BENEFITS

PHYSICAL= Losing weight, imp posture, imp/enhanced body shape, reduces stress related illnesses and able to do everyday things.

MENTAL= Feel good/Enjoyment, release from stress, gain confidence and stimulate competition.

SOCIAL= meeting new people, making and spending time with friends, stimulates co-operation and teamwork and learn leadership.

Health Related Fitness CMsMeFBc

Cardiovascular Fitness= the ability to exercise the whole body for long periods of time. Sometimes called Stamina. E.g. a marathon runner.Muscular Strength = The amount of force a muscle can exert against a resistance. E.g. weight lifting, throwing and rowing.Muscular Endurance = The ability to use voluntary muscles many times without becoming tired. E.g. swimming, cycling etc.Flexibility= is the range of movement possible at a joint. This lessens injury as it helps performers to stretch and reach further.Body Composition= The percentage of body weight which is fat, muscle and bone. Helps performers depending on the type of sport they play. High level of fat is good for sumo wrestlers and low levels good for a distance runner.

Skill Related Fitness (abc p.r.s)

Agility= The ability to change the body’s position and direction quickly whilst keeping their entire body under

control. E.g. dodging or a goalkeeper.

Balance = The ability of the performer to retain their centre of mass over their base of support without falling

over. E.g. a gymnast balancing on one leg. This balance can be either:

Static- when your body is stationary

Dynamic- when there is movement

Co-ordination = the ability to use two or more body parts together accurately. This helps all athletes to move

smoothly and quickly. E.g. a tennis serve

Power = the ability to use strength at speed and release maximum force very quickly. This helps athletes to

jump high, throw far or sprint quickly. Power = Strength x Speed.

Reaction time = the amount of time it takes for a performer to initiate movement after the presentation of a

stimulus. E.g. sprinting and swimming to make a fast start.

Speed= is the rate at which an individual is able to perform a movement or cover a set distance. This helps all

games players to move into position or get away from opponents quickly. E.g. a 100m sprint.

HEALTH, FITNESS, EXERSICE AND PERFORMANCE DEFINITIONS

Health- A state of complete social, mental and physical well being, not merely the absence of disease or

infirmity.

Fitness- The ability to meet the demands of the environment.

Performance- How well a task is completed.

Exercise - A form of physical activity done primarily to improve one’s health and physical fitness.

Aesthetic Appreciation- Recognising the quality of a well performed skill/activity.

PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING IN‘SPORT’M + ‘FITT’

Individual Needs = the training programme is designed to suit you and what you need. For example personal

fitness needs based on age, gender and fitness level.

Specificity= training must be SPECIFIC (matched) to the needs of the sporting activity and REPLICATE the sport

to improve fitness in the body parts the sport uses.

Progression= Is GRADUALLY INCREASING the amount of exercise you do. This will reduce the risk of injury.

Overload= Fitness can only be improved by training MORE than you normally do. This is where ‘FITT’ comes in,

as to achieve overload you increase the following: Frequency(how often), Intensity(how hard), Time(how long)

and Type(method of training).

Reversibility= any adaptation that takes place as a result of training will be reversed (lost) when you stop

training. If you don’t train often enough or hard enough or get injured you will lose fitness.

Thresholds of Training= A successful training programme will also include exercise in the correct heart-rate

target zone to improve cardiovascular fitness. To train their aerobic system they should train at between 60-

80% of their maximum heart rate. To work out training zone you do: MHR (Maximum Heart Rate)= 220- (age)

Then you find 60 and 80% of this answer to give you your training zone. The LOWER your RHR (Resting Heart

Rate) the fitter you are.

Moderation= Creating a balance between not training enough and overtraining. E.g. if no moderation you may

train to hard and become injured or not train enough leading to reversibility.

Systematic Programming= planning your training programme to suit the different stages of the year e.g. mid

season etc.

Methods of Training ‘ccc wif’

Circuit training involves performing a series of exercises in a special order called a circuit. Each activity takes

place at a 'station' using different equipment. It can be designed to improve different components of fitness.

And be adapted to incorporate skills for a particular game: speed, agility, coordination, balance and muscular

endurance. Can develop AEROBIC and ANEROBIC fitness.

Continuous training involves working for a sustained period of time (at least 20 mins) without rest keeping

your HR between 60-80% of your maximum. It improves cardiovascular fitness and respiratory system. E.g.

Swimming, Cycling, Running and Aerobic classes. Can develop AEROBIC fitness.

Cross training involves using another sport or activity to improve your fitness. It happens when an athlete

trains in a different environment. E.g. Dodgeball improve agility and power and Swimming imp muscular

endurance. This is using different training methods in one session to develop general fitness overall and

different muscle groups. This is more enjoyable to some people as you are doing a variety of sports/activities.

Fartlek training or Swedish for 'speed play' training involves varying your speed (periods of INTENSE work

followed by easier work to allow the body too recover) and the type of terrain over which you run, walk, cycle

or ski (hills, forests, countryside). It can develop AEROBIC and ANEROBIC fitness due to changed in intensity.

Adapted to running, cycling and swimming etc. Best for a developing athlete.

Interval training involves alternating between periods of hard exercise (which develop ANEROBIC fitness) and

rest (to regain energy). Prolonged moderate to hard pace will develop AEROBIC respiration. It improves speed

and muscular endurance. The times of work can be repeated (repetitions) 4/5 times to make a set. Suitable for

athletics, swimming and games e.g. football as it involves short bursts of pace.

Weight training uses weights (either machine or free weights) to provide resistance and tone to the muscles. It

improves muscular strength (high weight, low reps), muscular endurance (low weight, high reps, many sets)

and power (medium weight and reps performed quickly). Setting the correct weight with correct technic is

essential for safety. Use a program of repetitions and sets.

STAGES OF A TRAINING SESSION

Warm Up - done to reduce chance of injury.

1. Pulse raiser (light aerobic work) to inc HR and body temp e.g. jogging

2. Stretching to prepare specific muscles, ligaments and joints.

3. Skill related exercise- sport skill practice/drill.Main ActivityCool Down – Used to get rid of lactic acid by a light jog/walk and stretches to keep the blood moving and therefore prevents muscles and joints becoming stiff and sore. It also helps you recover more quickly.

RECOVERY RATEHow quickly your body gets back to normal after exercise. The fitter you are the quicker this happens. To calculate recovery take your pulse immediately after exercise then every minute after until it is back to normal.The fitter you are the lower your RHR.

MUSCLE CONTRACTIONSWhen muscles are working they are contracting (becoming tense, shortening) resulting usually in movement. There are two types:ISOTONIC= contraction causing MOVEMENT. E.g. kicking a ball << bigger chance of injury.As the muscle shortens and fattens then relaxes (lengthens and flattens) to original shape- eccentric movement. This improves DYNAMIC (moving) strength, and develops the cardiovascular and respiratory system as well as increasing power and endurance. Remember: a lot of ‘tonic’ makes you move more.

ISOMETRIC= contraction with NO movement. E.g. pushing in a scrum, tug of war or the crucifix in gymnastics.As the muscle stays the same throughout contraction (under tension but don’t move). This improves STATIC strength. Remember: You do ‘metric’ work in maths which is boring so you go to sleep and don’t move.

EFFECTS OF EXCERCISEAfter exercise your body experiences immediate and more gradual effects.

The bones, joints and muscles

Immediate effects when first exercising:

Muscles contract more often

Blood flow to muscles increases

Muscle temperature rises

Little effect on bones and joints

Effects of regular training:

Muscles increase in size (hypertrophy)

Muscular endurance improves

Muscles, tendons and ligaments around joints get stronger

Joints become more stable and flexibility at joints increases

Bone width and density increases.

The cardiovascular system

Immediate effects when first exercising:

Heart contracts more often – increased heart rate.

Heart contracts more powerfully – increased stroke volume, which is the volume

of blood pumped from heart with each beat.

Blood diverted to muscles, eg it is diverted from the digestive system to the

muscles.

Blood temperature rises.

Blood vessels near skin open to allow heat to be lost.

Effects of regular training:

Heart muscle increases in size and strength.

Cardiac output increases. Cardiac means relating to the heart so this is the amount of blood that the heart

pumps out to the body.

Lower resting heart rate, quicker recovery from exercise.

The respiratory system

Immediate effects when first exercising:

Increased rate of breathing

Increased depth of breathing – rise in tidal volume

Effects of regular training:

Increased strength of diaphragm and intercostal muscles.

Greater number of alveoli.

Increased ability of the lungs to extract oxygen from the air.

Increased vital capacity.

Increased amount of oxygen delivered to, and carbon dioxide removed from, the body.

DIET, HEALTH AND HYGIENE- FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE

Nutrition

Food is a fuel as it provides energy (in kilojoules) and health- different types do different jobs and give the

body substances it requires. Food must be eaten regularly and in the correct amounts (balanced diet- contains

all the nutrients for good health) to keep the body working normally. How much energy you need depends on

your body type and the amount of physical activity you do. How you use or store energy influences your

weight, shape and sporting performance. Carbohydrates come in 2 forms: simple (quick bursts of energy) and

Comlex (starch-stores of energy which let out energy slowly). Fats release it when stores of carbs are low-

however it takes a lot of oxygen to release it. Proteins are used when you are REALLY low.

Food type How does it help? When do we need it in sport?

Where do we get it?

Carbohydrates Provides most of our energy for muscles. Provides quick energy. 60% of our diet should comprise 'carbs'.

Running. Athletes in training will eat more 'carbs'. Marathon runners will 'load' before the event.

Starches found in Pasta, cereals, bread and potatoes. Also sugar, but this must be eaten in moderation.

Fats NB Unsaturated fats are healthy. Too much saturated fat from animal products can lead to heart disease.

Provides slow energy. 25% of our diet should be fat. High in energy and should not be eaten in very large amounts.

Walking and low impact exercise - it produces energy too slowly to be used when working hard.

Oils, meats, dairy products, nuts and fish

Protein Builds and repairs muscle. We only need 15% of our diet to be protein.GROWTH AND REPAIR.Also provides energy.

When training hard and recovering from injury. ‘Power’ athletes such as weight lifters will eat more protein.

Meat, pulses and fish and dairy products. And alternatives such as soya are broken down into amino acids.

Vitamins

Protective substances.

Helps the body work. Helps concentration. For vision, energy production, stress reduction, keep skin healthy and help bones and teeth.A lack of can result in deficiency diseases.

Staying calm, making quick decisions

Fresh fruit and vegetables

Food type How does it help? When do we need it in sport?

Where do we get it?

Minerals

Body building and cell stimulators.

Helps release energy from food. Helps decision making. Contain calcium which strengthens bones, iodine for energy production and Iron to prevent fatigue.

When training hard and competing

Fruit, vegetables and fish.calcium in milk and eggs. Sodium in salt. Iodine in fish and water.Iron in liver and eggs.

Fibre Can't be digested. Fills you up and keeps you 'regular' Keeps the digestive system working efficiently.

Healthy digestion, (no constipation) helps in sport. Also helps with weight control.

Fresh fruit, vegetables and wholegrain cereals

Water = main component of cells and blood.

Maintains fluid levels. Controls the body temperature and gets rid of waste.

Whenever you sweat. It prevents dehydration

The tap! It's all you need most of the time.

WEIGHT

A person's ideal body weight depends on their body type(frame), age, gender, height, the size of their bones,

and their muscle size. These factors also affect their participation and performance in sport. If you consume

more energy than you use you will put on weight. If you consume less energy than you use you will lose

weight. People who under-eat will not have enough energy to perform effectively.

OVERWEIGHT= being significantly heavier than your optimum weight (what weight you should be for your age,

gender, bone structure, muscle Girth and height). However this may not be harmful as extra weight can be

carried in the form or muscle- rugby players for example.

OVERFAT= however if this extra weight is in the form of fat then it can be harmful increasing your risk of heart

disease and other illnesses, and they won’t be very effective sports people. For males it is when around 20% of

your weight is fat and for females it is around 25%. Women is more because they can have children and so

there is an extra layer of insulation if needed and also breasts.

OBESE= People who are very overfat/an abnormal proportion of fat. Men is 25% and women is 30%. It is very

damaging to your health as you can get heart disease, diabetes, varicose veins, menstrual disorders, infertility,

skin and liver diseases, joint problems, cancer and even depression.

SOMATOTYPES (BODY TYPES)

The ideal somatotype for a performer will depend on sport or event and will determine how effective you are

at it. Everyone tends towards one although few people are totally one or another. There are 3 types:

Endomorphs – MOST FAT= pear-shaped body, wide hips, wide shoulders, can have a lot fat on body, arms and

thighs. When fit, ideal body type for weightlifting, wrestling.

Mesomorphs – MOST MUSCLE= wedge-shaped body, wide shoulders, narrow hips, muscular. Ideal body type

for sprinters.

Ectomorphs – LEASST FAT= narrow-shaped body, are thin faced, with little fat or muscle. This is the ideal body

type for long-distance runners.

Mesomorph/endomorph = rugby Mesomorph/Ectomorph= basketball

Your body shape is what you are due to:

- Genes you inherit

- Training and diet (the more you eat the more body fat you will have and vica versa)

-Weight training will increase muscle size.

PERFORMING ENHANCING DRUGS -Doping ‘SNAP’DEBB

Doping class Effect on performance side-effects

Stimulants- amphetamines (speed)

-Make athletes more alert-mask fatigue-reduce the effects of tiredness- speed up reactions- Increase aggression and competiveness -give confidence- Associated with longer endurance events-Examples are Cocaine, Nicotine, Caffeine and cold remedies

Can cause heart failure, addictive

Anabolic agents - steroids

-Help athletes to train harder and build muscle therefore faster reactions.- Artificial substance top up and more supplies of testosterone. -Allow the body to recover from heavy training much quicker.

Increased aggression and kidney damageHeart DiseaseLiver DamageGrowth of face and body hairDeepening of the voice (females)Baldness and development of breasts (males)

Diuretics -Remove fluid from the body. -Used in sports such as horse racing and boxing were weight categories are crucially important-Also taken as are known to mask the presence of other PED’s.

Causes severe dehydration

Narcotic analgesics -Mask pain caused by injury or fatigue which can make the injury worse.-Examples are morphine and Heroin (strong pain killers) and Colene (milder drug)

-Addictive-making injuries worser.

Peptides and hormones

-EPO (Erythropoietin) increase number of red blood cells which carry oxygen to the muscles so can produce

EPO - risk of stroke or heart problems.

Doping class Effect on performance side-effects

benefits in endurance (aerobic) events - gives more energy.

-Hard to detect as dilutes within 72 hours.-HGH (Human Growth Hormone) - build muscle

-1998 ‘Tour de France’ scandal. Since still battling to restore image.

HGH - abnormal growth, heart disease, diabetes, arthritis etc

Beta blockers -Avaidible on prescription but banned for athletes in comps because they unfairly enhance performance.

-They slow down/regulate the heart rate.

-For example in archery they can reduce handshakes.

Blood Doping -Increase oxygen carrying capacity.

- Several weeks before a comp blood is withdrawn

-The blood rebuilds the amount and then prior to the comp you re-inject creating more blood cells than usual by 20%

-Hard to detect as the blood is the athletes own

Kidney and heart failure

Social drugs

Social drugs are usually taken to help people relax, or on occasion to give a feeling of having more energy.

Some are banned in many sports and are also illegal. The main social drugs are:

Drug Sources and effects

Nicotine -Addictive and found in cigarettes, cigars and tobacco.

-Harmful to the respiratory system reduces lung capacity so reduces the ability for the body to take up oxygen needed to release energy in our muscles – bad for stamina eventsas you will tire quickly due to insufficient oxygen-reduces rick of heart attack due to increased blood pressure.

-risk of heart disease and lung cancer.

Alcohol -reduces concentration and coordination and slows down your reaction time which is bad

Drug Sources and effects

for a sports person in particular.

-long term affects on river, brain, kidney and heart.

-risk of liver damage (cirrhosis)

-resistance to infection is reduced

-irritation of the digestive system (nausea and gastritis)

Caffeine found in coffee, chocolate and 'energy' drinksa mild stimulant causing tiredness unless taken repeatedly

HYGIENE

Poor hygiene can affect performance and even cause infection. Therefore it is important because:

Prevents bacteria from spreading, Prevents skin complaints and rashes, Refreshing and healthy, Prevents foot

infections. During exercise you secrete a lot of body oils and sweat as waste products. If these are not broken

down then they will create body odours. And you should change your clothes as the sweat soaks into them.

Also when you go swimming you should wash your feet regularly as your feet come in contact with warm, wet

surfaces.

Athletes foot- This is a fungus affecting the skin. It makes the feet smell and flake between the toes causing

itchiness and cracked skin.

Solution= washing the feel regularly, drying between the toes and wearing clean socks. Also using powder can

prevent and treat it.

Verrucae’s= A viral skin wart usually on the feet and transmitted in moist areas. You can easily catch them in

swimming pools as they are very infectious.

Solution= wear a verrucae sock and creams or remove them medically.

PREVENTION OF INJURY

Injuries can be avoided by:

*Following rules – created to allow the sport to flow properly but also to prevent the players from injury e.g.

no high tackles in rugby.

*Clothing/Equipment- very specific for most sports. Clothing is comfortable to allow full range of movement,

warm to keep you at the right temp and protective E.g. shin pads in football and hockey and gum

shields/helmets etc.

*Balanced Competition- Complete against others with similar qualities to make it fair e.g. age (under 16’s),

gender, weight( boxing divisions e.g. lightweight), skill level/ability (leagues) etc.

*Being fit- Vitally important as the more unfit you are the more chance you are of getting injured.

*Correct Technique- Can cause strains or joint damage or falls and crashes.

*Warming up – stretch etc so you are physically and mentally ready for the activity. Inc body temp to make

muscles more elastic.

*Checking the playing area is safe= checked for sharp objects and wet or damaged floors. Also outside checked for ice, freezing temps, strong winds and permanent fixtures e.g. goals/nets.

SPORT INJURIES

Injuries in sport happen as a result of:

* external force from outside your body (e.g. impact from a tackle etc causing bruises, sprains, fractures,

dislocations or concussion or hot weather from the environment causing dehydration).

* internal force from inside your body (e.g. sudden powerful movements causing tears and strains of muscles

and tendons).There are different types of injury, for example:-Joint Injuries (twisted ankle, tennis and golf elbow, torn knee cartilage and dislocation)-Soft tissue injuries (muscle strains e.g. pulled and torn muscles)-Fractures (open, closed, compound, stress)

Joint injuries:

Twisted ankle- One of the most common injuries. Ligaments and tendons attach the bones of the ankle

together to strengthen it. Sometimes the foot turns too far inwards, resulting in fibres tearing loose or being

over stretched.

TREATMENT = R.I.C.E

Dislocation - when one of more bones of a joint are wrenched apart (displaced). You can see this visably as

there is apparent sign of deformity at joint and swelling with severe pain at or near the joint. Also there is no

movement at injured part. (detected similar way to fracture but with no crack)

TREATMENT = keep person warm and comfortable to prevent further injury. DONT MOVE THEM and call an

ambulance. (Same as fracture)

Tennis and golf elbow - damage to tendons caused by overuse of the muscles in the lower arm.

Tennis= pain on the outside of the elbow

Golf= pain on the inside of the elbow.

TREATMENT = R.I.C.E

Cartilage - This tears in the knee and can ‘lock’ the joint. Players usually fall to the ground, unable to take any

weight and cannot straighten the knee joint. Swelling may also occur and there may be pain on one side.

TREAMENT= R.I.C.E

Soft tissue injuries

Sprains - when ligaments are overstretched or torn around a joint, eg twisted or sprained ankle.

Strains - when a muscle or tendon is overstretched or torn, eg pulled muscle.

Bruises - caused when blood vessels burst under the skin following impact.

TREATMENT= R.I.C.E should warm up to try and prevent it.

Fractures

Open- when the bone sticks out through the skin.

Closed- Bones stay inside, the surface of the skin is not broken

Compound- a fractured bone that causes other injuries

Stress- slight crack in the bone. Signs are= noise of the break (crack) and deformity.

Symptoms= pain at site of injury, inability to move the limb, swelling and later bruising.

TREATMENT= keep injured person warm and comfortable, DONT MOVE THEM, call an ambulance (same as

dislocation)

Skin damage

Cuts- Open wounds loose blood, risk of infection.

TREATMENT= pressure on wound to stop blood flow with a clean pad, raise limp if possible to limit blood flow,

squeeze edges of wound together, cover with dressing.

Grazes- When the top layer of skin is scraped off causing a large area to bleed.

TREATMENT= clean gently with warm water, dry naturally unless danger of infection in which it should be

covered with a plaster or dressing.

Blisters- a FRICTION burn which causes the skin to bubble to form a protection while new skin grows below.

usually caused by poorly fitting shoes. Never pop a blister due to risk of infection as it will eventually peel off. If

it does TREATMENT= keep it clean and dry and cover with a dressing.

Dehydration-Lack of water in the body caused be loss of sweat/urine/water vapour in breath/wearing too many clothes or not drinking enough water.Symptoms= extreme tiredness, nausea, dizziness, pale clammy skin, light headedness and muscle cramps.TREATMENT= drink water.

Hypothermia-When core body temp falls below 35degreesC (normal is 37)Caused by being in the cold, wet or wind for too long. Symptoms= skin cold + pale, breathing is shallow, weakness, unconsciousness, shivering, confusion, tiredness.Treatment= raising temp slowly (bring indoors) changing clothes, hot bath, ambulance if unconsciousness.Hyperthermia-Opposite of HypOthermia. Is when temp rises above 37. This can cause Dehydration. Treamtment= cool body down, replace fluids, plenty of water (if possible with salt solution)

Unconsciousness/Concussion-Unconsciousness is when the casualty ‘blacks out’ and is unaware of what is happening. TREATMENT = D.R.A.B.CConcussion is when a person has a head injury but has not become unconscious. Symptoms= headaches, dizziness, confusion and nausea.

Bone and joint injuries

Some injuries have visible signs

Assess injury by considering:

signs - what you can see

symptoms - what the sufferer feels

Fractures and dislocations

Signs:

swelling

unusual shape or deformity

signs of shock (pale, clammy skin)

Symptoms:

tenderness at the site (fracture),'sickening' pain (dislocation), nausea

Fractures and dislocations are serious injuries. In all cases where a fracture or dislocation is suspected move

the sufferer as little as possible, support the injured part and seek medical advice.

Soft tissue injuries (RICE)

R - Rest. Stop activity to prevent further injury.

I - Ice. Apply an ice pack to reduce blood flow, pain and swelling.

C - Compression. Wrap a bandage tightly around the area to reduce internal bleeding and swelling.

E - Elevation. Raise the injury above heart level to reduce swelling and throbbing.

RICE treatment lessens the pain and helps to reduce injury recovery time.

Emergencies

Dehydration, hypothermia and unconsciousness are emergency situations. You should always send for medical

help before treating the sufferer.

Dehydration

lie the sufferer down in a cool place

raise and support legs

give plenty of water

Hypothermia

move sufferer to a warmer, sheltered area

provide extra clothing or a survival bag

give warm drinks

keep checking for pulse and breathing

Unconsciousness/Concussion Follow the DRABC (Dr ABC) checklist:

D - Danger: Check that you and the sufferer are not in danger. Make sure everyone is safe.

R - Response: Shake and shout - is the person unconscious?

A - Airway: Check that the airway is clear.

B - Breathing: Check that the sufferer is breathing.

C - Circulation: Check for a pulse.

Resuscitation

Resuscitation is the process of restarting breathing and circulation when it has stopped.

MMV - mouth-to-mouth ventilation

With the casualty lying on his back:

1. Tilt the head back to clear the airway.

2. Pinch their nose and seal your lips around their mouth to seal the system

3. Blow into the mouth and watch the chest rise.

4. Take your mouth away and watch the chest fall.

5. Continue with 10 breaths per minute until breathing starts.

CPR - cardiopulmonary resuscitation

When there is no pulse, with the casualty on his back:

1. Interlock your fingers with the heel of your hand in the centre of his sternum (breastbone). Ensure that

pressure is not applied over the ribs.

2. Position yourself vertically above the casualty’s chest and, with your arms straight and press the sternum

down 4-5cm.

3. Rock backwards to release the pressure, and allow the chest come back up completely after each

compression.

4. 30 chest compressions at a rate of 100 per minute followed by two mouth-to-mouth ventilations.

Stop to recheck the casualty only if he starts breathing normally; otherwise do not interrupt resuscitation.

Continue resuscitation until qualified help arrives and takes over, or the casualty starts breathing normally, or

you become exhausted.

The Recovery Position

Use the recovery position for an unconscious person who is

breathing. Roll their body towards you and onto their side. Then:

-Tilt the head back to keep the airway clear.

-Ensure that the head and neck are in a straight line.

-Keep the hip and knee bent at 90º to keep body stable and

comfortable.

-Use the casualty's hand to support the head, but it should remain lower than the body to allow fluids to drain

from the mouth.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM Has three components: heart, blood and blood vessels.

FUNCTIONS:

*Circulate blood through the body

*Transport water, oxygen and food cells and removes waste from cells.

*Helps other body systems to function e.g. muscles

*Helps fight disease.

*Helps maintain the correct body temperature.

The Heart

-The heart is a cardiac muscle which pumps blood around the body.

-The function of the cardiac muscle is to send blood out of the heart with force to the rest of the body.

-Valves are to stop the blood flowing backwards.

-The septum separates the two parts of the heart as they stop the oxygenated (carrying a lot of oxygen) and

de-oxygenated blood (carrying a lot of carbon dioxide) from mixing. If it does mix this can affect performance

as the muscles won’t receive enough oxygen to function efficiently.

-The right side of the heart pumps de-oxygenated blood (blood not containing oxygen) to the lungs to pick up

oxygen. The left side of the heart pumps the oxygenated blood from the lungs around the rest of the body.

-The heart has four chambers. The two atria collect the blood. The two ventricles pump the blood out of the

heart.

-The heart has a double pump- the atrium contract together, then the ventricles contract together.-The heart is a double circulatory system- which passes blood through the heart twice.The Pulmonary circuit- carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs to be oxygenated and back to the heart again.The Systematic circuit- carries blood from the heart to the rest of the body to deliver oxygen and returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart again.

NB The heart is seen from the front in the diagram. So the right side of the heart is shown on the left of the diagram. The left side is on the right side of the diagram.Blood flows in the following order: Lungs, Pulmonary Vein, left Atrium, Bicuspid Valve, Left ventricle, Aorta, Different parts of the body, vena-cava, right atrium, tricuspid valve, right ventricle, pulmonary artery, lungs etc

Key Definitions

Heart Rate= The number of times the heart beats per minute (pulse).

During exercise this increases to supply the muscles with the necessary blood and nutrients. Average rest value

is 72bpm, but varies with gender and age.

Maximum Heart Rate= The maximum heart rate is the maximum number of times the heart can beat per

minute during maximal exercise (220-age).

Stroke Volume= How much the heart pumps out per BEAT from each ventricle during one contraction.

During exercise this stroke volume increases as there is a higher demand for oxygen in the blood.

Cardiac Output= The amount of blood pumped by the heart in a MINUTE.

STROKE VOLUME x HEART RATE

Blood Pressure= The force exerted by the blood against a vessel wall (artery).

Systolic Pressure= Maximum reading when the heart contracts.

Diastolic Pressure= Maximum reading when the heart relaxes.

LONG TERM EFFECTS OF ENDURANCE (AEROBIC TRAINING)

* the resting stroke volume increases because the heart in stronger. Average= 85ml

*However the resting heart rate decreases- the slower it is per minute the more efficient it is. This is because

the heart is stronger so can beat more blood out per contraction. Average= 72bpm

*Cardiac output stays the same, because stroke volume goes up but the HR goes down.

*the Heart progressively gets bigger (thicker walls/stronger and more robust)

Blood Vessels

Arteries

Carry freshly oxygenated blood away from the heart (always oxygenated apart from the pulmonary artery

which goes to the lungs)

Have thick and flexible muscular walls as have high blood pressure.

Have small passageways for blood due to thick walls. (medium internal lumen). Helps keep blood under high

pressure as smaller space for blood to travel through.

Contain blood under high pressure because of thick walls and close to heart (force of contraction)

No Valves.

Pulse can be felt

Arteries branch and re-branch into smaller arteries called ARTERIOLES. These arterioles join the smallest

vessels called CAPILLARIES.

Veins

Carry blood to the heart (always de-oxygenated apart from the pulmonary vein which goes from the lungs to

the heart)

Have thinner walls than arteries as work under low pressure but not as thin as capillaries.

Have larger internal lumen because walls are thinner.

Contain blood under low pressure because have thin walls and go into the heart.

Have valves to prevent blood flowing backwards due to gravitational pull.

No pulse

Capillaries

Found in the muscles and lungs

Microscopic – one cell thick so very thin walls (semi-permeable) in which oxygen can pass through into the

body tissues e.g. muscles and carbon dioxide can also.

Very low blood pressure

Where gas exchange takes place. Oxygen passes through the capillary wall and into the tissues, carbon dioxide

passes from the tissues into the blood for removal from the body.

Enters as oxygenated but joins to muscles and becomes deoxygenated then joins the veins.

Smallest internal lumen

High blood pressure due to small internal lumen and small space for blood to travel.

BloodFUNCTIONS:*Carries oxygen to all parts of the body*Removes carbon dioxide from body parts to the lungs for exhalation*Carries food to all living tissues*Removes waste products from the cells for excretion*Carries hormones and enzymes*Protects the body from disease*Forms clots to prevent infection*Regulates body temperatureBlood has four key components:

*Plasma

*Fluid part of blood

*Carries carbon dioxide, hormones and waste

*Red blood cells

Red blood cells

*Small but many of them

*Carry oxygen to working muscles, as contain haemoglobin which chemically attaches itself to oxygen to make

oxyhaemoglobin. Also transport nutrients and waste products e.g. carbon dioxide.

*Made in the bone marrow

IMPORTANCE TO PERFORMANCE= the more you train the more red blood cells are made. Therefore there will

be more oxygen deliverance for activity to the muscles so won’t tire as quickly and will function properly.

White blood cells

* Protect the body as they help fight off disease by destroying bacteria and infection at a wound.

*Repair damaged tissue.

*Made in the long bones.

IMPORTANCE TO PERFORMANCE= They gather to stop bacteria entering the body so they keep you healthy

and enables you to keep performing and recover from injuries quicker.

Platelets

* Clot the blood at a wounds skin surface externally but also do the same on small damaged blood vessels

internally.

IMPORTANCE TO PERFORMANCE= Stops blood loss so the performer can continue to play, but also stops

infections and allows wounds to quickly heal.

Plasma

* Transports the cells and is over 90% water. The other 10% contains salts, chlorine, amino acids, glucose,

antibodies, fibrinogens (which help clotting), hormones and waste products such as urea and carbon dioxide.

IMPORTANCE TO PERFOMANCE= Helps the blood flow be easier by the use of plasma proteins.

THE RESPIRATION SYSTEM

The main functions of the respiratory system are:

*Gas exchange – inhalation (oxygen into the body) + exhalation (carbon dioxide out)

* Get rid of waste products of respiration.

*Provide all cells with Energy

PATH OF AIR INTO BODY

larynx >> Trachea >> Bronchi >> Bronchioles >> Alveoli >> Blood Vessels

The air can enter the body through the nose as well as the mouth. If it enters through the nose it has distinct

advantages:

1. It is warmed, making it a similar temperate to the internal organs.

2. There are hairs (CILIA) and mucus in the nose which filter the air stopping the larger particles of dust and

pollen getting into the lungs. The absence of particles allows the alveoli to work well.

3. The nose moistens the air so it can be absorbed by the alveoli more easily through a large network of

capillaries in the lining of the nose.

MOISENS, HEATS AND WARMS THE AIR!!!

The Lungs

The lungs have a spongy, elastic texture and are enclosed in the thorax. They can expand or compress by the

movements of the thorax in such as way that air is repeatedly taken in and expelled. The lungs are the site of

GASEOUS EXCHANGE (diffusion at the alveoli) where some of the oxygen is absorbed into the capillaries and

carbon dioxide from the blood is released into the lung spaces.

The trachea divides into two bronchi which divide a further 20 times ending in thin walled air sacs- alveoli. These are moist and the walls one cell thick which help gases pass through them. These alveoli are surrounded by a dense network of capillaries into which oxygen is passed by a process of diffusion.

THE PLEURAL MEMBRANE – slippery skin lining the cavity. Protects the lungs as they rub against the ribs. Also prevents infection.

Larynx

PARTS OF THE LUNGS

Larynx- air passage to the bronchus= produces the voice (voice box).

Trachea- has rings of cartilage along its length to allow the tube to be flexible and keep the airway open.

Bronchi- tubes that branch from the trachea to continue the air flow nearer the lungs.

Bronchioles - smaller sub division of the bronchi, leading to the alveoli.

Alveoli- tiny air sacs; there are millions in the lungs; gaseous exchange takes place here; this action is vital to

sustain life.

Diaphragm- sheet of muscle dividing the chest cavity and the abdominal cavity.

Ribs- form a protective cage around the organs in the chest.

Intercostal muscles- found between the ribs contracting and relaxing in the breathing process.

Inspiration and Expiration

INSPIRATION – breathing in*Diaphragm moves DOWN (contracts and flattens)*Ribcage UP and OUT (raises) because the intercostals muscles contract.*Lungs EXPAND and fill with air.

This happens to create more room in the lungs so more air can get in and therefore more oxygen can diffuse.

Expiration – breathing out*Diaphragm moves UP to dome shape (relaxes)*Ribcage DOWN and IN because intercostals muscles relax*Lungs DECREASE in volume, building up pressure forcing the air OUT.

The lungs are not muscle and so cannot move of their own accord. Instead the key to breathing is the diaphragm and intercostals muscles between the ribs.

Key Definitions

Tidal Volume- The amount of air breathed in and out of the body during normal breathing.

During exercise it is forced to increase >> Faster and deeper (Forced breathing)

Vital Capacity- The largest volume of air that can be exhaled (breathed out) after inhaling (breathing in) as

much as you can.

Residual Volume- The amount of air that, even after as much air as possible has been exhaled is left in the

lungs.

Oxygen Debt- The amount of oxygen consumed during recovery, above that which would have ordinarily been

consumed in the same time at rest (this results in a shortfall in the oxygen available). This debt has to be repaid

as soon as possible. Your body copes by causing you to breathe more deeply and rapidly in order to get more

oxygen to the working muscles. This is why you continue to breathe more deeply and rapidly even after you

stop exercising vigorously. You are repaying your oxygen debt. (Experience this in anaerobic training).

RESPIRATION- is the release of energy from glucose in the muscles. Takes place in living cells and

the body converts fuel into energy.

Composition of inspired and expired air

Gas % in inhaled air

% in exhaled air

Oxygen 21 17

Carbon dioxide

0.03 3

Nitrogen 79 79

Water vapour A little Alot

Aerobic exercise (WITH OXYGEN) - is steady and not too fast, the heart is able to supply enough oxygen to the

muscles for a long period of time as long as the intensity stays moderate. E.g. walking, jogging, cycling,

swimming. Aerobic training improves cardiovascular fitness. When the body is at rest this is aerobic

respiration. As you exercise you breathe harder and deeper and the heart beats faster to get oxygen to the

muscles.

GLUECOSE + OXYGEN CARBON DIOXIDE + WATER (+energy)

Anaerobic exercise (WITHOUT OXYGEN) - is performed in short, fast bursts (high intensity) where the heart

cannot supply enough oxygen to the muscles. With no oxygen available, glucose is burned to produce energy

and lactic acid. Lactic is a mild poison and as it builds up it causes muscle stiffness. Therefore oxygen is needed

to neutralize the lactic acid. This is why you breathe faster and deeper- even after exercise to repay the

oxygen. E.g. sprinting, weightlifting, jumping and throwing.

These figures can change slightly, but they still follow the same pattern.

The carbon dioxide is a waste product of respiration. And oxygen is a reactant of respiration and therefore gets used to up to provide energy. We don’t use the nitrogen we get all we need from food in the form of protein.

Anaerobic training improves the ability of the muscles to work without enough oxygen when lactic acid is

produced.

Glucose → energy + lactic acid

Specific training methods can be used to improve each fitness factor.

Aerobic fitness is another way of describing cardiovascular fitness, or stamina. You can improve aerobic fitness

by working in your aerobic target zone. This is found between 60-80% of your MHR. You cross your aerobic

threshold, the heart rate above which you gain aerobic fitness, at 60% of our MHR.

You can improve your anaerobic fitness, which includes strength, power and muscular endurance, by working

in your anaerobic target zone. This is found between 80-100% of your MHR. Anaerobic threshold is the heart

rate above which you gain anaerobic fitness. You cross your anaerobic threshold at 80% of your MHR. Below

60% MHR you do not improve your aerobic or anaerobic fitness at all.

AFFECTS OF EXERCISE

Short Term=

* Muscle cells use up more oxygen and produce more carbon dioxide.

*Lungs work harder to supply extra oxygen and remove more Carbon dioxide.

*Breathing rate increases and you breathe more deeply.*Fatigue in muscles*Vital Capacity = increase*Residual Volume = slightly increase*Tidal Volume = slightly increase to stop build up of carbon dioxide and get oxygen to the muscles.

Long Term= * Strengthens the respiratory system*the diaphragm and intercostal muscles get stronger so they can make the chest cavity larger (more air can be inspired = inc vital capacity)*More capillaries form around the alveoli so more gas exchange can take place >> excrete more Carbon Dioxide.*Exercise can be maintained at a higher intensity for longer.*Interval training creates ‘oxygen debt tolerance’.

Extra= Muscles require energy which is stored in the form of GLYCOGEN. During exercise the muscle action results in the GLYCOGEN being use up and replaced with the waste LACTIC ACID. The longer the exercise continues the greater the build up of lactic acid and the muscles become FATIGUED (tired). Lactic acid is a poisonous substance and if it is allowed to build up it makes the muscle action ache, causing cramp- failure of the muscle to contract. The athlete is forced to rest whilst the blood brings in an oxygen supply to break down the lactic acid. MUSCLE SORENESS is often associated with lactic acid build up, the more intense the exercise the greater the muscle soreness.

BONES

Ulna is UNDERNEATH the radiusTibia is on TOP of the fibula

BONE GROWTH

There are certain times in a person’s life when their bones develop. There are four main stages of bone

development:

*pre-natal (before birth)

*newly born

*childhood

*Puberty

There are two places growth takes place:

*Diaphysis- primary centre of ossification- shaft of bone. (before birth)

*Epiphysis- secondary centre for ossification- ends of the bone (present after birth)

BONES START AS CARTLIAGE (soft) !!! (except the clavicle and parts of the cranium)

The process that turns cartilage into bone is called OSSIFICATION!!! This process uses CALCIUM!!! (which is

why babies drink a lot of milk.

Bone is made up of two types of tissue:

*Cancellous bone= spongy, soft bone

*Compact bone= Hard bone (hardened by calcium)

With age bones lose their density and strength. When severe this is called osteoporosis. Eating foods

containing calcium and exercising regularly helps bones to develop and stay stronger for longer.

FOR BELOW

Hyaline cartilage - covers the ends of the bones, stops them rubbing together and absorbs shock.

Epiphysis - the ‘head’ of the bone.

Cancellous bone - spongy bone that stores the red bone marrow; where blood cells are made.

Epiphyseal plate – the area where bones grow in length.

Diaphysis - the shaft.

Compact bone – hard, dense bone. It gives strength to the hollow part of the bone.

Periosteum – a protective layer where there is no hyaline cartilage. Ligaments and tendons attach to the

periosteum.Medullary cavity/marrow cavity - contains the yellow bone marrow; where white blood cells are made.

LONG BONES

CLASSIFICATION OF BONES

Type of bone

Example Function in sport

Long Femur, humerus, radius, Ulna, Tibia, Fibula, phalanges, metatarsals and metacarpals

Movement - to generate strength and speed. Longest in the body and make up the arms and legs. E.g. in volley ball you use your Ulna for a dig. Create leverage and help generate speed, force and power.

Short Carpals, tarsals Shock absorption - spreading load. For fine movements especially in the hand e.g. putting spin on a ball and keeping balance by making small adjustments e.g. gymnasts.

Flat (Plate)

Ribs, cranium, clavicle, pelvis, scapula, sternum.

Protection of vital organs, attachment of muscles to help movement.E.g. cranium to head a ball. Tough and withstand hard impact.

Irregular Vertebrae, face (jawbone and cheekbone), patella

Provide shape, protection. E.g. vertebrae (back flip in trampolining)

The shaft of the bone. It is hollow and made up of hard, dense compact bone. The middle of the bone is the marrow which creates blood cells.

Bottom of the bone. Made up of spongy bone and cartilage.

Epiphysis plate is where bone is grown from.

FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETON – Simon Says Protect My Balls

1. Protection - the cranium and ribs protect the brain and vital organs in the chest. Important in contact

sport. E.g. a footballer heading a ball and a rugby player taking a tackle.

2. Shape - gives shape to the body and makes you tall or short. Certain builds are more suited to a particular

sport. E.g. jockeys in horse riding, as their skeleton is short and thin.

3. Support - holds your vital organs in place when playing sport as the bones are firm and rigid. The

vertebral column holds the body upright.

4. Movement - muscle are attached to bones, which are jointed. When the muscles contract the bones

move.

5. Blood production - red blood cells (to carry oxygen) and white blood cells (to protect against infection)

are produced in the bone marrow cavities of long bones.

The Vertebrae Column – protect the spinal cord – very important as damage could be paralysing.

Are IRREGULAR BONES- 33 bones in the vertebrae column.

Cobens

Testicles

Leak

Seaman

Constantly

THEY INCREASE IN SIZE AS THEY PROGRESS FROM THE NECK TO THE BOTTOM OF THE SPINE. THERE ARE

TWO MAIN REASONS FOR THIS INCREASE IN SIZE:

*movement

*support and attachment of muscles and other bones

Cervical- 7 bones = Allows different movement. The top two are the atlas + axis. Atlas allow you to nod your head and axis to turn/rotate your head.

Thoracic- 12 bones= 10 attached to the ribs to help movement when breathing -helps respiration.

Lumbar- 5 bones= the most robust as they take a lot of weight. They are large because they allow the most movement. Are most prone to injury.

Sacrum- 5 bones= Fused together in adulthood. They make up part of the pelvic girdle as transmit force from upper leg to body.

Coccyx- 4 bones= all fused together at the end of the spine. Don’t help in sport.

In between each vertebrae there are cartilage discs. These help stop damage, wear and tear and grinding down of the vertebrae through constant movement and rubbing. Also they are shock absorbers.

JOINTS, TENDONS AND LIGAMENTS

JOINT= A place were two or bones meet. This creates movement.

For a joint it needs at least two bones, cartilage to stop rubbing, ligaments (bone to bone), tendons (muscle to

bone), muscles connected to give movement.

Joints are important in giving you the freedom to flex or rotate parts of your body. However this gets harder

with age, as your bones lose their strength and density.

CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS

Immoveable joint= No movement possible between the bones e.g. the cranium

Slightly moveable joints= Slight movement e.g. the vertebrae.

Freely moveable joints (SYNOVIAL JOINTS)= All have a layer of slippery cartilage covering the end of the

bones. This allows friction free movement of the joint. Bones are held together by ligaments.

IMPORTANT EXAMPLES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS

JOINT EXAMPLE RANGE OF MOVEMENT

Hinge Elbow, knee Flexion, extension

Ball and socket Hip, shoulder Flexion, extension, rotation,

adduction, abduction

Pivot Neck at axis and atlas ONLY rotation

gliding Tarsal’s, metatarsals Gliding in all directions (no

bending or circular movements.

saddle thumb Flexion, extension, abduction and

adduction

condyloid Wrist, ankle Flexion, extension, abduction,

adduction

LIMB MOVEMENTS

Movement Description

Abduction Movement away from the mid-line of the body e.g. a goalkeeper abducts their arms when reaching for asave.

Adduction Movement towards the mid-line of the body e.g. butterfly arm action. ADDuction is ADDing to the body.

Extension Straightening limbs at a joint (making the angle between bones greater)

Flexion Bending the limbs at a joint (making the angle between bones smaller)

Rotation A circular movement around a fixed point (axis)

All synovial joints have the same components:

Tendons Ligaments

Not part of joint but play an important part in the movement.

Attach bone to bone and keep them in place (keep joint together).

Attach muscle to bone and without them muscle would just float around the bone- stopping movement.

The ones that hold the bones in place are called cruciates.

This attachment that creates an anchor for muscles to shorten and create different ranges of movement.

Surround the sides of a joint.

Very strong. Made of tough elastic fibres.Non-elastic anchor as muscles need to be held firmly.

Stability of the joint relies on the strength of the ligaments.If stretched too fair then they tear and the joint dislocates, after that it is unlikely they will return to their former strength.

Knee joint

Stabilising the joint