TOPIC 1 PARTS OF SPEECH

1.0 This topic aims to enhance learner’s knowledge of the formal features of the English language system. It provides an explanation to a selection of language structures identified in the English Language Proficiency 11 syllabus for non- TESL learners.

The exercises that follow the explanation should provided some immediate practice applying the language rules learnt. Leraners are required to practice much more from publications readily available, should they wish to improve their personal proficiency in the English language.

1.1 Learning outcomes

1.1.1 identify the different types of language structures of word clasess namely, conjuctions, prepositions and interjections.

1.1.2. apply the language structures appropriately through relevant exercises

1.2 Content

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PARTS OF SPEECH VERBS

ADJECTIVESADVERBS

NOUNS

PRONOUNS

PREPOSITIONSINTERJECTIONS

CONJUNCTIONS

2.1 CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunctions are used to join words, phrases, clauses or sentences to express a partticular idea or ideas. Study the following examples.

Anne and Kamilla are coming to the party.

The conjunction and joins the words ”Anne” and” Kamilla”.

You can write the answer in ink or in pencil

The conjunction or joins the phrases ”in ink” or ”in pencil”

Although she is a famous and successful writer, she leads a simple and frugal life.

The conjunction although joins ”she is, a famous and successful writer” and ”she leads a simple and frugal life”

Both the girls and their fathers are scientists.

The conjunction both...and joins the sentences ”the girls are scientists” and ”their fathers are scientists”

2.2 We can further discuss conjunctions in terms of their meanings or functions. Conjunctions usually perform one function, but some conjunctions perform two different functions.

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Conjunctions Examples Function – shows

As i) As he was walking down the dark lane, he heard a strange noise behind him.

ii) I did not want to go to the movies as I did not have enough money

time

cause and effect

Since i) I have not met my brother since the day I was born.

ii) Since I studied hard for the examination, I passed them with flying colours.

Time

cause and effect

Or i) ”Coffee or tea, sir” asked the waiter.

ii) You had better finish the assingment fast, or you will not be able to submit it on time.

choice

condition

While i) While I was walking home, it started to rian heavily.

ii) In the movie ”Beauty and the Beast”, the heroine is ravishingly beautiful, while the hero is just the opposite.

time

contrast

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Conjunctions are analysed from three aspects, which are form, function and

position.

2.3 Forms

Conjunctions have three basic forms;

2.3.1 Single word

Example: so, for, while, since

2.3.2 Compound

Example: provided that, as well as, so that

2.3.3 Correlative

Correlative conjunctions always appear in parts. The most common

correlative conjunctions are; ”both...and”, ”either...or”, ”neither...nor” ”not

only...but also”,”so...as” and ”whether...or”.

Example: Both my husband and my father were born in November.

2.4 Functions

Conjunctions have two basic functions

2.4.1 Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two parts of a sentence that are

grammatically equal. The two parts may be single or clauses, for example:

1. Amariah and Azham are getting married next month (noun and noun)

2. They ran and laughed together. (verb and verb)

3. The water was warm, but I didn’t go swimming. (clause and clause)

2.4.2 Subordinating conjunctions are used to join a subordinate dependent

clause to a main clause, for example;

1. I went swimming although it was cold.

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2.5 Positions

Conjuctions can be placed at the beginning or between words or clauses.

Example;

1. Since he is not there, we should not enter.

2. When I am sick, my father takes me to that clinic.

3. My mother cooked through the night though she was not well.

4. They would not take any action unless the firm does not meet the

requirement.

Exercise 1

Fill in the blanks with the appropriate conjunctions.

1. _______________he tried hard, he failed to get through the security.

2. Wait here___________ I tell you to move.

3. Take your umbrella___________it is going to rain.

4. Sazali is slow____________ smart.

5. ______________he was ill, he had to stay at home.

6. I shall not ride in his carriage____________invited.

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7. Be kind ___________you will be rewarded.

8. ____________Azlan ___________his wife are attending the ceremony.

9. ____________soon __________he is ready, bring down the cake.

10. He is___________here__________there.

3.1 PREPOSITIONS

Prepositions are used to show the relationship or connection of a word with other words.

Prepositions generally indicates the position, source, direction, destination, situation,

comparison, reason and so on between two sets of ideas.

3.2 FORMS OF PREPOSITIONS

Prepositions may consist of one, two or three parts:

3.2.1 Examples of One-part prepositions:

at by for on after below into to

3.2.2 Examples of Two-parts prepositions:

according to because of up to away from except for out of

3.2.3 Examples of Three-parts prepositions:

in front of in relation to in comparison with on top of by means of

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3.3 TYPES OF PREPOSITIONS

Prepositions of Time: at, on, and in

3.3.1 We use at to designate specific times.The train is due at 12:15 p.m.

3.3.2 We use on to designate days and dates.My brother is coming on Monday.

We're having a party on the Fourth of July.

3.3.3 We use in for nonspecific times during a day, a month, a season, or a year.She likes to jog in the morning.It's too cold in winter to run outside.

He started the job in 1971.

He's going to quit in August.

3.4 Prepositions of Time: for and since

3.4.1 We use for when we measure time (seconds, minutes, hours, days, months, years).

He held his breath for seven minutes.

She's lived there for seven years.

The British and Irish have been quarreling for seven centuries.

3.4.2 We use since with a specific date or time.He's worked here since 1970.

She's been sitting in the waiting room since two-thirty.

a) One point in time :

at – with noon, night, midnight; with the time of day

b) Periods of time

on – with daysin – with periods longer or shorter than a day; with part of the day, with months, with years

3.4.3 Extended time ( duration)

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since, for, by, from…to, from…until, during

Examples:They are getting engaged on Sunday at 5 o’clock in the evening.He has been away from school for three weeks.World War II lasted from 1939 until 1945.

3.5 Prepositions of Place: at, on, and in

3.5.1 We use at for specific addresses.Grammar English lives at 55 Boretz Road in Durham.

3.5.2 We use on to designate names of streets, avenues, etc.Her house is on Burma Road.

3.5.3 And we use in for the names of land-areas (towns, counties, states, countries, and continents).She lives in Durham.Durham is in Windham County.Windham County is in Connecticut.

3.6 Preposition of Location

Prepositions of Location: in, at, and on and No Preposition

IN(the) bed*the bedroomthe car(the) class*the library*school*

ATclass*homethe library*the officeschool*work

ONthe bed*the ceilingthe floorthe horsethe planethe train

NO PREPOSITIONdownstairsdowntowninsideoutsideupstairsuptown

* You may sometimes use different prepositions for these locations.

3.6.1 The point itself

in, inside – for something contained.There is plenty of food in the refrigerator.

on, on (to) – the surface A coconut tree fell on to the roof of the house.

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at – a general vicinityI’ll meet you at the hotel.

3.6.2 away from the point

away ( from ) – general places or vicinitiesI came away from the library.

off – at a distance from the pointThe car ran off the road when it knocked the signpost.

across, through, over, along – moving from one place to anotherHe kicked the ball through the window.

out of- moving from a bounded area They chased the dogs out of the school compound.

3.6.3 towards the point

to, into, towards – movement towards a particular placeHe went to the airport to get his mother.

3.6.4 towards and then away from the point

behind, through, across, round, by, past – movement towards a place and then away from it.The car skidded round the corner.

3.6.5 vertical and horizontal movement from the point

up, down, along, across, over – movement in relation to a directionTwo school boys walk along Manchester Street.

3.6.6 higher than the point

Over – generally higher than the pointThere is a thick fog over the entire city.

Over – directly aboveA lamp hung over the dining-table.

above – directly higher than the point; on a higher levelWe flew above the clouds.

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on top of – close to the point, sometimes touchingThe tourists put their bags on top of the bus.

3.6.7 Lower than the point

under – directly belowThe ball is under the table.

underneath – close under, sometimes touchingShe wore a pretty dress underneath her thick coat.

beneath, below – directly under, at a lower levelThe police found the body beneath a pile of wood.

3.6.8. Neighbouring the point

by, beside, next to – at the side, nearHe sat by the river reading a book.

between – relating the positions of one object to more than two objectsIn the photograph, Sara was standing between her father and mother.

among, amid – in the middle of ( several objects )She found her chain amid the ruins of the burnt house.

opposite – facingShe sits opposite her friend in the library.

around – surrounding, all roundShe put a frame around the painting.

in front of – at the beginning ( in relation to the point )He was standing in front of a long queue.

near – close to the point, not far from the pointI like to have my bag near the window.

3.7 Prepositions of Movement: to and No Preposition

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3.7.1 We use to in order to express movement toward a place.They were driving to work together.

She's going to the dentist's office this morning.

3.7.2Toward and towards are also helpful prepositions to express movement. We're moving toward the light.This is a big step towards the project's completion.

With the words home, downtown, uptown, inside, outside, downstairs, upstairs, we use no preposition.

Grandma went upstairsGrandpa went home.They both went outside.

Exercise 1

Read the sentences below and fill in the blanks with the correct prepositions.

1. She stood ______the window and looked out as if waiting __ ___ someone.2. Tina spilt some orange juice __ ____ her pants.3. The letter N comes ____ ___ O and P in the alphabet.4. We can hardly see planes in the sky because they normally fly __ ____ the clouds.5. I had to wait for along time at the checkout line _ _____ the grocery store

because the Lady __ ____ of me had bought a lot of groceries6. Nazim was away for a long time because he travelled round Europe ______ six

months last year.7. He does not speak in English. Do you thin he can speak the language __ _____

two months?8. We were sitting in front __ ____ this group of friends at the movie theatre. They

could not stop talking __ ____ the time the movie started to the time it ended.9. If you want to go to the park, you will have to drive by the Farmer’s Market

Grocery Store, __ ____ the bridge and __ ___ the corner of West Street, you will see it on your left.

10. David ran __ ____ the house next door to help his neighbour when he saw a suspicious-looking man lurking around outside the house.

Exercise 2

Write a sentence for each of the following illustrations. Use suitable prepositions in the sentences.

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1.2.2 CONJUNCTIONS hold parts of a sentence together,  kind of like glue.  As with glue, however, there are several types of conjunctions, each one with its own specific use

Conjunctions connect words or groups of words. They are different from prepositions in that they do not have an object.

There are three types of Conunctions:

1. Coordinating conjunctions2. Correlative conjunctions3. Subordinating conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions connect words of the same kind.

Examples of coordinating conjunctions are: and but for nor or So yet

AND: And is used to add things or ideas together - one thing plus another thing.  For longer lists, and is used between the last two items.  And is a joining conjunction.

Examples:

"Michael and Sarah went to the movies."  (Michael went ... Sarah went ... they both went to the movies)

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"Thomas slipped and fell on the ice."  (Thomas did two things – he slipped, then he fell.  And joins the actions.)

"I pulled out the weeds and Jane watered the flowers."  (Two people each did different things while working in the garden.  The two parts could stand alone as sentences - "I pulled out the weeds."  "Jane watered the flowers."  Since the ideas in the sentences are related to each other, they can be joined by and to form one compound sentence. )

"We went to the store to buy milk, bread, oranges, dog food and coffee."  (When you write a series in a sentence, use commas between all the items except the last two - there you need to use a conjunction.  A comma in front of the and is optional. )

OR:  Or is used between  things or ideas about which there is a choice or when we don't know the answer.   Or is a selective conjunction.

Examples:

"Michael or Sarah went to the movies."  (One of them went, but not both. We don't know which one. )

"Thomas slipped or fell on the ice."  (Thomas had a problem on the ice.  Did he slip?  Did he fall?  We don't know, but he did one of them. )

"I will pull out the weeds or Jane will water the flowers."  (For some reason, these two people cannot both work in the garden.  One of them can.  Will it be I?  Will it be Jane?  I don't know.  Or tells us that only one of the things will take place. )

"We need to buy milk, juice, iced tea or soda at the store."  (We evidently need something to drink, but it doesn't matter what it is.  We need to choose one of the items in the list.  That is what or is telling us.  )

BUT: But is used to let us know that something happened in a sentence that we did not expect or to prepare us for an excuse.  But is a conjunction of differences.

Examples:

"Michael went to the movies, but Sarah stayed home."  It would have been normal for Sarah to go to the movies with Michael.  This time she did something different - she stayed home.  But introduces such a difference.

"Thomas slipped on the ice, but he did not fall."  We would expect Thomas to fall when he slipped on the ice.  He did something different - he did not fall.  But introduces that difference.

"We were going to pull out the weeds, but Jane decided to water the flowers instead."  Jane and I had planned to pull weeds.  For whatever reason, Jane began to water the flowers instead.  She did something different from what I had expected.  But introduces that difference.

"We found everything we needed for the camping trip but the first aid kit."  The first aid kit was different - it could not be found.  But introduces that difference.

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"I did my homework last night, but the dog ate it."  But is used quite often to introduce a reason why we did not do something we were supposed to do, like turn in our homework. 

SO: So is used to introduce something that follows or is a result of something else.  So is a conjunction of consequences.

Examples:

"Michael went to the movies, so Sarah went to visit her friend."    As a result of Michael's going out by himself, leaving Sarah alone, she decided to go out as well. If Michael had stayed home, Sarah would have stayed home, also. ( So introduces the consequence of Michael's action. )

"Thomas slipped and fell on the ice, so he was limping when he arrived home."  As a result of slipping and falling, Thomas hurt himself and had to walk with a limp.  (So introduces the results of the fall. )

"Jane watered the flowers so it would be easier for me to pull out the weeds."  Watering softened the soil, with the result that it was easier to pull the weeds out by their roots. ( So introduces the result of the watering. )

"We  found the first aid kit, so we could finally leave for the camping trip."  For reasons of safety, we did not want to go camping without a first aid kit.  We finally found it, with the result that we could leave at last.  (So introduces that result. )

YET: Yet is also used to introduce a result that is different or opposite from what we expected or what would be normal.  The different result can be positive or negative. Yet is a conjunction of unexpected difference.  (Yet can also be used as an adverb referring to a time or an event that has not occurred, so be careful.  "Jack has not yet finished his chores.")

Examples:

"Michael and Sarah went to the movies, yet she was worried about leaving the baby with a sitter." Sarah should have been having a good time, but the truth was different from what we would expect because of her worry.

"Thomas slipped and fell on the ice, yet he did not get hurt."  You would expect a person to be hurt after falling on the ice, but Thomas wasn't.  That different result is introduced by yet.

"Jane and I pull the weeds in the garden every week, yet there are always more to pull the next week."  One would expect, or at least hope, that if all the weeds were pulled from the garden this week, there would not be any left to pull next week.  Alas, nature is not like that.  In this case, yet introduces a result that is different from what Jane and I hoped for.

"We had finally loaded everything we would need for the camping trip, including the first aid kit, yet we could not leave because the car's battery was dead."  Not being able to leave was an unexpected result after all the stuff was loaded back into the car.  This unexpected result is introduced by yet.

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Subordinating conjunctions connect two ideas by making one idea dependent upon the other. Subordinating conjunctions are in sentences that contain a main idea and a dependent idea.The subordinating conjunction always comes before the dependent idea. If the dependent idea comes before the main idea, a comma is used to separate the two.If the main idea comes first, no comma is used.

ALTHOUGH: Although (which can also be an adverb)  introduces a condition or situation that was contrary to the first part of the sentence.  It is  a conjunction of contrariness.

Examples:

"Michael and Sarah went to the movies, although the heavy snow made it dangerous to drive."  It was probably not  wise or  safe to drive in the heavy snow just to see a movie.  Michael and Sarah did it anyway, which was an action different from what we might expect.  Although introduces that difference.

"Thomas slipped and fell on the ice although he was wearing rubber boots."  We would expect the rubber boots to keep Thomas from slipping, but they didn't.  Although introduces a result different from our expectations.

"I pulled out many weeds from the garden, although Jane had done the same a few days before."   Either Jane had not done a very good job pulling weeds or the weeds grew very fast.  Whatever the reason, the fact that there were many weeds for me to pull a few days after Jane pulled them was not expected.

"We spent $30 at the grocery store although we only went to buy a gallon of milk."  Our expectation had been to spend less than $3.00 at the grocery store, but instead we spent $30.  The difference between what we expected and what actually happened is connected by the conjunction although. 

SINCE: Since can be an adverb, a preposition or a conjunction.  As a conjunction, it means "during a period following a time when", "continuously from some time in the past", or "because".

Examples:

"Sarah went to see "Titanic" by herself since Michael did not like love stories."  You could substitute because for since in this sentence.  It introduces or connects the reason why Sarah went to the movies alone.

"Thomas had not fallen on the ice since he was a little boy."   Since refers to the continuous time from his childhood during which Thomas didn't fall on the ice, until now.

"The weeds had grown wildly since I pulled them out last week."  I pulled out the weeds last week, but from then until now they grew rapidly.  Since refers to the time period following the last time I pulled out the weeds.

"We went to the store to buy extra food since we were expecting company for the weekend."  The conjunction since means because in this sentence.  It introduces the reason why we were buying extra food.

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BECAUSE: Because is used to introduce a reason for another action or event.  It is a conjunction answering the question 'why?'.

Examples:

"Michael and Sarah went to the movies because there was nothing good on television."  Because connects the reason for Michael and Sarah's action with the action itself.

"Thomas slipped and fell because the sidewalk was covered with ice."  Because connects the reason why Thomas fell with the act of slipping and falling.

"I pulled out the weeds because Jane was allergic to them."  Because introduces the reason why Jane did not help me pull out the weeds.

"We went to the new supermarket for groceries because it was having a sale on fresh fruit."  Because introduces the reason why we went to the new store instead of the one we usually went to.

Correlative conjunctions are similar to coordinating conjunctions, except that they work in pairs.

Examples of correlative conjunctions are:

1. both…..and2. either…..or3. neither….nor4. not only….but also5. whether….or

The sick hiker would neither eat nor drink. Neither Coach Toft nor Coach Rasmussen could believe how hard the team

played. The wrestling match was both exciting and high-scoring. Not only are the Badlands rugged, but they are also beautiful.

ADDITIONAL CONJUNCTIONS:  nor, thus, therefore, while

Exercise 1

Change the conjunctions in the following sentences to different ones.  Notice how the meanings of the sentences change.  Write your answers on the lines.

1. Mr. James and his family went to Kuala Lumpur once a month.

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______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

 

2. Although Steven was seventeen when he signed up for karate classes, he had to

bring a note from a parent or a guardian.

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

3. Siti ran to the bus stop, but the bus had already gone.

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

4. I had checked all of my answers with a calculator,  so I was surprised when I failed

the test.

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

5. The Roberts family was ready to go on a picnic, yet the rain continued to fall.

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

6. Because the salesman was very good at his job, he was able to convince the minister

to buy the old purple car.

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______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

7. Tony had worked at the same job since his family bought the company eighteen years

ago.

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

8. John was not able to get a good job because he refused to take a shower.

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

Exercise : 2

Circle all the conjunctions in the following sentences.  Be careful, because many of the conjunctions can also be adverbs or prepositions.

1. Hamburgers, pizzas and fried chicken are the most popular, although least healthy, 

fast foods.

2. Since last August, the stock market has been falling, but our economy is still very

strong.

3. Everybody but Brenda passed the math test, although she was usually the best

student.

4. Henry's car stalled a lot and made funny noises, so he took it to the garage.

5. George offered Alice a ride since he was going in that direction anyway.

6. We did not have any vinegar or lettuce, yet I was told to make a salad.

7. The policeman was tired and sick, yet he still had to direct traffic around the accident

scene.

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Exercise 3 

Join the following pairs of sentences with suitable conjunctions.  Be sure to use the correct punctuation.  Write the joined sentences on the lines.

1. Louis liked reggae music.  Carla preferred classical music.

____________________________________________________________________

__

____________________________________________________________________

__

2. The horse galloped toward the barn.   A rabbit suddenly ran out of the tall grass.

____________________________________________________________________

__

____________________________________________________________________

__

3. Many women watch television soap operas.  The love scenes are often too realistic.

____________________________________________________________________

__

____________________________________________________________________

__

4. There is now a new president in the United States.  There was much confusion in

counting the votes.

____________________________________________________________________

__

____________________________________________________________________

__

5. We eat a lot of ice cream in this country.  There are many overweight people.

____________________________________________________________________

__

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____________________________________________________________________

__

6. Walter had bad breath.  He ate garlic every day.

____________________________________________________________________

__

____________________________________________________________________

__

1.2.3 INTERJECTION is a part of speech that usually has no grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence and simply expresses emotion on the part of the speaker, although most interjections have clear definitions. Interjections are used to express feelings or emotions.They are the least used part of speech. Interjections function independently from the rest of the sentence.

Huh? What does that mean?

It is therefore set off from the rest of the sentence by a comma or exclamation mark.

Interjections Followed by a Comma

Interjections are words used as exclamations.When an interjection shows mild feelings, a comma follows it. Note: the word following the comma is not capitalized unless it is a proper noun or pronoun.

Oh, that test was easy.Oh, I did well on that test.

Interjections Followed by an Exclamation Point

When an interjection expresses strong feelings or emotions, an exclamation point follows it. Note: the exclamation point is an end punctuation mark, so the word following it begins a new sentence and is always capitalized.

Wow! You made a 98 on the English test.

Common interjections

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Wow Oh Ouch Tsk Uh Alas Woah Oops Psst

Wow! Did you see that play?

Ouch! That hurts!

I, uh, think we should leave now.

Woah! How did he catch that?

My, that certainly is a huge cat. It's great to be a Canadian, eh? 

Yuck! That tastes disgusting. 

The table below shows some interjections with examples.

interjection meaning example

ah

expressing pleasure "Ah, that feels good."

expressing realization "Ah, now I understand."

expressing resignation "Ah well, it can't be heped."

expressing surprise "Ah! I've won!"

alas expressing grief or pity "Alas, she's dead now."

dearexpressing pity "Oh dear! Does it hurt?"

expressing surprise "Dear me! That's a surprise!"

eh

asking for repetition"It's hot today." "Eh?" "I said it's hot today."

expressing enquiry "What do you think of that, eh?"

expressing surprise "Eh! Really?"

inviting agreement "Let's go, eh?"

er expressing hesitation "Lima is the capital of...er...Peru."

hello, hulloexpressing greeting "Hello John. How are you today?"

expressing surprise "Hello! My car's gone!"

hey calling attention "Hey! look at that!"

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expressing surprise, joy etc "Hey! What a good idea!"

hi expressing greeting "Hi! What's new?"

hmmexpressing hesitation, doubt or disagreement

"Hmm. I'm not so sure."

oh, o

expressing surprise "Oh! You're here!"

expressing pain "Oh! I've got a toothache."

expressing pleading "Oh, please say 'yes'!"

ouch expressing pain "Ouch! That hurts!"

uh expressing hesitation "Uh...I don't know the answer to that."

uh-huh expressing agreement "Shall we go?" "Uh-huh."

um, umm expressing hesitation "85 divided by 5 is...um...17."

wellexpressing surprise "Well I never!"

introducing a remark "Well, what did he say?"

Exercise 1

Supply an appropriate interjection for each sentence.

1. (pain) That looked like it hurt.

2. (anger) That’s my bike!

3. (surprise) You scared me!

Exercise 2

Use each of the following interjections in a sentence.

1. woah

2. psst

3. oops

4. uh

5. hey

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Exercise 3

Fill in the blanks with suitable interjections in the sentences given below.

1. _____________________ How come you are here ?

2. _____________________ The lady is no more.

3. _____________________ Everybody is sleeping.

4. _____________________ I am so scared.

5. ____________________ I stood first.

6 . _____________________, you knocked that ball out of the park.

7. _____________________,you really need to take care of yourself.

8. ____________________,what did you say.

9. _____________________, now I understand the problem.

10. _____________________, that really hurts.

Exercise 4

Match the interjections with an emotion it might be used with to show that emotion.

1. Ah expressing greeting

2. Hello expressing pain

3. Oh expressing pleasure

4. Ouch expressing surprise

5. Well introducing a remark

6. Hmmm expressing doubt

7. Hey callling attention

Task

Surf the internet and read up more on prepositions, conjunctions and interjections and make your own notes.

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Bibliography

Azar, B. S., and Azar, D. A. (1999). Fundamentals of English grammar ( 2nd ed.). New York: Longman.

Capital College Community Foundation. (2004). INDEX to the guide to grammar and writing. Retrieved from http://www.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/index2.htm

Eastwood, J. (2005). Oxford learner’s grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Samy. R.K. Kotayan et.al. (2007). Making sense of English grammar. Selangor:Penerbitan Pelangi Sdn. Bhd.

TOPIC 2 Listening and Speaking

2.1 Synopsis

This topic is an extension of the Listening and Speaking module in WAJ3102.

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This unit enables you to acquire the skills in listening and speaking. Listening is a skill, which can be developed by knowing what it is and acquiring some effective strategies and techniques of successful listening. Speaking involves a number of routines conducted simultaneously by the speaker and the listener.

2.2 Learning Outcomes

2.2.1 Listen critically and respond appropriately to various stimuli.

2.2.2 Listen for meaning and understanding of a variety of texts and give personal

response.

2.2.3. Communicate fluently, correctly and confidently in a variety of situations.

2.2.4 Assess own language progress through reflections/journals.

2.3 Topic Framework

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LISTENING

Listening Skills What makes a good listening text?

Effective Content and Delivery for Listening

Oral Response to Speeches and Lectures

Effective Communication Group Presentations

SPEAKING

2.4 Listening Skills

Listening is a very important skill that everyone should master because we spend nearly 60% of our working hours listening to a variety of things being said to us and around us. Listening is the ability to identify and understand what others are saying. This involves understanding a speaker’s accent, his grammar and vocabulary, and grasping his meaning. An able listener is capable of doing these four things simultaneously. A series of micro-skills are involved while one is listening. They include the following:

2.4.1 Predicting what people are going to talk about

2.4.2 Guessing unknown words or phrase

2.4.3 Using one’s background knowledge of the subject

2.4.4 Identifying relevant points

2.4.5 Retaining relevant points (note-making, summarizing

2.4.6 Rejecting irrelevant point

2.4.7 Recognising discourse markers (e.g. well, oh, besides, another thing, Recognising cohesive devices (e.g. such as, which, however, etc)

2.4.8 Understanding different intonation patterns and uses of stress

2.4.9 Understanding inferred information

2.5 What Makes a Good Listening Text ?

To answer this question we will have to look at two aspects ,Content and Delivery

Delivery

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Listening Practice to a Variety of texts

Linking words and Connectors

2.5.1 Delivery must be convincing

2.5.2 It must be gripping

2.5.3 Presents new information

2.5.4 Delivery is clear and unambiguous in terms of accent

2.5.5 Quality of recording .Is the recording clear? Will background noise affect

comprehension

Content

What is effective content for Listening ?

Look at the features given in the following table.

Features Questions to ask

Interest factor Will this be interesting for my students?

Genre Is it in a genre easily recognised by my students?

Cultural accessibility Will my students understand the context and ideas?

Speech acts/ Discourse structure

Does it discuss abstract concepts or is it based on everyday transactions?

Information Too much information given at one time? Or too little ?

Language level Is the majority of the vocabulary and grammar appropriate for my students?

Lenght Will I need to cut part of the recording because it is too long? Or is it too short?

2.6 Listening is an active process

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Listening is an active process and has three basic steps. They are hearing, understanding and judging

2.6.1 Hearing Hearing means listening enough to catch what the speaker is saying. For instance, if you were listening to a verbal documentary on cats and the speaker mentioned that many animals belong to the cat family. If you can repeat the fact, then you have heard what has been said.

2.6.2 UnderstandingUnderstanding happens when you take what you have heard and understand it in your own way. Let’s go back to the documentary on cats. When you hear that many animals belong to the cat family, think about what that might mean. You may think, “Maybe this means that animals having certain features an

2.6.3 Judging Judging occurs when you understand what the speaker has said and think about whether it makes sense. Do you believe what you have heard? You might think. “How could animals which we call by different names be all in the cat family? But, then again, when we bring in our knowledge of the world about human beings for example, we fall under one category called “human beings” and yet categorise ourselves as being “Malay”, “Chinese’, “Indian”, and others, according to our race. Thus, the information in the documentary we have just listened to seems believable.

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2.7 LISTENING STRATEGIES

Listening is a demanding process. In order to function efficiently in the English language, you must develop good listening strategies which will help you to listen, process and respond to information in both academic and social contexts. Some good listening strategies that can help you to listen better include the following:

2.7.1 Concentrate and focus on the listening text/speech’.

2.7.2 Listen with a purpose. Decide what information you should listen for and what you can ignore.

2.7.3 If you are going to hear it only once, try to grasp the gist of the text/speech. Do not worry about understanding all the words you hear or even trying to memorise every detail.

2.7.4 If you are going to hear it more than once, try to grasp the general meaning of the text/speech the first time you listen to it. When you listen to the text the second time, concentrate on identifying specific details or key words.

2.7.5 Guess the meaning of unfamiliar words by paying attention to the context in which they occur.

2.7.6 Learn to process information quickly or in ‘real time’ because in real life situation, you often hear something said only once.

2.8 HOW TO BE A GOOD LISTENER

2.8.1 Give your full attention to the person who is speaking or to the text or speech you are listening to.

2.8.2 Make sure your mind is focused.

2.8.3 Let the speaker finish before you begin to talk.

2.8.4 Listen for main ideas. They are the most important points the speaker wants to get across. They may be mentioned at the start or at the end of the talk, and repeated a number of times.

2.8.5 Jot down some important points given by the speaker. (If you are listening to identify important points or to summarise the speech later)

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2.8.6 Pay particular attention on the use of discourse markers and cohesive devices by the speaker

2.9 LISTENING FOR MEANING

In order to make sense of what is being communicated involves

hearing ,understanding and judging.This follows a sequence listening to a

speaker will trigger meaning which in turn signals the listerner to give an

appropriate response.The response can be in any form as long as it follows up to

show that the listener understands. If meaning is unclear, follow-up can be in the

form of asking for clarification to ascertain a fact. This can be seen in the

following sequence.

2.9.1 Listening for meaning sequence

Listening effectively for meaning in a dialogue involves the following sequence:

Trigger meaning

Signal meaning

Response to signal

Follow-up shows understanding

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Task 1 :

Groupwork – Get into groups of 4. Get 2 group members to carry out the conversation. The other two will listen to the following conversation and indicate the language function and the sequence as :

T for Trigger; S for signal; R for response; F for follow-up

Sequence Function

F2 Mahmud. Ah, Mahmud loves to play,

to play competitive games, gets upset 0. T 0. to inform

when he lostes.

F1 Mmm, pardon? 1 ____ 2. __________

F2 Huh? 3. _____ 4. __________

F1 Pardon? 5. _____ 6. __________

F2 Gets upset when he loses. 7._____ 8. __________

F1 Huh? 9._____ 10._________

F2 Loses. 11._____ 12._________

F1 Mmm. Mmm. He likes to ball, play ball 13._____ 14._________

games you mean?68

F2 That’s right. That’s what I mean. 15. ____ 16._________

Answer

F2 Mahmud. Ah, Mahmud loves to play,

to play competitive games, gets upset

when he lostes.

F1 Mmm, pardon? 1. S 2. To ask

F2 Huh? 3. S 4. To ask

F1 Pardon? 5. S 5 To ascertain

F2 Gets upset when he loses. 6. R 7. To exlain

F1 Huh? 8. S 9. To ask

F2 Loses. 9. R 10. To tell

F1 Mmm. Mmm. He likes to ball, play ball 10. F 11. To reaffirm

games you mean?

F2 That’s right. That’s what I mean. 12. R 13. To confirm

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(Pica, Holliday, Lewis, Berducci & Newman, 1991,)

3.0 CRITICAL LISTENING

Critical listening is a form of listening that involves analysis, critical thinking and

judgment. Making judgments during listening is often considered as a barrier to

understand a person, and there's a lot of truth in that. However, critical listening occurs

when you still want to understand what the other person is saying, but also have some

reason or responsibility to evaluate what is being said to you and how it is being said.

For example, if there's an upcoming election and you need to decide who to vote for, you

probably use some form of critical listening when you watch a televised debate. You

listen, AND you evaluate. While experts on learning and communication almost

universally demean the importance and value of critical listening, when it comes to real

life, listening critically is used every day. The key though, is to try to understand the

other person FIRST, before one evaluates

3.1 Listening Text Types

Below are some of the listening texts that we often need to listen to critically:

3.1.1 Forum

A forum can be defined as a public meeting or a programme (as on radio or television) involving discussion of a problem usually by several authorities and usually among experts. It is an open discussion involving audience participation.

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Example : Money Matters

3.1.2 Speech

A speech is a talk or public address. The best impromptu speeches are the ones written well in advance. Giving a speech is also an act of expressing or describing thoughts, feelings or perceptions by the articulation of words.

Example : Formal speeches given by ministers, corporate leaders, educationists

3.1.4 Documentary

A documentary is a creative work of non-fiction. This includes documentary film, television, radio documentary and documentary photography.

Example : Animal Planet, National Geographic

3.1.5 News

News is any information or information on current events which is presented by print, broadcast, internet, or word of mouth to a third party or mass audience. News is also the reporting of current information on television and radio, and in the newspapers and magazines.

Examples : Business News, BBC News, CNN, Channel News Asia

3.1.6 Multimedia Resources –

Multimedia is any combination of text, graphic art, sound, animation and video delivered to you by computer to other electronic means. Multimedia is not new. It has been used in the classroom for the last decade in the form of overhead projectors, slide shows, filmstrips and coloured chalk.

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Exercise 1

1. TELEVISION DOCUMENTARY

Watch and listen to a television documentary.

Identify the issue/s being discussed and give your personal response.

2. NEWS REPORT

Listen to the English news either on television or radio.

List three issues that made the headlines today.

News 1: __________________________________________________

News 2: __________________________________________________

News 3: ___________________________________________________

Provide reasons why they made the headlines.

News 1: ____________________________________________________

News 2 _____________________________________________________

News 3 _____________________________________________________

3. MULTIMEDIA RESOURCES

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Listen to an English song.

Identify and analyse an issue reflected in the song that you have chosen.

___________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

4.0 SPEAKING

What is spoken language?

“...the ability to speak a language is synonymous with knowing that language since

speech is the most basic means of human communication. Nevertheless, speaking in a

second or foreign language has often been viewed as the most demanding of the four

skills”

(Bailey and Savage, 1994)

4.1 ORACY –Oral Communication

Oral communication is a vital component of the English language arts curriculumn and provides base for growth in reading, writing and listening abilities. Oracy consists of both verbal and non-verbal communication is culture specific and be aware of the differences that may exist across cultures when students express themselves non-verbally.

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Oral comunication is a two way process between speaker and listener and involves productive skill of speaking and receptive skill of understanding (or listening with understanding)

Receptive does not imply passive – both in listening and reading, language users are actively involved in the process of interpreting and negotiating meanings.

4.1.1Verbal Communication:

This involves articulatory organs that produce sounds which compose of words and sentence structure. By incorporating grammatical forms and vocabulary, speakers are able to express the desired meaning.

4.1.2 Non-Verbal Communication

Non-Verbal Communication includes a variety of gestures, expressions anmd signalling devices (stress and intonation). Through face to face interaction, a speaker can use a whole range of facial expressions and general body language to help convey the message.

5. 0 Speaking Activities

Listen to and make short notes based on the following lecture of how to conduct a Speaking lesson.

“ Class, we are going to look at the General outline of a speaking lesson.

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Speaking lessons can follow the usual pattern of preparation, presentation,

practice, evaluation, and extension. The teacher can use the preparation step

to establish a context for the speaking task (where, when, why, and with

whom it will occur) and to initiate awareness of the speaking skill to be

targeted (asking for clarification, stressing key words, using reduced forms of

words).

In presentation, the teacher can provide learners with a preproduction model

that furthers learner comprehension and helps them become more attentive

observers of language use.

Practice involves learners in reproducing the targeted structure, usually in a

controlled or

highly supported manner. Evaluation involves directing attention to the skill

being practised and asking learners to monitor and assess their own

progress.

Finally, Production consists of activities that ask learners to use the strategy

or skill in a different context or authentic communicative situation, or to

integrate use of the new skill or strategy with previously acquired ones.

I hope you were able to take note of the various stages in a “Speaking

”lesson.

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(Brown, 1994; Burns & Joyce, 1997; Carter & McCarthy,

1995).

Task 1- Pair-work

Get a partner and compare the short notes that you have taken. Then form groups of four and discuss the stages in a Speaking lesson.

Task 2

With the help of a mind-map, present your notes to the class in the form of mini-lectures.

Exercise 1

Your class is organizing a project for the following semester holidays. The following are some of the suggestions made by the members of the class for the project:

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1. Organise an educational trip to an Orang Asli settlement in Cameron Highlands.2. Participate in a foster family programme with a group of FELDA settlers in

Jengka.3. Go on a study trip to Borobudur in Indonesia4. Conduct free tuition classes for the underprivileged school children near your

campus.

Think of various ways of agreeing and disagreeing with each of the suggestions above. List them. Support your opinion appropriately.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

6.0 Oral Presentations

For a successful presentation remember the following mnemonic

P A P E R S

P – Projection

A – Articulation

P – Pronunciation

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E – Enunciation

R - Repetition

S - Speed

Take turns to talk

Speak quietly

Choose your words carefully, use appropriate language

Think before you speak

Show respect for each other

Negotiate – try to reach an agreement

Use Standard English

Say what you think

Vary your expression to interest your audience

Support and include everyone in the group

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Attributes of Good Communicators

Explain your ideas and opinions clearly and fully

Task 3

Read the information on” Successful Presentation above and on ”Attributes of Good Communicators” Get the course participants to respond to the topics by giving their opinions in a one-minute speech.

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

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7.0 Connecting Ideas

Very often connectors are used to link ideas in a conversation or description of a

process or procedure. Connectors are words or phrases that we use to connect more than one idea. There are two types of connectors :

7.1 Logical connectors

are used to combine words and sentences in logical manners Examples:

7.2 Sequence connectors

are used to connect words and sentences which follow sequence of events and actions.

Examples:  

Sequence connectors Uses ExamplesFirstly, secondly….. next, then, after, later

To show events happen orderly

When I reach my office, first, I have my coffee. Then, I enter my class to teach. Finally, I go home at 1pm.

Exercise 1

Put each group of sentences in order . Use the expression first, next, then and finally, one for each sentence.

a. He recovered. 1.b . John got a cold and flu. 2.c. He called the doctor. 3.d. John played football in the rain 4.

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e. It was a wet and cold evening. 5.

Exercise 2

a. The tea is now ready to be

served

1.

b. Boil water. 2.

c. Pour hot water into the teapot. 3.

d. Prepare tea sachets and a

teapot.

4.

e. You may add sugar and milk 5.

Answers

a. He recovered. 1. It was a wet and cold evening.b . John got a cold and flu. 2. John played football in the rain.c. He went to see a doctor. 3. As a result, John got a cold and flu.d. John played football in the rain 4. So he went to see a doctor.e. It was a wet and cold evening. 5. Finally , he recovered.

Exercise 1

Exercise 2

a. The tea is now ready to be

served

1. Firstly, boil water

b. Boil water. 2. Next, prepare tea sachets and a teapot

c. Pour hot water into the teapot. 3. After that pour hot water into the teapot.

d. Prepare tea sachets and a 4. You may add sugar and milk81

teapot.

e. You may add sugar and milk 5. Finally, the tea is now ready to be served.

Fill in the dialogue with appropriate phrases. Then

you may role play the dialogue to practise speaking.

Situation 1 : The waiter doesn’t have what the customer wants.

You : Could I have fried noodles, please?

Waiter : _________________________________________

You : Well, could I have a mushroom omelette?

Waiter : ____________________________________________

You : Oh, it doesn’t matter then. I’ll just have a cup of coffee, please.

Situation 2 : Rahim arrives home.

Hasnah : Did you remember to buy me some _________________?

Rahim : Oh ________________ I completely forgot.

Hasnah : Well, I hope you remembered to post my letters.

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Rahim : What letters?

Hasnah : The ones I gave you this morning.

Rahim : Oh ______________They are still at the office.

Situation 3 : Kikin has just won an essay competition.

Kikin : Papa, I’ve won the essay competition!

Papa : ____________________ You made it!

Kikin : ____________ Papa, for your support and guidance.

Papa : Oh well, I know you are good like your papa.

Kikin : Oh yes, like they say, like father like daughter.

DON’ T BE AFRAID TO SPEAK. SPEAK UP AND BE HEARD!!!

TOPIC 3 READING SKILLS

3.0 This unit aims to enhance learner’s knowledge of reading skills with special emphasis on the Barett’s taxonomy. The exercises that follow the explanation should provide some immediate practice in ehnancing your comprehension skills.

3.1 Learning Outcomes:

To read critically for meaning and understanding, and give personal response. To recognize and identify different levels of Barrett’s Taxonomy. To skim and scan a given text To locate author’s message and intention. To identify and justify the choice of word(s),

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To recognize and identify expressions and figure of speech which reflect the message and intention

3.2 Content

THE BARRETT’S TAXONOMY OF READING COMPREHENSION

The Barrett’s Taxonomy of Reading Comprehension was designed to help teachers formulate comprehension questions or to develop test questions for reading. It classifies skills and orders them according to the degree of complexity. It consists of five categories. The first two categories which are literal comprehension and reorganization deal with facts presented in texts and therefore result in closed questions that have a single correct response. The other three categories that include Inference, Evaluation and Appreciation will always involve the student’s own background of experience. As a result, it is possible to have as many different but correct responses as there are students present since each brings to school a different background of home, family, friends and learning. These remaining three categories thus lead to the development of open-ended questions.

3.3 CRITICAL READING SKILLS AND BARRETT’S TAXONOMY

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Tasks & Exercises

BARRETT’S TAXONOMY

The Barrett’s Taxonomy of Reading Comprehension

Critical Reading Skills and Barrett’s Taxonomy

Suggested Answers

Using Contextual,,

Syntactic and Semantic Clues to Derive Meaning

Critical reading means reading with the goal of finding deep understanding of a material, whether it is fiction or nonfiction. It is the act of analyzing and evaluating what you are reading as you progress, or as you reflect back. Critical reading skills involve your ability to analyze, evaluate, and synthesize what you read. It is the ability to see relationships of ideas and use them as an aid in reading.

Barrett Taxonomy is a good guide to the levels at which we are trying to measure comprehension for a written text. The taxonomy was introduced at a conference in 1968. It is designed originally to assist classroom teachers in developing comprehension questions and / or test questions for reading.In the previous module,WAJ3102, you were introduced to Barret’s Taxonomy. You have learnt that it is especially useful for classroom questioning in other content areas as well.

As a form of revision we will now read and look closely at Barrett’s Taxonomy

Barrett’s Taxonomy of Reading Comprehension

1.0 Literal Comprehension

1.1 Recognition

1.1.1 Recognition of Details

1.1.2 Recognition of Main Ideas

1.1.3 Recognition of a Sequence

1.1.4 Recognition of Comparison

1.1.5 Recognition of Cause and Effect Relationships

1.1.6 Recognition of Character Trait

1.2 Recall

1.2.1 Recall of Details

1.2.2 Recall of Main Ideas

1.2.3 Recall of a Sequence

1.2.4 Recall of Comparison

1.2.5 Recall of Cause and Effect Relationships

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1.2.6 Recall of Character Traits

2.0 Reorganization

2.1 Classifying

2.2 Outlining

2.3 Summarizing

2.4 Synthesizing

3.0 Inferential Comprehension

3.1 Inferring Supporting Details

3.2 Inferring Main Ideas

3.3 Inferring Sequence

3.4 Inferring Comparisons

3.5 Inferring Cause and Effect Relationships

3.6 Inferring Character Traits

3.7 Predicting Outcomes

3.8 Interpreting Figurative Language

4.0 Evaluation

4.1 Judgments of Reality or Fantasy

4.2 Judgments of Fact or Opinion

4.3 Judgments of Adequacy and Validity

4.4 Judgments of Appropriateness

4.5 Judgments of Worth, Desirability and Acceptability

5.0 Appreciation

5.1 Emotional Response to the Content

5.2 Identification with Characters or Incidents

5.3 Reactions to the Author’s Use of Language

5.4 Imagery

Task 1

Read the text below and formulate at least two comprehension questions for each of the categories of the Barrett’s Taxonomy of Reading Comprehension.

86In the Car

Bernadette M. Smyth

I steered through fantastic streets of boisterous traffic, past glittering buildings, and footpaths that moved with shoppers. I beeped the horn when I saw Mrs Sweeney.“Hop in!” I shouted.

3.4 READ FOR MEANING AND UNDERSTANDING A VARIETY

OF TEXTS

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In the Car

Bernadette M. Smyth

I steered through fantastic streets of boisterous traffic, past glittering buildings, and footpaths that moved with shoppers. I beeped the horn when I saw Mrs Sweeney.“Hop in!” I shouted.

Reading for meaning focuses on five main areas namely:

3.4.1Main ideaThe main idea is the summary of essential points of the paragraph. The main idea of a paragraph can often be substituted with a topic sentence with controlling ideas.

3.4.2. Inference

Inferencing is a reading skill in which you use observations, prior knowledge and experiences, and details from the text to make connections and come up with ideas.

3.4.3 Sequence

Sequencing in reading is to be considered when there is an order of incidents and actions in the selection. A sequence will be constituted only when order of occurrence is specifically required.

3.4.4Compare and contrast

Comparing and contrasting is a reading skill where you can find the similarities and differences between items, characters, times and places that is stated in the selection

3.4.5 Cause and effect The skill of looking at happenings or actions in the selection where you can identify the causes of a problem or issue and the effects in an orderly way.

3.5 Now let us look at what text is and its variety.

Text is any piece of writing. This could be a letter, an email, a novel, a poem, a

recipe, a note, instructions for D.I.Y, an article in a newspaper or magazine,

writing on a webpage or an advert. All of these examples can be called texts.

When you are reading or writing any text, think about the purpose of the text or why it has been written.

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3.2.1 What might the purpose of a text be?

An advert might be trying to persuade you to buy something.

A letter from school might be to inform you about something.

A novel might describe somewhere or someone to you.

A car manual might instruct you how to do something to your car.

Depending on the purpose of the text, different methods will be used to get the message across to the reader.

Exercise 1

Read each of the following paragraphs carefully. Look up any unfamiliar words if necessary. Then choose the title that best describes the main idea of each.

1. Universities are a microcosm of society. But they are more than a reflection or mirror;

they are a leading indicator. In universities, an environment where students live, eat,

and study together, racial and cultural differences come together in the closest

possible way. Of all American institutions, perhaps only the military brings people of

such different backgrounds into more intimate contact. With coeducation now a

reality in colleges, and with the confident emergence of homosexual groups, the

American campus is now sexually democratized as well. University leaders see it as

a useful laboratory experiment in training young people for a multicultural habitat.

Michael Sovern, president of Columbia, observes, "I like to think that we are leading

society by grappling earnestly and creatively with the challenges posed by diversity."

--Dinesh D'Souza, Illiberal Education

1. The best title for this paragraph is

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A. "The University Environment"

B. "Sexual Democratization on American College Campuses"

C. "The University vs.the Military"

D. "The University as a Microcosm of Society"

2. Marriage was not designed as a mechanism for providing friendship, erotic

experience, romantic love, personal fulfillment, continuous psychotherapy, or

recreation. The Western European family was not designed to carry a lifelong load of

highly emotional romantic freight. Given its present structure, it simply has to fail

when asked to do so. The very idea of an irrevocable contract obligating the parties

concerned to a lifetime of romantic effort is utterly absurd.

--Mervyn Cadwallader, "Marriage as a Wretched Institution," Atlantic Monthly

3. The best title for this paragraph is

A. "Unrealistic Expectations in Western Marriages"

B. "The Failure of Romance" C. "Why Marriages Are Doomed to Failure"

D. "Marriage and Romance"

3. The baby mastering the skills that lead to establishment of the upright posture

behaves in the same way as the novice skier. He feels compelled to repeat the

activity hundreds of times until he has mastered the skill and mastered his anxiety.

He often reveals that he is having difficulty in "unwinding" when we put him to bed for

his nap or for the night, and if you peek into his room while he is settling down for

sleep (or unsettling down for sleep), you may see him, groggy and cross-eyed with

fatigue, still climbing and pulling himself upright, collapsing momentarily with

weariness, then exerting himself for another climb. He repeats this over and over

until finally he cannot lift himself even once more and succumbs to sleep. One set of

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parents discovered their eight-month-old daughter climbing in her sleep on several

occasions during this mastery period. At eleven or twelve at night they could hear

soft sounds in the baby's room and upon entering would find the baby standing in her

crib, dazed and dimly conscious, too sleepy to protest when she was put down in her

bed again. When the art of standing was perfected, the baby gave up practicing in

her sleep.

--Selma H. Fraiberg, The Magic Years

The best title for this paragraph is

A. "Babies' Nighttime Activities"

B. "How a Baby Masters the Skill of Standing"

C. "The Sleep Habits of Babies"

D. "Practice Makes Perfect"

3.6 USE CONTEXTUAL, SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC CLUES TO DERIVE MEANING

When reading a passage for the first time, you have to make an effort to cope with

unfamiliar or difficult words that you come across. You should first try to guess the

meaning of the words rather than look them up in a dictionary. One way to find out the

meaning of unfamiliar words is through the use of context. ‘The context’ in reading

refers to the overall meaning of the text. The context also refers to the surrounding

words in a sentence that gives us clues about the words we read.

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The syntactic clues give us the word order clues where the information implicit in the

grammatical structures of the language is utilized.

The semantic clues give us the meaning clues where the reader recalls his

own experiences and utilizes his own conceptual background in order to bring meaning

to his/her reading.

Example 1:

Read the two sentences.

(a) The hungry spider __________ the juicy fly.

[ With knowledge of spiders and flies, (that is context) the reader would be likely to predict that the missing word is ‘ate’.]

(b) The loving mother __________ the hungry baby.

[ With knowledge, of mothers and babies (that is context) the reader would be likely to predict that the missing word is ‘fed’.

Exercise 2

Write the meaning for each of the nonsense words by reading the contexts.

1. Bultums

Bultums are useful to wear when the weather is cold. Some bultums are waterproof. There are different types of bultums for different occasions. Some houses have a special cupboard near the front door where visitors can hang their bultums

Bultum means: _______________________________

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2. Kester

Mother gets kester when we are late home for dinner. The teacher was very kester when a student broke the computer. As people get older, they usually learn to control their kester moment. A kester person does not think as clearly as a non-kester person

Kester means: _______________________________

3.7 READ AND MAKE INFERENCE

Making Inferences is a tool that takes us beyond what is literally on the page, expanding it to open up new meanings and personal connections. When we infer, we take statements in the text and “read between the lines” to figure out what an author is hinting at or to draw our own conclusions.

For instance, if we are reading an article about a hospital closing, we would probably ask ourselves why. The reason might not be directly stated in the article, but from other facts in the article as well as what we know about where it is located, we might infer that the hospital was not getting enough funding to stay open.

3.4.1 More tips to help you to infer

• Question the text, argue with it, or raise doubts about it.

• Show how to include your own ideas when you restate the text.

• Make an inference by connecting two or more details from different

places in the text.

• Use the text as your support to make an argument or try to persuade someone.

• Make inferences as you reflect on the text after reading.

Example 1:

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When Sarah went on stage to receive the best actress award for her role as Tun Fatimah in her Primary School play, her mother’s eyes were brimming with tears.

The stated meaning contains the following information:

(a) Sarah received her best actress award on stage.

(b) She played the role of Tun Fatimah.

(c) She was still in Primary School.

(d) Her mother had tears in her eyes

The pieces of information that are not stated but can be interpreted or inferred are as follows:

(a) Sarah was rewarded for her fine acting.

(b) Sarah was still below 13 years old.

(c) Sarah’s mother witnessed her daughter receiving the award.

(d) She was proud of her.

(e) Her daughter’s achievement caused her to shed tears of joy.

3 .8 DISTINGUISH FACT FROM OPINION

A fact is objective information that can be checked or proved to be true and not a statement about the future. An opinion is a statement that cannot be proven to be true or false and is one’s personal belief, idea, or feeling about a subject.

Clues to help you identify facts and opinions.

Facts Opinions

The use of dates and year The use of adjectives which show your point of view or emotions

The use of statistic/figures/precise numbers or quantities

The use of comparison words which show a comparison between two or

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more things

The use of definitions The use of other words which show frequency, possibility, advisability and necessity

When stating a geographical or scientific fact

The use of phrases which show a belief, a suggestion, a feeling, or an opinion

3.5.1 Let’s look at some examples.

These are facts because they are concrete.

1. The house was painted on November 18, 1999.

2. Today is Saturday.

3. My son had a temperature of one hundred and two degrees this morning.

However, these facts can be changed to opinions when we add a belief or view.

1. The house was painted recently on November 18, 1999, so it looks as good as new.

2. Today is Saturday and Mark always sleeps in on Saturdays, so that is why he is late for the game.

3. There was no way for me to go to school because my son had a temperature of one hundred and two degrees this morning.

Exercise 3

Read the following statements. Determine whether each statement is a fact or opinion. What are some of the signal words?

No. Statements Fact / Opinion

1 The cerebral cortex or brain is characterized by a division into halves termed hemispheres which are connected by tissue called the corpus callosum.

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2 I think it is more interesting to watch a movie than to watch football at the stadium.

3 The majority of drug addicts are between the ages 12 – 35 years.

4 I believe that kids skip school because teachers are unsympathetic.

5 As a matter of fact, oil spills from factories have been found to be related to the death of marine life.

6 In my view, men are better at raising children than women.

7 It is a matter of opinion that all facts are scientific facts.

8 According to the national weather service, there is a 90 per cent chance of rain today. Therefore, it will probably rain today.

Task

Read an interview from a magazine or newspaper. Try to identify whether the speakers are giving their opinions or facts?

3.9 IDENTIFY SHIFT IN ARGUMENT

Transitions are words and phrases used by writers to indicate specific relationships

between ideas and to create coherence or logical connection between ideas and to

create a coherence or logical connection between the ideas in a passage.

Let’s look at some examples.

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The following paragraph shows how carefully chosen transitions (CAPITALIZED) lead the reader smoothly from the introduction to the conclusion of the paragraph.

I don’t wish to deny that the flattened, minuscule head of the large-bodied "stegosaurus"

houses little brain from our subjective, top-heavy perspective, BUT I do wish to assert

that we should not expect more of the beast. FIRST OF ALL, large animals have

relatively smaller brains than related, small animals. The correlation of brain size with

body size among kindred animals (all reptiles, all mammals, FOR EXAMPLE) is

remarkably regular. AS we move from small to large animals, from mice to elephants or

small lizards to Komodo dragons, brain size increases, BUT not so fast as body size. IN

OTHER WORDS, bodies grow faster than brains, AND large animals have low ratios of

brain weight to body weight. IN FACT, brains grow only about two-thirds as fast as

bodies. SINCE we have no reason to believe that large animals are consistently stupider

than their smaller relatives, we must conclude that large animals require relatively less

brain to do as well as smaller animals. IF we do not recognize this relationship, we are

likely to underestimate the mental power of very large animals, dinosaurs in particular.

Stephen Jay Gould, “Were Dinosaurs Dumb?”

The following are also some of the words and phrases to indicate transitions in a paragraph or passage.

3.6.1 To show addition:

again, and, also, besides, equally important, first (second, etc.), further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place, moreover, next, too

3.6.2 To give examples:

for example, for instance, in fact, specifically, that is, to illustrate

3.6.3To compare:

also, in the same manner, likewise, similarly

3.6.4 To contrast:

although, and yet, at the same time, but, despite, even though, however, in contrast, in spite of, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, though, yet

3.6.5 To summarize or conclude:

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all in all, in conclusion, in other words, in short, in summary, on the whole, that is, therefore, to sum up

3.6.6 To show time:

after, afterwards, as, as long as, as soon as, at last, before, during, earlier, finally, formerly, immediately, later, meanwhile, next, since, shortly, subsequently, then, thereafter, until, when, while

3.6.7 To show place or direction:

above, below, beyond, close, elsewhere, farther on, here, nearby, opposite, to the left (north, etc.)

3.6.8 To indicate logical relationship:

accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, for this reason, hence, if, otherwise, since, so, then, therefore, thus

(adapted from Diana Hacker, A Writer’s Reference)

Task

Choose one argumentative essay and identify the shift in arguments or ideas in the text.

Exercise 4

A. Read the following paragraph and circle the transition words that show time.

You can make your own cards to celebrate special events. First, gather the

materials you need: construction paper, scissors, crayons or markers, and glue.

Second, fold a piece of construction paper to create a card that has a front, a back,

and an inside. Cut out interesting shapes from more construction paper, and glue

the shapes to the front and back of your card. You may also draw colorful pictures

on the front and back of the card. Finally, write a brief message inside the card, and

sign your name. Now you're ready to give your card to someone special.

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B. Read the sentences below and circle the transition words that compare or contrast.

1. I was anxious to leave. However, we had to wait until Uncle Pete arrived.

2. Mother told us to hurry. Otherwise, we all would have been caught in the rain.

3. I make my sandwich in the same way that Shawna does. We both use food that is

peanut free because of our food allergies.

4. I asked about the homework, but neither Todd nor Antonio knew what had been assigned.

5. Even though it was very cold, Mary Beth did not wear a jacket.

Exercise

Transition words have been left out in the following paragraph. Select appropriate words from the list below, and write them in the blanks. There can be more than one word that fits in some blanks. Select the one that you think fits best.

Meanwhile through Under

First as a result of beside

while next then

Once upon a time

__(1) __ there lived a family of bears in a lovely wooded area. Their home was __(2)__

some trees __(3)__ a small stream. One day __(4)__ the bears were not at home, a little

girl came to the house. __(5)__, she knocked on the door. __(6)__, even though no one

answered her knock, she entered the house. __(7)__, she ate some of the bears' food,

and she napped on one of their beds. __(8)__, the bears returned home. They were

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surprised to see their door open. Their roars woke up the girl, and she fearfully ran from

the house, __(9)__ the woods, and back to her own home. __(10)__ her experiences,

she never again went into the woods alone.

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3.10 IDENTIFY EMOTIONALLY-LADEN WORDS

Authors often write not only to communicate but also to arouse some emotion or make

readers respond to their ideas or suggestions. Authors select words for their emotional,

suggestive meanings to create vivid images. Carefully chosen words can be very

effective in accomplishing these purposes, and a careful reader can recognize how

words are used for certain effects.

Let’s look at some examples.

These are words found in a text about adoption. The writer is very careful to use positive or neutral words so to sound politically correct and not offensive.

Birthparent not real parent

Biological parent not natural parent

Biological or birth father not real father

Birth child not own child

My child not adopted child, own child

Born to unmarried parents not illegitimate

Terminate parental rights not give up

Make adoption plan not give away

Waiting child not Adoptable / available child

Making contact with not reunion

Parent not adoptive parent

Task

What other words or phrases can you think of that are ‘emotionally laden words’? List them.

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3.11 IDENTIFY WRITER’S MOOD, TONE, BIAS, PURPOSE OR

POINT OF VIEW

While an author’s purpose is closely related to the main idea and can often be inferred from the main idea and the way in which the details are presented, the tone of a piece of writing is a little more illusive. The tone refers to the author’s attitude, mood or feeling reflected in the writing. The tone also suggests the author’s purpose – to criticize, to persuade, to sympathise and to appreciate.

Below is an example of how you may infer a writer's tone or attitude:

"...Had the researchers spoken to anyone who has witnessed the ravages of the Green Revolution, they would have learned that their basic premise was dismissed as simplistic nonsense years ago.'

          (an extract from Beware Outbreak of Mad Scientist Disease)

3.8.1 Tone and Attitude

The use of such a negative word like "ravages" suggests the writer is highly critical of the usefulness of the Green Revolution, and his dismissive tone as exemplified by the use of the phrase "simplistic nonsense" indicates his low opinion of the researchers' achievement

Below is an example of how you may infer a writer's tone or attitude:

"...Had the researchers spoken to anyone who has witnessed the ravages of the Green Revolution, they would have learned that their basic premise was dismissed as simplistic nonsense years ago.'

          (an extract from Beware Outbreak of Mad Scientist Disease)

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Exercise

1. What is the writer's attitude towards pure scientists? Find five words/phrases in this passage that indicate the writer's attitude.

Pure scientists have by and large been dim-witted about engineers and applied science. They couldn't recognise that many of the problems were as intellectually exacting as pure problems, and that many of the solutions were as satisfying and beautiful. Their instinct -- perhaps sharpened in this country by the passion to find a new snobbism wherever possible, and to invent one if it doesn't exist -- was take it for granted that applied science was an occupation of second-rate minds.

2. What is tone of the excerpt below?

What devices does he use to show his attitude to the government of Singapore, caning and Americans who support the caning?

Does he try to present his own inferences as facts?

What kind of person does he want to be seen as?

What kind of person do you infer him to be?

The verb "torture" is defined in the Webster's Tenth Collegiate Dictionary as "the infliction of intense pain (as from burning, crushing or wounding) to punish, coerce or afford sadistic pleasure". The dictatorship of Singapore has found an American teenager guilty of spray-painting cars and sentenced him to four months in prison, a $2,000 fine -- and torture. Singapore's torture of choice is flogging by rattan cane which elicits the screams satisfying to the torturer and scars the torturee physically and mentally for life. Torture is an act of savagery as old as civilisation. Demosthenes described it as the surest means of obtaining evidence. Tomas de Torquenada issued detailed instructions for its use in the Spanish Inquisitions.

But now civilised nations have a Covenant on Civil and Political Rights that declares, "No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading punishment." The United Nations has a "Convention Against Torture". The government of Singapore stands aloof from the universal condemnation. Singapore's dictator is actually proud of his country's reputation for keeping order by inflicting pain. Moreover, his diplomats in the United States report that many Americans endorse the lashing to be meted out to the young offender. That some people in

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America thoughtlessly espouse torture is undeniable. One sap on the street in Washington told a New York Times reporter: If you've ever had your antenna ripped off your car, you can sympathise with the government of Singapore. Lash him."

I have had more than a few antennas ripped off my car, and a few swastikas sprayed on my house, and have felt a surge of mindless fury at the perpetrators. But I have also seen a Kurdish patriot crippled for life by one of Saddam Hussein's tortures, and witnessed the misdirected self-loathing on the face of a rape victim, and I don't think any person or government has any right to inflict any physical pain on another human being.

 (From The New York Times, 1994 "The Caning of Michael Fay, by William Safire)

3.12 UNDERSTAND THE USE OF FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE AND ITS EFFECT ON MEANING

Writers sometimes use figurative language to express a point or to clarify an idea through imaginative comparisons or with words used in unusual, suggestive or symbolic ways. Figurative language often enhances meaning by representing abstract ideas in more concrete, vivid images.

To understand figurative expressions, you must first recognize words are being used figuratively and are not meant to be taken literally. You must infer what the figurative expression means in the context of the sentence. There are many types of figurative language used in writing, but the most frequently used are similes, metaphors, hyperboles, personification, symbolism and irony.

3.12.1 Simile

A simile uses the words “like” or “as” to compare one object or idea with another to suggest they are alike.Example: busy as a bee

3.12.2 Personification  

A figure of speech in which human characteristics are given to an animal or an object.

Example: My teddy bear gave me a hug.

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3.12.3 Hyperbole

An exaggeration that is so dramatic that no one would believe the statement is true.Tall tales are hyperboles.Example: He was so hungry, he ate that whole cornfield for lunch, stalks and all.

3.12.4 Symbol

A thing (could be an object, person, situation or action) which stands for something else more abstract.

Example: a flag is a symbol of our country

3.12.5 Irony

It is a figure of speech when an expression used is the opposite of the thought in the speaker's mind, thus conveying a meaning that contradicts the literal definition.

Example: The Road Not Taken: Verbal irony - the speaker knows he will tell the old story "with a sigh" of a choice that "made all the difference."

Exercise

Read the lyrics below and identify the figurative language.

Breath (2am)

2 AM and she calls me 'cause I'm still awake,"Can you help me unravel my latest mistake?I don't love him. Winter just wasn't my season"Yeah we walk through the doors, so accusing their eyesLike they have any right at all to criticize,Hypocrites. You're all here for the very same reason

Chorus:'Cause you can't jump the track, we're like cars on a cableAnd life's like an hourglass, glued to the tableNo one can find the rewind button, girl.So cradle your head in your hands

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And breathe... just breathe,Oh breathe, just breathe

May he turned 21 on the base at Fort Bliss"Just a day" he said down to the flask in his fist,"Ain't been sober, since maybe October of last year."Here in town you can tell he's been down for a while,But, my God, it's so beautiful when the boy smiles,Wanna hold him. Maybe I'll just sing about it.

ChorusThere's a light at each end of this tunnel,You shout 'cause you're just as far in as you'll ever be outAnd these mistakes you've made, you'll just make them againIf you only try turning around.

2 AM and I'm still awake, writing a songIf I get it all down on paper, it's no longer inside of me,Threatening the life it belongs toAnd I feel like I'm naked in front of the crowdCause these words are my diary, screaming out loudAnd I know that you'll use them, however you want to

But you can't jump the track, we're like cars on a cable,And life's like an hourglass, glued to the tableNo one can find the rewind button nowSing it if you understand.and breathe, just breathewoah breathe, just breathe,Oh breathe, just breathe,Oh breathe, just breathe.

3.13 IDENTIFY AND DIFFERENTIATE IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS AND METAPHORS

Idiomatic Expressions

Language is full of idiomatic expressions or idioms. They can be just one word or a group of

words. If you try to understand an idiomatic expression literally, in most cases, it will make

very little sense. The objective of an idiom is to try to develop a new meaning that goes

beyond the literal significance. Idiomatic expressions have different forms and structures.

They can be short with only one word or they can be long using combinations of words.

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Bill has two hands, a right hand and a left hand.(literal sentence)

Bill is an old hand in the store.(This means that Bill has a lot experience in the store. An “old hand” refers to a person with experience.)

John is a nut.(John is crazy.)

Bob has the bull by the horns.(Bob has the situation under control.)

3.13.1 Metaphor

The metaphor states a fact or draws a verbal picture by the use of comparison.A simile would say you are like something; a metaphor is more positive - it says you are something.Example: You are what you eat.

Exercise

Choose the correct meaning.

A. Animal Idioms

1. Wow! It's raining cats and dogs today! I wish I'd brought my umbrella to school!a. I forgot my umbrella today.b. It's raining heavily.c. Cats and dogs are falling from the sky.

2. When I told my mom I would be home around 2 am, she had a cow!a. My mom bought a baby cow.b. My mom is really strange.c. My mom was really upset.

3. Jean: How did you know it was my birthday today?Susan: Oh, a little birdie told me!a. Jean told Susan it was her birthday.

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WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

b. An unnamed person told Susan about Jean's birthday.c. Susan told Jean it was her birthday.

4. Frank: Why didn't your brother ride the roller coaster with us?Sam: Oh, he's such a scaredy cat! He won't get on any fast ride.a. Sam's brother is afraid to ride the roller coaster.b. Sam's brother is a cat.c. Sam's brother didn't go to the roller coaster.

B. Body Idiom

Idiom Meaning

You did it. You have to face the music. You have to memorize it.

Yes. You hit the nail on the head. You have to accept the consequences of your actions.

You two don't see eye to eye. You're absolutely right.

You have to learn it by heart. You don't agree with each other.

Task

Go online and try to collect more idioms.

http://www.idiomconnection.com 20/10/2009

http://knowgramming.com/metaphors/metaphor_chapters/examples.htm 27/10/2009

3.14 READ CRITICALLY AND RESPOND TO TEXT

Critical reading is a skill which can be developed through practices, such as:

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a. Taking notes of the text's main ideas and adding your own responsive comments.

b. Talking to others about what you have read.

c. Relating a given text to similar or contrasting themes.

d. Explaining what the text means and making it intelligible. This will help you to see the

underlying, unstated assumptions

e. Asking yourself: "Is it possible to disagree with any of this?"

f. Asking yourself: 'How can I convince my peers that I understand what this is about?'

Exercise

Read the following paragraph and answer the questions that follow.

In ancient times people believed in the predictions and advice of astrologers because astrology was part and parcel of their magical world view. They looked upon celestial objects as abodes or omens of the Gods and, thus, intimately connected with events here on earth; they had no concept of the vast distances from the earth to the planets and stars. Now that these distances can and have been calculated, we can see how infinitesimally small are the gravitational and other effects produced by the distant planets and the far more distant stars. It is simply a mistake to imagine that the forces exerted by stars and planets at the moment of birth can in any way shape our futures. Neither is it true that the position of distant heavenly bodies make certain days or periods more favorable to particular kinds of action, or that the sign under which one was born determines one's compatibility or incompatibility with other people.

--Bart J. Bok, "Objections to Astrology," The Humanist

1. This paragraph is a _____________.

A. narration B. description C. exposition D. persuasion

2. Which of the following can we accurately infer? Astrology developed in the ancient world largely because

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WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

A. people believed that the stars and planets were deities B. it was part of their traditional mythology C. they had a desire to explain what they didn't understand D. they were scientifically ignorant

3. The author's attitude toward astrology can be best described as

A. unbelieving B. angry C. sympathetic D. laudatory

Bibliography

Johnson, K. (n.d.). Critical thinking and questioning. Retrieved from www. panamatesol.org/yahoo_site_admin/.../kitti_johnson.1125143.doc

The Barrett’s xaxonomy of cognitive and affective dimensions of reading comprehension. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.vdac.de/vdac/index.php?option=com_docmen&task=doc

Suggested Answers

(a) READ FOR MEANING AND UNDERSTANDING OF A VARIETY OF TEXT

Exercise

1. C 2. A 3. B

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(b) USE CONTEXTUAL, SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC CLUES TO DERIVE MEANING

Exercise

1. jacket 2. Temperamental

(c) DISTINGUISH FACTS FROM OPINION

Exercise

1. Fact 2. Opinion 3. Fact 4. Opinion

5. Fact 6. Opinion 7. Opinion 8. Opinion

(d) IDENTIFY SHIFT IN ARGUMENT

A. Read the following paragraph carefully. Then, locate and circle each transition word that shows time.

You can make your own cards to celebrate special events. First, gather the materials you need: construction paper, scissors, crayons or markers, and glue. Second, fold a piece of construction paper to create a card that has a front, a back, and an inside. Cut out interesting shapes from more construction paper, and glue the shapes to the front and back of your card. You may also draw colorful pictures on the front and back of the card. Finally, write a brief message inside the card, and sign your name. Now you're ready to give your card to someone special.

B. Read the following sentences carefully. Then, locate and circle each transition word that compares or contrasts.1. However2. Otherwise

3. that is

4. but 5. Even though.

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WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

1. Once upon a time

2. under

3. beside

4. while

5. First

6. Then

7. Next

8. Meanwhile

9. through

10. As a result of

(e) IDENTIFY WRITER’S MOOD, TONE, BIAS, PURPOSE OR POINT OF VIEW

1. Pure scientists have by and large been dim-witted about engineers and applied science. They couldn't recognise that many of the problems were as intellectually exacting as pure problems, and that many of the solutions were as satisfying and beautiful. Their instinct -- perhaps sharpened in this country by the passion to find a new snobbism wherever possible, and to invent one if it doesn't exist -- was take it for granted that applied science was an occupation of second-rate minds.

(The writer’s attitude is very sarcastic, arrogant and condemning. Yes, the writer is trying to convince his readers through wit.)

2. The verb "torture" is defined in the Webster's Tenth Collegiate Dictionary as "the infliction of intense pain (as from burning, crushing or wounding) to punish, coerce or afford sadistic pleasure". The dictatorship of Singapore has found an American teenager guilty of spray-painting cars and sentenced him to four months in prison, a $2,000 fine -- and torture. Singapore's torture of choice is flogging by rattan cane which elicits the screams satisfying to the torturer and scars the torturee physically and mentally for life. Torture is an act of savagery as old as civilisation. Demosthenes described it as the surest means of obtaining evidence. Tomas de Torquenada issued detailed instructions for its use in the Spanish Inquisitions.But now civilised nations have a Covenant on Civil and Political Rights that declares, "No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading punishment." The United Nations has a "Convention Against Torture". The government of Singapore stands aloof from the universal condemnation. Singapore's dictator is actually proud of his country's reputation for keeping order by inflicting pain. Moreover, his diplomats in the United States

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report that many Americans endorse the lashing to be meted out to the young offender. That some people in America thoughtlessly espouse torture is undeniable. One sap on the street in Washington told a New York Times reporter: If you've ever had your antenna ripped off your car, you can sympathise with the government of Singapore. Lash him."I have had more than a few antennas ripped off my car, and a few swastikas sprayed on my house, and have felt a surge of mindless fury at the perpetrators. But I have also seen a Kurdish patriot crippled for life by one of Saddam Hussein's tortures, and witnessed the misdirected self-loathing on the face of a rape victim, and I don't think any person or government has any right to inflict any physical pain on another human being.  (From The New York Times, 1994 "The Caning of Michael Fay, by William Safire)(The writer does not agree with caning. He includes concrete evidence and personal experience to convince the readers. He is trying to infer himself as a person who is against cruelty.)

(f) UNDERSTAND THE USE OF FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE AND ITS EFFECT ON MEANING

Chorus:'Cause you can't jump the track, we're like cars on a cable - simileAnd life's like an hourglass, glued to the table – personification / simileNo one can find the rewind button, girl.So cradle your head in your hands - personificationAnd breathe... just breathe,Oh breathe, just breathe

ChorusThere's a light at each end of this tunnel, - metaphorYou shout 'cause you're just as far in as you'll ever be out - simileAnd these mistakes you've made, you'll just make them againIf you only try turning around.

2 AM and I'm still awake, writing a songIf I get it all down on paper, it's no longer inside of me,Threatening the life it belongs toAnd I feel like I'm naked in front of the crowd - simileCause these words are my diary, screaming out loud - personificationAnd I know that you'll use them, however you want to

(g) IDENTIFY AND DIFFERENTIATE IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS AND METAPHORS

Exercise

A. Animal Idioms 1. B 2. C 3. B 4. A

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WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

B. Body Idioms

Idiom Meaning

You did it. You have to face the music. You have to memorize it.

Yes. You hit the nail on the head. You have to accept the consequences of your actions.

You two don't see eye to eye. You're absolutely right.

You have to learn it by heart. You don't agree with each other.

(h) READ CRITICALLY AND RESPOND TO TEXT

Exercise

1. C 2. B

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TOPIC 4 Writing for Different Text Types

4.0 This topic intends to assist course participants to be aware of different types of report writing and that they may be able to write these reports accurately. Course participants will also be aware of how to write various types of summary, formal and informal letters effectively.

4.1 Learning Outcomes

Study different text organisations for reports and discuss the purpose/objective, language used and audience

Write effectively different kinds of reports namely newspaper reports, events, minutes of meeting and writing reports based on graphs or charts

Write different types of summary effectively based on guidelines given Identify the format of letter writing Use correct and appropriate language, tone and format in letter writing Assess own language progress through self and peer evaluation

4.2 Content

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WRITING DIFFERENT TEXT TYPES

4.2.1 Writing Reports4.3.3 Writing Formal and Informal Letters

4.2.2 Writing Different Types of Summary

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

4.2.1 WRITING REPORTS

Descriptions

This form of writing is used to organise and record information Its purpose is to describe or classify the way things are or appear to be

Format & Style

This genre begins with a general statement. Reports then move on to being more specific and technical in nature They describe certain qualities, functions, habits and behaviours, for example, Lift is

produced because of the shape of an aircraft wing. Air takes longer to travel over the upper surface of the curved wing. This causes a difference in pressure between the top and the bottom of the wing.

Uses the Present Tense. Descriptive language is used that is both factual and accurate. Reports use action verbs such, using the first person (I, we).

Examples

Newspapers, schools, academic research, etc.

i. Reporting Sports

Main Objective

Recognise bias and objectivity, distinguishing facts from hypotheses, theories or opinions.

Additional focus

Analyse the overall structure of a text to identify how key ideas are developed.

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Think about

How does fact differ from opinion?

Fact is truth, reality, information that is verifiable Opinion is a view, belief or an assessment Fact: “Ibrox Park, Glasgow”, “70,000 people had assembled”, “on a Saturday afternoon” Opinion: “a shocking accident”, “the scene was one of wild disorder” One cannot reasonably disagree with a fact It is reasonable to disagree with an opinion

Make a list of words – nouns, verbs, adjectives – that could be used in a newspaper report on a football game or any other sport that has mass appeal, for example, “spectator”, “crowd”, “cheers and jeers”, “roar”, “applause”

Read and understand

Read “Grandstand Calamity at Ibrox Park” and identify parts of the text that are out of date. How would you write this report to appeal to present-day readers? Would you

o Make the sentences and paragraphs shorter?o Edit the language to make it more direct, simple, precise?o Change the headline to one more dramatic?o Introduce subheadings where meaningful?

Writing Task

You have just watched a very important team game at the local stadium. Write a report to be published in the sports section of a newspaper.

In your report, clearly show

What happened during the game How the spectators behaved and The outcome of the event

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Disaster at Ibrox

The following report is from the Daily Telegraph on Monday, 7 th April, 1902. It describes a tragedy at Ibrox during a Scotland-England football game the previous Saturday. Twenty-six people were killed and hundreds injured when a section of the stand collapsed.

Grandstand Calamity at Ibrox Park

IBROX PARK, GLASGOW, was on Saturday afternoon the scene of a shocking accident, involving the loss of many lives and injuries to over 100 people. To witness the annual Association football match between England and Scotland fully 70000 people had assembled there, but as the ground is arranged to accommodate 80 000, the presence even of so vast a gathering as that of Saturday occasioned no anxiety.

Before the start of the game the pressure became so great that the spectators began to clamber over the iron railing in front of the huge uncovered stand. In this rush several people were hurt and received medical attention. The injuries so far were few and not very severe. The invading spectators, however, spread out in all directions, crowding up to the goal line and the touchline on one side of the ground. It seemed as if no play would be possible, but the efforts of the police eventually resulted in the people being driven back to the cinder path.

The game was accordingly commenced, and had been in progress some seven or eight minutes, when from the uncovered stand

play between the forcing of a corner kick and the taking of it. Within a few minutes the scene was one of wild disorder, the police being quite over-powered in their endeavours to keep people off the playing area. Spectators dashed madly across the field and, almost before it could be realized, there must have been 10000 people in the middle of the ground. The white shirts of the English players could still be distinguished, but, clad in dark blue, the Scotsmen were at once swallowed up, and very soon the players on both sides made their way to the pavilion. For fully 20 minutes the field remained in the possession of the crowd.

Comparatively few people, apart from those on the stand, knew what had happened to cause such an uncontrollable rush. What had occurred was this. On the highest part of the stand a portion of the planking had proved unequal to the strain to which it was being subjected, and, giving way, had precipitated the spectators standing there to the earth. One or two people were killed outright; others received such terrible injuries that they succumbed during the evening; and a number had their limbs fractured or sustained serious

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people swarmed on to the field in thousands, the rush being so tremendous that it stopped

internal damage.

Report Language

1. Write down two facts and two opinions from the passage.

Facts : _____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

Opinions: _____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

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2. The words below are all used in the extract and now seem rather dated. Replace

them with words you think would be more likely to appear in a modern newspaper

report.

calamity _____________________________________________________

occasioned _____________________________________________________

spectators _____________________________________________________

commenced _____________________________________________________

disorder _____________________________________________________

endeavours _____________________________________________________

clad _____________________________________________________

precipitated _____________________________________________________

succumbed _____________________________________________________

fractured _____________________________________________________

WRITING FRAME

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The difference between a fact and an opinion is that

Here are some facts from the passage about the Ibrox disaster

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Here are some opinions

Some examples of dated expressions used in the passage are

I replaced them with these modern expressions

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Here is the first paragraph of a report of the tragedy in the style of a modern newspaper

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ii. Newspaper Article – News Item

The purpose of a newspaper article is to present the news clearly and objectively. A reporter must state the facts, rather than his or her own views. A newspaper must also be very careful not to print anything libelous. This could result in the newspaper being taken to court and sued. A journalist must be particularly careful when writing about crimes. People who have been arrested are ‘suspects’, since they have not yet been proved guilty. They should not be called ‘robbers’, ‘murderers’, etc. No facts should be given that cannot be substantiated (given substance, proved). As well as being accurate in content and neutral in tone, newspaper articles must be interesting. Pay particular attention to the beginning of the story, so that people want to read on.

Model

SOGO FIRE KILLS TWO

Summarise the most important facts first

Two people were killed and 15 injured when fire swept through the two basements of the Sogo Department Store in Causeway Bay yesterday.

Use adjectives to add detail The up-market Japanese-owned store, which opened only three years ago, was packed with customers attracted by the New Year’s sales. At about 7.15 p.m. a fire started in a store-room on the lower ground floor.

Use quotations to supply further detail

“The fire spread very quickly because of all the cooking oil in that area of the store,’ said Chan, 19, a part-time cook in the fast-food area.

Use direct speech to add tension and excitement

‘There was absolute chaos,’ said Mrs. Mak Shukhan, a Taikoo Shing housewife, who was in the basement at that time. ‘Everything happened so quickly. People started running and shouting and smoke began to fill the air. The stampede for the escalators was frightening. I’m surprised more people weren’t trampled to death.’

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The fire brigade arrived at about 7.25. At first it was difficult for them to get their men and equipment down to the fire because of the crush of people. By 7.30 the upper basement was also ablaze, and the fire was upgraded to third alarm.

State the official position The Senior Divisional Fire Officer (Wanchai), Mr Hu Wai-shing, said that he was afraid for a while that the fire would spread to the ground floor. ‘Basically we started to flood the basements as the quickest way to put out the fire. Luckily, although the flames spread quickly, there was not very much inflammable material around. The store’s sprinkler system was also of some help despite its being slow to start working.’

Standard formula for such reports

When firemen finally penetrated to the lower-basement, two badly burnt corpses were found. Fifteen other people were injured in the stampede or suffered burns. They were taken to Tang Shiu Kin Hospital; where seven were treated and discharged. Four people were kept in for observation and four were transferred to the Burns Unit of Queen Mary Hospital. The dead have not yet been named.

Avoid making judgements. It’s not your job and it could land you in court.

The cause of the fire has not yet been established. The police investigating the case have refused at this stage to rule out arson, although faulty wiring in the store-room is considered a more likely cause.

Add any additional facts that are relevant

This is the second fire in a department store in Hong Kong this year.

Style and Content

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1. Avoid the word ‘I’. Only a few top journalists are paid to give their views rather than to present the facts. Be impersonal.

2. Give a lot of details – people’s ages, the numbers involved, the precise times.

3. A newspaper is usually concerned with what happened yesterday. Remember this, and don’t just write a short story!

4. Use a fairly exciting style. You are trying to interest the reader. Use adjectives freely – ‘ a huge explosion’, ‘ an enormous crowd’, ‘dazzling sunlight’, etc. Help your readers to imagine what happened and to feel some of the emotions involved. For example, don’t write , ‘Mr Chan said …’. Instead, write something like ‘Mr Chan, with tears in his eyes, begged the kidnappers to return his daughter.’

5. Use direct speech. Include short quotations from witnesses, spokesmen, etc.

6. Use short, punchy paragraphs.

7. Give any relevant statistics and information. Your job is to provide the reader with the facts so that he or she can form their own judgement.

Vocabulary

The following words and phrases are often used in newspaper articles.

a spokesman for

witness

passer-by

established the cause

investigations are proceeding

in a statement the government said

an inquiry will be held

Hospital : admitted

treated

discharged

certified dead on arrival

in a fair / serious/ critical condition

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Writing task

Write a news item using the following elements

Accident involving a bus __________________________________________

and a lorry __________________________________________

__________________________________________

Anyone killed or injured? __________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

More information: time, place, was __________________________________________

the bus crowded? If so, why? __________________________________________

What happened? (Remember __________________________________________

not to prejudge!) __________________________________________

Eye-witnesses: any? What did __________________________________________

they see? (Use direct speech.) __________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

Arrival of police, ambulance. __________________________________________

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Action taken __________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

Comment by hospital. __________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

Comment by police spokesman. __________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

Action to be taken – inquiry etc. __________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

Other recent accidents. __________________________________________

__________________________________________

iii. Writing a Report Based on an Event

How to write an event report

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1. Start thinking on making your report happen as soon as the event is sure happening.

2. Take pictures of all the main parts of the day.

3. Get reaction quotes from people in the crowd during and after the event.

4. Before and after the event, talk to the people responsible for planning and speaking at the event.

5. Make notes of pertinent stats such as the number of people attending, the location, the time, the theme, as well as anything else that stands out or makes the event distinct.

6. Get a close up picture of everyone you get a quote from.

7. 3 hours to 3 days after the event, sit down and compile all the information onto one page.

8. Include the important stats in a prominent location (top right corner). Sprinkle the page liberally with scaled-down pictures of the event. Include 2-4 of the best quotes you found along with pictures of the person who said it.

9. Write out a paragraph length summary of the day, highlighting all the most exciting and meaningful elements so that anyone can get a general overview of the scope and schedule of the day.

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Writing Task

Your college had just organized a successful jogathon recently to raise funds for the college library. Write a report describing the jogathon for your college magazine. Sketch the map for the said jogathon and use that and the guidelines below to write your report.

10 km jogathon Start : Flagged off by The Director of the college Check points : Write at least 5 checkpoints based on your map Prize-giving ceremony Speech - The Director of the college

iv. Writing Minutes of a Meeting

The secretary of a committee takes down notes on what is being discussed during a meeting. Then the notes are written in a formal manner using a particular format. This written official record is called the Minutes of Meetings.

Guidelines for writing minutes:

1. The name and the society 2. The date, place and time of the meeting3. Names of persons present at the meeting4. Names of persons absent (with or without reasons)5. List of things to be discussed at the meeting6. Confirmation of issues raised during previous meeting7. Reports from sub-committee8. Person or persons assigned to a given task9. Issue or issues brought to the attention of the committee10. The time the meeting adjourned11. Signature of the persons who prepared the minutes and his or her position12. The date when the minutes were prepared

Headings used when writing Minutes of a Meeting

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Minutes of the Fourth Committee Meeting

English Language Society, IPG Kampus Raja Melewar, Seremban

Date :

Venue :

Time :

Present :

Absent with apologies

:

Agenda

: 1. Welcome Speech by Chairman

2. Confirmation of minutes of the last meeting

2. Reports from sub-committee

3. Other matters arising

1. Welcome Speech by Chairman

1.1

2. Confirmation of Minutes of the Third Committee Meeting held on

2.1

3. Reports from Sub-committee

3.1

4. Other Matters Arising

4.1

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The meeting was adjourned at …… with a word of thanks to the chair.

(Name (Caps) )

Secretary

Date:

Writing Task

You are the secretary of the English Language Society of your college. Write the minutes of the meeting held at the beginning of the semester.

v. Writing Reports based on Graphs

Information in Graphs and Charts

Information can be derived easily by analyzing charts and graphs. Graphs and charts are often used to:

1. Show changes of things over a period of time2. Show parts of whole things3. Make a comparison of things effectively and quickly

Guidelines

1. Study the given graphs or charts carefully.

2. Pay attention to the following details:

(i) title or topic (iv) Years

(ii) Key (v) The pattern of the graph (if it is a line graph)

(iii) Source

3. A report should include the following points:

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(i) An introduction

- what is the chart about

(ii) An analysis of the chart or graph

- Interpreting and identifying the pattern of the graph

(iii) Classification of the information in the graphs and charts. Then clarify it by giving proof from the charts and graphs as well as logical and appropriate explanation.

(iv) Additional notes, if any.

(v) Conclusion

- This includes opinions, comments and suggestions. If it is a line graph you have to

make prediction on the future trend of the graph. The predictions you make need not

necessarily be true or accurate.

Remember to write in a formal tone or language and always refer to the chart or graph when you are writing your report to avoid writing out of point.

Writing Task

Based on a chart or graph that you have, write a report based on what is shown on it.

More task

Read up on other forms of report writing and make notes on each report based on text organisation, the type of language used, the audience. Then compile your notes in your folio.

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Bibliography

Fournier, P. (2004). Strategies for correct writing. New York: Longman

Green, M. (2003). English writing workshop. Analyse, review, comment. TG Building, Singapore: Learners Publishing Pte Ltd.

How to write an event report. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.wikihow.com/Write-an-Event-Report

Langan, J. (2008). College writing skills. 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill International Edition.

Oshima, A. and Hogue, A. (1999). Academic English. 3rd ed. New York: Longman.

Rose Tunku Ismail. (1996). A student’s guide to writing resumes, reports, memorandums and minutes of meetings. Minden, Penang: Pusat Pendidikan Jarak Jauh Universiti Sains Malaysia

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4.2.2 SUMMARY WRITING

What is a summary?

A summary is a condensation or a shortened version of a text.

The purpose of writing a summary is to capture the key ideas of another author. A summary has to be brief because the summary writer’s job is mainly to

convey the information contained in a peice of writing in as few words as possible.

A summary has to be objective because the summary is concerned with stating the ideas of someone else and showing your understanding of them and is definately not the place for you to respond to the writer’s ideas.

TYPES OF SUMMARY

There are different types of summaries:

The one-sentence summary is frequently used in academic writing as a way to introduce the reader to the author's central idea or thesis statement.

The informative summary expresses the original author's main ideas, main supporting details, data and arguments. It is much longer than the one-sentence summary and is often incorporated into longer works.

The precis condenses the original text to a specific length, usually one-third or one-fourth the length of the text. In precis writing, you keep to the author's approach, organisational scheme and sequencing of ideas.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SUMMARY

A good summary has the following characteristics:

1. It gives a proper citation.

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The title, author and source of the text are given as an in-text citation within the sentence or at the end of the sentence.

2. It includes the main ideas.

The central idea or thesis statement is summarised clearly and accurately. Key ideas that the author makes are included without adding your personal opinions,

views and judgements. Specifics such as examples, illustrations, descriptions and detailed explanations are

omitted (unless the concepts of the original are complex and could only be understood with examples).

3. It uses paraphrases.

The author's ideas are restated using your own words and sentence structures. Language (vocabulary, grammar, punctuation) is checked to ensure that the original

meaning of the text is retained.4. It is of appropriate length.

A summary is much shorter than the original text. The length of the summary will depend on the purpose of summarising and the length of

the original document. If the purpose is to concisely state the main information (the thesis statement) of the text, then a oneor two-sentence summary is appropriate. An informative summary of a short text will include a little detail for each main point. A precis will condense the text to one-third or one-fourth of the original length.

HOW TO SUMMARISE A TEXT

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STEP 1

Read the article carefully several times.

Make sure you understand the ideas presented

STEP 2

Write one very broad thesis statement.

Ask yourself what the text is about. Then, write one very broad statement about the text, as if telling your friend about

the article you havejust read.

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STEP 3

Identify the main points of the article.

What are the main points of the article?

Identify the primary idea, assertion or finding that is being discussed. Look out for the main supporting details, the most effective example, the most telling

statistics and the most important authority cited.

Read each paragraph carefully and use one or more of the following helpful

techniques to identify the main points:

Underline or highlight the main ideas that you believe are important.Make margin notes of the main ideas that you believe are important.

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STEP 4

Write the first draft of the summary.

Put away the original text. Using only your notes from step 3, write your first draft. Make sure you paraphrase the original sentences. Begin the summary with an in-text citation. Next, write a sentence using your own words stating the central idea. (identified in step 2). Combine all the main ideas you have identified (in step 3). Use discourse markers (e.g. therefore, however, because) to show the

coherence. relationships between the ideas. Check with the original text for accuracy of meaning.

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

Example of Summarising

Step 1. Read and understand ideas presented.

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STEP 5

Rewrite your summary

When rewriting your summary, focus on the meaning of the original text, correcting the content or tone of the draft to ensure you do not distort the author's message.

Make sure your language is clear and objective. Remember, your final summary should be a shortened version that is

comprehensive, concise, neutral and accurate.

For many years, Malaysian Chinese were hardly interested in tracing their ancestors who had migrated to this country. In recent years, however, many Chinese have developed an avid (interest in their family tree or descent and their cultural background for many reasons). Firstly, many Chinese became inquisitive and highly interested in their descent, their long lost relatives and the culture of China because travel to and from China has become more liberalised and easy. Secondly, the culture and the people of China are constantly featured on satellite TV - Discovery Travel and Adventure which is viewed by millions. As a result of these two reasons, a new passion has been created for thousands of Chinese migrants in Malaysia.

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

Step 2 .Write one very broad thesis statement.

Many Chinese have developed an avid interest in their family tree or descent and their cultural background.

Step 3. Identify the main points of the article and make outline notes.

Making outline notes:

1. Malaysian Chinese's recent interest in their background:

(a) Family trees

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For many years, Malaysian Chinese were hardly interested in tracing their ancestors who had migrated to this country. In recent years, however, many Chinese have developed an avid (interest in their family tree or descent and their cultural background for many reasons). Firstly, many Chinese became inquisitive and highly interested in their descent, their long lost relatives and the culture of China because travel to and from China has become more liberalised and easy. Secondly, the culture and the people of China are constantly featured on satellite TV - Discovery Travel and Adventure which is viewed by millions. As a result of these two reasons, a new passion

WAJ 3103 English Language Proficiency II

(b) Cultural background

2. Reasons for interest:

(a) Travel to and from China has become more liberalised and easy

(b) Discovery Travel and Adventure - features China

Step 4. Writing out the first draft of the summary

Recently, many Malaysian Chinese have developed a keen interest in their family tree or descent and the cultural background for many reasons.

Writing out important supporting details:

'... because of ( liberalisation Of travel to and from China and the televised programme featuring China on Discovery Travel and Adventure

Step 5. Rewrite your summary and make sure the content and tone of the author is not distorted.

Recently, many Malaysian Chinese have developed a keen interest in their descent and cultural background because of liberalisation of travel to and from China and TV programmes featuring China's culture and its people.

Exercise 1

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The important points in the passage have been underlined.

(a) Use these important points to make outline notes.

(b) Use the outline notes to:

i. write out the thesis statement with controlling ideas

ii. write out some important details

Our dreams do not come from 'another world'. They are not messages from some outside source. They are not a look into the future, nor do they prophecy anything.

All our dreams have something to do with our emotions, fears, longings, wishes, needs, memories. But something on the 'outside' may influence what we dream. If we are hungry, or tired, or cold, our dream may include this feeling. If the blanket has slipped oft our bed, we may dream we are on an iceberg. The materials for the dream we have tonight is likely to come from the experiences we will have today.

So the content of our dream comes from something that affects us while we are sleeping (cold, noise, discomfort, and so on) and it may also use our past experiences and the urges and interests we have now. This is why very young children are likely to dream of wizards or fairies, older children of school exams, hungry people of food, homesick soldiers of their families, and prisoners of freedom. Psychoanalysts, people who study Our minds, have made a special study of why we dream what we dream, and what those dreams mean. Their interpretation of dreams otters an interesting approach to the problem. They believe that dreams are expressions of wishes that didn't come true, or of frustrated yearnings. In other words, a dream is a way of having our wish fulfilled.

Exercise 2

Write a summary of about one-third the length of the passage.

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Classroom teachers can encounter speech and language problems in several forms in children. The first of these, language delay, is commonly linked with mental retardation, or slowness of the mind. Children with poor mental cognitive development or poor learning ability may show a slow rate of language development as well.

Another form of speech problem, stuttering, seems to involve speech production mainly, and to a lesser extent, the overall thinking ability. Stuttering occurs when a person finds it difficult to say the first sound of a word and so often hesitates or repeats it two or three times. The causes of stuttering are still unclear, though it does become worse if the children become stressed and excited. But this does not mean that teachers should avoid at all costs to excite children who stutter. lt does mean, however, that teachers should expect fluctuations or changes in amount of stuttering produced depending on the degree of excitement in different circumstances.

A third form of speech problem, speech or articulation disorders, is the most common among school children. Such children may mix up, omit, or substitute certain sounds of language, giving their speech a'babyish' quality, ‘ a vewy fuwwy beaw', they may say, instead of 'a very furry bear'. Although such error occur most commonly among younger children, they can persist well into adolescence for a few people.

CHECKLIST

Use this checklist when double-checking your summary.

1. Have you read the original text carefully and understood it completely?

2. If the author's name and the title of the source is mentioned, have you included it in the opening section of the summary?

3. Have you included the thesis statement of the original text?

4. Have all the main ideas of the original text been included?

5. Have all the important findings, ideas and arguments been accurately and objectively paraphrased?

6. Have you checked that you did not include your personal opinions, views and judgement?

7. Have you omitted specifics such as examples, descriptions and detailed explanations?

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8. Is your summary comprehensible even after cutting down words to condense it?

9. Have you checked your summary against the original text for accuracy?

10. Have the tone and intention of the original text been maintained?

11. Does your summary make sense to someone who has not read the original text?

Key:

Exercise 1

Making outline notes:

Dreams - not messages from outer source

- not a look into future

- not prophecy

Dreams are related to emotions, fear, longings, wishes, needs, memories influenced by environment. Content of dream - influenced by past experiences, urges and interests, aunfulfilled wishes, yearnings. A dream is a way of having our wish fulfilled

Writing out the thesis statement with controlling ideas:

Dream are a way of having our wish fulfilled, not a prophecy, or messages from an outer source.

Writing out some important details:

All dreams are made of unfulfilled emotions,fears, longings, wishes, needs memories influenced by past experiences, urges and interests.

Exercise 2

Classroom teachers often encounter different forms of speech and language disorders in children like language delay, stuttering and articulation disorder. Language delay is linked to slow mental and language development, while stuttering affects speech production but hardly affects thinking ability. Articulation disorder on the other hand, occurs when children mix up, omit, and substitute certain sounds of language.

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Bibliography

Ng, K. S., Lim, S. K. and Tan, L. H. (2009). Getting ahead with English. Grammar and

writing. Shah Alam: Federal Marshall Cavendish Education.

Krishnakumari Karuthan, Nor Azni Abdullah and Ahmad Mazli Muhammad. (2010). Writing with sources. A guide book for academic writers. Shah Alam: McGraw-Hill Education.

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4.2.3 LETTER WRITING

There are basically two types of letter writing namely formal letter and informal letter. Formal letters are such as letter of complaint , letter to order stationery, letter to protest, etc whereas Informal letters are such as letter to a friend, letter to family members, etc.

A: FORMAL LETTER

(i) Language features

Formal tone Words which tell us how, when or where Words which express judgements Words such as ‘because’, ‘as a results’ to establish cause /effect relationship.

(ii) Format

Business Letter FormatBlock Format: Business Letter

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Return Address Line 1 1Return Address Line 2

Date (Month Day, Year) 2

Mr./Mrs./Ms./Dr. Full name of recipient. 3Title/Position of Recipient.Company NameAddress Line 1Address Line 2

Dear Ms./Mrs./Mr. Last Name: 4

Subject: Title of Subject 5

Body Paragraph 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Body Paragraph 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Body Paragraph 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Closing (Sincerely...), 7Signature 8Your Name (Printed) 9Your Title

Enclosures (2) 10Typist Initials. 11

The block format is the simplest format; all of the writing is flush against the left margin.

Your Address 1The return address of the sender so the recipient can easily find out where to send a reply to. Skip a line between your address and the date. (Not needed if the letter is printed on paper with the company letterhead already on it.)

Date 2Put the date on which the letter was written in the format Month Day Year i.e. August 30, 2003. Skip a line between the date and the inside address (some people skip 3 or 4 lines after the date).

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Inside Address 3The address of the person you are writing to along with the name of the recipient, their title and company name, if you are not sure who the letter should be addressed to either leave it blank, but try to put in a title, i.e. "Director of Human Resources". Skip a line between the date and the salutation.

Salutation 4Dear Ms./Mrs./Mr. Last Name:, Dear Director of Department Name: or To Whom It May Concern: if recipient's name is unknown. Note that there is a colon after the salutation. Skip a line between the salutation and the subject line or body.

Subject Line (optional) 5 Makes it easier for the recipient to find out what the letter is about. Skip a line between the subject line and the body.

Body 6The body is where you write the content of the letter; the paragraphs should be single spaced with a skipped line between each paragraph. Skip a line between the end of the body and the closing.

Closing 7Let's the reader know that you are finished with your letter; usually ends with Sincerely, Sincerely yours, Thank you, and so on. Note that there is a comma after the end of the closing and only the first word in the closing is capitalized. Skip 3-4 lines between the closing and the printed name, so that there is room for the signature.

Signature 8Your signature will go in this section, usually signed in black or blue ink with a pen.

Printed Name 9The printed version of your name, and if desired you can put your title or position on the line underneath it. Skip a line between the printed name and the enclosure.

Enclosure 10If letter contains other document other than the letter itself your letter will include the word "Enclosure." If there is more than one you would type, "Enclosures (#)" with the # being the number of other documents enclosed, not including the letter itself.

Reference Initials 11If someone other than yourself typed the letter you will include your initials in capital letters followed by the typist's initials in lower case in the following format; AG/gs or AG:gs.

(i) Example(ii) Sample Business Letter

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2020 Jalan Sikamat70400 Seremban

January 5, 2012

Mr. BrunoAccounts PayableThe Delicious Store1010 Jalan Megamall70100 Seremban

Dear Mr. Bruno:

It has come to my attention that your company, The Delicious Store has been late with paying their invoices for the past three months.

In order to encourage our customers to pay for their invoices before the due date, we have implemented a discount model where we will give you 2% off your invoice if you pay us within 7 days of receiving the invoice.

I hope that everything is going well for you and your company. You are one of our biggest customers, and we appreciate your business. If you have any questions, feel free to contact me at (06) 888-8888

Sincerely,

Signature

MarsAccounts Receivable

B: INFORMAL LETTER

(i) Language features

Informal tone Social expressions Language forms and functions.

(ii) Format

Friendly Letter Format

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Return Address Line 1 1Return Address Line 2Date (Month Day, Year) 2

Body Paragraph 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Body Paragraph 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Body Paragraph 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

P.S. 7

In the friendly letter format, your address, date, the closing, signature, and printed name are all indented to the right half of the page (how far you indent in is up to you as long as the heading and closing is lined up, use your own discretion and make sure it looks presentable). Also the first line of each paragraph is indented.

Your Address 1All that is needed is your street address on the first line and the city, state and zip on the second line. (Not needed if the letter is printed on paper with a letterhead already on it.)

Date 2Put the date on which the letter was written in the format Month Day Year e.g. August 30, 2003. Skip a line between the date and the salutation.

Salutation 3Usually starts out with Dear so and so, or Hi so and so. Note: There is a comma after the end of the salutation (you can use an exclamation point also if there is a need for some emphasis).

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Closing (Sincerely...), 5 Signature 6

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Body 4The body is where you write the content of the letter; the paragraphs should be single spaced with a skipped line between each paragraph. Skip 2 lines between the end of the body and the closing.

Closing 5Let's the reader know that you are finished with your letter; usually ends with Sincerely, Sincerely yours, Thank you, and so on. Note that there is a comma after the end of the closing and only the first word in the closing is capitalized.

Signature 6Your signature will go in this section, usually signed in black or blue ink with a pen. Skip a line after your signature and the P.S.

P.S. 7If you want to add anything additional to the letter you write a P.S. (post script) and the message after that. You can also add a P.P.S after that and a P.P.P.S. after that and so on.

(iii) Example

Sample Friendly Letter

506 Country LaneNorth Baysville, CA 53286December 02, 2011

Dear Samatha,

It feels like such a long time since the last time I saw you. I know it's only been a month since I saw you. So far my holidays have been great!

I spend all my weekends at the beach. I am getting a nice tan and you can no longer say I am paler than you. I have been playing lots of volleyball, surfing and building a nice collection of sea shells. Just this past weekend I took second place in a sandcastle building contest!

On the weekdays I work. I drive an ice cream truck around and sell ice cream to the kids. It is so cool. It is a combination of the two things I love most, ice cream and kids. The pay isn't too great but I love the job so much.

I hope the holiday’s been going well for you too. There's only a month left before it's back to school. Would you like to meet up some time before school

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starts?

P.S. William says hi.

Writing Tasks

(a) A Letter of ComplaintYou are a resident of Taman Sinar Harapan. You and several of the residents in your area are unhappy with the presence of numerous stalls in your area/

Your complaints are about: Stalls sprawling onto the roads Unhygienic conditions at the stalls Lack of parking space Clogged drains

Write a letter to the town council complaining about the conditions

When writing the letter, you should;

Mention the complaints Give suggestions on how to overcome the problems Include any other relevant information.

(b) A Letter to a Friend

Write a letter to a friend tellinghim/her about a frightening experience.

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Your friend, Signature

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Bibliography

Maryann, S., and Roy,J. (2007). Model compositions and summaries. 3rd ed. Kuala Lumpur : Oxford Fajar .

Letter writing guide. (2004-2011 LetterWritingGuide.com ). Sample business letter. Retrieved http://www.letterwritingguide.com/samplebusiness.htm

Letter writing guide. (2004-2011 LetterWritingGuide.com ). Sample friendly letter format. Retrieved from http://www.letterwritingguide.com/friendlyletterformat.htm

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TOPIC 5 WRITING ACADEMIC PAPERS

5.0 This topic intends to assist course participants to be aware of how academic papers are written, able to paraphrase ideas given, use the APA citation style (6 th edition) correctly and write a good academic paper.

5.1 Learning Outcomes

Distinguish facts from opinions and paraphrase them Display and justify findings Cite references correctly using the APA citation style (6th edition) Write effectively an academic paper with the assistance of articles read

5.2 Content

5.2.1 What Is Academic Writing?

Writing is one of the four main skills that is pertinent in various areas in life. One type of writing is academic writing which has its own set of rules and practices.

These rules and practices may be organised around a formal order or structure in which to present ideas, in addition to ensuring that ideas are supported by author citations in the literature.

In contrast to personal writing contexts, academic writing is different because it deals with the underlying theories and causes governing processes and practices in everyday life, as well as exploring alternative explanations for these events.

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WRITING ACADEMIC PAPERS

5.2.1 Components of an Academic Paper

5.2.2 Referencing System – APA 6th Edition

Ways of citing and writing references and

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Academic writing follows a particular ‘tone’ and adheres to traditional conventions of punctuation, grammar, and spelling.

i. Structure

Some kind of structure is required, such as a beginning, middle, and end. This simple structure is typical of an essay format, as well as other assignment writing tasks, which may not have a clearly articulated structure.

A. Academic writing structure

Typical university assignments follow a formal structure, which is often more formal than in personal writing.

Essays

• In the case of an essay, the introductory paragraph informs the reader about the nature of the topic, which is discussed and evaluated in the middle of the essay, also referred to as the body.

• The introduction may also summarise very succinctly, in a sentence or two, your position on the issue, which is then elaborated on at length in the series of paragraphs that make up the essay's body.

• The final paragraph constitutes a conclusion in which you may summarise the overall points made.

• The concluding paragraph is also a good point at which to move the essay forward to touch on implications or future advancements surrounding the issues addressed.

Reports

• Another type of structure, common in university assignments is that of a report, often organised around the identification of problems or difficulties and corresponding solutions.

• Unlike most essays, a report is divided according to clearly labelled sections, such as “Introduction”, “Discussion”, “Conclusions”, and “Recommendations”.

• Further, unlike an essay, reports allow for bulleted points with respect to the conclusions and recommendations sections.

ii. Referencing

A significant difference between academic writing and other writing genres is based on the citation and referencing of published authors.

A. Referencing and citation

• If you make judgments about something in academic writing, there is an expectation that you will support your opinion by linking it to what a published author has previously written about the issue.

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• Citing the work of other authors is central to academic writing because it shows you have read the literature, understood the ideas, and have integrated these issues and varying perspectives into the assignment task.

• The importance placed on referring to other authors in your work can be reflected in the elaborate referencing conventions that have been created within different disciplines, such as APA (American Psychological Association) referencing, which is used in psychology, education, some social sciences, as well as for business.

iii. Academic Tone

Like all varieties of writing, academic writing has its own tone, which dictates the choice of words and phrasing.

Academic writing typically aims to be:• objective (e.g. using inclusive language)• concise• formal (e.g. avoiding slang, exclamation marks, contractions)

The tone of academic writing can also vary significantly depending on the subject-area and the academic discipline you are writing for.The readings, textbook, and study guide of your course show you what tone is expected in the paper, so study their style carefully.

A. Writing objectively

Being objective suggests that you are concerned about facts and are not influenced as much by personal feelings or biases.

Part of being objective is being fair in your work. Try to show both sides of an argument if you can and avoid making value judgements through your use of words such as “wonderful” or “sarcastically”. Being objective also makes your work more professional and believable.

Techniques to make your writing more objective :

• Be explicit in expressing your ideas.For example, “ten” instead of “several”; “70%” instead of “most of the population”; “three years ago” or “in 2006” instead of “some time ago”.

• Avoid intensifiers which can tend to exaggerate your writing.For example, “awfully”, “very”, “really”.

• Avoid language that implicitly excludes any group of people.• Avoid the personal pronoun “I” but write more impersonally.

For example, “It could be argued that…” instead of “I think…”. Alternatively use citations to express your views, e.g. “Satherley (2007) believes that…”

Note: Despite the fact that you are not encouraged to use the personal pronoun “I” in academic writing, your viewpoints and opinions will still come through.

Although they may not be specifically attributed to you, the fact that the comments you choose to make are a part of your assignment tells the reader that you believe what you are writing.

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Stating “I think…” or “In my opinion…” weakens the text and the strength of your argument. In addition, adding such personal comments almost seems to emphasise that the writing is just your opinions or interpretations, rather than positions that are supported by logic and the evidence.However, some lecturers and some styles of academic writing (e.g. reflective writing) allow or encourage the use of the personal pronoun. See 1st person vs. 3rd person for details.

Techniques to make your writing more concise:

Make your points straight away“The first point relates to…”, “Secondly…”, “Finally…”

Replace phrases with single words “The group of science students sat their exams” “the science students sat their exams” “Smith (2006) also believed this to be true, but took into consideration the fact that some managers also preferred to have long meetings that took all day” “Smith(2006) agreed, but considered the fact that some managers preferred to have longer, all-day meetings.”

Avoid qualifying words which mean the same thing“Records” instead of “past records”“Separate” instead of “separate out”“In retrospect” instead of “looking back in retrospect”

Omit unnecessary words“lowering the rope” instead of “lowering the rope down”“measuring the job” instead of “measuring up the job”“because” instead of “due to the fact that”

Avoid saying the same thing twice

“The farmer sheared the sheep and removed all their wool” could simply be replaced with “The farmer sheared the sheep”

Be wary of clumsy sentences where extra words have been added that detract from the point being made

“There are several of the soldiers, each with their guns and ammunition, who gathered at the gates of the camp before dawn.”A better way would be to say: “Several of the soldiers, each with their own guns and ammunition, gathered at the camp gates before dawn.”

iv. The audience

It is important to remember who you are writing for. Being conscious of academic tone suggests that you are aware of your audience and respect the formality normally associated with academic writing.

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When writing academically, you must target a more general audience than just your lecturer and/or marker. You should assume that your readers will be intelligent thinking people, but they may not be specifically informed of your topic. Do not presume that your reader knows all the terms and concepts associated with your work.

v. Punctuation and grammar

In academic writing you should always follow rules of punctuation and grammar, especially as the end-user or consumer of your writing, unlike a friend, is likely to be very different from you and will not always know to what you are referring. Hence, it is vital that you are clear. Punctuation and the conventions of grammar are universally known systems (within English speaking cultures) that maintain clarity and avoid ambiguity in expression.

vi. Editing and proofreading

In order to produce an assignment that is as professional as possible, you must proofread. Take your time when proofreading. One way to check your assignment is to read it aloud, or even tape record yourself reading it and then play it back. You could also ask a friend or family member to read over the assignment for you.

Tasks

1. Download an academic paper related to your major course. Study the academic paper and discuss its language aspects.

2. Select a section of the article and paraphrase it.

More Tasks

Select a topic that interests you. Then read at least three academic papers based on the topic chosen. Next, write an academic paper with the help of the articles you have read.

Bibliography

Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing. (2007). Bowker, N. ed. Retrieved from http://owll.massey.ac.nz/pdf/Academic-Writing-Guide.pdf

What is academic writing (© 1998 - 2010 Massey University). Retrieved from http://owll.massey.ac.nz/academic-writing/what-is-academic-writing.php

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5.2.2. REFERENCING SYSTEM – APA 6th EDITION

Examples of referencing:

Print Book

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year published). Book title. Location: Publisher.

Sturrock, P. (1999). The UFO enigma: A new review of the physical evidence. New York: ………Warner Books.

Author - Malay Names (without family names, omit bin / binti)

Asmah Omar. (1991). Kemahiran berbahasa. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Penerbitan Pustaka Antara.

Author – Chinese Names (First name first, followed by author initials)

Chu, C. N. (1995). Simulated counter-current adsorption processes: A comparison of modeling strategies. Chemical Engineering Journal, 56, 59-65.

Author – Chinese Names with English Names (Family names followed by the initials of the English name and the author initials)

e.g. Vincent Foo Hong KongFoo, V. H. K. (1983). Sarawak: Mini episodes of the past. Selangor, Malaysia: Fajar Bakti. Author-Indian & Sikh Names (without family names, omit s/o, d/o, a/l, a/p)

Tamilarasi Palani. (2009) ........

Inherited names (cite as it is)

Raja Ahmad Petra. (2010). .....

Conferred titles (Omit title)e.g. Tun Mahathir Mohamad

Mahathir Mohamad. (2011). ...

Edition other than the first

Helfer, M.E., Keme, R.S., & Drugman, R.D. (1997). The battered child (5th ed.). Chicago, NY: University of Chicago Press.

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Article or chapter in an edited book

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year of publication). Title of chapter. In A. Editor & B. Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pages of chapter). Location: Publisher.

Rogoff, B., & Mistry, J. (1985). Memory development in cultural context. In M. Pressley & C. J.Brainerd (Eds.), Cognitive learning and memory in children (pp. 117-142). New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.

Electronic Book

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year published). Book title. doi:xx.xxxxxxxxxx

Schiraldi, G. R. (2001). The post-traumatic stress disorder sourcebook: A guide to healing, ……… recovery, and growth [Adobe Digital Editions version]. doi:10.1036/0071393722

An Entry in a Print Reference Book

Author, A. A. (Year published). Title of chapter or entry. In Title of book (xx ed., Vol. xx, pp.xxx-xxx). Location: Publisher.

Michin, D. (2001). Introduction of Exotic Species. In Encyclopedia of ocean sciences (Vol. 2, ……… pp. 877-889). New York: Academic Press. 

An Entry in an Online Reference Book

Author, A. A. (Year published). Title of chapter or entry. In Title of book (xx ed., Vol. xx, pp.xxx-xxx). Retrieved from http://xxx.xxxxxx.xxx

James, D. (2009). Teaching Speaking Skills. In ESL Methodology ( 3rd ed.Vol.2, pp 200-210). ………. Retrieved from http://www. Language Quarterly.com.

Journal Article

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number(issue number), pages.

Sobczak, J. (2009). Struggling to reconnect: Women's perspectives on alcohol dependence, …… …… violence, and sexual function. Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association, …… 14(6), 421-428.

Online Journal Article with DOI

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number(issue number), pages. doi:xx.xxxxxxxxxx

Campbell, C. I., Alexander, J. A., & Lemak, C. H. (2009). Organizational determinants of ………. outpatient substance abuse treatment duration in women. Journal of Substance Abuse ……… Treatment, 37(1), 64-72. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2008.09.012

Online Journal Article without DOI (when DOI is not available)

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume

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number(issue number), pages. Retrieved from http://xxx.xxxxxx.xxx

Newspaper Article

Author, A. A. (Year, Month day published). Title of article. Newspaper Title, page numbers.

Baty, P. (2011, December 11). Key factors in rankings. StarEducate, p.3.

Buggs, S. (2001, December 18). Texas lawmaker to introduce bill to protect employee savings. ………. Houston Chronicle, p.A1. 

Online Newspaper Article

Author, A. A. (Year, Month day published). Title of article. Newspaper title. Retrieved from http://xxx.xxxxxxx.xxx

Cooper, H. (2009, August 23). U.S. military says its force in Afghanistan is insufficient. New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com

Website

Author's last name, initials. (Year published). Title of page. Retrieved from http://xxx.xxxxx.xxx

University of Houston System. (1999, February 5). Community impact report. Retrieved from http://www.uhsa.uh.edu/community/impact/education.htm

Unknown author (don’t use anonymous)

Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (10th ed.).(1993). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster.

Exercise 1

Write the correct referencing for each of the documents below:

1.  Societies look at changing the face of science & engineering; Ann Thayer; Chemical & Engineering News, Washington; Nov 25, 2002; Vol. 80, Iss. 47; pg. 39 

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2.  Beyond the republic: meeting the global challenges to constitutionalism / editors Charles Sampford, Tom Round. Leichhardt, N.S.W. : Federation Press, 2001  xvii, 344 p. ; 25 cm.Includes index.  

3.  Looked at on 12th February 2003  http://www.who.int/en/  World Health Organisation Home Page  No author but date = 2003 

4.  Amnesty International Report 2002 Kuwait. Viewed September 15th 2002 at http://web.amnesty.org/web/ar2002.nsf/mde/kuwait!Open       

5. The new look. StarFit4Life. Milton Lum 13 December 2011, p.2

6. Macmillan Education, London. (2nd ed.). Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners. 2007

7.  From Science Direct database the full text of: Global and local threats to coral reef functioning and existence: review and predictions Marine and Freshwater Research Volume: 50, Issue: 8, 1999, pp. 867 – 878 Wilkinson, Clive R.  

8.    Wednesday's children : a study of child neglect and abuse / by Leontine Young

Westport, Conn. : Greenwood Press, 

9.   Myers, John E. B. Risk management for professionals working with maltreated children and adult survivors. [Chapter] Myers, John E. B. (Ed); Berliner, Lucy (Ed); et al. (2002). The APSAC handbook on child maltreatment (2nd ed.). (pp. 403-427). Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications, Inc.

10.    Herbert, Martin. Parenting skills interventions.  Reder, Peter (Ed); McClure, Mike (Ed). (2000). Family matters: Interfaces between child and adult mental health. (pp. 237-256). New York, NY, US: Routledge. xii, 347pp

11.  Hendricks, Cindy S. Children in crisis. [Chapter] Hendricks, James E. (Ed); Byers, Bryan D. (Ed). (2002). Crisis intervention in criminal justice/social service (3rd ed.). (pp. 170-225). Springfield, IL, US: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher. xvi, 427pp.

12.  Why children's suggestibility remains a serious concern. Amye R. Warren, Dorothy F. Marsil. Law and Contemporary Problems Wntr 2002 v65 1 p127(21)

13.  What to do with the angry toddler. Morris Green, Paula D. Sullivan, Carolyn G. Eichberg. Contemporary Pediatrics August 2001 v18 i8 p65 (5573 words)

Exercise 2

Download this example (Hacker, D. (2004). APA research paper (Shaw). Retrieved from http://www.dianahacker.com/pdfs/hacker-shaw-apa.pdf ) of how the APA citation style is used in a research paper. Study it carefully and use it in your next assignment or research. 

Bibliography

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University of Malaya Library (UML) (2011). APA formatting and style guide (6th ed.). Kuala Lumpur: University Malaya Library.

Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (2010). (6th ed.). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.

KEY to Exercise 1

1.          Journal article (this is really a newsletter – format accordingly)

Societies look at changing the face of science & engineering; Ann Thayer; Chemical & Engineering News, Washington; Nov 25, 2002; Vol. 80, Iss. 47; pg. 39

Answer

Thayer, A.. (2002, November). Societies look at changing the face of science engineering. Chemical & Engineering News, 80(47), 39.

2.          Book

Beyond the republic: meeting the global challenges to constitutionalism / editors Charles Sampford, Tom Round. Leichhardt, N.S.W. : Federation Press, 2001  xvii, 344 p. ; 25 cm.Includes index.

Answer

Sampford, C., & Round, T. (Eds.). (2001). Beyond the republic: meeting the global challenges to constitutionalism. Leichhardt, N.S.W.: Federation Press.

3.          Web page

Looked at on 12th February 2003  http://www.who.int/en/  World Health Organisation Home Page  No author but date = 2003

Answer

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World Health Organization. (2003). Retrieved February 12, 2003, from http://www.who.int/en/

4.          Web page

Amnesty International Report 2002 Kuwait. Viewed September 15th 2002 at http://web.amnesty.org/web/ar2002.nsf/mde/kuwait!Open

Answer

Amnesty International Report 2002. Kuwait. (2002). Retrieved September 15, 2002, from http://web.amnesty.org/web/ar2002.nsf/mde/kuwait!Open

5. Newspaper articleThe new look. StarFit4Life. Milton Lum 13 December 2011, p.2

AnswerLum, M. (December 13, 2011). The new look. StarFit4Life, p.2.

6. DictionaryMacmillan Education, London. (2nd ed.). Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners. 2007

Answer

Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners (2007). (2nd ed.). London: Macmillan Education.

7.         Online article from a database

From Science Direct database the full text of:Global and local threats to coral reef functioning and existence: review and predictionsMarine and Freshwater Research Volume: 50, Issue: 8, 1999, pp. 867 – 878 Wilkinson, Clive R.

Answer

Wilkinson, C. R. (1999). Global and local threats to coral reef functioning and existence: review and predictions. Marine and Freshwater Research, 50(8), 867-878. Retrieved June 23, 2002, from Science Direct.

8.          Book

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Wednesday's children : a study of child neglect and abuse / by Leontine YoungWestport, Conn. : Greenwood Press,

Answer

Young, L. (n.d.). Wednesday’s children: a study of child neglect and abuse. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press.

9        Other than the first editionMyers, John E. B. Risk management for professionals working with maltreated children and adult survivors. [Chapter] Myers, John E. B. (Ed); Berliner, Lucy (Ed); et al. (2002). The APSAC handbook on child maltreatment (2nd ed.). (pp. 403-427). Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications, Inc.

AnswerMyers, J. E. B. (2002). Risk management for professionals working with maltreated children and

adult survivors. In J. E. B. Myers, & L.Berliner et al (Eds.), The APSAC handbook on child maltreatment (2nd ed., pp. 403-427).) Thousand Oaks, CA,: Sage Publication. 

10.       Article or chapter in an edited book

Herbert, Martin. Parenting skills interventions.  Reder, Peter (Ed); McClure, Mike (Ed). (2000). Family matters: Interfaces between child and adult mental health. (pp. 237-256). New York, NY, US: Routledge. xii, 347pp

AnswerHerbert, M. (2000). Parenting skills interventions. In P. Reder & M. McClure (Eds.),  Family

matters: Interfaces between child and adult mental health. (pp. 237-256). New York: Routledge 

11.        Hendricks, Cindy S. Children in crisis. [Chapter] Hendricks, James E. (Ed); Byers, Bryan D. (Ed). (2002). Crisis intervention in criminal justice/social service (3rd ed.). (pp. 170-225). Springfield, IL, US: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher.

AnswerHendricks, C. S. (2002). Children in crisis. In J. E. Hendricks & B. D. Byers. Crisis intervention in

criminal justice/social service (3rd ed. pp. 170-225). Springfield, IL,: Charles C. Thomas.  12.        Why children's suggestibility remains a serious concern. Amye R. Warren, Dorothy

F. Marsil. Law and Contemporary Problems Wntr 2002 v65 1 p127(21).

AnswerWarren, A. R. & Marsil, D. F. (2002). Why children's suggestibility remains a serious

concern. Law and Contemporary Problems 65(1) p127(21).

13.        What to do with the angry toddler. Morris Green, Paula D. Sullivan, Carolyn G. Eichberg. Contemporary Pediatrics August 2001 v18 i8 p65.

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AnswerGreen, M., Sullivan, P. D., & Eichberg, C. G. (2001). What to do with the angry toddler.

Contemporary Pedicatrics 18(8), 65.

TOPIC 6 WRITING REFLECTIONS

6.0 This topic intends to introduce to course participants the importance of writing critical reflections and how to write a good critical reflection.

6.1 Learning Outcomes

Read and identify the strengths and weaknesses of a piece of reflection.

Use correct and appropriate language in writing a reflection.

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Write a critical reflection.

Assess own reflection through critical analysis.

Aware of the importance of writing a reflection.

6.2 Content

6.2.1 Definition

“It is generally believed that the thinking process involves two aspects: reflective thinking and critical thinking. They are not separate processes; rather, they are closely connected (Brookfield 1987).”

Reflective writing is writing which involves '… consideration of the larger context, the meaning, and the implications of an experience or action' (Branch & Paranjape, 2002, p.1185).

Reflective thoughts can be presented and shown orally or in written form. For example, you can do a class oral presentation on your reflection of your first semester’s experience as a PPG student, or you can also write your reflection in an essay form.

Below is what reflective thinking is and what is not:

YES NO

• your response to experiences, opinions, events or new information

• your response to thoughts and feelings

• just conveying information, instruction or argument

• pure description, though there may be descriptive elements

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DEFINITION IMPORTANCE

PRACTICE

WRITING REFLECTIONS

HOW TO REFLECT

ANALYSIS

WRITE A CRITICAL REFLECTION

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• a way of thinking to explore your learning

• an opportunity to gain self-knowledge

• a way to achieve clarity and better understanding of what you are learning

• a chance to develop and reinforce writing skills

• a way of making meaning out of what you study

• straightforward decision or judgement (e.g. about whether something is right or wrong, good or bad)

• simple problem-solving

• a summary of course notes

• a standard university essay

Thus your reflective thoughts are what you think, feel and believe about an event, incident or experience. Writing reflection is a good exercise to develop and reinforce your writing skills as it includes description (what, when, who) and analysis (how, why, what if). It is an explorative tool often resulting in more questions than answers.

a) Write ‘R’ for reflection or ‘NR’ for not reflection for each of the examples below.

i ) The exhibition was clearly a failure. It was disorganized _______

and staff did not know their duties.

ii ) There were about twenty booths at the exhibition and each _______

one had its own theme.

iii ) It is important for staff to know their duties well as this would _______

enable them to be effective team players. However, this

was not the case at this exhibition.

iv ) It was a breezy day and the sun was shining brightly. It was _______

a good day to have an exhibition of this scale.

v ) A manager or project manager of an exhibition should have _______

several preliminary meetings with the staff prior to the

exhibition. The failure of this exhibition is mainly due to the

lack of communication and weak empowerment to the staff.

6.2.2 Importance

Why is doing or writing reflection important to the learning process? Biggs 1999 in King 2002 claims that "Reflection is indicative of deep learning, and where teaching and learning activities such as reflection are missing… only surface learning can result."

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This is to say that if a student is able to write a good piece of reflection on a given task, it is an indication that the student has understood and has a good grasp of that particular topic. This is true of reflection as it does not only consist of mere description but also embedded with analytical descriptions which are derived from good understanding of the theoretical aspects of the topic.

Thus reflective writing tasks are given to students to help students learn through reflection, precisely because of the established link between reflection and deeper learning. As well as facilitating learning and monitoring learning, the intention is to produce graduates who have acquired the habit of reflection as a means of continuing to learn and grow in their professions.

Reflection can lead to:

personal growth professional growth meaningful change

"Reflection leads to growth of the individual – morally, personally, psychologically, and emotionally, as well as cognitively".

Branch & Paranjape, 2002, p. 1187

Reflection can help you to:

better understand your strengths and weaknesses what you are good at identify and question your underlying values and beliefs acknowledge and challenge possible assumptions on which you base your ideas,

feelings and actions recognize areas of potential bias or discrimination acknowledge your fears, and identify possible inadequacies or areas for improvement

Reflection can lead to greater self-awareness, which in turn is a first step to positive change – it is a necessary stage in identifying areas for improvement and growth in both personal and professional contexts. Taking time to reflect can help you identify approaches that have worked well, and in that way reinforce good practice.

6.2.3 How to reflect and write a critical reflection

A critical reflection is a combination of thoughtful description and analysis of a topic.Below are the 5 steps to writing a critical reflection.

STEP 1 Establish topic . What happened?At this stage you can describe, explain, summarize or narrate what you saw, heard, experienced or felt. You should also state the background of the reflection task. Why and what do you do the reflection for.

STEP 2 Develop topic. So what?At this stage you make a point or develop a thesis about the topic.

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Below are several ways to generate ideas and organize your thoughts.DefineClassify: Explain a topic by categorizing. Compare/Contrast: Illustrate the similarities or differences Cause: Consider the cause or root of somethingEffect: Discuss the effects of something. Evaluate: Determine whether a topic is good or bad, desirable or undesirable, ethical or unethical, effective or ineffective, etc. Or is the topic somewhere in between?

Propose: Suggest a necessary action to take or propose a solution to a problem.

STEP 3 Conclude. Now what?At this stage you can conclude by stating the importance of the topic to you or to your readers. It is also recommendable to include implications and significance of your ideas.

STEP 4 Style. What style should you use?Reflections are mostly informal but the style you choose may depend on the situations. Academic paper may have a conversational tone but research paper may be a bit more formal.

STEP 5 Special effects.You may provide and include sketches, photographs, graphs, etc .

6.2.4 How to analyse

A good critical reflection is based on analytical questions which lead to self- reflection and not self-criticism. Thus you must also include in your description and analysis how you felt, lessons you have learnt from the experience, and how this will form and affect your future behavior and beliefs.

Below is a sample of a written reflection. Note how possible questions are raised to help improve the reflection.

i. “When the teacher shouted to the student for no apparent reason, I was shocked. It reminded me to maintain an appropriate communication style with students when I am a teacher.”

Analytical questions : What actually took place?

What was the student’s reaction or feeling?

What is the ‘appropriate communication style’?

Why did the teacher shout?

What do you think triggered this behaviour?

What have you learnt from this experience?

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Below is the improved critical reflection of the trainee teacher.

ii. “When the teacher raised his voice to the student for no apparent reason, I was shocked and the student appeared to feel humiliated. Clearly this behaviour by the teacher was not appropriate, even though the teacher was obviously frustrated at the student’s apparent inability to understand the simple instructions. While it is the responsibility of every teacher to behave respectfully with students, on this occasion an excessive workload and the communication gap, as the teacher didn’t speak the student’s first language, no doubt contributed to the teacher's behaviour. It reminded me that language and cultural factors within the education system, such as first and second language proficiency, can have an impact on the quality of instructions given by teachers.”

6.2.5 Reflective essay structure

Before you can write a critical reflection, you need to know the structure or format of your reflection. Reflective essay do not have a certain structure because cannot be written according to a standard essay scheme. This is due to the fact that the thesis statements and the conclusions of reflective essays are often blurry. 

Here is a probable scheme of a reflective essay:

The aim of the opening paragraph is to get the reader involved in the author’s story including interesting details, personal experiences. The style must be very vivid and therefore to appeal to the reader as if it was a conversation on the meaning of life or love. As we have discussed above this is the part where you establish your topic.

The middle part reveals a good variety of the author’s ideas on the topic. This the part where you develop your reflection. This part may consist several paragraphs.

The last part includes concluding sentences that summarize the main ideas and experiences of the essay. The author reflects and writes his general perception of the given topic.

STRUCTURE / FORMAT

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PARAGRAPH 1Establish topic

PARAGRAPH 2 onwardsDevelop topic

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Task

Using the format shown above, write a reflection on a lecture that you just had. Then exchange it with a friend. Try to raise as many analytical questions on the reflection done by your friend.Then rewrite and improve your reflection by answering some of the questions raised.

Bibliography

Learning through reflection. (2011). Retrieved from http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/development/reflection.html

McIntyre, D. J. and O’Hair, M. J. (1998). The reflective roles of the classroom teacher. London: Wadsworth Publishing Company.

Monash University. (2011). Reflective learning process. Retrieved from http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/medicine/reflective/3.xml

Moon, J. (1999). Reflection in learning and professional development: Theory and practice. Retrieved from http://www2.unca.edu/et/br022102.html

Parsons, R. D. and Brown, K. S. (2002). Teacher as a reflective practitioner and action researcher. Belmont: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.

Reflective essay writing rubric. How to write a reflective essay - outline, structure, format, ideas, topics. (2005). Retrieved from http://www.customessays.org/essay_types/Reflective_Essay.html

What does your reader expect in a reflection paper? (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.une.edu.au/tlc/alo/critical3.htm

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FINAL PARAGRAPHConclude and Summarize