Preference Preference UtilitarianismUtilitarianism

Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives

By the end of this lesson, we will have...By the end of this lesson, we will have... ConsolidatedConsolidated our knowledge of Act our knowledge of Act

and Rule Utilitarianism by comparing and Rule Utilitarianism by comparing (in detail) Act and Rule Utilitarianism.(in detail) Act and Rule Utilitarianism.

DiscussedDiscussed Preference Utilitarianism.Preference Utilitarianism. AppliedApplied Preference Utilitarianism to Preference Utilitarianism to

ethical dilemmasethical dilemmas..

Key WordsKey Words

UtilitarianismUtilitarianism- ethical theory by which actions - ethical theory by which actions are judged according to their anticipated results.are judged according to their anticipated results.

Act utilitarianism-Act utilitarianism- utilitarian theory applied to utilitarian theory applied to the the resultsresults of of individualindividual actions. actions.

Rule utilitarianism-Rule utilitarianism- utilitarian theory that utilitarian theory that takes into account the results of obeying takes into account the results of obeying general rulesgeneral rules of conduct. of conduct.

Preference utilitarianism-Preference utilitarianism- utilitarian theory utilitarian theory that takes into account the that takes into account the preferencespreferences of of allall those involved in a particular course of those involved in a particular course of actionaction..

ConsequentialismConsequentialism

Consequentialism is the theory that the moral Consequentialism is the theory that the moral status of an act is determined by its status of an act is determined by its consequences. consequences.

Consequentialism thus rejects both the virtue Consequentialism thus rejects both the virtue ethicist’s view that the moral status of an act ethicist’s view that the moral status of an act is determined by the moral character of the is determined by the moral character of the agent performing it, and the deontologist’s agent performing it, and the deontologist’s view that the moral status of an act is view that the moral status of an act is determined by the type of act that it is. determined by the type of act that it is.

According to consequentialism, each of these According to consequentialism, each of these factors is morally irrelevant. All that matters is factors is morally irrelevant. All that matters is what consequences an act leads to.what consequences an act leads to.

Act vs. RuleAct vs. Rule

Task:Task: 10 minutes 10 minutes

Use class notes and text book Use class notes and text book to complete the Act vs. Rule to complete the Act vs. Rule table. table.

Complete it in Complete it in detail.detail. It will be a useful It will be a useful revision aid.revision aid.

Preference UtilitarianismPreference Utilitarianism It is associated with R.M Hare, It is associated with R.M Hare, Peter SingerPeter Singer and Richard Brandt. and Richard Brandt. DefinitionDefinition: moral actions are right or wrong according to how they fit the : moral actions are right or wrong according to how they fit the

preferences of those involved.preferences of those involved. An An Act utilitarianAct utilitarian judges right or wrong according to the maximising of judges right or wrong according to the maximising of

pleasure and minimising of pain.pleasure and minimising of pain. AA Rule utilitarian Rule utilitarian judges right or wrong according to the keeping of rules judges right or wrong according to the keeping of rules

derived from utility.derived from utility. BUT, a BUT, a preference utilitarianpreference utilitarian judges moral actions according to whether judges moral actions according to whether

they fit in which the preferences of the individuals involved.they fit in which the preferences of the individuals involved.This approach asks:This approach asks: ‘‘What is in my own interest?’What is in my own interest?’ ‘‘What would I prefer in this situation?’What would I prefer in this situation?’ ‘‘Which outcome would I prefer?’Which outcome would I prefer?’

HoweverHowever, because Utilitarianism is concerned with the greatest good for the , because Utilitarianism is concerned with the greatest good for the greatest number, it is necessary to consider the preferences of greatest number, it is necessary to consider the preferences of othersothers in in order to achieve this.order to achieve this.

R.M. HareR.M. Hare He argues that in moral decision making we need to He argues that in moral decision making we need to

consider our own preferences and those of others.consider our own preferences and those of others. He says that “equal preferences count equally, whatever He says that “equal preferences count equally, whatever

their content”. their content”. People are happy when they get what they prefer, but People are happy when they get what they prefer, but

what what wewe prefer may clash with the preferences of others. prefer may clash with the preferences of others. He says we need to “stand in someone else’s shoes”, He says we need to “stand in someone else’s shoes”,

and try to imagine what someone else may prefer.and try to imagine what someone else may prefer. We should treat everyone, including ourselves, with We should treat everyone, including ourselves, with

impartiality- he also argues for impartiality- he also argues for universalisabilityuniversalisability (what (what is right or wrong for one person in a situation is right or is right or wrong for one person in a situation is right or wrong for all). wrong for all).

Preference UtilitarianismPreference Utilitarianism In preference utilitarianism, the assessment of a In preference utilitarianism, the assessment of a

situation takes into account the preferences of situation takes into account the preferences of the individuals involved, except where those the individuals involved, except where those preferences come into direct conflict with the preferences come into direct conflict with the preferences of others.preferences of others.

So, the right thing to do in any situation is to So, the right thing to do in any situation is to maximise the satisfaction of the maximise the satisfaction of the

preferences of all those involved.preferences of all those involved. This gets around the problem of using This gets around the problem of using

utilitarianism to impose one idea of happiness utilitarianism to impose one idea of happiness on someone who might have a very different on someone who might have a very different one.one.

Preference UtilitarianismPreference Utilitarianism

All forms of utilitarianism hold that we ought to maximise the good All forms of utilitarianism hold that we ought to maximise the good and minimise the bad. Where the different forms of utilitarianism and minimise the bad. Where the different forms of utilitarianism differ is in what they take to be the good and the bad. differ is in what they take to be the good and the bad.

Preference utilitarianism holds that the good is preference Preference utilitarianism holds that the good is preference satisfaction, i.e. getting what we want, and that the bad is the satisfaction, i.e. getting what we want, and that the bad is the opposite, i.e. not getting what we want. People may be mistaken opposite, i.e. not getting what we want. People may be mistaken about what will make them happy. about what will make them happy.

For Example…For Example… It may be that you think that going to the pub and downing six pints It may be that you think that going to the pub and downing six pints

of lager will make you happy, but that you would actually be happier of lager will make you happy, but that you would actually be happier staying at home and reading Dostoyevsky.staying at home and reading Dostoyevsky.

In such a case, the hedonistic utilitarian would say that it is better if In such a case, the hedonistic utilitarian would say that it is better if you stay at home and read Dostoyevsky; that, after all, is what will you stay at home and read Dostoyevsky; that, after all, is what will make you happiest. make you happiest.

The preference utilitarian, though, would say that it is better if you The preference utilitarian, though, would say that it is better if you go to the pub; that is what you want to do, and what matters is that go to the pub; that is what you want to do, and what matters is that you get what you want.you get what you want.

Peter SingerPeter Singer He says “our own preferences cannot count any more than the He says “our own preferences cannot count any more than the

preferences of others’ and so, in acting morally, we should take preferences of others’ and so, in acting morally, we should take account of all the people affected by our actions.account of all the people affected by our actions.

These have to be weighed and balanced and then we must choose These have to be weighed and balanced and then we must choose the action which gives the best possible consequences for those the action which gives the best possible consequences for those affected.affected.

However, preference utilitarians interpret the best consequences in However, preference utilitarians interpret the best consequences in terms of 'preference satisfaction'. This means that 'good' is terms of 'preference satisfaction'. This means that 'good' is described as the satisfaction of each person's individual preferences described as the satisfaction of each person's individual preferences or desires, and a right action is that which leads to this satisfaction. or desires, and a right action is that which leads to this satisfaction.

Since what is good depends solely on individual preferences, there Since what is good depends solely on individual preferences, there can be nothing that is in itself good or bad except for the resulting can be nothing that is in itself good or bad except for the resulting state of mind. Preference utilitarianism therefore can be state of mind. Preference utilitarianism therefore can be distinguished by its acknowledgement that every person's distinguished by its acknowledgement that every person's experience of satisfaction will be unique.experience of satisfaction will be unique.

SingerSinger For Singer, the ‘best possible consequences’ means For Singer, the ‘best possible consequences’ means

what is the ‘best interests of the individuals concerned- what is the ‘best interests of the individuals concerned- this is different from Bentham and Mill, as he is not this is different from Bentham and Mill, as he is not considering what increases pleasure and diminishes considering what increases pleasure and diminishes pain.pain.

The principle of equal consideration acts like a pair of The principle of equal consideration acts like a pair of scales- everyone’s preferences are weighed equally.scales- everyone’s preferences are weighed equally.

So, killing a person who prefers to go on living would be So, killing a person who prefers to go on living would be wrong and not killing a person who prefers to die would wrong and not killing a person who prefers to die would also be wrong.also be wrong.

Racism is also wrong, as it goes against the principle of Racism is also wrong, as it goes against the principle of acknowledging other person’s interests or preferences acknowledging other person’s interests or preferences and gives greater value to the preferences of one’s own and gives greater value to the preferences of one’s own race.race.

Utilitarianism in Utilitarianism in practicepractice

Imagine a doctor is called the scene of an Imagine a doctor is called the scene of an accident and is required to set a broken bone accident and is required to set a broken bone and perform other emergency procedures.and perform other emergency procedures.

His action is almost certain to cause additional His action is almost certain to cause additional pain to the one injured.pain to the one injured.

Is that pain good or bad?Is that pain good or bad? Well, since short term pain is outweighed by the Well, since short term pain is outweighed by the

long-term good of having limbs that grow long-term good of having limbs that grow straight. straight.

If you cause pain in the process of saving a life, If you cause pain in the process of saving a life, utilitarianism argues that action can be judged utilitarianism argues that action can be judged good.good.

Terminology TestTerminology Test

Explain the following key Explain the following key ideas withoutideas without

looking at your books and looking at your books and notes: -notes: -

1.1. Consequentialist?Consequentialist?2.2. Teleological ethics?Teleological ethics?3.3. Act Utilitarian?Act Utilitarian?4.4. Rule Utilitarian?Rule Utilitarian?5.5. Preference Utilitarian?Preference Utilitarian?6.6. Universalisability?Universalisability?7.7. Principle of Utility?Principle of Utility?8.8. Hedonism?Hedonism?

Terms- DiscussTerms- Discuss1.1. Consequentialist-Consequentialist- someone who decides whether an action is someone who decides whether an action is

good or bad by its consequences.good or bad by its consequences.2.2. Teleological ethics-Teleological ethics- moral actions are right or wrong according moral actions are right or wrong according

to their outcome or teleos (end). to their outcome or teleos (end). 3.3. Act Utilitarian-Act Utilitarian- a teleological theory that uses the outcome of an a teleological theory that uses the outcome of an

action to determine whether it is good or bad.action to determine whether it is good or bad.4.4. Rule Utilitarian-Rule Utilitarian- establishing a general rule that follows utilitarian establishing a general rule that follows utilitarian

principles.principles.5.5. Preference Utilitarian-Preference Utilitarian- moral actions are right or wrong moral actions are right or wrong

according to how they fit the preferences of those involved.according to how they fit the preferences of those involved.6.6. UniversalisabilityUniversalisability- what is right or wrong for one person in a - what is right or wrong for one person in a

situation is right or wrong for all.situation is right or wrong for all.7.7. Principle of Utility-Principle of Utility- the theory of usefulness- the greatest the theory of usefulness- the greatest

happiness for the greatest number.happiness for the greatest number.8.8. Hedonism-Hedonism- view that pleasure is the chief good. view that pleasure is the chief good.

Abortion, euthanasia, InfanticideAbortion, euthanasia, Infanticide

Consistent with his general ethical theory, Singer holds that Consistent with his general ethical theory, Singer holds that the right to life is grounded in a being's personhood; that is, in the right to life is grounded in a being's personhood; that is, in the sense of a being's rationality and self-consciousness. In the sense of a being's rationality and self-consciousness. In his view, the central argument against abortion is equivalent his view, the central argument against abortion is equivalent to the following logical syllogism:to the following logical syllogism:

It is wrong to kill an innocent human being.It is wrong to kill an innocent human being.A human foetus is an innocent human being.A human foetus is an innocent human being.Therefore it is wrong to kill a human foetus.Therefore it is wrong to kill a human foetus.

His argument against this is to say that, while a foetus is His argument against this is to say that, while a foetus is admittedly a member of the human species, it is not a person, admittedly a member of the human species, it is not a person, which is defined as a self conscious being that sees itself over which is defined as a self conscious being that sees itself over time. Species membership is morally irrelevant, but time. Species membership is morally irrelevant, but personhood is relevant. personhood is relevant.

Singer classifies euthanasia as voluntary, involuntary, or non-Singer classifies euthanasia as voluntary, involuntary, or non-voluntary. Voluntary euthanasia is that with the consent of the voluntary. Voluntary euthanasia is that with the consent of the subject.subject.

Practical ApplicationPractical Application

TASK (10 mins)TASK (10 mins)

What is the utilitarian stance on:-What is the utilitarian stance on:- EuthanasiaEuthanasia Fertility TreatmentFertility Treatment Embryo ResearchEmbryo Research AbortionAbortion Genetic EngineeringGenetic Engineering

Utilitarian EthicsUtilitarian EthicsEuthanasia Euthanasia Would allow it, under strictly controlled Would allow it, under strictly controlled

conditions. May not be greatest good for conditions. May not be greatest good for greatest number if the innocent in society are greatest number if the innocent in society are threatended.Could save money, which could be threatended.Could save money, which could be used to benefit others.Often leave the weak used to benefit others.Often leave the weak minority vulnerable to abuse. minority vulnerable to abuse.

Fertility TreatmentFertility Treatment Would allow most forms of fertility treatment. Does Would allow most forms of fertility treatment. Does not see human life as sacred, so spare embryos not see human life as sacred, so spare embryos are not a problem. In favour of regulation to are not a problem. In favour of regulation to prevent abuse.prevent abuse.

Embryo ResearchEmbryo Research In favour of research if the majority will In favour of research if the majority will benefit. Embryo is regarded as a commodity- benefit. Embryo is regarded as a commodity- has not religious significance.has not religious significance.

AbortionAbortion Is acceptable. Benefit seen in terms of avoiding Is acceptable. Benefit seen in terms of avoiding dangers of back street abortions. Unwanted children dangers of back street abortions. Unwanted children should not be born. Only the already born are taken should not be born. Only the already born are taken into consideration.into consideration.

Genetic EngineeringGenetic Engineering In favour or research, as majority could In favour or research, as majority could benefit.benefit.

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Practice Practice

TestTestRevise your notes and you will be fine.Revise your notes and you will be fine.