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MODUL ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHINGMETHODOLOGY (ELTM)

PROGRAM PENSISWAZAHAN GURU (PPG)

MOD PENDIDIKAN JARAK JAUH

TSL3103

BAHASAINGGERIS

MAJOR

INSTITUT PENDIDIKAN GURUKEMENTERIAN PELAJARAN MALAYSIA

ARAS 1, ENTERPRISE BUILDING 3,BLOK 2200, PERSIARAN APEC,CYBER 6, 63000 CYBERJAYA

Berkuat kuasa pada Jun 2011

IJAZAH SARJANA MUDA PERGURUAN DENGAN KEPUJIAN

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Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan

Pendidikan di Malaysia adalah suatu usaha berterusan ke arahmemperkembangkan lagi potensi individu secara menyeluruhdan bersepadu untuk mewujudkan insan yang seimbang danharmonis dari segi intelek, rohani, emosi, dan jasmaniberdasarkan kepercayaan dan kepatuhan kepada Tuhan. Usahaini adalah bagi melahirkan rakyat Malaysia yang berilmupengetahuan, berketrampilan, berakhlak mulia,bertanggungjawab, dan berkeupayaan mencapai kesejahteraandiri serta memberi sumbangan terhadap keharmonian dankemakmuran keluarga, masyarakat, dan negara.

Falsafah Pendidikan Guru

Guru yang berpekerti mulia, berpandangan progresif dansaintifik, bersedia menjunjung aspirasi negara serta menyanjungwarisan kebudayaan negara, menjamin perkembangan individu,

dan memelihara suatu masyarakat yang bersatu padu,demokratik, progresif, dan berdisiplin.

Cetakan J un 2011Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia

Hak cipta terpelihara. Kecuali untuk tujuan pendidikan yang tidakada kepentingan komersial, tidak dibenarkan sesiapamengeluarkan atau mengulang mana-mana bahagian artikel,ilustrasi dan kandungan buku ini dalam apa-apa juga bentuk dandengan apa-apa cara pun, sama ada secara elektronik, fotokopi,mekanik, rakaman atau cara lain sebelum mendapat izin bertulisdaripada Rektor Institut Pendidikan Guru, Kementerian PelajaranMalaysia.

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Cetakan J un 2011Institut Pendidikan GuruKementerian Pelajaran Malaysia

MODUL INI DIEDARKAN UNTUK KEGUNAAN PELAJAR-PELAJARYANG BERDAFTAR DENGAN BAHAGIAN PENDIDIKAN GURU,KEMENTERIAN PELAJARAN MALAYSIA BAGI MENGIKUTI PROGRAMPENSISWAZAHAN GURU (PPG) SEKOLAH RENDAH IJAZAH SARJANA

MUDA PERGURUAN DENGAN KEPUJIAN.

MODUL INI HANYA DIGUNAKAN SEBAGAI BAHAN PENGAJARAN DANPEMBELAJARAN BAGI PROGRAM-PROGRAM TERSEBUT.

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Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan

Falsafah Pendidikan Guru

Learners Guide

Introduction

Allocation of Topics

Topic 1 Language acquisition and learning key concepts and issues

1.0 Synopsis

1.1 Learning Outcomes

1.2 Framework of Topics

1.2.1 Language Acquisition and Learning

1.2.2 Language learning process

1.2.3 Language Learner

1.2.4 Acquisition vs Learning

Topic 2 Theories of Language Learning

2.0 Synopsis



2.2.1 Behaviourism

2.2.2 Cognitivism

2.2.3 Social Constructivism

2.2.4 Humanism

Topic 3 Second Language Learning Theories (I)- Krashens Monitor Model

3.0 Synopsis

1

17

29

CONTENT PAGE

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3.3 Krashens Monitor Model

3.3.1 Input Hypothesis

3.3.2 Affective Filter Hypothesis

3.3.3 Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis

3.3.4 Monitor Hypothesis

3.3.5 Natural Order Hypothesis

Topic 4 Second Language Learning Theories (I)- Universal Grammar

4.0 Synopsis



4.2.1 Why a Universal Grammar?

4.2.2 What does a Universal Grammar consist of?

4.2.3 Universal Grammar and first language acquisition

4.2.4 Universal Grammar and second language

acquisition

4.2.5 Implications for teaching

39

Topic 5 Overview: Approaches, Methods, and Techniques

ELT Methods 58

5.0 Synopsis5.1 Learning Outcomes


5.2.1 Grammar-Translation Method

5.2.2 Direct Method

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5.2.3 Audio Lingual Method

5.2.4 Silent Way

5.2.5 Suggestopedia

5.2.6 Community Language Learning

5.2.7 Total Physical Response

Topic 6 ELT Methods - Communicative Approach 82

6.0 Synopsis



6.2.1 Concept of Communicative Approach

6.2.2 Principles of Communicative Approach

6.2.3 Techniques of Communicative Approach

6.2.4 Strengths and Limitations of Communicative

Approach

6.2.5 Role of teacher, learners and resources

Topic 7 ELT Methods - Lexical and Eclectic Approaches, andTask-based Learning 91

7.0 Synopsis



7.2.1 Lexical Approach

7.2.2 Eclectic approach

7.2.3 Task-Based Learning (TBL)

Topic 8 Syllabus Design Malaysian Primary School English Curricu lum 99

8.0 Synopsis

8.1Learning Outcomes


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8.2.1 Syllabus Design - Malaysian Primary

School English Curriculum

8.2.2 The 2011 PRIMARY ENGLISH

LANGUAGE CURRICULUM or better

known as the Kurikulum Standard Sekolah

Rendah (KSSR)

8.2.3 Scheme of Work Weekly, Semester

8.2.4 Sample lesson structure

Topic 9 Second Language Learning in the Classroom (I) 114

9.0 Synopsis



9.2.1 Issues of Second Language Learning

9.2.2 The PPP Approach

Topic 10 Second Language Learning in the Classroom (II) 121

10.0 Synopsis

10.1 Learning Outcomes10.2 Framework of Topics

10.2.1 Alternatives to Presentation, Practice and

Production

10.2.2 Teaching Implications of the Alternatives in the

Primary School Classroom

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Module Writer

Module Icons

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LEARNERS GUIDE

This module has been prepared to assist you in organizing your own learning so that you

may learn more effectively. You may be returning to study after many years from formal

education or you may possibly be unfamiliar with a self-directed learning mode. This

module gives you an opportunity to manage your own learning and to manage the way

in which you use your resources and time.

Self-directed learning requires that you make decisions about your own learning. You

must recognize your own pattern and style of learning. It might be useful if you were to

set your own personal study goals and standard of achievement. In this way you will be

able to proceed through the course quite easily. Asking for help when you need it, ought

to be viewed as creating new opportunities for learning rather than as a sign of

weakness.

The module is written in Sessions. A Session usually covers a certain number of topics.

How long you take to go through a Session or a topic clearly depends on your own

learning style and your personal study goals. There are tasks set within a Session to

help you recall what you have learnt or to make you think about what you have read.

Some of these tasks will have answers and or suggested answers. For tasks that do not

provide answers you might find it helpful to discuss them with someone like a colleague.

Or to make notes of your answers and take them along to the next Tutorial Session.

Tasks that have been set for Tutorial discussion or to be handed in during Tutorial

Sessions will need to be completed before the tutorial takes place. Assignments that

have to be handed in must be handed in according to schedule. This will be a means foryou (and your Tutor) to know how much progress you have made in your course. You

should bear in mind that the process of learning that you go through is as important as

any assignment you hand in or any task that you have completed. So, instead of racing

through the tasks and the reading, do take time to reflect on them.

You will find that icons have been used to capture your attention so that at a glance you

will know what you have to do. Appendix A gives you an explanation of what the icons

mean.

Another important component of this course is the project for School-based Assignment

for the Major course only. This component recognizes the fact that teaching in theclassroom is an important aspect of learning to become a teacher. Hence, the

assignments that you do for this component will form part of the overall assessment of

your performance. It is therefore important that you approach this assignment and all

other coursework assignment with the right attitude. The School-based Assignment will

be given in a separate document.

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There is an end of course examination that you will be required to do. The date and time

will be made known to you when you sign up for the course. The written examination is

expected to take place in an examination venue to be identified.

Here are some useful hints for you to get you going.

1. Find a quiet study corner so that you may set down your books and yourself to study.

Do the same when you visit a library.

2. Set a time every day to begin and to end your study. Once you have committed a set

time, keep to it! When you have finished your module, continue to read prescribed

books or internet materials.

3. Spend as much time as you possibly can on each task without compromising your

study goal

4. Revise and review what you read. Take time to recollect what you have read.

5. Consult sources other than what have been given to you. Do not accept information

at face value.

6. Start a filing system so that you know where you have kept that insightful article!

7. Find a friend who could help you study.

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INTRODUCTION

Welcome to English! Teaching English is fun. What you need is to be skilful in usingthe language.

Program Pensiswazahan Guru (PPG) Mod Pendidikan J arak J auh (PPJ ) EnglishLanguage (Major) for Primary Schools, is one of the major subjects offered by theInstitut Pendidikan Guru Malaysia (IPGM). It is offered to English language teacherswho want to upgrade and enhance themselves in teaching English as a subject. Thereare seven modules offered for English Language (Major) for Primary Schools.

This Module TSL3103 English Language Teaching Methodology (ELTM) is a 3 credithour module that will cover 45 hours. It has six main topics: Language acquisition andlearning key concepts and issues, Theories of Language Learning, Second LanguageLearning Theories (I) Krashens Monitor Model, Second Language Learning Theories(iI) Universal Grammar, Overview: Approaches, Methods, and Techniques - ELTMethods, Syllabus Design Malaysian Primary School English Curriculum, and SecondLanguage Learning in the Classroom. These topics are spread across ten sessions.

In Session 1, you will learn the difference between language acquisition and learning,and understand better the key concepts and issues related to language acquisition andlearning.

In Session 2, you will explore the different theories of language learning, namelyBehaviourism, Cognitivism, Social Constructivism and Humanism.

Session 3 will look into the Second Language Learning Theories (I) focussing onKrashens Monitor Model.

In Session 4, you will explore further the Second Language Learning Theories (II). Thefocus this time is on Universal Grammar.

Session 5 defines the terms Approach, Method, and Technique. It also provides anoverview of the different the English Language Teaching Methods.

In Session 6, you will explore in greater detail the Communicative Approach in EnglishLanguage Teaching Methods. and focus on the

Session 7 will focus on the lexical approach, eclectic approach and task-based learning.

In Session 8, you will study the Syllabus Design - Malaysian Primary School EnglishCurriculum.

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Sessions 9 and 10 will focus on second language learning in the classroom You willexplore issues, discuss alternatives to Presentation, Practice, and Production , andteaching implications in the primary ELT classroom.

By going through all the sessions diligently and doing the tasks given, you will be able to

enhance your knowledge in English and become more confident in using it. You willalso know your own strategies in teaching English. Before you begin working on thecontent of these sessions, be sure to have a dictionary with you because you will needto refer to it every now and then. Happy working!

We are sure that you are looking forward to begin this module with excitement. It isinteresting to refresh your memory and obtain new ideas and knowledge.

There are no prescribed course books and the sessions are designed to be self-contained. However, we do recommend that you should have access to certainreferences and dictionary. It would be useful if you have an ESOL Learners Dictionary

and a Modern Teachers Reference Grammar of English.

You should read the input notes carefully. You should also do all the tutorial tasks andthen discuss with your tutors during face-to-face interaction.

Remember by reading you will gain more knowledge. And Knowledge is Honour!

Good Luck and Happy Working!

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Code & Name of Course: TSL3103 English Language TeachingMethodology (ELTM)

There are six topics in this module and they are divided into ten sessions. Thetable below shows the allocation of topics through modular learning or/and face-to-face-interaction.

Session Topic Sub-Topic Int.hrs.

Total no.of hrs.

1Languageacquisition

and learning key conceptsand issues

Nature of language

Language learning process 3

6 Language Learner

Acquisition versus learning 3

2Theories ofLanguageLearning

Behaviourism

Cognitivism

3

6 Social Constructivism

Humanism

3

3

Second

LanguageLearningTheories (I)

KrashensMonitor Model

Acquisition-Learning

hypothesis Monitor hypothesis

Natural order hypothesis

3

6 Input hypothesis

Affective filter hypothesis

Implications for teaching

3

4 SecondLanguageLearningTheories (II)

UniversalGrammar

Why a Universal Grammar

What does a UniversalGrammar consist of?

3

6 Universal Grammar and first

language acquisition

Universal Grammar andsecond language acquisition

Implications for teaching

3

ALLOCATION OF TOPICS

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5

Overview:Approaches,Methods, andTechniques

ELT Methods

Concepts: Approach, Method,Technique

Principles

Techniques

Strengths/Limitation

Role of teacher, learners, andresources

Implications for SyllabusDesign

Planning activities for eachapproach/method

i. Grammar-TranslationMethod

ii. Direct Methodiii. Audio-Lingual Method

3

6

iv. Silent Wayv. Suggestopediavi. Community Language

Learningvii. Total Physical Response

3

6 ELT Methods Communicative Approach 3 3

7 ELT Methods Lexical Approach

Eclectic Approach

Task-based Learning

3 3

8 Syllabus

Design MalaysianPrimarySchoolEnglishCurriculum

Principles

Techniques

Strengths/Limitation

Role of teacher, learners, andresources

Scheme of work weekly,semester

3 3

9 SecondLanguageLearning inthe Classroom

Issues

Presentation, Practice, andProduction 3 3

10 Alternatives to Presentation,Practice, and Production

Teaching implications in theprimary ELT classroom

3 3

TOTAL 45 hrs

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TOPIC 1 LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING KEY CONCEPTS AND ISSUES

1.0 SYNOPSIS

Topic 1 introduces you to the key concepts and issues related to language

acquisition and learning. It provides insights to the nature of language, language

learning process, and characteristics of the effective language learner. It also

makes a distinction between language acquisition and language learning.

1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of Topic 1, you will be able to:

define the nature of language

describe the language learning process in early childhood

list the learner characteristics that affect second language learning

differentiate between language acquisition and language learning

1.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS

LanguageAcquis it ion

and Learning Key Concepts

and Issues

Nature ofLanguage

LanguageLearner

Acquis it ionversus

Learning LanguageLearning

Process

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CONTENT

SESSION ONE (3 Hours )

1.2.1 Language Acquisit ion and Learning Key Concepts and Issues

It is important for you to develop an awareness of the properties of language and

an understanding L1 language development in children. Your understanding of

what language is and how the learner learns will determine to a large extent, your

philosophy of education, and how you teach English: your teaching style, your

approach, methods and classroom technique. In short, this knowledge of the

nature of language and the language learning process would enable you to teach

your learners to learn a second language more effectively.

1.2.1 Nature of Language

Exercise 1: What is your definition of language?

Write down in twenty-five-words-or-less a definition of language.

Share your definition with another friend or in a small group.

Compare differences and similarities.

What is Language? There are many ways in which we could describe language.

Your definition of language (in the above) probably yield something that sounds

similar to the following composite definition: A language is considered to be a

system of communicating with other people using sounds, symbols and words inexpressing a meaning, idea or thought. This language can be used in many

forms, primarily through oral and written communications as well as using

expressions through body language.

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Language is defined as "a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings

by the use of conventionalized signs, sounds, gestures or marks having

understood meanings." (Webster New International Dictionary of the English

Language, 654), and "is a tool for communication" (Emmet, 22). In most

common use of language, these signs are the words which we employ in such a

way that they may communicate ideas or feelings.

There are many possible theoretical positions about the nature of language.

Commonly, three different views are explicitly or implicitly reflected in current

approaches to language learning. They are:

The structural view of language

The structural view of language is that language is a system of structurally

related elements for the transmission of meaning. These elements are

usually described as:

phonological units (phonemes)

grammatical units (phrases, clauses, sentences)

grammatical operations (adding, shifting, joining or transforming

elements) lexical items (function words and structure words)

The target of language learning, in the structural view, is the mastery of

elements of this system.

The communicative view of language

The communicative view of language is the view that language is a vehicle

for the expression of functional meaning. The semantic and

communicative dimensions of language are more emphasized than the

grammatical characteristics, although these are also included. The target

of language learning is to learn to express communication functions and

categories of meaning.

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The interactional view of language

The interactional view of language sees language primarily as the means

for establishing and maintaining interpersonal relationships and for

performing social transactions between individuals. The target of

language learning in the interactional view is learning to initiate and

maintain conversations with other people.

Tutorial Task:

Language can be likened to an ocean. Like the ocean, language is never still. It

has many moods and shapes. It seems to be endless. It carries people and their

goods. Can you suggest another metaphor to describe language?

What is your image of language?

Make a simple sketch or drawing of your image of language.

Then, write down all the ways in which language reflects the image you

see.

Share your image with a friend.

Note features of your images which you have in common.

Note significant differences between your images.

Now, take a break before you move on to the next topic.

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1.2.2 Language Learning Process

Children go through a number of different stages as language develops, from the

earliest stage of producing cooing sounds through being able to produce

complex, multi-word sentences.

Babbling

first stage of language development

known as the pre-linguistic, babbling or cooing stage

period typically lasts from the age of three to nine months

babies begin to make vowel sounds such as oooooo and aaaaaaa

by five months, infants typically begin to babble and add consonant

sounds to their sounds such as ba-ba-ba, ma-ma-ma orda-da-da.

Single Words

second stage is known as the one-word or holophase stage of language

development

around the age of 10 to 13 months

children will begin to produce their first real words

only capable of producing a few, single words at this point, but important

to realize that they are able to understand considerably more

infants begin to comprehend language about twice as fast as they are able

to produce it

Two Words

third stage begins around the age of 18 months

children begin to use two word sentences

sentences usually consist of just nouns and verbs

E.g. Where daddy?

"Puppy big!"

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Multi-word Sentences

around the age of two

children begin to produce short, multi-word sentences that have a subject

and predicate

E.g. a child might say "Mommy is nice"

or "Want more candy

As children age, they continue to learn more new words every day. By the time

they enter school around the age of five, children typically have a vocabulary of

10,000 words or more.

Developmental Sequences

Developmental sequences reflect linguistic elements in childrens

cognitive understandings

Examples

Grammatical Morphemes

Negations

Questions

Grammatical Morphemes

Roger Browns longitudinal study (1973)

Present progressive ing

Plurals s

Irregular past forms

possessive s

Copula

Articles the and a

Regular past ed

Third person singular simple present s

Auxiliary be

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Acquis it ion of Grammatical morphemes

e.g., wug test

i. Here is a wug. Now there are two of them. There are two ______.

ii. John knows how to bod. Yesterday he did the same thing.

Yesterday, he_______.

Through the tests, children demonstrate that they know the rules for the

formation of plural and simple past in English.

By generalizing these patterns to words they have never heard before,

they show that their language is not just a list of memorized word pairs

such as book/books and nod/nodded.

Acquis it ion of Negation

Lois Blooms study (1991) four stages

Stage 1: no e.g., No go. No cookie.

Stage 2: subject + no e.g., Daddy no comb hair.

Stage 3: auxiliary or modal verbs (do/can) + not

(Yet no variations for different persons or tenses)

e.g., I cant do it , He dont want it.

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Stage 4: correct form of auxiliary verbs (did/doesnt/is/are) + not

e.g., He didnt go. She doesnt want it.

But sometimes double negatives are used

e.g., I dont have no more candies.

Acquis it ion of Questions

By the age of 4:

Most children are able to ask questions, give commands, report real

events, and create stories about imaginary ones with correct word order

and grammatical markers most of the time.

They have mastered the basic structures of the language or languages

spoken to them in these early years.

They begin to acquire less frequent and more complex linguistic structures

such as passives and relative clauses.

They begin to develop ability to use language in a widening social

environment.

The six stages of childrens question-making can be illustrated as follows:

Stage 1: using single words or single two- or three-word sentences with

rising intonation

(Mommy book? Wheres Daddy?)

Stage 2: using the word order of the declarative sentence (You like this?

Why you catch it?)

Stage 3: fronting - putting a verb at the beginning of a sentence

(Is the teddy is tired? Do I can have a cookie?)

Stage 4: subject-auxiliary inversion in yes/no questions but not in wh-

questions

(Do you like ice cream? Where I can draw?)

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Stage 5: subject-auxiliary inversion in wh-questions, but not in negative

wh-questions

(Why can he go out? Why he cant go out?)

Stage 6: overgeneralizing the inverted form in embedded questions

(I dont know why cant he go out.)

Then, share your thoughts with a friend.


Reflect on your own language learning experience

First 3 years

Pre-school years

School years

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1.2.3 Language Learner

A lot of research has been carried out into what makes a good language learner.

Here is a brief summary of the latest theories:

The good language learnerthinks about how she is learning. She tries to

find out what works for her and what doesn't. If she doesn't understand the

purpose of a particular exercise, she asks the teacher.

The good language learneris willing to experiment and take risks. For

example, she will try out different ways of learning vocabulary until she

finds the way that suits her best. She is also not afraid of making mistakes,

because she knows that these will help her.

The good language learneris realistic. She knows that it will take time

and effort to become proficient in English, and that there will periods

where she does not seem to be making much progress.

The good language learneris independent. She does not expect to learn

English just by sitting in the classroom, and does not rely on the teacher to

totally direct her learning.

The good language learneris organized and active. She uses her time

to learn English sensibly, and is always looking for opportunities todevelop her language both inside and outside of the classroom.

The good language learnerhas a balanced concern for communication

and accuracy. Some students are experts at communicating their thoughts

but do not care that they make many mistakes in doing so. The good

language learner, on the other hand, is concerned with both

communicating and doing so as accurately as possible.

Although these are the qualities that have been found in the most efficient

language learners, there are still many other factors that influence how quickly a

child will learn English.

Source: Copyright Paul Shoebottom (1996-2011) The Good LanguageLearner. Retrieved 8 December 2011, from http://esl.fis.edu

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Factors affecting language learning

There are various factors that affect successful language learning. They could

stem from the learners own mind (internal factors) or from the environment he

lives in (external factors).

Internal factors are those that the individual language learner brings with him or

her to the particular learning situation, for example, age of the learner,

personality, motivation, experiences, cognition abilities and his native language.

External factors are those that characterize the particular language learning

situation,some of which include the curriculum in use, mode of instruction, and

the opportunity to interact with native speakers both within and outside of the

classroom.

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Exercise 2

The following are some factors that are known to affect second language

acquisition and learning. Determine whether each factor is related mainly to the

student, to the family or to the environment of the second culture. Use the

following code:

S = factors primarily in the student

F = factors primarily in the family

E = factors primarily in the environment of the second culture

1. Age _______

2. Socioeconomic status _______

3. Classroom culture _______

4. Cognitive development in L1 _______

5. Family support _______

6. Whether environment provides adequate L2 input _______

7. Literacy level _______

9. Opportunities for language use in school _______

11. Motivation _______

15. Proficiency in the home language _______

17. Role models in the community _______

19. Personality _______

20. Whether student has enough opportunities to use English _______

24. Teachers expectations _______

25. Preferred learning styles _______

Adapted from Maitland, K. (1997). Adding English: Helping ESL Learners Succeed. Good Apple.ISBN 1-56417-903-6.

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Now check your answers below.

Answers:

1S, 2F, 3E, 4S, 5S, 6E, 7F, 8E, 9S, 10S, 11E, 12S, 13E, 14E, 15S

Tutorial Task:

In your experience, as an English learner:

i. Are there personal characteristics that make you more successful than

another learner?

ii. Which characteristics seem to you most likely to be associated with

success in L2 acquisition?

Iii, Share your opinion with your group members. Find three most important

and three least important learner characteristics.

Individual Differences

Research findings reveal that every person has a learning style; therefore, there

is no particular teaching or learning method that can suit the needs of all learners.Learning styles are also value-neutral; that is, no one style is better than others.

Learning styles exist on wide continuums, although they are often described as

opposites. Learners should therefore be encouraged to stretch their learning

styles so that they will be more empowered in a variety of learning situations.

Age is only one of the characteristics which affects the learners L2 learning. The

opportunities for learning (i.e., context - both inside and outside the classroom),

the motivation to learn, and individual differences in intelligence , aptitude ,

personality , and learning styles have also been found to be important

determining factors in both rate of learning and eventual success in learning.

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1.2.4 Acquisition versus Learning It is sometimes thought that acquisition and learning refer to the same processes.

According to linguists there is an important distinction between language

acquisition and language learning.

Language Acquisition

Acquisition occurs passively and unconsciously through implicit learning.

Experts suggest there is an innate capacity in every human being to acquire

language. Language acquisition in children just seems to happen. Children do

not need explicit instruction to learn their first languages but rather seem to just

pick up language in the same way they learn to roll over, crawl and walk.

Language acquisition, therefore, is the process whereby children acquire their

first language. As you may well have noticed, children acquire their mother

tongue through interaction with their parents and the environment that surrounds

them. Their need to communicate paves the way for language acquisition to take

place. rather seem to just pick up language in the same way they learn to roll

over, crawl and walk.

Language Learning

As opposed to acquisition, learning occurs actively and consciously through

explicit instruction and education. Language learning is the process whereby

humans past the critical period learn second languages. In other words, older

children and adults need explicit teaching to learn their second languages. It is

the result of direct instruction in the rules of language. In language learning,

students have conscious knowledge of the new language and can talk about that

knowledge. However, studies have shown that knowing grammar rules does not

necessarily result in good speaking or writing.

We should not ignore the differences between language acquisition and

language learning. While all children before the critical period can innately

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acquire their first languages, most older children and adults past the critical

period must learn second languages through explicit education and instruction.

L1 and L2 acquisition are quite complicated processes. To understand these

processes will enable the language teacher to be more sensitive to the factors

involved. While L1 and L2 acquisition reveal some similarities, they also show

differences. Similarities in First and Second Language Acquisition theories are of

great interest to teachers and learners as they can be utilized to improve

language teaching and learning methods.

Nature vs Nurture

Much debate has taken place concerning the importance of nature (what is

innate) and nurture (environmental factors) in the acquisition of language. Is

language acquisition and development innate or taught?The debate about

nature versus nurture in language acquisition has drawn heated testimony from

both sides.

The following chart compares nature and nurture in language acquisition.

Nurture

Formal Teachers

Syllabus

Classroom

Systematic

Learning

Nature

Informal Parents & Society

Experiences

Environment

Exposure

Acquisition

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Tutorial Task:

Comparing First and Second Language Acquisi tion

Activi ty 1:

There are similarities and differences in first and second language acquisition. It

is clear that a child or adult learning a second language is different from a baby

acquiring a first language in terms of personal characteristics and conditions for

learning. Language teachers must have theoretical knowledge of how

languages are acquired.

How is learning a second language like learning a first?

How is it different?

How will this knowledge help you plan classroom experiences?

Write a paper (4-6 pages) citing at least four research articles to support

text reading.

Activi ty 2:As teachers, it is our duty to make sure that our students acquire rather than

learn the language. Discuss.

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TOPIC 2 THEORIES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING

2.0 SYNOPSIS

Topic 2 provides you with an overview of four influential learning theories that underlie the

instruction of a teachers classroom practice. More specifically, it examines in detail the key

principles of Behaviourism, Cognitivism, Social Constructivism and Humanistic orientations

to language learning.


By the end of this Topic, you will be able to:

define terms relevant to some theories of language learning

explain the main principles of each language learning theory

distinguish the application of behaviourist, cognitivist, constructivist and

humanist principles in the classroom


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CONTENT

SESSION ONE (3 Hours)

2.2 Theories of Language Learning

The main goal of any teaching is to bring about learning. Generally, we

have not been able to say with certainty how people learn languages although

a great deal of research has been done into this subject. Various theories have

emerged over the years to study the process of language acquisition. The four

main schools of thought which provide theoretical paradigms in guiding the

course of language acquisition are: behaviourism, cognitivism, social

constructivism and humanism.

2.2.1 Behaviourism

The behaviourist approach in studying learning can be traced to the

philosophic traditions of Aristotle, Descartes and Locke. The founders and

proponents include John B. Watson in the early 20th century, Ivan Pavlov,

B.F.Skinner, E.L. Thorndike, Bandura and others. They argued that behavior

can be conditioned by altering the environment. In other words, by manipulating

and giving a certain stimulus, a certain response can be produced. Motivation to

learn was assumed to be driven by drives such as hunger, rewards and punish.

General perception is that there is no difference between the way one

learns a language and the way one learns to do anything else. According to

the psychologist Skinner, language is a conditioned behaviour: the stimulus

response process (Stimulus Response Feedback Reinforcement). The popular

view is that children start out as clean slates and language learning is the

process of getting linguistic habits printed on these slates through positive and

negative reinforcement or punishment. Both positive reinforcement and

negative reinforcement increase the probability that the antecedent behavior

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will happen again. On the other hand, punishment decreases the likelihood

that the antecedent behavior will happen again.

Learners are essentially viewed as passive and learn language step by

step, i.e.Imitation - Repetition - Memorization - Controlled drilling -

Reinforcement. They learn to speak by imitating the utterances heard around

them and strengthen their responses by the repetitions, corrections, and other

reactions that adults provide. Therefore, language is practice based. The

main focus is on inducing the child to behave with the help of mechanical drills

and exercises. Learning is controlled by the conditions under which it takes

place and that, as long as individuals are subjected on the same condition,

they will learn in the same condition. In summary, the behaviourist is notconcerned with how or why knowledge is obtained, but rather if the correct

response is given. Learning is defined as nothing more than the acquisition of

new behaviour.

The following is a list of behaviourist principles quite often applied in

teaching and learning in the classroom:

Use a system of rewards to encourage certain behaviours and learning. Provide immediate and frequent feedback for complex and difficult

concepts

Provide practice, drill and review activities to enhance mastery of facts

Break down complex task into smaller and manageable subskills

Sequence material from simple to more difficult to enhance

understanding

Model the behaviour students are to imitate and repeat demonstrations

when necessary

Reinforce when students demonstrate the modeled behaviour

State the learning outcomes desired for the benefit of both teachers and

students

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Establish a contract with students on the work to be done and what

rewards will be given

Critics of behavioural methods point to two basic problems that may arise in

the classroom. Some teachers fear that rewarding students for all learning will

cause students to lose interest in learning for its own sake. Using a reward

system or giving one student increased attention may have a detrimental effect

on other students in the classroom. Also, another problem with this view of

learning includes the fact that imitation does not help the learner in real-life

situations. Learners are continually required to form sentences they have

never previously seen. A finite number of pre-practiced sentences are not

enough to carry on a conversation.

Exercise 1

Which of the behaviourist principles listed in the above do you think are widely

practised in the classrooms? Give specific examples.


2.2.2 Cognitivism

In the 1950s there was a realization that behaviourism did not fully explain

human learning. Although behaviourism emphasized learning that was

observable and measurable, they did not account for what goes on in the minds

of the learner when he or she is learning or thinking. Cognitivists felt that it was

necessary to investigate how learners make sense of what they learn even

though such mental events are difficult to observe and measure objectively.

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The term cognitivism refers to a group of psychological theories which

draw heavily on the work in linguistics of Noam Chomsky. It replaced

behaviourism in 1960s as a dominant paradigm. Cognitive theories of learning,

based on empirical evidence, indicate that learning is a multi-faceted, complex

and dynamic process. Cognitivism focus on the mind or black box and attempt

to show how information is received, assimilated, stored and recalled.

According to the cognitivists, people are not programmed animals that

merely respond to environmental stimuli. People are rational beings that require

active participation in order to learn, and whose actions are a consequence of

thinking. Changes in behaviour are observed, but only as an indication of what is

occurring in the learners head. Cognitivism uses the metaphor of the mind as

computer: information comes in, is being processed, and leads to certain

outcomes.

Cognitivists view learning is as a process of relating new information to

previously learned information, In other words, learning is defined as a change in

the learners schemata. Learning is most likely to occur when an individual can

associate new learning with previous knowledge. Unlike in behaviourism,

learners are not passive receivers of environmental conditions. Rather, they are

actively involved in the learning process and can have control over their own

learning. Errors are also accepted as part of the learning process.

In contrast to behaviourism, the cognitivst perspective focus more on the

learner as an active participant in the teaching-learning process. It believes that

teachers can be more effective if they know what prior knowledge the student

already possesses and how information is processed and structured in the

learners mind. Therefore, it is important that teachers provide effective

instruction to help the learner acquire knowledge more effectively by teaching

students how to learn, remember, think and motivate themselves.

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The following is a list of cognitivist principles quite often applied in


Present information in an organized manner

- Show a logical sequence to concepts

- Go from simple to complex when presenting new material

Bring to mind relevant prior learning

Provide for review and repetition of learning

Provide opportunities for students to elaborate on new information, e.g.

inquiry-oriented projects

Help students process information in meaningful ways so that they can

become independent learners (Staged scaffolding)

Like Behaviourism, Cognitivism is also not without its critiques. It has

been criticized for not accounting enough for individuality and for giving little

emphasis on the affective characteristics of the learners.

The following table sums up very briefly what we have discussed so far:

Behaviourist vs. Cognitivist

Focus Bahaviour ist Cognitivist

View about the

mind

A blank slate.

Basically alike

An active organizer.

Varied, with multiple

intelligences and learning

styles.

S-T Roles

Teacher plans and sets

goals for learning.

One best way of

teaching.

Students participate in

planning and goal-setting.

Teacher teaches with variety.

Motivation Reward is motivation. Learning is a motivator.

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Curriculum Content

Students are taught what. Students are taught what

and how

Assessment

Teacher assess.

Product is important.

Students are involved in peer

and self-assessment.

Product and process are

important

Source: Diaz-Rico, L.(2008). Strategies for Teaching English Learners, (2nd

edn.) Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.

Exercise 2

Which of the cognitivist principles listed in the above do you think are being

practiced in the classrooms? Give specific examples.

CONTENT

SESSION TWO (3 Hours)

2.2.3 Social Construct ivism

Just as Cognitive Learning Psychology began replacing the predominant

Behavioural Psychology in the 1970s, Constructivist Learning Psychology has

been challenging the cognitive approach from the 1990s. A reaction to didactic

approaches, constructivism states that learning is an active, contextualized

process of constructing knowledge rather than acquiring it. Constructivism is a

perspective of learning that has its origins in the works of Bruner, Piaget and

Vygoysky. It is Vygotskys social development which is one of the foundations

for constructivism.

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Constructivists emphasize that learning is a social activity. They believe

that often it is social experiences rather than what is taught in schools which

accounts for much of the variation in student learning. Cooperative, collaborative

and group investigation methods allow students to discuss ideas, beliefs and

values with their peers and teachers. They also argued that the responsibility of

learning resides with the learner. Learners interpret what they hear, read and

see based on their previous learning, habits and experiences. Students who do

not have appropriate background knowledge will be unable to to accurately hear

or see what is before them. Unlike previous educational viewpoints where the

responsibility rested with the teacher to teach and where the learner played a

passive role, social constructivism emphasizes the importance of the learner

being actively involved in the learning process with the teacher playing the role

as facilitator. Learning is enhanced when students learn how to learn, engage in

serious discussion, and have shared responsibility for applying what they know to

new situations.

What does this mean for classroom learning? As active learners exploring

and going beyond the information given, thus students should be provided with

authentic and challenging projects that encourage them to work together with

one another. Authentic settings would provide learners with opportunities to see

a problem from different perspectives as well as negotiate and generate solutions

through sharing and exchange of ideas. In an authentic environment, learners

assume responsibilities for their own learning. The aim is to create a situation

more closely related to collaborative practice in the real world.

The following is a list of constructivist principles quite often applied in


Encourage student autonomy and initiative

- Students take responsibility for their own learning

- Respect students ideas and encourage independent thinking

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Promote higher order thinking amongst students

- Ask questions that will influence student response

- Challenge students to analyze, justify and defend their ideas

Engage students in meaningful learning

- Provide students opportunity to express their ideas

- Involve students in real-world situations

The main critique of Social Constructivism is that it is often seen as

being less rigorous than traditional approaches to instruction.

Exercise 3

Discuss some problems related to implementing constructivist principles in the

classroom. Describe with specific examples.


2.2.4 Humanism

Humanism refers to a movement in psychology which emerged in the

1960s and 1970s. Humanism has its roots in counseling psychology and

focuses its attention on how individuals acquire emotions, attitudes, values and

interpersonal skills. Perhaps the most well-known applications of humanism in

ELT are those of Gattegno (1972) and Curran (1976).

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Humanistic psychologists believe that how a person feels about learning is

as important as how the person thinks or even behaves. They describe

behaviour not from the viewpoint of the teacher as do behaviourists but rather

from the vantage point of the student who is performing the activity.

Humanists, led by such famous authors as Abraham Maslow and Carl

Rogers, are especially concerned with the idea of self-actualization, the growth of

a person to achieve whatever degree of individual satisfaction they are capable

of achieving. Learning is not an end in itself: it is the means to progress towards

self-development. A student learns because he or she is inwardly driven (self-

motivation), and derives his or her reward from the sense of achievement that

having learned something affords. Hence, much of a humanist teachers effort

would be put into developing a students self-esteem. This form of education,

known as student-centred, is typified by the student taking responsibility and

owning their learning.

The humanist teacher is a facilitator and not a disseminator of knowledge.

He or she creates an educational environment that fosters self-development,

cooperation, positive communications, and personalization of information. In

particular, the humanist teacher needs to have a thorough grasp of both how

students learn and what motivates them to learn. Participatory and discovery

methods would be favoured instead of traditional didacticism. As well as the

students academic needs the humanist teacher is also concerned with the

students affective or emotional needs. Feeling and thinking are very much

interlinked. Humanists believe that feeling positive about oneself facilitates

learning.

The following are some principles in the classroom based on humanistic

principles:

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Establish a warm, democratic, positive and non-threatening environment

for the students to work in.

Provide learning experiences that will lead to the development of habits

and attitudes that teachers want to foster.

Teachers should be role models and set good examples for students to

emulate.

Students are given choices (with limitations) and freedom (with

responsibilities) to plan and carry out activities.

Teacher facilitates the learning process and share ideas with students.

Learning is based on life experiences, discovery, exploring and

experimenting.

Respect students feelings and aspirations.

Provide opportunity for success.

De-emphasize rigorous, performance-oriented, test-dominated

approaches.

Students are allowed to set their own goals and follow their own pace

Experiential learning is encouraged.

Exercise 4

To what extent do you think schools give attention to the affective (emotions,

feelings) aspects of learning? Discuss by citing specific examples.

Summary.

What conclusions can we draw from this discussion of various theories of

learning? Instructional learning theories are centred on the major schools of

educational psychology. From these so-called schools have evolved modern

thinking and practice about how learning occurs and how your instruction in the

classroom ultimately affects that learning. Each has its own merits and each has

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shortcomings that may make them inappropriate in certain learning situations.

Your understanding of the basic principles and assumptions of Behaviourism,

Cognitivism, Constructivism and Humanism is critical to your approach to

classroom teaching. However, looking back over the current practices in our

classrooms, it becomes abundantly clear that they are a composite of the many

different theories we have learnt.

Tutorial Task

Based on what you have read in this unit, compare the four major theoreticalperspectives explaining human learning. Then, in your view as a teacher, state

your personal beliefs about the teaching-learning process.

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TOPIC 3 SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING THEORIES (I)

KRASHENS MONITOR MODEL

3.0 SYNOPSIS

Topic 3 provides input on a predominant Second Language Learning Theory

called Krashens Monitor Model. There are five components or hypotheses

which form the basis of the model. These are Input Hypothesis, Affective Filter

Hypothesis, Acquisition Learning Hypothesis, Monitor Hypothesis and Natural

Order Hypothesis. The topic also deals with the implications of this model for

teaching.


By the end of this session, you will be able to:

1. demonstrate an understanding of Krashens Monitor Model

2. explain the five hypothesis of the Monitor Model

3. identify the relationship between the five hypothesis of the Monitor Model

4. explain the implications of this model for teaching.

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CONTENT

SESSION THREE (6 Hours)

3.3 Krashens Monitor Model

Second language acquisition theory seeks to explain how and by whatprocesses individuals acquire a second language. A predominant theory of

second language acquisition was developed by Steven Krashen from the

University of Southern California. Krashen is a specialist in language acquisition

and development and his influential theory is widely accepted in the language

learning community.

The following are some quotes from Krashen (1982) about language

acquisition.

"Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious

grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill."

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"Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language -

natural communication - in which speakers are concerned not with the

form of their utterances but with the messages they are conveying and

understanding."

The best methods are therefore those that supply 'comprehensible input'

in low anxiety situations, containing messages that students really want to

hear. These methods do not force early production in the second

language, but allow students to produce when they are 'ready',

recognizing that improvement comes from supplying communicative and

comprehensible input, and not from forcing and correcting production."

"In the real world, conversations with sympathetic native speakers who are

willing to help the acquirer understand are very helpful."

Krashen explains five fundamental components - which he calls

hypotheses - as the basis for his language teaching model. Each of the

components relates to a different aspect of the language learning process. The

five components are as follows:

1. The Input Hypothesis

2. The Affective Filter Hypothesis

3. The Acquisition Learning Hypothesis

4. The Monitor Hypothesis

5. The Natural Order Hypothesis

3.3.1 Input Hypothesis

Krashen believes that the main factor in acquisition is not language use

but language input, in other words what the learner hears and reads. The most

useful form of input has to be understandable and it should be just a little

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beyond the learner's present capacity. If it is too far beyond, the learner will not

pay attention to the input, and if it is not far enough, the learner will learn nothing.

The learner improves and progresses along the 'natural order' when he/she

receives second language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of

linguistic competence. If a learner is at a stage 'i', acquisition takes place when

he/she is exposed to 'comprehensible input' that belongs to level 'i + 1. Here i

refers to the current language level the learners are at. i + 1 means a level

higher than the level the students are at or the next level along the natural order.

Natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, thus ensuring

that each learner will receive some 'i + 1' input that is appropriate for his/her

current stage of linguistic competence.

Karshen suggests that teachers should give rough-tuned input and a wide

variety of materials, supported by visual cues and realia which gives it a

context within which the learner may guess at the content. As such,

language teachers must make input comprehensible by contextualizing it.

Evidences for the input hypothesis can be found in the following situations:

Effectiveness of caretaker speech from an adult to a child/ people speak

to children acquiring their first language in special ways.

Adults speaking to children modify their language in order to aid

comprehension. Adults roughly-tune to childs level of linguistic

competence. These include use of baby-talk and short simple sentences.

Teacher-talk from a teacher to a language student.

Teachers simplify their language to make L2 learners understand or go

down to L2 learners comprehension.

Foreigner-talk from a sympathetic conversation partner to a language

learner or acquirer

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Some of the ways a foreigner talks to a language learner include slower

pronunciation, omission of features of connected speech, heavier stress

on key words, short responses, use of gestures and demonstrations.

L2 learners often go through an initial Silent Period.

A learner is silent to build up competencies in 2nd language via listening.

Speaking only emerges after the learner has enough competence in the

language.

Krashen indicates that the comparative success of younger and older

learners reflects provision of comprehensible input. The more comprehensible

input the greater the L2 proficiency. The lack of comprehensible input delays

language acquisition. As such teaching methods work according to the extent

that teachers use comprehensible input. One finds that immersion teaching is

successful because it provides comprehensible input. As for bilingual

programmes, they succeed to the extent teachers provide comprehensible input

3.3.2 Af fective Filter Hypothesis

This hypothesis describes external factors that can act as a filter thatimpedes acquisition. These factors include motivation, self-confidence, and

anxiety. If a learner has very low motivation, very low self-confidence, and a high

level of anxiety, the affective filter falls into place and inhibits the learner from

acquiring the new language. On the other hand, learners who are motivated,

confident, and relaxed about learning the target language have more success

acquiring a second language.

Barriers to learning can also be found in any negative feelings that a learner has

about the language, the method used, the institution or the teacher. These

feelings become a kind of filter, which keeps the input out. Hence, the teacher's

job is to make language learning free of stress and enjoyable.

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3.3.3 Acquis it ion-Learning Hypothesis

Krashen elucidates two systems of language acquisition that are

independent but related namely the acquired system and the learned system.

The acquired system relates to the unconscious aspect of language

acquisition. When people learn their first language by speaking the language

naturally in daily interaction with others the acquired system is at work. Here

speakers are more concerned with the act of communicating meaning than the

structure of their utterances.

On the other hand, the learned system relates to formal instruction where

students engage in formal study to acquire knowledge about the target language.

One example of the learned system is the studying the rules of syntax.

The differences between acquisition and learning are depicted in Figure 1

below:

Acquisit ion Learning

implicit, subconscious explicit, conscious

informal situations formal situations

uses grammatical 'feel' uses grammatical rules

depends on attitude depends on aptitude

stable order of acquisition simple to complex order of

learning

Fig. 1: Differences between acquisition and learning

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3.2.4 Monitor Hypothesis

The monitor hypothesis seeks to explain how the learned system affects

the acquired system. According to Krashen, the formal rule system acts as the

Monitorin the acquired system. When second language learners monitor their

speech, they apply their understanding of learned grammar to edit, plan, and

initiate their communication. This action can only occur when speakers have

ample time to think about the form and structure of their sentences.

The Monitor is best used when:

we have to be very careful

when language is necessarily formal

e.g. writing letters of application, speaking to a hierarchical superior in a

formal situation.

There are three conditions required by the Monitor:

Time

The learner must have time to use the monitor. Using the monitor

requires the speaker to slow down and focus on the form of language. Focus on correctness of form

The learner must be focused or thinking about the form of language. A

learner may find it difficult to focus on meaning and form at the same time.

Knowledge of rules

The learner must know the rules. This means that the speaker must have

had explicit instruction on the language form that he or she is trying to

produce.

There three types of monitor users over-users, under-users and optimal-

users. Monitor over-users try to always use their monitor, and are so concerned

with correctness that they cannot speak with any real fluency. Monitor under-

users have not consciously learned or choose not to use their conscious

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knowledge of the language. Error correction by others has little influence on them,

as they can often correct themselves based on a "feel" for correctness.

Teachers should aim to produce optimal monitor users, who use the

monitor when it is appropriate and when it does not interfere with communication.

They do not use their conscious knowledge of grammar in normal conversation,

but will use it in writing and planned speech. Optimal monitor users can

therefore use their learned competence as a supplement to their acquired

competence

Krashen suggests that we should leave the monitor unemployed most of

the time, and concentrate upon the meaning that we wish to convey, rather than

on the form of our utterances.

3.2.5 Natural Order Hypothesis

According to this hypothesis there is a natural order to the way second

language learners acquire their target language. Krashen states that there is a

natural order in which learners pick up a language and this order is roughly

the same for all learners regardless of their linguistic background.

Research shows that this natural order seems to go beyond age, the

learner's native language, the target language, and the conditions under which

the second language is being learned.

Mistakes made by learners are a necessary part of language learning.

These mistakes are not random, but are very similar to the errors that

children make when learning their first language. The mistakes that students

make through time lie in a rough sequence.

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In addition, the sequence of errors for acquired language is not the same

as the sequence of learned grammar items. Some grammatical morphemes

which appear simple from the learning point of view are in fact acquired late - the

's' of PTS. Chinese learning English make the same mistakes, and will learn in

more or less the same order as the French. According to Krashen, this indicates

that there is a natural order in which learners pick up a language. In

addition, these mistakes will be made in the same order whether the

learners have been taught the grammar or not, and that teaching grammar

will not help them change the order.

The combined model of acquisition and production is shown in the

diagram below.

Combined model of acquisition and production

3.2.6 Implications for Teaching

Krashens Monitor Model has its implications for ESL/EFL teaching. Input

hypothesis focuses on comprehensible input at i + 1 level. To enable learners

to advance in language acquisition, teachers need to expose them to large

amounts of authentic language. The language need not be specifically graded in

terms grammatical progression, but adapted to the students interests and

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purposes for learning the language. A wide variety of input, supported by

visual cues and realia should be contextualized in a way that the learner can

understand a large amount of spoken or written language.

According to Krashen comprehension precedes production. As such, L2

learners often go through an initial Silent Period. Teachers should provide time

for silent period to allow learners to build up acquired competence in a language

before they begin to produce it.

In line with the Affective Filter Hypothesis, language acquisition should be

done in relaxing and friendly conditions. Affective-humanistic activities such as

dialogues, interviews, personal charts and tables are encouraged.

Tutorial Task

How does the Krashens Monitor Model help a teacher better to understand how

his/her second language students learn?

Design materials and tasks suitable for primary school learners in relation to

Krashens Monitor Model

Relax and move on to the next topic when you are ready.

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TOPIC 4 SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING THEORIES (II)

4.0 SYNOPSIS

Topic 4 introduces you to Noam Chomskys Universal Grammar(UG), reasons

why it is termed as such and what does it consists of. It also aims to show how

UG relates to first language and second language acquisition. It also discusses

its implications for English language teaching.


By the end of this Session, you will be able to:

define Universal Grammar

explain why it is termed Universal Grammar

explain what Universal Grammar consist of

relate Universal Grammar and first language acquisition

relate Universal Grammar and second language acquisition

identify and discuss implications for teaching


IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING

UNIVERSAL

GRAMMAR

PRINCIPLES PARAMETERS

UG AND FIRST LANGUAGE

ACQUISITION

UG AND SECOND LANGUAGE

ACQUISITION

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CONTENT

SESSION FOUR (3 Hours)

4.2.1 What is Universal Grammar?

Universal Grammar (UG) is the system of principles, conditions,

and rules that are elements or properties of all human languages.

(Chomsky, 1969)

This means that a native speaker of a language knows a set of principles that

can be applied to all languages and parameters that vary from one language to

another. It also refers to an innate, genetic endowment of language-specific

knowledge consisting of the principles and parameters of language.

4.2.2 Why it is named Universal Grammar?

Chomsky named this innate capacity as Universal Grammar. Universal imply that it is

universal to all human beings and human languages and grammar signify the facts

about grammar (language rules) that humans are born knowing.

Before the 1960s, the Structuralist Model was very dominant. It was simply descriptive of

the different levels of production, namely: phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics.

This model did not provide any model or frame work for understanding how the actual

learning takes place.

Language was usually understood from a behaviourist perspective, suggesting that

language learning, like any other kind of learning, could be explained by a succession of

trials, errors, and rewards for success. In the late 1950s, Skinner constructed his

cognitive learning model: behaviorism which correlates with the notion.

Stimulus response reinforcement and habit formation

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According to Skinner, the mind is a blank slate at birth. Children learn the language their

mother tongue by simple imitation, listening to and repeating what adults said.

Thus in 1960s Linguist Noam Chomsky puts forward that the human brain contains a

limited set of rules for organizing language. He there is an assumption that all languages

have a common structural basis. This set of rules is known as universal grammar.

There are three main points of critique of Skinner by Chomsky:

1. Poverty -of-the-stimulus

Speakers proficient in a language know what expressions are acceptable in their

language and what expressions are unacceptable. How speakers should come to know

the restrictions of their language is a mystery, since expressions which violate those

restrictions are not present in the input, indicated as such. This absence of negative

evidencethat is, absence of evidence that an expression is part of a class of the

ungrammatical sentences in one's languageis the core of the poverty of stimulus

argument. For example, in English one cannot relate a question word like 'what' to a

predicate within a relative clause (1):

(1) *What did Dan meet a man who build?

Such expressions are not available to the English language learners, because they are,

by hypothesis, ungrammatical and unacceptable for speakers of that language.

Universal grammar offers a solution to the poverty of the stimulus problem by making

certain restrictions universal characteristics of human languages. Language learners are

consequently never tempted to generalize in an illicit fashion. The logical problem of

language acquisition is that the input is ungrammatical and incomplete and the output

are grammatically acceptable. Children only hear a finite number of sentences but they

are able to learn the abstract rules and principles of the language and produce an infinite

number of sentences.

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2. Constraints and principles cannot be learned

Chomsky believes that the reason that children so easily master the complex operations

of language is that they have innate knowledge of certain principles that guide them in

developing the grammar of their language. His theory on language learning is facilitated

by a predisposition that our brains have certain structures of language. Children, without

having had any formal instruction, can consistently produce and interpret sentences that

they have never encountered before even before the age of 5. At age 6, no one has the

cognitive ability to understand the principles of grammar as a system. It is this

extraordinary ability to use language despite having had only very partial exposure to the

allowable syntactic variants that led Chomsky to formulate his poverty of the stimulus

argument, which was the foundation for the Universal Grammar hypothesis that he

proposed in the early 1960s.

3. Patterns of development are universal

When children develop their language, they learn the various aspects of language in a

very similar order. If children only learned what they are taught, the order of what they

learned would vary in different environments. But Brown (1973) found that there is a very

specific order of MORPHEME acquisition. Morphemes are the smallest syntactic units

that can carry a meaning such as the following examples:

a) Prefixes un and suffix -ed in the word unlimited

b) Present progressive ing ( Daddy jumping)

c) Plural s ( as in books)

d) Irregular past forms ( I run I ran)

Chomsky further explains that human languages exhibit remarkable similarities or

principles. These patterns are called universals. We can find these similarities on many

linguistic levels:

i. Phonological universals: Consonants, for example, are distinguished also

according to the location of their production, that is, after the various organs of

the vocal tract. With the help of this detailed information we can now refer to

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every consonant by its location and manner of articulation; [f], for example, is a

voiceless, labiodentals fricative.

ii. Syntactic universals: Most of existing languages have verbs, nouns, adjectives

and pronouns.

iii. Semantic universals: One semantic universal regards our notion ofcolor. There

exist eleven basic color terms: black, white, red, green, blue, yellow, brown,

purple, pink, orange, and grey.

4.2.3 What does Universal Grammar cons ist of?

Universal Grammar exists in the childs mind as a system ofprinciples and parameters.

The amount of all the principles cover grammar, speech sounds, and meaning that

heredity builds into the human language organ. Principles of Language are rules of the

language or abstract principles that permit or prohibit certain structures from occurring in

all human languages. It is the properties that all languages possess. For example, the

principle of structure dependency asserts that knowledge of language relies on the

structural relationship in a sentence rather than on the sequence of the words. To

illustrate this, we need to establish the concept of phrase structure in the English

Language. Study the following example:

(English) The artist drew an eagle.

(Bahasa Melayu) Pelukis itu melukis seekor burung helang.

This sentence breaks up into a noun phrase (NP) the artist and verb phrase(VP) drew

an eagle. These phrases also break up into smaller constituents. The (NP) the artist

consists of a determiner (Det or D) the and a Noun (N) artist, while the NP an eagle

consists of a determiner an and a Noun eagle.

Sentence

Noun Phrase Verb Phrase

Determiner Noun Verb Noun Phrase

The artist drew Determiner Noun

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an eagle

The above example shows the existence of UG allows a speaker to follow certain rules

of grammar (a sentence has to have a subject) to correctly construct a sentence in that

language.

Whereas Parameters of Language are systematic ways in which human languages

vary which determine the syntactic variability amongst languages. For example, the use

of past tense in English and Arabic which is non-existent in Bahasa Melayu. Look at the

following example:

i. I went to the market yesterday. English ( change in verb go to went)

ii. Semalam saya pergi ke pasar. B. Melayu ( no change in verb pergi)

Chomsky (1986) reiterates that UG is part of the human genetic endowment and is

coded in the Language Acquisition Faculty(LAF). LAF is an innate component of the

human mind that yields a particular language through interaction with presented

experience, a device that converts experience into a system of knowledge attained:

knowledge of one or another language.

Tutorial TaskPrepare your answer to the following questions for your tutorialsession.

Exercise 4.1

a) In your own words, define Universal Grammar.

b) Why did Chomsky named this innate component of the human mindas Universal Grammar?

c) Explain briefly with your own examples what is meant by principles in UG.

d) Explain briefly with your own examples what is meant by parameters inUG.

e) List and describe briefly the 3 points of critique by Chomsky on SkinnersBehaviourist Model.

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Reflection

Do you agree with Chomsky?

Take a break before you move on to the next topic.

SESSION TWO (3 Hours)

4.2.4 Universal Grammar and firs t language acquis ition

The main questions are how UG is used and what other procedures (knowledge,

methods) play a role in the acquisition process.

Before we proceed, answer the following question.

In your own words, what does language acquisition refer to?

Lets check your answer.

Language acquisition usually refers to first language acquisition, which studies infants'

acquisition of their native language. It is the process by which humans acquire the

capacity to perceive and comprehend language, and to produce and use words to

communicate. This is different from second language acquisition, which deals with the

acquisition (in both children and adults) of additional languages.

Can you describe the various stages of language acquisition of a child?

You may check your answers in Session 2 and references listed in the

bibliography about First language acquisition.

The processes in each stage of development show that children are able to learn the

"superficial" grammar of a particular language unconsciously because all intelligible

languages are founded on a "deep structure" of grammatical rules that are universal and

that correspond to an innate capacity of the human brain. Stages in the acquisition of a

native language can be measured by the increasing complexity and originality of a

child's utterances. As illustrated by the example, goed (meaning went), children at first

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may overgeneralize grammatical rules for a form they are unlikely to have heard,

suggesting that they have intuited or deduced complex grammatical rules (here, how to

conjugate regular verbs) and failed only to learn exceptions that cannot be predicted

from a knowledge of the grammar alone.

Although children usually learn the sounds and vocabulary of their native language

through imitation, grammar is seldom taught to them explicitly whereby they could

acquire the ability to speak grammatically. This supports the theory advanced by Noam

Chomsky and other proponents of transformational grammar.

He claims that children are biologically programmed for language and that language

develops in a child in just the same way that other biological functions

develop(Lightbown and Spada, 1999). As one of humans biological functions, walking,

does not have to be taught. Most children learn to walk at about the same age as long

as adequate nourishment and reasonable freedom of movement are provided. Similarly

language acquisition develops progressively naturally according to age due to the

existence of the principles and parameters of UG. Exposure to language triggers the

parameters to adopt the correct setting.

Besides, language is said to be innate because it has the following characteristics:

i. Maturationally controlled

This is because language emerge before they are critically needed and cannot

be forced before scheduled. A child follows a sequence of stages before she is

able to speak.

ii. Do not appear as the result of a conscious decision.

A child does not decide to consciously acquire certain skills such as walking or

learning a language.

iii. Do not appear due to a trigger from external events.

What would prompt a child to begin speaking?

iv. Are relatively unaffected by direct teaching and intensive practice.

Although we correct childrens errors, it does not help them learn the rules.

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v. Follow a regular sequence of milestones in their development.

In spite of different backgrounds, locations, and upbringings, most children follow

the same milestones in acquiring language.

vi. Generally observe a critical period for their acquisition.For first language acquisition, there seems to be a critical period of the first five

years, during which children must be exposed to rich language input. There is

also a period, from about 10 16 years, when acquisition is possible, but not

native-like.

Among Chomskys arguments for his claim that children have this innate capacity,

Universal Grammar, are as follows (Lightbown and Spada, 1999):

1. Virtually all children successfully learn their native language as a time in life when

they would not be expected to learn anything else so complicated. Children who

are profoundly deaf will learn sign language if they are exposed to it in infancy,

and their progress in language acquisition is similar to that of hearing children.

Even children with very limited cognitive ability develop quite complex language

systems if they are brought up in environments in which people talk to them and

engage them in communication.

2. Children successfully master the basic structure of their native language or

dialect in a variety of conditions: some which would be expected to enhance

language development (for example, caring, attentive parents who focus on the

childs language) , and some which might be expected to inhibit it( for example,

abusive or rejecting parents). Children achieve different levels of vocabulary,

creativity, social grace, and so on, but virtually all achieve mastery of the

structure of the language spoken around them. This supports the hypothesis

that language is separate from other aspects of cognitive development and m,ay

even be located in a different part of the brain. The term modular is sometimes

used to represent the notion that the brain has different modules which serve

different kinds of knowledge and learning.

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3. The language children are exposed to does not contain examples(or, in any case,

not very many examples) of all the linguistic rules and patterns which they

eventually know.

4. Animals even primates receiving intensive training from humans cannot learnto manipulate a symbol system as complicated as the natural language of a three

or four-year-old human child.

5. Children seem to accomplish the complex task of language acquisition without

having someone consistently point out to them which of the sentences they hear

and produce are correct and which are ungrammatical.

The above evidences show that direct tea

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