Utilitarianism Resources

7/28/2019 Utilitarianism Resources

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Ethical TheoryAS Level Religious Ethics G572

Utilitarianism


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The said truth is that it is thegreatest happiness of the greatestnumber that is the measure of right

and wrong. Bentham

UtilitarianismCandidates should be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of: The classical forms of Utilitarianism from Bentham and Mill; The principle of Utility; The differences between the Utilitarianism of Bentham and of Mill; The Hedonic Calculus, higher and lower pleasures, quantity v. quality, andAct and Rule Utilitarianism; The Preference Utilitarianism of Peter Singer.Candidates should be able to discuss critically these issues and theirstrengths and weaknesses.

Lesson1. To understand Benthams version of utilitarianism. Hedonism, Actutilitarianism, and the principle of utility.2. To know and understand Benthams Hedonic Calculus.3. To evaluate Benthams Utilitarianism.4. To understand John Stuart Mills utilitarianism: Higher and lower

pleasure, criterion of competent judges Rule utilitarianism.5. To evaluate Mills utilitarianism.6. To understand Peter Singers preference utilitarianism.7. To evaluate Singers Preference utilitarianism. Tosummarise the theory ofutilitarianism8. To plan essays on utilitarianism for next lesson9. To practice writing essays on utilitarianism under timed conditions.

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The first official Utilitarian philosophers were Jeremy Benthamand John Stuart Mill their forms of Utilitarianism are called

classical utilitarianism

Jeremy Bentham(1748- 1832)

Jeremy Bentham devised the theory of utilitarianism. He was an English thinkerwho worked on legal reform in Georgian times. He wrote The principles of moralsand legislation (1789). His Theory has been the philosophical basis for governmentin many parts of todays world. His intentions for a fairer society are obvious in histheory.

Utilitarianism can be said to be a hedonistic theory (from the Greek Hedone,

meaning pleasure). Hedonism is the pursuit of pleasure. Bentham argued thatultimately humans are motivated by pleasure and pain. Pleasure is the sole good,and pain the sole evil.

Nature has placed mankind under the government of two sovereign masters, painand pleasure...they govern us in all we do, in all we say, in all we think

Benthams beliefs about moral action can be summarised in the principle of utility(or greatest happiness principle). Utility means usefulness, for Bentham theusefulness and GOODNESS of an action is determined by the amount of pleasure itproduces:

The said truth is that it is the greatest happiness of the greatestnumber that is the measure of right and wrong. Bentham

Good is seen by Bentham as the maximisation of pleasure and minimisationof pain. Or Happiness = pleasure pain

Benthams Utilitarianism can be described as ACT UTILITARIANISM.

Act Utilitarianism is the Original, and 'official' form of utilitarianismwhich says that our duty on any occasion is to act in the way which

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will produce overall consequences better than (or at least as good as)those that any other act open to us would produce.

Therefore the greatest happiness principle should inform any act we

undertake.

The Hedonic Calculus

Bentham had a quantitative approach to utilitarianism. For him it was the amount ofpleasure produced by an action that determined whether it was right or wrong. In order tocalculate the expected pleasure (and pain) from an action Bentham devised the HedonicCalculus. He set out criteria that should be used to ensure that pain was avoided andpleasure sought. Remember Happiness = pleasure pain.

Duration length of time -the longer lasting pleasure should be soughtIntensity strength of pleasure the more intense pleasure is the most desirable.Propinquity closeness in time - the sooner the better!

Certainty sure to happen More certain pleasures are more desirable the possiblepleasures.Purity freedom from pain the less plain the better.Fecundity fruitfulness the action should go on producing further pleasure.Extent number of people the more people that benefit from the pleasureproduced the better!

According to Bentham acting so to produce the greatest happiness for the greatest numberof people will also produce happiness for the person themselves.

????? Try to think of an acronym to help you to remember the criteria of the hedoniccalculus ?????

According to Bentham the source or the type of the pleasure gained is irrelevant, as long itis pleasure! For a quantitative utilitarian mental pleasures and pains differ from physicalones only in terms of quantity. There are not different types or kinds of pleasure or pain.The pleasure from eating an ice cream cone or reading a classic novel are of the same type.However, reading the classic novel might produce a greater quantity of pleasure due tofecundity or other factors.

Quantity of pleasure being equal, push-pin is as good aspoetry'

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1. What is a definition of teleological theory?2. What is hedonism?3. What does Benthams quote Nature has placed mankind under the government of

two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure...they govern us in all we do, in all wesay, in all we think mean?

4. What is the principle of utility?5. What is GOOD to Bentham?6. What is act utilitarianism?


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Apply the Hedonic Calculus to the following scenario to determine what aUtilitarian would decide to be morally right or wrong.

Application of the Hedonic CalculusRemember to consider pleasure and pain

Criteria If the transplant is done If the money is spent elsewhere..Duration

Intensity

Propinquity

Certainty

Purity

Fecundity

Extent

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A four-year-old girl has a life threatening kidney illness and has only a limited chance ofsurvival if she has a kidney transplant. An organ becomes available. The transplant can goahead. However this is the girls second operation. The first one was unsuccessful becausethe organ was rejected. The operation costs as much as 100 routine operations all with

almost 100% chance of success. The second operation on the girl has little chance ofsuccess because the child is very sick.

Should the doctors:Give the girl a chance at life with transplant despite the low chance of survival?OrSpend the money on routine operations that are most likely to succeed?


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Example of utilitarianism 24 Season 3Terrorists have a biological weapon in vials. The have released one withhideous consequences; it leads to a painful death and spreads quickly.

Watch the clip of the effects of the weapon.

The terrorists have given an order; Jack Bauer must execute the headof the Counter Terrorist Unit, Ryan Chappelle, or they will releaseanother vial of the biological weapon leading to the death ofhundreds and wide scale panic.

Considering the hedonic calculus, what is the right thing to do?

Watch the clip of Ryan Chappelles execution.

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What would a UTILITARIAN conclude is the right thing to do?

Do you agree why? Why not?

Was this agood act?

What is theproblem withutilitarianism?


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Strengths and Weaknesses of

Benthams Utilitarianism

Strengths

It is Egalitarian - the moral view that everyone should be treatedequally. No one persons pleasure is more valued than any others.

It provides people with a decision making procedure- how do they

know what is right in any given situation? Seek to maximisehappiness.

Focuses on the well being of Human beings encouraging people to

be kind to others It emphasises Happiness which according to many ethicists is

common sense.

It recognises the importance ofconsequence in moral decisions and

responsibility

Criticisms

He implies all forms of pleasure or happiness are equal. (A problem

later tackled by mill). Please gained by sadistic torture is as desirableas pleasure gained by friendship and knowledge according to

Bentham. It is not really possible to know the consequences of our actions so

it is foolish to base our decisions on assumptions and uncertainties.

When do the consequences cease to be the consequences of youraction?

Motive has no importance in utilitarianism so it doesnt matter at allwhy you do something therefore actions that promote happiness areGOOD no matter what! Therefore my motive for my action might begreed or lust but as long as pleasure is the consequence the action isgood.

Anything is permitted as long as it promotes happiness evenblatantly unjust actions, therefore violating the principle of Justice.

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This permits obviously immoral actions such as gang rape and murderif people find them pleasurable.

Although he provides the hedonic calculus many would argue that you

cannot measure pleasure.

Nothing has intrinsic worth pleasure makes things acceptable

therefore breaking the golden rule from natural law and Kant thatevil may not be done so that good may come.

Which is the most convincing strength of Benthams utilitarianism?Give reasons for your answer.

Which is the most problematic weakness of Benthams Utilitarianism?Give reasons for your answer.

John Stuart Mill

John Stuart mill was a peer of Benthams. Like Bentham, Mills form ofutilitarianism can also be called CLASSICAL UTILITARIANISM He agreedthat the moral behaviourshould seek to maximise happiness, but he madesome important developments to Benthams utilitarianism. He sought inparticular to address the absence of Justice in Utilitarianism so far.

Higher and Lower PleasuresMill made the distinction between different types of pleasure that wasabsent in Benthams version. He recognised that there are different ways ofassessing the value of happiness. Whereas Benthams is a QUANTITATIVE

approach, Mills is a QUALITATIVE approach to utilitarianism.His basic idea was that pleasures of the mind and the spirit were of morevalue than pleasures of the body. So pleasures gained by learning,conversations etc were of higher value that eating, drinking and sex (forphysical pleasure only). Pleasures of the mind and the spirit are pleasureshe attributed as only being available to humans and therefore should bepursued by humans,as to not reduce ourselves to animals.

He put it like this:

It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; betterto be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.

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It is better to seek thehigher pleasures and not

reach them

Than to strive for lowerpleasures- even if it meansyou are satisfied!


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Criterion of competent Judges.Mill argued that those familiar with both types of pleasure would makean educated judgement to value higher pleasures over lower pleasures.

If faced with a wide variety of competing pleasures and asked toconclude their greatest happiness value the higher pleasures will bepreferred. He calls this the criterion of competent judges. Those whoare familiar with both higher and lower pleasures and choose to thosewho prefer lower pleasures suffer from, according to Mill, an infirmityof character.

Check your answers above - Are you a competent judge or do you sufferfrom an infirm character!

Rule utilitarianismMills version of Utilitarianism can be described as RULE utilitarianism though Mill did not use this term it was a name given later.Precisely because we do not have the time to calculate accurately inevery instance (as required by the hedonic calculus), he supposed, we

properly allow our actions to be guided by moral rules most of the time.Partly anticipating the later distinction between act and rule utilitarianism,Mill pointed out that principles other than the principle of utility, at thevery least, perform an important service by providing ample guidance for

every-day moral life. Finally, however, he emphasized that the value ofeach particular actionespecially in difficult or controversial casesis to bedetermined by reference to the principle of utility itself.

Action Happiness value ratingEating

DebatingFighting

Learning

Playing instrument

Getting drunk

Kissing

Playing Music

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Rate the following actions in order of the happiness value they have for you (1 most, 8 least)
http://www.philosophypages.com/dy/a.htm#actrulehttp://www.philosophypages.com/dy/a.htm#actrule


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Rule utilitarianism teaches that we should establish rules based on thegreatest happiness principle and then follow these rules. Throughout theexperience of life we learn about the kinds of actions that , in the long run,contribute most to human happiness. (Hamilton). Therefore there is noneed to decide the greatest happiness in EVERY situation as following therules should, in general, produce the greatest happiness for the greatestnumber. Individual acts can therefore be judged as right or wrong byreference to the rules.Rule utilitarianism can be divided again into strong and weak ruleutilitarianism. strong rule utilitarians will not break rules once they havebeen established, weak rule utilitarians will break a rule if more pleasure isproduced by doing so.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Mills UtilitarianismMost of the weaknesses of Benthams utilitarianism are shared by Mill.

Weaknesses Is it really possible to know the consequences of our actions?

When do the consequences cease to be the consequences of your

action?

Motive has no importance in utilitarianism so it doesnt matter at allwhy you do something therefore actions that promote happiness areGOOD no matter what!

Because of its emphasis on pleasures of the mind Mills utilitarianismis often criticised for being INTELLECTUALLY ELITIST and SNOBBISH.It implies that those who are satisfied with their life that is filledwith lower pleasures are living the life of an animal. according tothe criterion of competent judges they have an infirm character

It is not always easy to distinguish between higher and lowerpleasures. Getting drunk may be a lower pleasure but what if mypleasure comes from drinking wine that I have spent years learningabout and share my knowledge with others etc

Sex may also be considered a lower pleasure but surely sex in a

loving, committed relationship is a pleasure of the spirit?

Strong rule utilitarianism is not based on pleasure (or they wouldbreak the rule if more pleasure was produced by doing so) therefore

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1. Explain the difference between Higher and lower pleasures.2. Explain the quote It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig

satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.3. What is the criterion of competent Judges?

4. What is Rule Utilitarianism?5. Explain the difference between strong and weak rule utilitarianism.

Same asBentham


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what else does it take into consideration? Is it only part utilitarianand part deontological? Hamilton argues that the rule utilitarian should just admit that he or she cares about things other thanhappiness (Hamilton)

Strengths It is Egalitarian - the moral view that everyone should be treated

equally. It provides people with a decision making procedure- how do they

know what is right in any given situation? Seek to maximisehappiness.

Focuses on the well being of Human beings encouraging people to

be kind to others

It emphasises Happiness which according to many ethicists iscommon sense. It recognises the importance of consequence in moraldecisions and responsibility

Mill attempts to address the problem of Justice evident in Benthams

theory. It is possible to eradicate some of the injustices on thegrounds that Rules will norm decisions and there is a distinction madebetween higher and lower pleasures.

It avoids the time consuming calculations required by the hedonic

calculus

Preference Utilitarianism

Preference Utilitarianism is a modern form of Utilitarianism.

An Act utilitarian judges right or wrong according to the maximisingof pleasure and minimising of pain,

A Rule utilitarian judges right or wrong according to the keeping of

rules derived from utility, but

A Preference utilitarian judges moral actions according to whether

they fit in with the preferences (interests) of the individuals involved.This approach to Utilitarianism asks:

What is in my own interest? What would I prefer in this situation? Whichoutcome would I prefer? However, because Utilitarianism aims to createthe greatest good for the greatest number, it is necessary to consider the

preferences of others in order to achieve this.

In the same way as other utilitarian theorists,preference utilitarians define a morally right action asthat which produces the most favourableconsequences for the people involved. However,preference utilitarians interpret the bestconsequences in terms of 'preference satisfaction'.This means that 'good' is described as the satisfaction

of each person's individual preferences or desires, anda right action is that which leads to this satisfaction. .

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Same asBentham


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Peter Singers approachIn his book Practical Ethics Peter Singer describes what he meansby preference utilitarianism.Singer argues that, by its very nature, ethics requires that weconsider the interests of others as well as our own. Ethics requiresthat we go beyond I and You to the universal law, the universaljudgement, the standpoint of the impartial spectator ideal observeror whatever we choose to call it.

Interests: he explains taking a persons interests to be what, on balance,and after refection on all the relevant facts, a person prefers.

Singer suggests that we should take the viewpoint of an impartial spectatorcombined with a broadly utilitarian approach. He says that our ownpreferences cannot count for more simply because they are my own and so,in acting morally, we should take account of all the people affected by ouractions. These have to be weighed and balanced and then we must choose

the action which gives the best possible consequences for those affected.For Singer, the best possible consequences means what is in the bestinterests of the individuals concerned this is different from Bentham, Mill,as he is not considering what increases pleasure and diminishes pain.

This principle of equal consideration of preferences or interests acts like apair of scales everyones preferences or interests are weighed equally. Imust choose the course of action that has the best consequences, onbalance, for all affected

Singer writes:The way of thinking I have outlines is a form of utilitarianism. Iit differsfrom classical utilitarianism in that, best consequences is understood asmeaning what, on balance, furthers the interests of those affected ratherthan merely what increases pleasure and reduces pain.

He however concedes:It has however, been suggested that classical Utilitarians like Benthamand Mill used Pleasure and Pain in a broad sense that allowed them toinclude achieving what one desired as pleasure, and the reverse aspain. If this interpretation is correct the difference between classicalutilitarianism and utilitarianism based on interests disappears.

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1. How does a Preference Utilitarian judge the rightness or wrongness of an action?2. What is a right action according to preference Utilitarianism?3. Outline Singers Preference utilitarianism, including:

How a right decision is made?

How it differs from Bentham and Mills approaches?

How it might be considered the same as classical utilitarianism?


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Evaluation of Preference Utilitarianism

Strengths

It is Egalitarian - the moral view that everyone should be

treated equally.

It is considerate of others. No one persons interests count

as any more than the others. It emphasises interests or preferences rather than

pleasure or happiness, which eradicates some of theproblems of classical utilitarianism e.g. elitism or theswine ethic

It avoids the time consuming calculations required by the

hedonic calculus

It encourages us to consider all things with interests

including animals that are capable of pain in our decision-making.

Weaknesses

Is it really possible to know the consequences of our

actions?

When do the consequences cease to be the consequences

of your action?

Motive has no importance in utilitarianism so it doesnt

matter at all why you do something therefore actions thatpromote happiness are GOOD no matter what!

Singer himself conceded that It has however, been

suggested that classical Utilitarians like Bentham and Millused Pleasure and Pain in a broad sense that allowedthem to include achieving what one desired as pleasure,and the reverse as pain. If this interpretation is correctthe difference between classical utilitarianism andutilitarianism based on interests disappears. it is no

different! How is it possible to know the interests or preferences of

others?

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Same asBenthamand Mill


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Application of Utilitarianism

Aspect of theory Abortion Euthanasia Gen eng/ Emb Res Right to a child(IVF)

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Principle:Utilitarianismteaches:

Abortion Euthanasia Genetic engineering Embryo Research Right to a child

BenthamsUtilitarianismteaches that theright action is onewhich creates thegreatest happinessfor the greatestnumber of people.This is called theprinciple of utility

and is thefoundation of utilitarianism

It is clear thatutilitarianism will favourthe practice of abortionon the grounds that it islikely to make manypeople happy(In 1998 over 187,000abortions-more than 510a day were performed therefore chosen by a

great number of people!)On the wholeutilitarianism will supportabortion on the groundsof a womans right tochoose. (One could arguethat if the foetus isconsidered a person theirhappiness is not takeninto consideration bututilitarians dont considerthe foetus a person).

Voluntary Euthanasiacan promote thegreatest happiness forthe greatest numberof people providing itis voluntary and thoseclose to the personagree with theirchoice.

A great number of peoplewill benefit if the potentialfor genetic engineering isever realised. E.g.Developing cures fordiseases preventing themfrom developing infoetuses, resilient crops.- thereforeutilitarianism will support

Genetic engineering.

By developing cures fordiseases through embryoresearch or preventingthem from developing infoetuses - a great numberof people will benefittherefore utilitarianismwill support use of embryo research.

Bentham would arguethat providing IVF tochildless couplescreates the greatesthappiness for thegreatest number ofpeople. (More peopleare likely to feelstrongly about wanting

IVF than those whooppose it.?)

Benthamformulated theHedonic calculus inorder to calculatethe pleasure andpain caused by an

action andtherefore concludeif it is acceptable.An action is good ifit produces morepain than pleasurein the criteria ofthe hedoniccalculus.

Principles such asduration andpropinquity cansupport abortion usingthe hedonic calculus. Theduration of pain

physical in birth andgreat unhappinesscaused by beingresponsible for a childyou do not want, andpossibly cant abide, willout weigh the amount ofpain caused by abortion.And while you may arguethat a woman may growto love her foetus andbaby once it is born thepleasure is too far awayto be of value.

Principles such asDuration andpropinquity cansupport euthanasia asthe pain of dyingquickly is preferable

to a long drawn outdeath, and thecloseness of thepleasure a death byeuthanasia ispreferable to a faraway natural death eventually bringingpleasure.However one couldargue that thepleasure is not pureas it does mean killingsomeone!

If research is correctGenetic engineering hasan almost certain chanceof leading to greater

pleasure therefore fulfillingthe criterion offecundity.The effects of the progressare likely to be long termand therefore in thecriterion ofduration thepleasure outweighs thepain. Embryo research isthe same as gen. eng. inthe above criteria howeverif any place is given toembryos in society theydie for this research so it isnot pure.

If research is correctEmbryo research has analmost certain chance ofleading to greaterpleasure thereforefulfilling the criterion of

fecundity. The effects ofthe progress are likely tobe long term andtherefore in the criterionofduration the pleasureoutweighs the pain.However if any place isgiven to embryos insociety they die for thisresearch so it is notpure.

The duration ofpleasure created byhaving a child willoutweigh the pain ofIVF IF the IVF issuccessful. However

waiting for thepleasure that willeventually come fromhaving a child furtheraway than the pain oftrying (and possiblyfailing) IVF. ThereforeIVF does not fulfil thepropinquity criteria.The intensity of thepleasure is strongerthan the intensity ofthe pain if you reallywant a child.


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Mill adaptedBenthamsutilitarianismadding theimportance ofthe quality ofthe pleasurerather than theamount.He valuedhigherpleasures overlower pleasuresand argues any

competentJudge willagree.

Although it is not alwaysclear which are higherand lower pleasures wemight be able to safelyconclude that JS Mill willpermit abortion on thegrounds of furtheringstudy rather that onesdesire to keep theirfigure. On the most partMill will permit abortiondue to the fact he placeda great emphasis on theAutonomy of Ethics (SelfLaw) particularlypertaining to privatemorality.

If a person who ismentally sound butphysically disabledfeels the pleasure ofeuthanasia you couldargue that thepleasure that feel is ahigher pleasurebecause living in thatway is mentaltorment. But if it ispurely to end physicalpain that is felt Millmay perhaps considerthis to be a lowerpleasure andtherefore less valid.

See private moralitypoint also

It could be argued thatgenetic engineering canincrease the pleasures ofthe mind by helping toeradicate mentaldisabilities thereforemaking people capable ofhigher pleasures...

Those doing theresearch/engineering arealso exercising the use oftheir mind so presumablythis is higher pleasure.

Mill may not permitgenetic eng for aestheticreasons.

It could be argued thatembryo research canincrease the pleasures ofthe mind by helping toeradicate mentaldisabilities thereforemaking people capable ofhigher pleasures...

Those doing theresearch/engineering arealso exercising the use oftheir mind so presumablythis is higher pleasure.

It would be necessaryto deduce whetherhaving a child satisfieshigher or lowerpleasures before it isjustified. This is adifficult judgement tomake and is a criticismof Mills approach.

Mill favoured arule utilitarianapproach andconcluded thatgeneral rulescould bededuced thatwouldmaximisepleasure for thegreatestnumber ofpeople andthese rulesshould befollowed.

Rule utilitarianism isparticularly favourable tothe practice of abortion,since it considers bothmotivation andconsequences andconsent (not of thefoetus). It must be themother choice and notthe case that she iscoerced into the abortionby boyfriend / parentsetc

By basing rules onutilitarian principles Millmay conclude that rulessuch as abortion can bepermitted if chosen bythe mother (ruling outforced abortion by thestate e.g. China.)

Utilitarians on thewhole are likely tosupport Voluntaryeuthanasia andtherefore this may bea general rule to beobserved. Euthanasiacan take place if theperson feels that theirlife is not worth living.However as Mill valuesautonomy andtherefore consent it

would need to becertain that theperson gives theirconsent arentforced by relatives

The rules should beagainst the designer babyaspect of gen. eng. due tothe fact that the majoritywill not support it. Whereas the majority will benefitfrom progress inidentifying diseases sotherefore it can bepermitted. Other aspectsof genetic engineering e.g.GM crops would have tobenefit the majority not

just the rich!

The rules should beagainst the designer babyaspect of embryoresearch due to the factthat the majority will notsupport it. Where as themajority will benefit fromprogress in identifyingdiseases so therefore itcan be permitted

Due to the potentialpain created by failedIVF Mill may createrules thatEnsure pain isminimalised e.g.l imited number ofattempts. Also thehappiness of the child(once born) must beconsidered therefore itmay be necessary toconsider the suitability

of the parents whoreceive IVF.

Utilitarianismhas beencriticised on thegrounds that itallows unjustactions to occur

The end justifies themeans .As long as happiness isthe end result Benthamsutilitarianism allows anyaction no matter howunjust it may seem to be

The end justifiesthe means .As long as happinessis the end resultBenthamsutilitarianism allowsany action no matter

The end justifies themeansPotentially it doesntmatter what is done toachieve the cure or thegenetic modification aslong as the end result is

The end justifies themeansPotentially it doesntmatter what is done toachieve aim of theresearch e.g. a cure orknowledge of diseases as

The end justifies themeans...The child is not ameans to make peoplehappy they are ahuman in themselvesand should not be used

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Peter Singerput the modernform ofutilitarianismpreferenceutilitarianismforward. Heargues that Thesatisfaction ofthe preferencesof thoseinvolved makesa right moralaction. Pain, forsinger includesnot having youpreferencessatisfied andpleasure havingyourpreferencessatisfied.

Singer argues that as afoetus or embryo is notself-conscious and doesnot have preferencesand, particularly at theearly stages of development, does notfeel pain, then abortion isentirely morallyacceptable. This support

of a womans right tochoose and abortion isregardless of thegrounds for abortion.There is no significantmoral differencebetween a womanwanting to have anabortion as a result ofrape or because thefoetus is deformed orsimply because she findsit inconvenient.ROSALINDROSEHURST objects toSingers liberal approachto abortion on utilitariangrounds stating that

there are good utilitariangrounds to object toabortion as Singer hasfailed to treat the foetusas it was ever going todevelop. If we kill afoetus we know that thisaction, other thingsbeing equal, will be to killa being that, had it notbeen killed, would havelived happily for 70 yearsor so.

Singer has spoken outin favour of euthanasia on thegrounds that if somebody wants toend their life it is rightto satisfy theirpreferences. Hefavours a quality oflife approach even

arguingcontroversially thatEuthanasia should beadministered to thosewho are not capableof preferences in theinterests of thoseinvolved in thatsituation who are e.g.carers.

Singer would not object tothe genetic modification ofplants on the ground thatthey are not capable ofhaving preference and donot feel pain. However, asa champion of animalrights Singer would objectto the modification ofanimals for the benefit of

human beings as a humancentred approach tomorality to animalexperimentation isspeciest.If however the geneticmodification took place insuch a way as to satisfythe imagined preferencesof the animal Singer wouldnot object. He would alsobe in support of thegenetic modification ofhuman beings if theirpreference were satisfiede.g. the eradication ofgenetic diseases.

On the grounds that it isimpossible to imagine thepreferences of an embryoand embryos do not feelpain duringexperimentation. Singerhas no objection toembryo research. Hewould favour embryoresearch on the ground

that the progress madethrough embryo researchwill lead to the preferencesatisfaction of a largenumber of people whomight otherwise beaffected by the diseasesor conditions that theresearch on embryos findcures for.

As the embryosinvolved in the IVFprocedure have nopreferences accordingto Singers criteria andthey also feel no painduring the proceduretheir rights are nonexistent in SingersPreference

utilitarianism. Thepreference of theparent to conceive andbe parents to a childwill be his mainconcern thereforeallowing IVF to goahead and satisfy thepreference of thosewho want toreproduce.

At the end of his book,Rethinking Life & Death,Singer provides five (5)examples of the oldsanctity of lifecommandments and five(5) examples of newcommandments. Theformer is given in bold

type and the latter in italictype, in sequential,numbered order: 1) treatall human life as ofequal worth, recognisethat there are varieties inthe worth of human life;2) never intentionallytake innocent life; takeresponsibility for theconsequences of yourdecisions; 3) never takeyour own life andalways try to preventothers from takingtheirs; respect a personsdesire to live or to die; 4)be fruitful and multiply;

bring children into theworld only if they arewanted; 5) treat allhuman beings lives asalways more preciousthan the lives of otheranimals; do not discriminate on the basisof species.

In terms of abortioncommandment 4is relevant. Onlythose who arewanted should beborn not simplythe command toreproduce. Thisensures themaximisation of

happiness andpreferencesatisfaction 9hedoes not believethe foetus iscapable of havingpreferences.Commandment 2also requireshuman beings totakeresponsibility fortheir decision.Singer wouldargue this caninvolve having anabortion.

Singer is a ferventsupporter of Euthanasia on thegrounds that allowingpeople to choosewhen they die willmaximise preferencesatisfaction andtherefore limitsuffering. This belief isexpressed in the

commandment 3 ofSingers newcommandment. Healso identifies theneed to recognisedifferent qualities oflife as of differentvalue and when life isof insufficient value itcan be ended (Singerscommandment 1).

In regards to geneticengineering Singersupports the engineeringof genes in order toalleviate suffering. It wouldenable life to be of animproved quality thehigher quality of life themore valuablecommandment 1.The embryos that are

involved in engineering arenot capable of preferencestherefore do not need tobe considered. We mustnot according to Singerallow genetic engineeringof animals for human gainif we can imagine it isagainst their preferences.This, according tocommandment 5, isspeciesist.

In regards to embryoresearch Singer supportsthe research on embryosin order to alleviatesuffering. It would enablelife to be of an improvedquality the higherquality of life the morevaluable commandment1.The embryos that are

involved in engineeringare not capable of preferences therefore donot need to beconsidered.

According tocommandment 4 onlychildren that arewanted should beborn. Those havingfertility treatmentobvious want theirbabies thereforefulfilling thiscommandment.Commandment 2

instructs we must takeresponsibility for ourdecisions- havingfertility treatment andresponsibly raising thechildren producedfulfils this requirement.

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Evaluate a UTILITARIAN approach to medical ethics. Bare in mind in the exam you could be asked to apply the theoryand evaluate it in relation to one or all of the issues

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Strengths Weaknesses


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How could this topic be address in the exam?

A) Is a straight forward AO1 question. No individual scholar has been identified so youwrite all you know about the theory of utilitarianism being careful to use technicalterms and organise the material properly.

B) B) is basically asking whether or not the theory has SERIOUS WEAKNESSES. Youargue it has and then it hasnt remember use the words of the question andevidence to answer it.

A)This question tests three things. You know the issue, you know the theory andyou understand the theory applied to the issue. You need to write a an aspect ofthe theory and then apply THAT ASPECT TO THE ISSUE. The exam board expectsyou to understand this in detail, not just the obvious e.g. gen eng will lead to thehappiness for the greatest number maybe so but not enough!

B) Again this is an argument but must be specifically linked to whether the theoryis UNFAIR or you havent answered the question. Remember to use evidence.

A)You should describe an aspect of the thinking of ONE of the scholars and thencontrast it with the other. E.g. describe ACT and contrast it with RULE. You are notasked for the similarities or a description of the theories on its own tempting towrite all you know but it will actually lower your mark because you will be writingon the general topic not the question itself.

B) This is another way of asking whether or not utilitarians would agree with atopic so you need to show two sides. Again use the words of the question and

evidence to support your point.

A)You need to write about relativism in general and then an example of relativismwhich is utilitarianism. You can then give examples of it in practice e.g. abortionand gen eng.

BHere you evaluate a relativist approach in regards to how helpful it is. Stick torelativism in general and then cultural relativism at first to show you know that

a) Describe the theory of utilitarianism (25)b) Utilitarianism has no serious weaknesses discuss (10)

a) How would a follower of Utilitarianism respond to the issueof .............. (25)

a) Describe the main differences between Bentham and Mills

Utilitarianism (25)

a) Describe, with examples, what is meant by Ethical relativism.b) A relativist approach to medical issues is unhelpful discuss (10)


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utilitarianism isnt the only relativist theory. You can then evaluate whetherUtilitarianism is helpful in moral decision making.

How would a follower of Utilitarianism respond to the issue ofEuthanasia (25 Marks)

Introduction- introduce the topic and the issue.

Paragraph One: describe an aspect of the theory e.g. the greatest happiness principle. Theapply this aspect to the issue

Paragraph Two

Paragraph three

Paragraph Four

Paragraph Five

Paragraph Six

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Utilitarianism will lead unjust decisions being made. (10marks)

Conclusion

You must use evidence to sustain your argument

You must show more than one point of view.

Use the words of the question to structure your argument and draw your conclusion

Introduction:

Arguments and evidence:

Counter Arguments and evidence:

Conclusion:

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Documents

Utilitarianism Resources