidance #15Improved trench latrine (shallow and deep)

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Improved trench latrines represent a method of excreta disposal, which combines the features of normal trench latrines (simple and rapid to implement) and shallow family latrine (privacy and an already improved safety). They are the minimum option for health facilities during acute emergencies if a slab is used to squat, with a lid to avoid breeding of flies in the trench. Depending on the expected duration of the emergency, improved trench latrines can be either deep, to serve up to six months, or shallow for a shorter period.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS

The minimum requirements for a shallow trench latrine are; Should offer privacy and an individual superstructure for each drop-hole A deep trench should have a maximum depth of 2 m in and should be stabilized in

unstable soil conditions. A shallow trench should have a depth of maximum 0.45 m. There should be a hand washing point nearby the facility. There should be separated areas for males and females.

GUIDELINES

When choosing the site, ensure that buildings (e.g. health facilities) and living areas are not downwind of the improved trench latrines.

In homogeneous soils, the bottom of the trenches should be at least 1.5 m above the highest possible groundwater table.

In less stable soil, the deep trenches will have to be lined with vertical boards (wood, corrugated iron) that are kept in place with horizontal struts. Sandbags filled with stabilized soil can also be an alternative.

If a high water table, rocky or sandy soil prevent the excavation and use of trenches, elevated platforms may be built. It is also possible to use 200 liter drums (partially) buried in the ground with a defecation opening at the top or to use slabs that can be set on the top of the opened drums.

It is compulsory to build gender separate trenches. Slabs with adapted dimensions for the defecation hole and the footrests might have to be

installed for small children, certainly in health facilities (e.g. pediatric wards, feeding centers, outpatient department) or in temporary learning centers.

Special latrines with facilities such as a seat and handrails should be built for physically impaired people.

Lightning at the trench latrines is highly recommended for safety/security reasons. Once the trenches are nearly full (about 0.3 m underneath the slab for the deep trenches),

they should be dismantled and backfilled. Don’t dig at this place for at least 2 year. The superstructure and the slab should be disinfected. When the plastic sheeting of the superstructure is still in good condition, it can stay connected to the poles, and be re-installed around a new trench where the pre-fabricated plastic slabs are already installed.

If people want to build their own facilities immediately, a shallow family trench can be an option. Apart from the size, the principle will be the same as for normal trench latrines.

The advantages of a trench latrine are that it is rapid to implement, it doesn’t require water for operation and it is easily understood by users. The constraints are the unsuitability in high water table areas, the difficulties to dig in unstable sandy soils, the potential odor problem and the need for cleaning and maintenance.

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Shallow trench latrine

Have a maximal depth of 45 cm to allow a rapid excavation of the trench and installation of the superstructure.

A second trench can be dug in the back of the structure where feces from the trench in use can be pulled to by a shovel. This will allow a longer usage of the trench without having to move the superstructure.

Figure 20: typical design of a shallow improved trench latrine from MRRD. In this example, the latrine block is constituted of 6 compartments (A). Each compartment is constituted of a small shallow pit (B) maximum 45 cm deep and 45 cm large. Once the shallow pits are almost filled with excreta, the content of the pit can be pushed into a back trench located behind the compartments. The pits must be covered by a latrine slab. The latrine slabs are not mentioned in the BoQ as it is not a local purchase.

Deep trench latrine

Appropriate to provide service for a period of a few months during the first phase of an emergency. Usually, it is an alternative option in situations where there is not enough space and resources to provide family latrine.

The latrine superstructure can be made of local material and/or plastic sheeting higher than a standing person.

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A

B

Figure 21: typical design of a deep improved trench latrine from MRRD. In this example, the latrine block is constituted of 8 compartments (A). The compartments are situated above the deep trench maximum 200 cm deep and 80 cm large (B). The pits must be covered by a latrine slab which is the ideal situation. However, in the example below where no slabs were available, wooden squatting timbers are used. It is recommended to install latrine slab the sooner as this system will attract flies.

ELEMENTS OF PROJECT DESIGNScenario A community affected by floods has to relocate in a temporary camp.

The population is 1,200 people (50% are female). Two weeks will be needed to build family latrines for the community.

InputsTime and human resources neededCosting estimate (excluded of transport and programme support)

Additional information and references: MSF, 2014: Médecins Sans Frontiers. Public health engineering in precarious situations. MRRD, 2013: Rural Water Hygiene and Sanitation Implementation Manual Appendices, volume 2

version3 (online). MRRD, 2014: Standard designs for emergency sanitation facilities. RuWatSIP.

Technical Guidance #16Emergency Household Pit Latrines

This emergency pit latrine is one of the easiest and fastest. If well designed and built, correctly sited and well maintained, it contributes significantly to the prevention of faeco-oral

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A

B

diseases. From a public health point of view, household latrines are normally preferred over public latrines because they are often better maintained by the owners. In some situation, communities can contribute to the construction of the toilets, especially where they have experience in using this type of design.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS

The minimum requirements for a simple household pit latrine are; Should be composed of a large hole (pit) in the ground covered by a squatting plat or

a platform with a hole through which the users excrete. The platform is surrounded by a screen to provide privacy and shelter for the weather.

There should be a cover for the hole to reduce odors and keep flies away. There should be a hand washing point nearby the facility. Ideally the emergency family pit latrine is for a single family. However, WASH

Cluster recommends sharing the pit latrine where possible by up to three families (20 people).

GUIDELINES

The deeper the pit, the longer it will take to fill up. As a rule a pit is about 1.5m deep. In Afghanistan, the recommended size for a shallow family latrine proposed by MRRD is 1.2m deep with a 0.45m radius for a circular pit. A shallow rectangular pit (0.60m x 0.80m) is also possible.

A pit is considered full when the contents are within 0.5 m of the surface, or 0.2 m in acute emergency situation as recommended by MRRD.

For sizing purpose, it is correct to consider a solid accumulation rate of 0.04 to 0.06 m³ per person a year. These figures are only indicators and can vary significantly depending on anal cleansing practices, intensity of use of the latrine and soil conditions.

Soils liable to collapse should be supported by a lining. In particular, the upper part of the pit is important as it will support the cover slab.

The slab is placed directly on the top of the pit about 15 cm above the surrounding ground level to prevent surface water from entering the pit.

The type of squatting slab to be used will entirely depend on how quick the slab can fabricated /procured and delivered to the site? The slab of any materials such as plastic, fiber, wood or concrete is acceptable as long as they are sturdy and can be cleaned easily.

The squatting hole should be provided with a lid for safety, to reduce odor and to help prevent flies from breeding in the pit. Flies and smell tend to be more of a problem in shallow pits containing water than deep ones that are dry.

The walls of the latrine superstructure (or toilet building) could be made of mud bricks (burned or unburned) and concrete blocks on mud or cement mortar. It can simply have fenced using wooden or steel poles warped with locally made straw-mats or plastic sheets.

The latrine must have a rigid door (wooden or iron sheet), lockable from inside and fixed on a solid frame to allow a minimum of privacy and security for the users, in particular women and children.

A verity of materials can be used for roofing the latrine from simply straw-mat or plastic sheets. The purpose of the superstructure is primarily for privacy and hence recommend to use simple and low-cost solution.

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Provide appropriate handwashing facilities nearby the latrine that can be locally assembled and maintained. Ensure there is a proper drainage around the latrine and near the handwashing station to avoid any water logging in the vicinity.

Adding wood ashes to the pit may result in perceptible odor reduction and might accelerate the elimination of pathogens in the pit. Lime also reduces the smell but might slow down the decomposition process.

Figure 22: emergency pit latrine suggested design, adapted from Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development (MRRD).

Scenario Refugee camps with 5,000 individuals. There are no sanitation systems in place and simple pit latrine must be constructed, one latrine per 20 users.

Inputs Construction of 250 simple pit latrines. Excavation works: 180 m³ Wooden or iron poles: 1,000 pieces Security wall (clothes, plastic sheeting, etc. with 170 cm high): 1,200 m Stone masonry: 18 m³ Timber for squatting slab: 360 m² (slab approximate surface: 1.44 m²) Iron roof (or plastic sheeting): 435 m²

Time and human resources needed

Option1: to achieve the work in one week One supervisor 8 teams of 2 skilled workers and 4 unskilled workers

Option 2:Demonstration of the design and distribution of material with participation of the community (recommended)

Costing estimate (excluded of transport and programme support)

Latrine unit cost: USD 82 Total cost for 5,000 individual / 250 latrines: USD 20,500

Additional information and references: MSF, 2014: Médecins Sans Frontières. Public health engineering in precarious situations, MRRD, 2013: Rural Water Hygiene and Sanitation Implementation Manual Appendices, volume 2

version3 (online). MRRD, 2014: Standard designs for emergency sanitation facilities. RuWatSIP.

Technical Guidance #17Emergency Shower or Washroom Facilities

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While emergency bath facilities are not as critical as water supply or latrine facilities during the first few days of emergencies, but their time passing this need becomes more pressing, especially for women and adolescent girls. Properly built and equipped bathing facility will also act as place for menstrual hygiene management for women and adolescent girls. When large number people are living in a makeshift shelter like tents, the importance shower or washroom becomes more urgent, especially in hot and humid climate.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTSMinimum requirement of a locally made shower or washroom:

The place should offer privacy (should have four walls and a door lockable from inside)

Should be spacious enough (at least 80cm x 80cm) to comfortably use the facility. Provision of water, preferably a water tap inside or at least a bucket and scoop.

Washroom should be located close to water source for easy collection of water. It should be gender separated and one cabin for 20 people. Up to 40 people during the

initial two weeks of emergency.

GUIDELINES

The showroom should be as close as possible to the settlement (within 50m). It should be placed on elevated ground for easy drainage of water. For initial phase of emergency, the washroom can have a compacted earthen floor of

80cm x80cm with 170 cm high walls made of thicker gauge plastic or tarpaulin supported by wooden or steel frame that is firmly pegged into the ground.

Necessity of roof for washroom is dependent on the culture and context and should be decided in consultation with local communities. If roof is included, there should be an opening for window of 20cm high and 40cm wide at a height 150 cm from the floor.

For longer emergencies, such as in IDP and returnee settlements, semi-solid floor of 4” high made of brick and cement mortar or concrete (1:3:6 ration) with a smooth finish can be used washroom.

Floor construction should be done such a way that water safely drains to the nearby natural water pathway or discharged to a nearby soak pit. This is essential to prevent mosquito breeding and avoid any discomfort and risks of slippery to the uses and the passers

Scenario IDP settlements of 2,000 individuals. There are no bathing facilities in place and simple emergency washroom must be constructed, one per 20 users.

Inputs Construction of 100 bathrooms. Site preparation: 50 labors Brick or concrete work on the floor: 7.0 m3 Wooden or iron poles (1.7m high): 600 pieces Privacy /security wall (clothes, plastic etc. 170 cm high): 360 m One bucket, jerry cane and a scope

Time and human resources needed

To achieve the work in one week One supervisor and 3 teams of 2 skilled workers and 2 unskilled

workersEstimate (without logistic and management support)

Washroom unit cost: USD 60 Total cost for 2,000 individual /100 latrines: USD 6,000

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Technical Guidance #18Vector control measures in emergencies

The nature of vector-borne disease (VBDs) is often complex and addressing vector-related problems may demand specialist attention. However, there is often much that can be done to help prevent the spread of such diseases with simple and effective measures, once the disease, its vector and their interaction with the population has been identified.

GUIDELINES

Main vector-borne diseases in Afghanistan are malaria (Anopheles mosquitoes), leishmaniosis (sand fly) and Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever (CCHF / ticks). Faeco-oral diseases may also be considered as VBDs as they can be mechanically transmitted by flies. Dengue fever (Aedes mosquitoes) in Afghanistan is not documented.

Vector-borne diseases can be controlled through a variety of initiatives, including appropriate site selection, excreta disposal, waste management and drainage, community mobilization and health promotion, use of chemical controls, family and individual protection and effective protection of food stores.

Table 13: vector control measures effective in communities against main disease vectors in Afghanistan.

Mosquitoes Ticks Sand fly

FlyAnopheles

Aedes

Long Lasting Insecticidal Nets (LLIN)Distribution of mosquito nets impregnated with insecticides.

Yes Yes* Yes

Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS)Spraying of insecticide on walls of dwellings and latrines with a remanence of around 3 to 6 months

Yes Yes Yes Yes

Space SprayingFumigation of insecticide in and around dwelling.

Yes**

LarvicidingUse of insecticide to destroy immature stages of mosquitoes.

Yes**

Use of insecticides for treatment of animals and resting places Yes

Environmental managementLimiting vector breeding sites in and around house

Yes Yes Yes Yes

Fly traps/screens and general food hygiene Yes

* In health facilities**In case of outbreak

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Long Lasting Insecticidal Nets (LLINs) LLINs distribution is not within the remit of WinE projects, however the partners can

promote its use with related clusters, Health and NFI/Shelters: LLINs are widely accepted by communities in areas affected by malaria. Provision of

LLIN and well prepared promotion campaign is effective in combating the malaria.

Environmental Management

Reduce or eliminate fly breeding sites (e.g. dead animals, waste piles, limit open defecation, cleaning of animal droppings in cattle raising areas, make smooth floors in child feeding centers to enable cleaning of spilled food, etc.).

Protect food, serving utensils, and people from contact with flies. Ensure good removal and disposal of wastewater, particularly at washing areas for clothes

and cooking utensils. Add ashes to latrine pits every evening, to reduce the contact between flies and excreta. For controlling Anopheles mosquito populations, eliminate bodies of stagnant water

loaded with organic matters and eliminate surface vegetation in stagnant water. For controlling Aedes mosquito populations, eliminate breeding sites nearby dwellings,

such as any open container of water, cans, flower vases, water reservoirs, tires, and garbage piles. Large containers of water should be frequently, at least once a week, emptied.

Other measures

In CCHF settings at risk of outbreaks, use of insecticides for treatment of animals and resting places may be recommended. The list of recommended insecticides and doses is available on internet and can be downloaded from below website:

o Reference: Prevention of Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic (CCHF) Fever (Human and Animals) in Pakistan, October 2010.

Other prevention measures against ticks may include wearing of protective clothing (long sleeves, long trousers), wearing of light colored clothing to allow easy detection of ticks, use of approved repellents on skin and clothes, avoiding areas where ticks are abundant and seasons when they are most active.

Additional information and references: Sphere: Minimum standards in water supply, sanitation and hygiene promotion. MoPH, 2013: Operational guideline for prevention and control of Crimean-Congo Hemorragic Fever

in Afghanistan MSF, 2014: Médecins Sans Frontières. Public health engineering in precarious situations (online).

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Technical Guidance #19Emergency waste management

Solid waste management, if unattended appropriately, can pose public health risks to the affected population arising from the breeding of flies and rodents that thrive on solid waste and the pollution of water sources due to leachate from waste. Solid waste often blocks drainage channels and leads to increased risk of flooding and problems associated with stagnant and polluted water.

GUIDELINES

Routine should be established for the storage, collection and disposal of garbage. This is particularly important in high-density sites such as camps and unregulated settlements.

For storing garbage, one (100 liters) container should be provided per 100 families. Two hundred liters metal drums cut in half are often used. If possible, containers should have lids and drainage holes in the bottom. Containers should be placed throughout the area at a maximum distance of 25 m from each dwelling.

Garbage should be collected regularly from containers, at least twice a week. Settings near a city may benefit from local refuse services. It is expensive to use tractors with trailers and this should be a last option, employed only in large and densely populated settings. Wheelbarrows or carts, hauled by hand or animals are usually more appropriate.

Domestic, market and commercial waste must be emptied at least twice a week and more frequently if required. This is an essential requirement, to break fly-breeding cycles and ensure waste does not fester and become a nuisance. Special arrangements may be required for slaughterhouse and fish waste.

If waste is to be buried on-site in either household or communal pits (figure 24), it should be covered daily with a thin layer of earth to prevent it attracting vectors and rodents.

If children’s feces/nappies are being disposed of, they should be covered with earth. Disposal sites should be fenced off to prevent accidents and access by children and

animals. Disasters such as floods and earthquakes can produce large quantities of rubble. This will

be a danger to people, block access road and drainage channels. Once all survivors have been released, its removal should be a priority. If there is no approved waste disposal site nearby, the wastes can be piled, in the short term, on area of wasteland. Items such as roofing sheets, furniture and bricks can be reused. If possible, sort the rubble as it is being removed, storing reusable materials separately from the rest of the waste.

Disposal systems such as composting, incineration and sanitary landfill can be considered once the situation has stabilized. They are unlikely to be a first phase emergency activities.

A simplified sanitary landfill (figure 23) may be an option in some circumstance where a lot of wastes have to be disposed of without treatment and where space is available. In that case, it is crucial to foresee a system to drain the gasses that will be generated by the fermentation of the organic waste (methane, carbon dioxide, etc.). A drainage system should also be installed to collect the leachate resulting from the percolation of rain water through the waste pile. Landfilling should only be considered in very specific settings and additional expertise will be necessary for the design of the overall system.

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Figure 23: emergency landfill (basic landfill), adapted from SSWM and Harvey & al, 2004.

Figure 24: simple design for a household (or communal) waste pit.

Left:The emergency landfill should be backfilled with excavated soil every day.The site should be agreed with local authorities and populations and should be fenced.The site should be located at least 500 m downwind from dwellings.

Burning waste in an open container should be avoided as it will generate a lot of toxic fumes. If unavoidable, only very small quantities of waste should be disposed of this way.

Lead-acid batteries, used paints and oil, and broken electrical equipment can pose serious risks to public health and the environment, even in small quantities. Such waste should be collected separately. Intervention should prevent hazardous substances from entering the domestic waste stream and store them temporarily in a well-defined zone to process to their disposal once the emergency phase is over.

Additional information and references: Sphere: Minimum standards in water supply, sanitation and hygiene promotion SSWM, 2011: Sustainable Sanitation and Water Management. Landfills (online). UNHCR, 2015: Emergency handbook (online). WHO / WEDC, 2013: Solid waste management in emergencies (online).

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Technical Guidance #20Wastewater removal and pre-treatment

For every situation where water is supplied, there will be wastewater generated. Therefore, there should always be a removal and treatment system, which prevents stagnant water and local contamination of potable water resources. For wastewater disposal, many different techniques exist and the choice of a system, or a combination of several, depends on the type and the quantity of wastewater to be treated.

GUIDELINES

Domestic wastewater can be categorized in two types: Sewage (black water): water carrying excreta in suspension, thus containing bacteria,

viruses, faecal parasites and also nitrogen; Sullage (grey water): water from distribution points, kitchens, handwashing areas and

from health centers, bathing places, often containing detergents, grease and fats, as well as (fecal) micro-organisms, suspended and/or dissolved organic matters.

Emptying septic tanks and latrines, sludge management

Do not empty a latrine / septic tank manually with recipients such as a bucket. Pathogens present in the sludge are serious health hazards to the workers. The only exceptions are the double pit latrines where the excreta have been transformed into harmless compost (if a minimum decomposition time of 2 years has been respected).

Sludge trucks can be used for all kind of excreta disposal system as long as the sludge is still liquid enough. Be aware that the fast suction of the sludge can lead to the collapse of partially lined or unlined pit latrines.

Before signing a contract with the truck owners, check if the truck functions properly, how much capacity it has, where they dump the excreta and if they have the permission for that.

Sludge trucks need to be leak proof and have big drains to ease the removal of the sludge. In the very first phase of an emergency, a 2 or 5 m³ bladder tank can be used if no other means are available at all. This bladder should never be used anymore for other purposes afterwards, certainly not for potable water.

The sludge should be buried and/or disposed of at a safe place where it will not cause any public health or environmental risks, or it should be brought to a certified treatment plant. Burial trenches can be installed and should be at least 800 m away from dwellings, 50 m away from the ground water source and for homogeneous soils at least 3 m above the highest possible groundwater table at the end of the rainy season.

Make sure that the operators have good protective clothing and do wash their hands with water and soap after finishing the job. Daily showers are also highly recommended.

Septic tank rehabilitation

A septic tank is a container often rectangular in shape, in which wastewater is retained for about 3 days. During this period, the solid material settles and decomposes. Although this biodegradation is reasonably active, the sludge does accumulate, which means that the tank must be emptied at regular intervals, generally every 1 to 5 years.

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The effluent from the tank is still contaminated by pathogens and cannot be released directly in the open environment. Therefore, dispersal in the underground or trucking to a disposal site is essential to benefit from the natural filtration process.

Rehabilitation of existing septic tanks is a rapid emergency technique that involves repairing inlet / outlet pipes, repairing access holes to ensure mosquitoes and flies cannot enter inside the tank. When the tank has been emptied, cracks and leaks can also be detected and repaired inside the tanks to avoid leakages and contamination of the surrounding environment.

Rehabilitation of septic tank may also include repair of the piping system from the tank to the sewer (or the infiltration system). Various types of pipe may be used (example PVC, polyethylene, cement), with a minimum diameter of 100 mm. The slope (minimum 1.5% for black water) and the pipe diameter should be adequate for the flow and should be buried.

Additional information and references: BORDA, 1998: Decentralized waste water system in developing countries (online). MSF, 2014: Médecins Sans Frontières. Public health engineering in precarious situations (online). Sphere: Minimum standards in water supply, sanitation and hygiene promotion SSWM, 2011: wastewater treatment (online).

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Technical Guidance #21Wastewater final disposal

Many different techniques exist to dispose of wastewater, and the choice of a system, or a combination of several, depends on the type and the quantity of wastewater to be treated. Infiltration of wastewater combines the final disposal with a form of natural treatment using the natural capacity of the soil to fix particles present in the water by filtration, and to purify the water by a process of biological decomposition.

GUIDELINES

Surface runoff water (from precipitation) can be evacuated directly to surface water like streams and rivers. However, runoff water should not be contaminated and enter in contact with wastewater before it is discharged in the environment.

For wastewater (black and grey water), the choice of a system, or a combination of several depending on the type and quantity of wastewater to be treated.

For black water, it is recommended to pre-treat them with a septic tank before final disposal either in a sewer or an infiltration system. A septic tank will reduce the organic load and the pathogen concentration, but not sufficiently to discharge these waters directly in the open environment.

For grey water, it is recommended to pre-treat them through a grease trap before final disposal either in a sewer or an infiltration system.

The final disposal for wastewater can consist in a sewer, a soak away pit or infiltration trenches.

Table 14: approximate infiltration rate estimations of potable water and wastewater according to the soil textureSoil texture Infiltration rate of potable

water (l/m²-day)Infiltration rate of wastewater (l/m²-day)

Sand and loamy sand 2,400 - 720 50 – 33Sandy loam and loam 720 - 480 33 – 25Sandy clay loam, silt loam, clay loam, silty clay loam and silt

480 - 120 25 – 12

Sandy clay, silty clay and clayClay is not suitable for soak away pits or infiltration trenches

120 - 24 16 - 4

Sewer system In urban settings, a direct connection to a sewer system is an option for settlements and

dwellings but should be avoided for hospital wastewater that may be highly concentrated with pathogens.

Soak away pit A soak away pit is a covered, porous-walled chamber that allows water to slowly soak

into the ground. It should be used for discharging pre-treated wastewater.

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Soak away pits can only infiltrate limited amount of (pre-treated) wastewater. To determine the dimensions of the pit, it is important to evaluate the infiltration capacity of the soil (table 14) and be aware that the infiltration will only take place via the vertical walls of the pits.

The bottom of the soak away pit should be at least 3m above the highest possible water table. If the water table is rather high, opt for infiltration trenches.

Soak away pits can be lined with masonry works or even concrete rings with a concrete slab on top. Make sure that these models have enough holes in their lining to drain the liquids through their sides. Anyhow, by lining their infiltration surface will be drastically reduced.

A grease trap should be installed in front of the soak away pit when the wastewater originates from a kitchen, showers, a sink or a washing area, in order to avoid clogging by oil and fat.

Figure 25: design and sizing of soak way pit For sizing of the soak away pit, the effective infiltration surface should be calculated first (it is the surface through which the water will be infiltrated). To calculate this effective infiltration surface, the volume of wastewater to infiltrate every day should be estimated. The soil infiltration rate can be estimated form table 14.Once the effective infiltration surface has been calculated, the depth and the diameter of the soak away pit can be estimated as well. In the calculation of the depth of the soak away pit, the 0.5 m that should be added at the end of the formula is the estimated depth of the pipe inlet as the surface above is not effective for infiltration.

Infiltration trenches

Infiltration trenches are shallow excavations with rubble or stone that create temporary subsurface storage of storm-water runoff and/or wastewater thereby enhancing the natural capacity of the ground to store and drain water.

This dispersal system using single or multiple trenches with infiltration pipes are a good alternative to soak away pits for less permeable soils or where there are large quantities of effluent. It is also a practical option in the case of a high-water table.

The bottom of the trenches pit should be at least 1.5m above the highest water table. A grease trap should be installed in front of the trenches when the wastewater originates

from a kitchen, showers, a sink or a washing area to avoid clogging by oil and fat.

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Figure 26: design and sizing tips for a infiltration trench For sizing of the trench, the effective infiltration surface should be calculated first (see Figure 26).Once the effective infiltration surface has been calculated, the effective depth of the trench must be estimated. It is the infiltration height underneath the perforated pipe.

Additional information and references: BORDA, 1998: Decentralized waste water system in developing countries (online). MSF, 2014: Médecins Sans Frontières. Public health engineering in precarious situations (online). Sphere: Minimum standards in water supply, sanitation and hygiene promotion SSWM, 2011: wastewater treatment (online).

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Technical Guidance #22Emergency WASH in Healthcare Facilities

In emergencies, WASH services delivery extends beyond the home, to cover schools, health care facilities and other places where people may gather to seek services. In these settings, water and sanitation services can be used by large numbers of people, who may have particular needs or vulnerabilities. It is impossible to deliver quality health care services without reliable access to safe water, improved sanitation and provisions for safe hygiene practices.

GUIDELINES

WASH in Health Facilities

All water for hospitals, health centers and feeding centers should be treated with chlorine or another residual disinfectant.

In HFs where water is likely to be rationed due to intermittent supply, sufficient water storage should be available at the center to ensure an uninterrupted supply at normal usage levels (table 15).

Table 15: Minimum water quantities for health facilitiesHealth centers and hospitals 5 liters per outpatients

40-60 liters per inpatients per dayAdditional quantities may be needed for laundry equipment, flushing toilets, etc.

Cholera centers 60 liters per patient per day15 liters per carers per day

Therapeutic feeding centers 30 liters per inpatients per day15 liters per carer per day

Public toilets (e.g. for visitors at HFs) 1-2 liters per user per day for handwashing2-8 liters per toilet per day for toilet cleaning

All flushing toilets (e.g. in HFs) 20liters per user per day for conventional flushing toilets connected to a sewer3-5 liters per user per day for pour-flush toilets

Anal cleansing 1-2 liters per person per day

Provide basic sanitation facilities that enable patients, staff and carers to go to the toilet without contaminating the health-care setting or resources such as water supply.

The type of sanitation facility adopted depends on the context, time of intervention (e.g. immediate after the emergency), the preferences and cultural habits of the intended users, availability of water (for flushing, maintenance and anal cleansing) and the emergency situation. Defecation fields and trench latrine (unless improved) are not acceptable for health facilities. Pit latrine with easy to clean squatting slab or a Ventilated and Improved Pit (VIP) are acceptable means of excreta disposal in emergencies for HFs.

Patients and medical staff attending HFs should have designate place and means (soap and water) to wash their hands with soap at critical times. There must be a constant source of water near the toilet for this purpose. This may be done using simple and economical equipment, such as a pitcher of water, a basin and soap.

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Provide sufficient water for hand washing after going to the toilet and before handling food, before and after performing health care. This may be done using simple and economical equipment, such as a pitcher of water, a basin and soap.

Toilets are provided with an established system for proper and regular cleaning and maintenance. This is of very high importance in health facility.

Disaggregated population data must be used to plan the number of women and men’s toilets (table 16). Where possible, urinal should be provided.

Users should have the means to wash their hands with soap after using toilets. There must be a constant source of water near the toilet for this purpose.

Table 16: Minimum numbers of toilets at public places and institutions in disaster situations.

Short term Long termHospitals/medical centers 1 toilet cabin to 20 beds or 50

outpatientsGender separation.

1 toilet to 10 beds or 20 outpatientsGender separation.

Feeding centers 1 toilet to 50 adults1 toilet to 20 children (beds)Gender separation

1 toilet to 20 adults1 toilet to 10 children (beds)Gender separation.

Additional guidance for health facilities

Provide safe health-care waste management facilities to safely contain the amount of infectious waste produced. This will require the presence of color-coded containers in all rooms where wastes are generated.

Provide cleaning facilities that enable staff to routinely clean surfaces and fittings to ensure that the health-care environment is visibly clean and free form dust and soil. In 90% of the case micro-organisms are present within visible dirt; the purpose of cleaning is to eliminate the risk micro-organisms by eliminating dirt.

Ensure that eating utensils are washed immediately after use. The sooner utensils are cleaned the easier they are to wash. Hot water and detergent, and drying on a stand are required.

Reduce the population density of disease vectors. Proper waste disposal, food hygiene, wastewater drainage, and a clean environment are key activities for controlling the vectors.

Provide information about, and implement hygiene promotion so that staff, patients and carers are informed about essential behaviors from limiting disease transmission in health-care settings and at home. One of the ways to do this is by displaying essential health and hygiene behaviors in strategic locations such as waiting hall and inspection /surgery unit.

Additional information and references: Sphere: Minimum standards in water supply, sanitation and hygiene promotion UNICEF & WHO, 2015: WASH in health care facilities for better health care services (online). WHO, 2008: Essential environmental health standards in health care (online).

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Technical Guidance #23Emergency WASH in Schools

Lack of appropriate water and sanitation facilities in primary schools can lead to poor academic performance due to less attention in the classroom and increased absence, particularly for girls. WASH in School in emergency means that children and staff attending school have access to sufficient quantities of safe water for drinking and personal hygiene and use in the toilet.

GUIDELINES

For the purpose of this guidelines, schools mean all formal and informal centers (formal schools, community-based schools and child friendly spaces) where children under the age of 18 receive their academic learning and participate in recreational activities during emergency.

All schools affected by emergencies should receive safe water treated with chlorine or another residual disinfectant.

In schools where water is likely to be rationed due to intermittent supply, sufficient water storage should be available at the school to ensure an uninterrupted supply of water during the school hours (see table 17).

Table 17: Minimum water quantities for schools Boarding schools 15 liters per students for drinking and hygiene

15 liters for resident carers and teachers;[Additional quantities may be needed for laundry equipment, flushing toilets, etc.].

Schools (day schoolers only) 5 liters / student / day for drinking and handwashing 3-5 liters for pour-flush toilet

Community-based schools (CBS) and Child friendly spaces

5 liters / student / day for drinking and handwashing 3-5 liters for pour-flush toilet

Anal cleansing 1-2 liters per person per day in all cases

Provide basic sanitation facilities that enable school children and teachers /carers to use the toilet at the time of need avoiding open defecation.

The type of sanitation facility adopted depends on the context, time of intervention (e.g. immediate after the emergency), the preferences and cultural habits of the users and availability of water (for flushing, maintenance and anal cleansing). Defecation fields are not acceptable in the school settings. However, trench latrine if improved appropriately can still be a quick solution for short term. Pit latrines with easy to clean squatting slabs are the best options in emergency.

VIP latrines can be constructed in formal schools and child friendly spaces if resource and time permits.

For CBS, in majority of the case, pit latrines are the best options. However, use of materials for superstructure has to go along with the local construction practice and in conformity with existing latrines in the community.

Toilets in schools are to be provided with an established system for proper and regular cleaning and maintenance.

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Disaggregated data must be used to plan the number of girls and boys toilet cabins (table 18). Where possible, a separate urinal should be provided for boys.

For children below the age of 11 years attending primary schools, CBS, and child friendly spaces, it is recommended not to have gender separated latrines.

Children and teachers should have designate place close to the toilet and means (soap and water) for washing hands with soap. There must be a provision of sufficient water near the toilet for this purpose. This may be done using simple and economical equipment, such as a pitcher of water, a basin and soap. Perforated pipe hand-washing facility or tippy taps made of plastic bottles can also be used in school settings for group handwashing.

Table 18: minimum numbers of toilets at schools, CBS and child friendly spaces.Short term Long term

Schools (boarders and day schoolers)

At least one toilet for girls and one for boys in schools as a minimum

One toilet for 25 girls and one toilet with urinal for 50 boys

Urinal for boys Soak away pits for urine (hand-dug, stone-filled holes for boys)

Urine turf connected to and Soak way pits.

CBS At least one toilet 1 toilet in CBS (children under 11 years of age)

1 toilet to 25 children (children under 11 years of age)

Child friendly spaces At least one toilet 1 toilet in CBS (children under 11 years of age)

1 toilet to 25 children (children under 11 years of age)

Organize hygiene promotion practical sessions with school teachers as well as children using participatory tools.

Ensure safe hygiene and sanitation behaviors related messages are displayed in toilets, designated handwashing places and eating quarters;

Provide waste dumping pit / container to for disposing the garbage. Orientation to children in avoiding littering of garbage in learning environment.

Reduce the population density of disease vectors in school environment through proper waste disposal and wastewater drainage. Clean environment disperses vectors.

WASH requirements for other uses

For mosques, it is recommended to provide a minimum of 5 liters of safe water per person per day of water for washing and drinking;

Each mosque must have a latrine and hand washing facility. When water for livestock needs catering in emergency: 25 liters per big or medium cattle

and 5 liters per small animals like goat or ship per day.

Additional information and references: Sphere UNICEF – WASH in Schools in Emergency

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Technical Guidance #24WASH and Cholera

Cholera is an acute diarrheal infection caused by the ingestion of the bacterium Vibrio cholera. The short incubation period of the causative organisms (two hours to five days) enhances the potentially explosive pattern of outbreaks. Even a single case of suspected cholera should be considered as an alert for cholera outbreak and be notified immediately to the WASH Cluster.

GUIDELINES

Poor access to water in sufficient quantities may negatively affect hygiene practices leading to diarrheal diseases and cholera. Refugee camps, slums and peri-urban areas are usually at highest risk because of high population density associated with poor access to water and poor hygiene conditions. Most of techniques presented in this handbook are applicable, and can be combined with some additional potential actions (table 19).

Table 19: potential action to improve access to water in sufficient quantities at community levelExisting water supply system

Repair pipelines/tap-stands In-line chlorination, mass-chlorination Additional temporary water points, improving water distribution

Protected hand-pumps/springs (wells/lined boreholes)

Repair handpumps, pipe Repair / ensure sanitary seal Bucket chlorination of water to reduce secondary contamination in

the home due to poor hygiene practicesTankering system Chlorination of tankers

Water quality monitoringUnprotected water sources (stream, wells, spring, karez, etc.)

Organizing the stream / river for use – drinking upstream, bathing / washing downstream

Bucket chlorination Fully protect the spring / well

Where no water supply exists nearby (or not treatable)

Transport the water by tanker and chlorinate it before distribution.

Within households Promotion of Point of Use Water Treatment (PUWT) and safe storage Promotion of use of highest quality of water available

Promoting good hygiene practices can be very effective in interrupting transmission routes. For example, it is important to ensure that practices promoted have the necessary facilities and materials available (e.g. promoting handwashing with soap where people have no access to soap and water can be counter-productive). In addition, the implementation of the actions presented in table 20 below can provide effective barrier for spread of disease.

Table 20: potential action to improve hygiene at public/community level.

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Food (markets, street vendors)

Cooking: food should be well cooked and served hot Storage: protected from contamination / flies Handling: handwashing before preparing / eating Distribution of soap, including for dishwashing

Excreta disposal Disposal of containment in existing or temporarily provided facilities / sites.

Provision of handwashing facilities (with soap or chlorinated water) at public toilets.

Within households Promotion of PUWT and safe storage Distribution of soap for handwashing

Excreta (feces and vomit) from cholera patients are highly infective, as they contain up to one billion vibrio per ml. Their disposal in latrines is therefore crucial. However, this may not be feasible in all outbreaks. Generally, construction of family latrines at the start of an outbreak has poor impact on the epidemic spread as this takes too much time. Temporary measures should be discussed and implemented in priority (table 21).

Table 21: potential action to improve sanitation at public/community level.Excreta containment

Mobile sanitation cleaning teams in residential areas or markets Emergency public latrines (markets, schools, gathering points). Closure

and cleaning must be ensured at the end of the outbreak. Keep existing latrine clean. Assign defecation areas to ensure containment in one area.

Solid waste management

Support to existing system to ensure proper functioning Clear existing waste that pose public health hazard. Spray insecticides on waste where flies are a major concern as a significant

transmission route. Wastewater Clearing of drains to ensure free flowing and removal of obstructions

Construction of temporary drain channelsBurial practices Bury as soon as possible and promote safe / adapted funeral ceremonies.

Minimize contact with corpse by mourners. Promote hand washing with soap after contact (if unavoidable).

Additional guidelines for health facilities, including CTCs

Hand washing with chlorinated water must be enhanced. Floors and all areas of the cholera centers should be cleaned regularly (once per day). Separate toilets for patients, staff and carers must be provided. If people arrive by public transport, vehicles must be disinfected. Run-off from rain and wastewater within the isolation camp area must be contained and

treated. Chlorine solution must be available at all time in sufficient quantities at the required

concentrations (0.05%, 0.2% and 2%).

Table 22: chlorine concentration for different uses2% solution 0.2% solution 0.05% solutionWaste and excreta, dead bodies Floor, objects, beds,

footbaths, clothes.Hands and skin.

Additional information and references:

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Sphere: Minimum standards in water supply, sanitation and hygiene promotion. UNICEF, 2013: Cholera toolkit (online). MoPH, 2013: Operational guideline for cholera epidemic response in Afghanistan.

Technical Guidance #25WASH and Nutrition

The determinants of undernutrition are complex and dependent on a wide range of diverse and interconnected factors. At the most immediate level, undernutrition is the outcome of inadequate dietary intake and repeated infectious diseases. Its underlying determinants include food security, inappropriate care practices and poor access to health care and unhealthy environment, including inadequate access to water, sanitation and hygiene. In nutrition crises situation, integrated WASH-Nutrition response should ensure that children have access to minimum WASH services during and after treatment at household and facility.

GUIDELINES

Ensure that nutrition intervention strategies include a WASH component, especially sanitation adapt WASH interventions to include nutritional considerations.

Sensitize staff on inadequate WASH conditions that facilitate ingestions of fecal pathogens, which lead to diarrhea, intestinal worms and environmental enteric dysfunctions (EED), the three key pathways from poor WASH to undernutrition.

Sensitize staff that the 1,000 days between a woman’s pregnancy and her child’s second birthday offer a unique window of opportunity to build healthier future as damage associated with poor nutrition that takes place during this period is usually irreversible.

Promote mother/care givers handwashing with soap before breastfeeding. Breastmilk provides all the liquid and food an infant need up to the age of six months. Exclusive breastfeeding means preventing child ingesting contaminated food and water.

In coordination with nutrition Cluster, focus on mother/caretakers and malnourished children and follow their progression at their homes to prevent relapsing due to poor access to WASH services. Promotion and distribution of the PUWT products, such as filters or chlorine tablets and hygiene messages can be done at health facility levels, in therapeutic feeding units and/or at maternity ward.

Provide emergency WASH services in health centers and feeding unit as part of an integrated WASH and nutrition package. Lack of access to water and hygiene facilities in health facilities severely compromises their ability to provide safe care and present serious health risks to both health providers and health seekers. Low-cost interventions may include promotion of handwashing with soap, safe disposal excreta and rehabilitation and/or extension of water supply in the facility.

Advocate with development partners to prioritize WASH intervention is areas with higher prevalence of global acute malnutrition (GAM), with a further focus on areas with higher prevalence of severe acute malnutrition (SAM).

Additional information and references

Sphere (new) ACF, NCA UNICEF

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Technical Sheet #26WASH in urban contexts

A large, highly mobile and dynamic population makes finding and assisting the defined communities a challenge in urban context. This diversity often results in a more diverse set of needs, with groups sharing similar vulnerabilities not restricted to geographical areas within defined boundaries. Urban contexts are potentially more vulnerable in times of emergencies due to the comparatively fewer coping mechanisms and higher reliance upon public services.

GUIDELINES

In urban contexts, take in consideration that people have a greater access to markets and generally, they have a higher level of education, although higher standards may mean unrealistic expectations about service quality.

Take into consideration that vulnerable individuals in urban settings can have diverse requirements, they can be dispersed in over a large area, and can be difficult to assess.

Be aware that more complex contexts and systems demand a greater level of skill and hence need for specialists. Increasing the capacity of local engineers and technicians to assess and repair urban water systems is essential.

Deliver quick win solutions such as procurement of treatment chemicals and small repairs. It remains to be seen whether humanitarian agencies possess the management skills to deliver longer term solutions, as need often means agencies operate beyond their domains of expertise.

Sanitation is context specific, but be aware that urban areas are not a single context. This makes choosing from the wide variety of excreta disposal options an important process, with the needs and preferences of users requiring more consideration than in rural settings. There are a great variety of technologies on offer: trench latrines, various superstructures, composting and bio-bag options.

Issues of access for sludge removal and land availability for disposal can be especially challenging and need to be given immediate priority.

Cash transfer programming and market based toolkits have potentially critical roles to play in urban settings and transfer can be either in voucher or monetary form. The success of these initiatives depends on functioning markets.

High level of waste that results from a natural disaster or conflict comes from many different sources and can include hazardous home and commercial products, waste from relief programmes, vegetation, sediments and the municipal waste that immediately accumulates once regular removal is disrupted. Often neglected by relief efforts, such debris can hamper logistics and become a public health hazard.

Hygiene promotion in urban areas is usually harder as there can be middle income and slum areas, host and displaced populations, all with differing needs, cultures and capacities.

It is important to assess the opportunities for a more context specific design of hygiene promotion modality as there are more formal governance structures and access to mass media in the towns and cities compare to rural areas.

Additional information and references: Red R UK, 2014: Urban WASH in emergencies. Learning report (online).

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Technical Guidance #27WASH in cold weather conditions

The climate of Afghanistan is typical of an arid or semiarid steppe, with cold winters and dry summers. The mountain regions of the northeast are subarctic with dry and cold winters. Winter freeze-ups will inevitably affect water supply and sanitation options, logistics, construction techniques and the health of the population. It is therefore necessary to propose guidance specifically designed for emergencies in areas where freezing conditions will occur.

GUIDELINES

During emergency project cycle, basic climate-related information must be obtained that include answers to the following questions:

o When does the winter season start and finish?o What are the average daytime and night time temperatures in winter?o What is the minimum temperature likely to be?o How much snow can be expected and at what time of the year?o Which systems are at risk of freezing, what damage will result if they do freeze,

and what can be done to protect those systems? Any local proven practices? o Is it possible to construct new facilities in winter? By what date should projects be

completed?

Water supply

Water from springs is likely to be quite cold already and if outlets from a spring box do freeze, the resulting back pressure may cause subterranean alteration of the water course, causing the spring to emerge at a different place. It is essential to guard against freezing up by covering spring boxes with an insulating layer of soil of 0.75 to 1 m thick.

Whatever type of handpump is used, some damage due to freezing is likely. Features for all types of handpumps installed where temperature can fall below freezing include:

o Locate pump in a pump houseo Care must be given to good drainage as ice is likely to form on concrete apron.

Lift pump make sense in cold areas because the working parts of the cylinder are always underground. Above-ground pump parts can be protected by making small weep-hole in the riser main pipe just above the cylinder.

Suction pumps are prone to damage because the pumping cylinder is above ground and the water remaining in the cylinder freezes after pumping ceases. One way to protect it is to use a lower valve that leaks slightly into the raining main. The pump will drain themselves of water. It will also be necessary to have water available, close to the pump, for re-priming the pump.

Smaller rivers and streams may appear to have frozen completely, but a sub-surface flow may continue underground. Infiltration galleries beside small streams may continue to yield water even when the stream is completely frozen, if there is some sub-surface flow.

Water tank outlet valves should be protected by insulating them. If there is a continuous flow into and out of the tank (no matter how small), it will help to prevent freezing.

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Piling earth around the tank is a simple and effective solution that also increases tank stability. If ground conditions permit, a tank located underground is less likely to freeze due to the insulating effect of the earth surrounding it.

A single tank with a large capacity will lose heat less quickly than several smaller ones with the same total storage capacity because its surface area to volume ratio will be smaller in comparison. Round tanks have a lower surface area to volume ratio than rectangular ones, and lose heat less quickly.

Slow sand filtration is effective at ambient positive temperatures. The factor by which the number of E. coli in the water is reduced is normally in the range 100 to 1,000. This factor can be as low as 2 if water temperature is less than 2°C. In conditions where the ambient temperatures are below zero, bio-sand filters should be covered with a roof and an insulated bottom and sides. As locally practiced, in rural areas community can use wheat straws to protect water tanks or filters from freezing. This can be easily removed when winter is over.

Figure 27:Put and take water heater (WEDC)

Figure 28: Tap box protection of a temporary standpipe (WEDC).

Where ambient temperatures are at or below -10°C it is worth draining temporary distribution networks at night. Fit washout valves and drainage facilities at low points in the distribution systems.

An alternative to draining the pipes is to keep water continuously moving inside them in leaving some taps running at distribution points, which is obviously wasteful of water and would only be used as a temporary solution.

Pipe insulation is effective on its own or in combination with pipe burial. If both methods are employed, then the minimum desirable depth is at least 0.5 m to 1 m.

Damage to pipes from freezing water inside can be avoided or mitigated by selecting suitable pipe material:

o Medium and High Density Polyethylene (MDPE/HDPE) remain ductile, even at temperature as low as -60°C. Heat welded joints are also strong enough to resist to pressure of water expansion on freezing. Due to their low thermal conductivity, water is less likely to freeze in them than in pipes made of other materials.

o Polyvinylchloride (UPVC) can become brittle at low temperature (e.g. lower than 10°C). They have thinner walls than MDPE/HDPE pipes and so offer less insulation and are more prone to accidental breakage.

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o Metal ductile iron pipe are very resilient but will also be very expensive and heavy to transport on disaster locations.

Water distribution pipes should be preferably located inside a shelter to prevent the problem of freezing inside the stand-posts or handpumps.

Simple standpipes and taps can be protected from the cold by using basic insulation, for example by wrapping sacking around exposed pipes, constructing a wooden box around them or by a tap box (figure 28), which is filled by soil in winter and can be dismantled during the summer. An alternative to filling a tap box with earth is to place a small heat source, such as a small paraffin heater, inside the box at night.

Excreta disposal

In cold regions, the rate at which sludge builds up in latrines increases because the biological processes that reduce the volume of sludge halt in sub-zero temperature. Frozen grounds are also more impermeable. The volumes of the pits may be as double as that of a warm climate.

Use communal trench latrine is better suited in cold climate because of the reduced decomposition process resulting no or less smell around the latrine.

Pit latrines are suitable in cold climate as there is limited or no foul smells due to reduced decomposition process under sub-zero temperature.

Latrines must be located closed to human accommodations to make the facilities more accessible in cold or unpleasant weather.

If people and especially children experience discomfort when hand-washing after defecation because the process makes their hands cold, they will be tempted not to wash. Periodically pouring hot water in water for handwashing and insulating these water containers and/or providing disposable paper could make this process more pleasant.

The use of septic tanks remains viable in temperatures above 0°C, but the rate of accumulation of sludge is very high at low temperatures when the rate of bacterial reaction processes is considerably reduced. Regular desludging is necessary in cold regions with sludge being taken to a designated disposal site.

Additional information and references: WEDC, 2004: water Engineering and Development Center. Out in the cold.

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CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES

Cross-cutting issues are those which spread throughout the project cycles and across the WASH sub-areas including water supply, hygiene and sanitation. Cross-cutting issues must be mainstreamed in both community and institution-based projects. They are essential to guarantee that a project will reach all categories of beneficiaries in an efficient and effective manner. There are several cross-cutting issues that need to be carefully analyzed, planned and incorporated in while responding and/or preparing to respond to emergencies. 

For example, working from rights based perspective which supports the equality of men and women enhances the effectiveness of humanitarian interventions. There is growing recognition that humanitarian crises affect women, girls, boys and men in differently as they have differentiated needs, suffer from different vulnerabilities. Failing to address these gender differences in humanitarian responses can have serious implications for the protection and survival of those caught up in disasters.

While there are several important crosscutting issues that need due consideration in emergency project cycle management, however the following are the key issues that this chapter will provide guidance:

LIST OF CROSS CUTTING ISSUESTG #28 Emergency WASH and GenderTG #29 Emergency WASH and ProtectionTG #30 Emergency WASH and Disabilities and Other Vulnerable PersonsTG #31 Emergency WASH and EnvironmentTG #32 Disaster Risk ReductionTG #33 Community Participation in emergency situationTG #34 WASH Humanitarian Performance Monitoring

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Technical Sheet #28Emergency WASH and Gender

Women and girls in Afghanistan bear most of the burden of carrying, using and protecting water. They also have the most responsibility for environmental sanitation and home health. Given the present roles of women in water and sanitation, their active involvement and empowerment is needed for water and sanitation efforts to be successful – and without further adding to their burden. Gender mainstreaming is needed to achieve gender balance and reduce the inequalities suffered by women and girls.

KEY PRINCIPLESKey gender principles, extracted from the Global WASH Cluster minimum commitments (figure 29) for the safety and dignity of affected people are:

Consult separately girls, boys, women, and men, including older people and those with disabilities, to ensure that WASH programs are designed so as to provide equitable access and reduce risks of violence.

Ensure that girls, boys, women and men, including older people and those with disabilities have access to appropriate and safe WASH services.

Ensure that girls, boys, women, and men, including those with disabilities, have access to feedback and complaint mechanisms so that corrective actions can address their specific protection and assistance needs.

Monitor and evaluate equitable access and use of WASH services in projects. Give priority to girls (particularly adolescents) and women’s participation in the

consultation process.

Figure 29:WASH commitment for the safety and dignity of affected people

GUIDELINES WASH assessment must include identification of specific needs of girls, boys, women,

men, including older people and persons with disabilities in terms of equitable access.

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Locations of WASH facilities and their design must be determined through separate consultations of girls, boys, and women, men in order to ensure equitable uses and minimize risks of violence.

Provide separate female and male public showers and toilets and identify facilities for female and male use with a pictogram.

WASH facilities must be designed to respond to distinct dignity, safety and access needs (i.e. all public latrines and shower blocks are separated by sex, locks on the inside, privacy screens considered, lights, pictograms, etc.).

Menstrual hygiene needs of girls and women must be met. Raising awareness about menstrual hygiene management in both genders can reduce fear and discrimination. It must be a component of all WASH programs. Women and girls should be equipped with the knowledge and means to safely manage menstrual hygiene and with dignity, and means for safe disposal of menstrual waste should be provided.

Equal representation of women and men in water management committees (or two separate committees if culturally deemed necessary).

Hygiene promotion activities must be designed to target both men and women. WASH users (especially girls, women and people with disability) must be informed of

their rights and understand the feedback complaints mechanisms related to WASH programme.

Provide training to both women and men in operation and maintenance of all types of water and sanitation facilities.

Baselines and monitoring and evaluation tools must include the collection of sex and age disaggregated data on the access and use of WASH facilities, including on how safe people feel using WASH facilities.

Specific focus group discussions must be organized for women and girls during the needs assessment phase and across the response.

Additional information and references: Global WASH Cluster, 2017: WASH Cluster’s minimum commitment for the safety and the dignity

of affected people, with an integrated approach that addresses gender, protection, age and disability issues (online)

Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC), 2014: Gender equality programming in emergencies in WASH (GEP in WASH).

Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC), 2012: WASH IASC gender marker tip sheet. Water Aid, 2013: Briefing note. Women and WASH. Water, sanitation and hygiene for women’s

rights and gender equality (online).

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Technical Guidance #29Emergency WASH and Protection

Protection is defined as all activities aimed at obtaining full respects for the rights of the individual in accordance with the letter and spirit of the relevant bodies of law, namely human rights law, international humanitarian law and refugee law. In 2010, the General Assembly and Human Right Council recognized “the right to safe and clean drinking water and sanitation as a human right that is essential for the full enjoyment of life and all human rights”.

KEY PRINCIPLESKey protection principles are:

Do no harm: avoid exposing people to further harm as a result of your action and ensure:

o The environment and way in which assistance is provided do not expose people to further hazards, violence or human rights abuses or violations;

o Manage information in a sensitive manner so that the security of informants or others who may be identifiable is not jeopardized;

Non-discrimination: ensure equitable and impartial access to assistance:o Ensure all parts of the affected population have access to relief assistance;o Challenge any deliberate attempts to exclude parts of the affected population;

Human-right based approach:o Promote respect for human rights, assist and support affected people to claim

their rights from authorities and to obtain information on their entitlements;o Ensure consultation with the target population at all stages, and the

participation of all in the design and targeting of interventions, in particular vulnerable and marginalized groups.

GUIDELINES Ensure the staff assessing the needs and planning response are fully aware of protection

concerns associated with WASH interventions, to ensure equitable access by all beneficiaries, including identified vulnerable groups (e.g. female headed households).

Ensure service providers such as community health and hygiene promotors are aware of protection principals and guidelines and can identify protection related issues.

Ensure the person or group that might face difficulties in accessing WASH services are identified during the assessment and planning stages.

Ensure that the concerns of person or groups that are at risk of violence or may face difficulties in accessing services are including in the programme design by involving them in the planning process as much as possible.

Ensure project or programme has taken necessary measures to remove the difficulties to allow everyone affected by disaster to have equitable access to WASH services.

Ensure WASH programme works with health and education sectors to support the availability of appropriate WASH facilities within or in the immediate vicinity of health or educational institutions.

Ensured that the locations of WASH facilities are safe, well-lit and secured/privacy (e.g. separate space for women/girls, people with disabilities).

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Ensure that the mechanisms are in place for the beneficiaries to raise protection concerns related to the use of WASH services and facilities (including obstacles to access, damage to infrastructure or pollution)?

Ensure that disintegrated data are collected and analysed on access to WASH services (e.g. age, gender, location or specific communities) to monitor the equitable access.

Put in place the mechanisms to prevent incidents of harassment and violence affecting beneficiaries (e.g. referral to protection actors).

If necessary provide assistance (including financial and technical) in the construction, cleaning and maintenance of WASH facilities used by disadvantaged people (e.g. disable people).

Additional information and references: Protection and WASH Clusters occupied Palestinian territory, 2011: Checklist for mainstreaming

protection in WASH programmes (online). UN Office of the High Commissioner / Human Rights, UN Habitat & WHO, 2017: Fact sheet on the

right to water (online) OCHA, 2010: Child protection in emergencies coordinator’s handbook (online)

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Technical Guidance #30Emergency WASH and Disabilities

Persons with disabilities represent 7 to 10% of the general population. These persons have the same needs as others but many need specific support to meet these needs. If accessibility features are incorporated into the original design of a project, it usually cost less than 2% of the total cost. Older persons, pregnant women, children and other vulnerable persons will also benefit from these adaptations.

KEY PRINCIPLESKey principles for enhancing accessibility for all in emergencies are:

Make sure all information you want to communicate can be understood by everyone. Persons who cannot see will not be able to read banners or posters while persons who cannot hear will not be aware of information broadcasted on radio or loudspeakers.

WASH facilities are basic needs and must be usable by all. People with disabilities should be consulted when choosing the design of emergency facilities to make them safe and user friendly for all.

Not all the people with disabilities or injuries will be able to come to central distribution points and alternative mechanisms might be needed to reach them.

GUIDELINES

WASH facilities At least 10% of the WASH facilities should be accessible to disabled people and other

vulnerable groups. Entrance to latrines and bathing areas should be at least 90 cm wide. Surfaces should be

rough to avoid slipping. If a pathway is build, it should be stable, firm, even and slip-resistant, and at least 90 cm wide (figure 30).

If stairs are built, make sure that the raiser is ≤16 cm high and trade is ≥ 28 cm wide. A ramp may be better with a maximum gradient of 1:10 and non-slip surface (figure 31).

All taps and door handles should be easy to grasp and doors should open outwards.

Figure 30: some ramps must be installed for easier access to toilets and other relevant facilities.

Figure 31: recommended sizing parameters for stairs.

Put handrails or something (e.g. rope) to hold when using latrine. For handrail, the middle point should be between 50 and 70 cm height and 40 cm length.

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Build some latrines with an elevated seat (50 cm from the finished floor level for an adult) or provide toilet chairs (figure 32).

For bathing and laundry, provide a seat or bench (50 cm high) and handrail (100 cm height) for persons needing additional support (figure 33).

Figure 32: example of toilet with sitting chair Figure 33: example of bathing facility

Ensure that water points are safe (no risk of falls) and can be reached by mobility devices. If a hand pump is installed for people using mobility device, extend the handle of the

water pump to 105 cm. Construct a non-slippery platform and good drainage system without standing water in

and around the area. Consider building a small raised platform so that someone can sit and pump water.

Water distribution points Locate distribution points as close as possible where people with disabilities are staying. Organize specific line-ups for people who cannot stand for long periods. If this is not

possible, consider door to door distribution. Help the person to carry their ration or relief items (e.g. arrange transportation or a

helper). Monitor that the person receives all of his / her rations and that part does not go toward payment of the helper.

Communication Use at least two means of communication (audio and pictorial) with simple language and

clear pictures. Use large dark print (at least 10 cm letters for 3 m viewing distance / 20 cm for 10 m

distance) for posters and billboards. Put information materials in easy accessible areas. Make sure broadcasted information with loudspeakers is load enough to reach persons

who cannot leave their shelters.

Additional information and references: Handicap International, 2009: Accessibility for all in an emergency context (online). UNICEF, 2017: WASH and disability. Mapping good practices brochure (online). Water Engineering and Development Center (WEDC), 2005: Water and sanitation for disabled

people and other vulnerable groups: Designing services to improve accessibility (online).

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Technical Guidance #31Emergency WASH and Environment

Humanitarian operations invariably impact the environment, the effects of which may be far reaching and long lasting, affecting not only the physical environment but also on occasion the welfare and well-being of disaster-affected populations. Even in emergency situations, a focus should be given to preventive actions and decisions that can help reduce the environmental negative impacts of common and recurrent WASH-related activities.

KEY PRINCIPLESKey environmental principles are:

Implementing agencies must consider the impact on environment and its consequences to well-being of the people affected.

WASH interventions should embrace an integrated water resource management approach, whereby the potential effect of water abstraction, waste disposal and physical resources use (e.g. wood) is analyzed as a core part of the response.

Incorporation of environmental issues into WASH activities usually results in better and healthier living conditions for affected populations.

While providing the relief assistance to the affected population, ensure that the longer-term needs and livelihood of the host-communities are not compromised.

A rapid Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) needs to be conducted in a major emergency where environmental concerns exist. Agencies are encouraged to develop simple EIA checklist using the below guidelines.

GUIDELINES Ensure that the project activities should not pose a risk of pollution of ground water

aquifers and/or surface water bodies; Ensure that the project activities don’t pose a risk of over-extraction of ground water

which, in some instances, might lead to salt intrusion or the reduction of yield in previously existing wells and boreholes, put the host communities’ livelihood at risk;

Ensure that there is no waste accumulation or inappropriate disposal that could potentially represent a public health threat for the affected populations;

If septic tank or latrine is being planned to use in shallow aquifers, ensure that measures are taken to avoid contamination of ground water;

Ensure that plans are in place to appropriately disposed of project activities accumulated fecal sludge (from latrine or septic tanks) or any other waste;

If excessive use of chemical is warranted in the project (e.g. for vector control), ensure that measures are in place to disposal of chemical remains and any other environmental implication it might have.

Ensure the technology promoted during response is not exacerbating the environmental degradation: water disinfection through boiling could be a risk for local vegetation, since it could trigger extensive wood cutting or extensive latrine construction activities using excessive wood could also very negatively impact into the local environment.

Additional information and references: Global WASH Cluster, 2012: Environmental best practices in emergency WASH operations. A

position paper. Prepared by CARE International and ProAct Network (online).Technical Guidance #32

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Disaster Risk ReductionDisaster risk is the potential loss expressed in lives, health status, livelihoods, assets and services, which could occur in a particular community due to the impact of natural or man-made hazards. Disaster risk reduction (DRR) is a systematic approach to identifying, assessing and reducing that risk. DRR in the context of emergency means to ensure the safety and integrity of water and sanitation infrastructure built during the emergency response. Hence DRR interventions are planned and implemented as integral part of emergency to protect both WASH infrastructures as well as people’s health and livelihood linked to WASH.

KEY PRINCIPLESKey disaster risk reduction principles are:

Make sure to maintain adequate service levels through the reduction of the negative impact of the potential hazard events on existing WASH services

Ensure quick service and structural recovery of WASH services after hazards events. Ensure WASH services have minimal negative effects on society. Ensure communities are engaged at all stages of the programme /project development

to foster the ownership for effective use and proper look after (maintenance and repair).

After any earthquake, flood and avalanche, ensure that for water supply network hazards mapping is done and action is taken to reduce risk.

GUIDELINES

Assessment Produce a succinct overview of hazards (hazards mapping) that may negatively impact

critical WASH services with potential scenarios of how these may affect services. Identify the probability these hazard events occurring and estimate the potential impact on

critical services and lives and livelihood of the people. Identify what WASH services are critical to survival and/or prevention of major public

health issues. Produce a brief review of disaster risks the WASH services might be prone to in the

community or group of people being served.

DRR measures on existing services Ensure communities are engaged on management and operation and maintenance. Put in place a reliable and appropriate system of monitoring the minimum standard and

quality of service, and ensure there is a capacity to intervene if standards are not met. Set up systems that facilitate functioning of water systems (e.g. procedures for release of

materials, mobilization of human and financial resources for repair and maintenance, etc.).

Set up and use emergency early warning systems for critical and imminent threats. Create awareness among the communities and CDCs on where to seek support if the

water system stops functioning and repair and maintenance is beyond their capacity. Strengthening infrastructures (e.g. replace poor quality or worn-out parts with good

quality ones, build sandbag wall to protect slopes from erosion, protect spring or spring

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intake from flood wash, keep the water pipe at least 90cm below the ground to avoid freezing).

Build water structures appropriately that will reduce the impact of possible hazard events on them (e.g. gabion wall to protect from flooding, flood diversion, raised hand-pumps).

Built in structural redundancy (e.g. install a second water intake, stock pipes and fittings to replace the potential flood or landslide damage section).

Train staff to build their capacity to assess damage and carryout repairs. Increase autonomy (e.g. prepositioning of spares, consumables, tools at the place where

they will be needed, preposition material needed for possible repair). Ensure material and equipment are protected (e.g. against flooding). Prepare for changes in water quality (e.g. identify possible issues, install supplementary

reservoirs that can be used for assisted sedimentation or chlorination if needed). Prepare for reduced availability of water (e.g. prepare access to alternative water sources). Ensure security in supply of critical consumables, spare parts and equipment (e.g. through

contracts with suppliers, increasing stock levels). Prepare for change in demand (e.g. increased demand because of population

displacements) and potential expansion of the system (e.g. identify alternate water source for expansion).

DRR measures in emergency response Ensure safe location for WASH infrastructure (e.g. areas above the expected flood-line,

away from building or structures at risk of collapse in case of earthquake, in areas safe from landslide).

Ensure communities are engaged at all stages of the project from the onset of its foster the ownership for quality construction, effective use and proper operation and maintenance.

Use quality structure and materials that have a high resistance to hazard events that might occur (e.g. concrete structure instead of plastic tank in the area where fire is common).

Design systems so that they are built in structural redundancy (e.g. several parallel reservoir systems that allow individual reservoirs to be isolated from the system, back-up equipment like generators and motor-pumps are in place, connection to second borehole or intake)

Build the system to reduce the needs for consumables that might be difficult and expensive to obtain in disaster situation (e.g. if adequate, install rapid sand filtration system instead of assisted sedimentation, where possible use gravity instead of pumping).

Adapt services to the needs and skills of users (e.g. use of mud brick walls for latrine instead of plastic or fiber) to ensure easy to replace and repair.

Train local technicians for repair and maintenance avoiding dependence on specialists’ services from outside.

Avoid using product of one supplier or manufacturer to minimize the price monopoly and delay in service delivery.

Explore possibility of risk transfer, e.g. warrantee of electrical equipment, use of water by private company /industry with the agreement that they keep the system operational.

Monitor water quality through the application of water safety plan. A change in water quality is often linked to malfunctioning of water system (e.g. breakage of water seal at intake or leakage in pipe joints is often linked to bacteriological contamination). This helps early detection and fixing avoiding bigger damage.

Additional information and references:

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Global WASH Cluster, 2011: Disaster Risk Reduction and Water Sanitation and Hygiene. Comprehensive guidance (online).

MRRD, 2014: Disaster Management Strategy (online). UNICEF, 2011: Disaster Risk Reduction and WASH. One pager (online).

Technical Guidance #33Community participation in emergency

Community participation is the active involvement of people from communities in reacting to disasters. Participation does not only mean being involved in the construction of facilities, but also taking responsibilities and making decision. The events have proved that local citizens are the true “first responders” in emergency situations. Until external assistance arrives, affected people themselves are the first to perform rescues, administer first aid, and transport victims to hospitals. Even after the response moves from an informal to a formal effort, evidence suggests that people continue organizing themselves and provide ongoing assistance through provision of services and their managements. Hence community participation should be at the core of emergency planning, response and monitoring to best use the local knowledge and skills and transfer new knowledge and skill to use and sustain the services provided.

KEY PRINCIPLESKey principles for community participation in emergencies are:

Ensure that communities engage in response planning and contribute in determining their own priorities in dealing with the problems that they face.

Ensure that the enormous depth and breadth of collective experience and knowledge in communities is built on to bring about improvements and longer term change.

Create an environment to foster participatory processes to allow people to understand and solve their own problems. When people understand a problem, they will readily put effort and act to solve it.

Conscious inclusion of people’s participation in the planning and management of disaster response means much more than their involvement. It means appreciating from the start that the people have information, knowledge and skills to play effective roles in responding the emergency.

GUIDELINESIn entering a community for assessment or planning of any emergency response, it is recommended to adhere to the following steps: Approach the key leaders of the community who have the ability to support or negatively

affect the communication regarding the emergency response planning and implementation.

In consultation with these key leaders, identify the important stakeholders who need to be brought on board for community engagement. Consider provincial or district authorities, local shuras as well as other influential individuals. These may be popular figures and charismatic personalities in the community or districts.

Invite all identified stakeholders to an agreed location in the community and discuss the emergency, importance of their participation and the consequences of not being effectively involved in the emergency response.

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Explore with stakeholders how to move forward to improve access to WASH services and reduce the prevalence of diarrheal diseases as quick as possible. Ensure that all discussions are participatory, and all groups of the affected population are represented.

As part of the discussion on how to move forward, identify community members who can act as spokespeople and mobilizers. Be mindful to consider existing networks that are attached to local organizations. Orient these community spokespeople and mobilizers.

o Spokespeople are trusted individuals of authority who act as a point of reference and announce accurate and timely information about the emergency. The person can be well known personality of the village and/or religious leaders or members of respected authorities.

o Mobilizers are persons who can act as catalyst. They tend to work more directly with than spokespeople, providing information and support, engaging with community members in dialogue, monitoring how they are contributing to the emergency and recommending revision of activities based on needs. Mobilizers should be trusted members of the communities.

When identifying mobilizers and spokespeople, consult with local, religious leaders and consider existing networks of community mobilizers such as Community Health Workers (CHW) or community mobilizers associated with local, national or international organizations. Individuals acting as spokespeople and mobilizers for existing structures are likely to have already earned the trust of community members and can be effective in imparting messages and delivering activities related to the emergency.

Include members of marginalized groups and gender parity in the network of spokespeople and mobilizers as this will help reach vulnerable individuals. If members of these groups cannot be accessed, people who are credible and trusted by them must be identified.

Establish a feedback loop that allows mobilizers to provide vital information to service providers on community perceptions pf services and activities, how messages are being received, social and cultural practices that can inhibit and individual’s ability to engage in supportive behaviors in emergency response. This is particularly important for detecting rumors and arising barriers early and addressing them promptly.

Develop a community feedback /complain mechanism from the onset of the project planning and ensure that the feedback response is timely, transparent and genuine. This will help gain the trust of the community and hence leveraging their full commitment.

Additional information and references: Health Communication Capacity Collaborative (HC3), 2017: Social and Behavior Change

Communication (SBCC) for Emergency Preparedness Implementation Kit (online). UNICEF, 2012: Interpersonal communication and community mobilization for frontline workers.

Two-day refresher training module. Pakistan version 1.1. (online). Water Engineering and Development Center (WEDC), 2002: Emergency sanitation. Chapter 12:

community participation (online).

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Technical Guidance #34Humanitarian Performance Monitoring

Monitoring is an important aspect of project management that enables project staff to track progress and obstacles and facilitate effective corrective measures to bring the project on track. While it is a common sense to monitor project activities to ensure the effective utilization of resources, more so to ascertain that the project is reaching the intended beneficiaries within the stipulated time and budget, especially important in emergencies. This is in line with the humanitarian community's efforts to improve the performance of the overall response to an emergency, including improving accountability to both the affected population and the donors who provide valuable resources.

KEY PRINCIPLESKey principles for monitoring performance in emergencies are:

Establish simple and participatory mechanism to monitor progress in achieving the minimum standard articulated in this guideline;

Establish systematic process for adapting strategies in response to the findings of monitoring data, changing needs and evolving context;

Share key monitoring findings with affected population and relevant authorities and incorporate their opinion on needful corrective measures.

GUIDELINES Establish a few high frequency indicators (table 23) in line with national and international

good practices and routinely monitor their progress.

Table 23: WASH frequently measured indicators in humanitarian responseIndicators Project

targetAchievement to date

Means of verification

Number of people provided with access to a safe drinking water source

Filed monitoring reports by staff

Feedback from community usersNumber of people provided with

access to a gender-sensitive sanitation facilityNumber of people provided with access to a hand washing facility with soapNumber of health facility provided with access to WASH services meeting minimum standards

Partner reports Feedback from health facility

staff and communities

Number of schools (or any other institutions) provided with access to WASH services meeting minimum standards

Partner reports Feedback from school (or any

other institutions) staff and communities

Ensure project staff are given with right tool and training to effectively measure the progress indicators;

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Establish the frequency of data collection in line with Cluster and donor reporting requirements;

Ensure there is balance of male and female staff in the monitoring team. Female staff are particularly important to meet the women and adolescent girls to seek their feedback on service provided;

Ensure monitoring data are analyzed and findings used to devise measures to mitigate limitations and challenges in project implementation;

Develop a community feedback /complain mechanism from the onset of the project planning and ensure that the feedback response is timely, transparent and genuine. This will help gain the trust of the community and hence leveraging their full commitment;

Also, identify some key process indicators (table 24) in line with national and international good practices to measure the progress in cross cutting issues.

Table 24: WASH less frequently used process indicators in humanitarian responseIndicators Project

targetAchievement to date

Means of verification

Number of consultation meeting organized with the involvement of women and girls during needs assessment

Needs assessment reports Feedback from communities

and/or users

Number of men, women, boys and girls attending hygiene promotion sessionsOrNumber of separated hygiene promotion sessions for men, women, boys and girls

Field monitoring reports Feedback from communities

and/or users

Number (or %) of women present in water management groupsOrExistence of functioning women user groupsNo visible signs of open defecation in the community

Field monitoring reports Direct observation Transect/health walk

Additional information and references: WASH Cluster Afghanistan, 2017: Humanitarian Response Plan, WASH Chapter (online). UNICEF Afghanistan, 2017: Humanitarian Performance Monitoring Framework.

ANNEX I: Household Emergency Assessment Tool (HEAT)

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Version 3, Feb 2017 (Pashto)

Province: واليت:District: ولسوالي:Location [Name Village / GPS Position]: ( د ځاې) / البلد عرض او البلد طول نوم کليDate of Assessment: نيټه ارزونې :د

1. Household: کورنۍ1.1 Head of HH Name: مشر کورنۍ :د 1.2 Father’s name: نوم پلار :د1.3 Contact No: شميره اړيکې :د 1.4 National ID No.: تذکره:1.5 HH Total: شمير غړو ټولو د کورنۍ د 1.6 No. Families in HH: شمير فاميلونو د کې کورنې په

Newborns/Infants (0-5 yrs) Children (6-18 yrs) Adults (18-59 years) Elders 60+

Male: نارینهFemale: ښځينه

2. Additional Vulnerability Assessment: ارزونه روغتيايې او حاالت زيانمنونکي :نور2.1 Elderly head HH:دې مشر کور د کس عمر لوړ د

☐ Yes هو ☐ No نه 2.3 Child head HH:په ماشوم د مشرې کور د

ده غاړه

☐ Yes ب ☐ No نه

2.5 Chronically ill: ) ناروغې ) اوږدمهالې مزمن

☐ Yes بلی ☒ No نه

2.2 Female Head HH:په ښځې د مشرې کور د

ده غاړه

☒ Yes هو ☐ No نه 2.4 People with disability:وګړي لرونکي معلوليت

☐ Yes بلی ☒ No نه

2.6 Have you heard of any of the following occurring in your community?

☐ Cases of unaccompanied and separated children under the age of 18 ☐ Children who are emotionally stressed, sad or displaying a behaviour different to normal

☐ Children and women who are prevented from accessing services or experiencing violence2.7 If you hear of a problem in your community such as children or women who are not accessing services or have experienced violence do you know where to go to get help?

☐ Yes بلی ☐ No نه

3. General Assessment3.1 Displacement categoryډول کيدو ځايه بې د

☐ Conflict IDP جګړو دکيدل بيځايه امله له

☐ Natural disaster IDP له پيښو طبيعې د

کيدل ايهځبي امله

☒ Documented Returnee ب

لري اسناد چې راستنيدونکي

☐ Undocumented Returnee اسناد چې راستنيدونکينلري

☐ No Displacementشوې ته منځ را ده نه کيدنه ځايه بې

3.2 Place of origin ځاې اصلي اوسيدو :Province: District: Village د3.3 Date of arrival to the current location?

نيټه؟ رارسيدو د ته ځاې اوسنې

3.4 Can you go back to your place of origin? ستنيدلې ته ځاې اصلي اوسيدو د اياشئ؟

☐ Yes هو ☒ No نه

If no, why: ولې؟ نو وي؟ نه ځواب که

☒ No land ☒ No shelter ☒ Conflict/Insecurity

☒ Lack of livelihoods

3.5 Have you already received assistance? وړاندې دې له تاسې ايا

دي؟ کړې ترالسه مرستې

☐ Yes هو ☒ No نه ☐ Food ☐ NFIs ☐ Shelter ☐ WASH ☒ Health

3.6 How many girls and boys in your HH are currently attending school? نجونې تنه څو ښوونځې د ستاسې

ځي؟ ته ښوونځې هلکان او

Boys: هلکان Girls: نجونې 3.7 Reasons children are not attending school: او هلکان چې لاملونه هغه

ځي نه ته ښوونځي نجونې

☐ Distance: والی ليرې

☒ Language: ژبه

☐ Lack of documentation: نشتون اسنادو لګښت :Cost ☐ د ☒ Security Concerns: انديښنې امنيتې

☐ Other ☐ None ☐ Work

4. Financial & Asset Assessment: ارزونه شتمنيو مالي او شتمنې :د4.1 Current main source of income:عمده اوسنې عوايدو دسرچينه

4.2 Number of bread winner(s) (currently working and above 16 years)

له ) يې عمر او کوي کار مهال اوس لري عوايد چې شميره غړو د کورنې ۱۶ددې ډير (کلونو

☐ Male ☐ Female

4.3 Monthly income before the shock: پيښې دعوايد مياشتنې وړاندې

4.4 Current income after shock: د عوايد وروسته پيښې

4.5 Have you contracted new debts since the shock happened?

ياستئ؟ شوې وړې پوره وروسته پيښې د آيا

☐ No Debts ☐ Less than AFN 2000

☐ Between 2000 AFN /8000 AFN

☐ More than 8000 AFN

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5. Food & Nutrition Assessment: ارزونه خوراک او تغذي د5.1 Do you have physical access to a market to meet your HH needs?رسي لاس ته بازار لپاره کولو پوره د اړتياو کورنۍ د ايالرئ؟

☐ Yes هو☐ No نه

5.2 Distance to market? فاصله څخه بازار د

Km: کيلومتر Min: دقيقه

5.3 How many meals currently does your HH eat per day? ستاسې کې ورځ او شپه يوه په

خوري؟ خواړه بشپړ ځله څو کورنې

No. 5.4 Does your HH have utensils/tools with which they can cook food?

☐ Yes هو ☐ No نه

5.5 During the past 7 days, has anyone in your HH done any of these things? (Please record the number of days for each coping strategy) ) ( ورځوشميرېوليکئ هرتدبيرېستراتيژيلپارهد کورنېکومغړيدغهالندېکړنېترسرهکړيدي؟مهربانېوکړئد ستاسېد پهتيرواوهورځوکې،Rely on less preferred food and less expensive foodکول تکیه خوړو کمزورې او ارزانه په

No. Borrow food, or rely on help from friends and relatives مرسته په دوستانو او خپلوانو د يا پورول، خواړه

کول تکيه

No.

Restrict consumption by adults in order for small children to eat ماشومان چې څو تر کمول، خوړو د لويانو د

ولري خواړه

No. Limit portion size at mealtimesکمول کچه خوړو د کې وخت په خوړو د

No.

Reduced number of meals eaten in a dayکمول شمير د وخت د خوړو د کې ورځ په

No. Sent children to workاستول ته کار ماشومان

No. Girls Boys

5.6 Have all family members been affected by the above coping strategies? ټول کورن د ۍايا شوي اغيزمن امله له ستراتيژېو تدبيرې پورتنيو د غړيدي؟

Women: ښځې ☐ Yes هو ☐ No نه

Men: نران ☐ Yes هو ☐ No نه

Children: ماشومان ☐ Yes هو ☐ No نه

5.7 Do you have food stocks and how long will they last? څو تر او لرئ زيرمې توکو خوراکي د

کوي؟ تکافو پورې مودې

☐ No Stocks شتون زيرمې هيڅنلري

☐ Less than a week کمې څخه اونې يوې له

☐ 1 to 3 weeks دکې منځ په اونيو دریو او يوې

☐ Up to 3 months مياشتو درې ترپورې

☐ Over 3 months لهډير مياشتو درې

5.8 Has your child been withdrawn from a nutrition feeding programme as a result of your shock?

☐ Yes هو ☐ No نه

Type of programme if known:د نو وي، معلوم چيرې که

ډول پروګرام6. Wash Assessment: ارزونه الصحه حفظ او اوبو د6.1 Do you currently have access to enough water?لرئ؟ رس الس ته اوبو بشپړه اوس ۍايا

Drinking اوبه څښلو د آ☐ Yes هو ☐ No نه

Bathing اوبه وينځلو ځان☐ Yes هو ☐ No نه

Cooking اوبه پخلي د☐ Yes هو ☐ No نه

6.2 Type of main source of water د

سرچينې اصلي اوبو

☐ Handpump پمپ لاسي

☐ Dug wellګانې څاه

☐ Stream or riverسيند د يا لښتې داوبه

☐ Pipe water نل داوبه

☐ Kandas کنداب ☐ Othersنور

6.3 How far away is the water source?ده؟ ليرې څومره سرچينه اوبو د

On foot (in minutes)) پښو ) په دقيقو په

By other transport (in km)نورو ) د ليږد د متر کيلو په) مرسته په توکو

6.5 Who in the family principally collects water? راوړلو د اوبو د څوک کې کورنې په ستاسې

لري؟ غاړه په دنده6.6 Latrine availableشتون ځاې حاجت رفع دلري؟

☐ Yes هو ☐ No نه

6.7 Type of latrine دډول حاجت رفع

☐ Open defecation پرانيستهسيمه

☐ Community latrine د سيميز

ځاې حاجت رفع

☐ Family pit latrine د کورنېحاجت رفع ځاې

☐ Family VIP latrine د لرونکې هوا کورنېځاې حاجت رفع

7. Shelter & NFI Assessment: ) شلتر ) ارزونه سرپناه د7.1 What is the type of accommodation / living space in which the household is currently accommodated?

☐House ☐ Shared house

☒ Shelter ☐ Public Compound ☐ Open air

7.2 What is the accommodation / living space arrangement?

☐ Owned ☐ Rented ☐ Hosted ☐ Free of Charge ☐ Squatting

7.3 How many rooms does the accommodation / living space have (as applicable)?

No. 7.4 If rented, what is the monthly amount/contribution you pay (as applicable)?

7.5 Does the family have a need for:لري؟ اړتيا ته توکو دغه کورنې ايا

☐ Kitchen equipment توکي پخلنځي د ☐ Fuel توکي سون د ☐ Warm clothes جامې ل ګرمې

□ Blankets کمپلې ☐ Water container لوښي اوبو حفظ Hygiene Supplies ☐ د دتوکي الصحه

☐ Other: نور7.6 If the HH shelter has been affected by a natural disaster what is the state of the house/ compound? طبيعې د کروندې چيرې که / ساختمان کور د نو وي، شوې اغيزمنه امله له پيښې

دې؟ ډول څه وضعيت

☐ Completely destroyed دې تللې منځه له Partially Destroyed ☐ بشپړدې تللې منځه له نیمه

☐ Unharmedتللې دې نه منځه له

8. Beneficiaries' Priorities: لومړيتوبونه وګړو اړو د 9. Assessment Team ټيم ارزونې د

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Please enlist the first three priorities for the HH: کورنی د وکړئ مهربانې درېلومړيتوبونهاواړتياوېپهګوتهکړئ

Team Lead (Name): نوم مشر د ټيم د ارزونې دTeam Lead (Org): نوم ادارې کوونکې رهبرې د ارزونې دParticipating organisationsWere female enumerators present to interview female HH members? جريان در زن کنندگان ارزيابی ايا

داشتند؟ حضور خانواده زن اعضای مصاحبه جهت ارزيابی

☐ Yes هو☐ No نه

ANNEX II: WASH Specific Rapid Assessment Form (WASH RAF)

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Province: Date of assessment:District: Agency: Village:

Description Total IDPs Returnees Refugees Host communityNumber of HHTotal Female Total Male Children <5

Protected dug-well

Average quantity of water available /used per person per day <5 5 to <15 15 to 25 >25 litersAverage time to access to a safe water point <5 5 to <15 15 to <30 >30 minutes

Observations (visit to H/H, at least 5-10% of the affected families)Total water storage capacity per person at HH level: <5 5 to <25 >25 liters litersAt least one narrow necked container for collecting drinking water Yes No

Type and number of sanitation facilities

Yes No

H.1. Proportion of HH possessing soap <25% 25 to <50% 50 to <75% >75%H.2. Proportion of people washing hands with water and soap orsubstitute after contact with faeces and before contact with food <25% 25 to <50% 50 to <75% >75%H.3. Access to appropriate bathing facilities None Limited SufficientH.4. Proportion of HH that received an hygiene kit since a year <25% 25 to <50% 50 to <75% >75%H.5. Proportion of HH where food is safely stored and prepared <25% 25 to <50% 50 to <75% >75%

Provide any additional relevant information/observation/comments:

WATER

Affected Population figures & Types

Number Population covered

Functiona-lity

WASH Rapid Assessment Form

Key points: market place, schools, mosques, other public places / gender-related issues / security and accessibility to the site / education level / trends in Diarrheal Diseases incidence / etc.

Hand dug well / equiped with hand pump

Number Population covered

Latrine in usable

condition

Remarks (functionality, general state, possibility to empty the pit, desludging...)

Eco-San latrine

Gender consideration for Water Comment on women and gilrs access to water supply, espcially during the day time

Piped water system

Simple pit/vault latrine

MISCELLEANOUS

Water qualityRemarks (1. Observe the water source where possible; 2. Find the yield of the source during dry season

Borehole equiped with hand pump

Other protectedUnprotected source: stream/river/pond/

HYGIENE

Flush to sewer systemFlush to septic tank

Other (specify)No facility (Open defecation -OD)

Improved pit/vault latrine

Observation of evidence of OD

Gender consideration for sanitation Comment on women and girls access to sanitation facilities, especially during day time

ANNEX III: List of Key Humanitarian WASH Agencies in Afghanistan

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Agency Focal Person Title Email Address

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