Session 3: UtilitarianismSession 3: UtilitarianismDr. Chan Ho MunDr. Chan Ho Mun

Dept of Public & Social Dept of Public & Social AdministrationAdministration

City University of Hong KongCity University of Hong KongJune 7, 2007 June 7, 2007

Categories of Deontic EvaluationCategories of Deontic Evaluation

The Greek original of “Deontic” is “The Greek original of “Deontic” is “deon”deon”, which , which means “duty”.means “duty”.

Three categories (Timmons 2002):Three categories (Timmons 2002): ObligatoryObligatory actionsactions are actions that one ought to do. are actions that one ought to do. Wrong actionsWrong actions are those that ought not to be done. are those that ought not to be done. OptionalOptional actionsactions are neither obligatory nor wrong. are neither obligatory nor wrong.

Right actions in the narrow sense are obligatory.Right actions in the narrow sense are obligatory. Rights actions in the broad sense are either Rights actions in the broad sense are either

obligatory or optional.obligatory or optional.

A finer categorization (Driver 2007):A finer categorization (Driver 2007): (1) Obligatory actions(1) Obligatory actions (2) Supererogatory actions(2) Supererogatory actions (3) Permissible actions(3) Permissible actions (4) Suberogatory actions(4) Suberogatory actions (5) Forbidden actions(5) Forbidden actions

Rights actions could mean (1), Rights actions could mean (1), (1)+(2), or (1)+(2)+(3).(1)+(2), or (1)+(2)+(3).

Categories of ValuesCategories of Values

Intrinsic value: Something is Intrinsic value: Something is intrinsically good (or valuable) if it is intrinsically good (or valuable) if it is good (or has value) in and of itself.good (or has value) in and of itself.

Extrinsic value: Something is Extrinsic value: Something is extrinsically good if it related to extrinsically good if it related to something else that is good, so its something else that is good, so its goodness is borrowed.goodness is borrowed.

Three categories of values:Three categories of values: Intrinsically goodIntrinsically good Intrinsically value-neutralIntrinsically value-neutral Intrinsically badIntrinsically bad

Moral Value and Nonmoral valueMoral Value and Nonmoral value Moral value is ascribable only to Moral value is ascribable only to

responsible agents (persons).responsible agents (persons). Other things, including experiences and Other things, including experiences and

states of affairs, have nonmoral value.states of affairs, have nonmoral value.

Hedonism vs PluralismHedonism vs Pluralism

Hedonism: Happiness is the only Hedonism: Happiness is the only intrinsic good.intrinsic good.

Pluralism: There is more than one Pluralism: There is more than one intrinsic good.intrinsic good.

UtilitarianismUtilitarianism

It is a consequence-based theory It is a consequence-based theory (consequentialist theory).(consequentialist theory).

The deontic status of an action is The deontic status of an action is defined solely in terms of the utility of defined solely in terms of the utility of the consequence produced by the the consequence produced by the action.action.

Utility is a nonmoral value and the Utility is a nonmoral value and the ultimate goal of morality is to ultimate goal of morality is to maximize the aggregate utility.maximize the aggregate utility.

Virtue-based consideration is out of Virtue-based consideration is out of the picture.the picture.

An action is obligatory if it has a utility An action is obligatory if it has a utility higher than any alternative actions.higher than any alternative actions.

An action is wrong if it has a utility An action is wrong if it has a utility less than some other alternatives.less than some other alternatives.

An action is optional if it is tied with An action is optional if it is tied with some other alternative for first place. some other alternative for first place.

An action is right (in the broad sense) An action is right (in the broad sense) if it has a utility no less than any other if it has a utility no less than any other alternative action.alternative action.

Classical UtilitarianismClassical Utilitarianism

Classical utilitarianism is hedonistic.Classical utilitarianism is hedonistic. The utility of an action is defined as The utility of an action is defined as

the overall balance between the overall balance between happiness and unhappiness happiness and unhappiness produced by the action.produced by the action.

Bentham’s versionBentham’s version Happiness is identified with the pleasure Happiness is identified with the pleasure

(and the absence of pain).(and the absence of pain). Unhappiness is identified with pain (and Unhappiness is identified with pain (and

the deprivation of pleasure).the deprivation of pleasure).

Greatest happiness principle: In our Greatest happiness principle: In our actions, we should aim at producing the actions, we should aim at producing the greatest happiness of the greatest greatest happiness of the greatest number, or if impossible, then reducing number, or if impossible, then reducing the unhappiness of the greatest the unhappiness of the greatest number.number.

Mill’s versionMill’s version Quality matters.Quality matters. The life of dissatisfied Socrates is The life of dissatisfied Socrates is

morally better than that of a happy fool.morally better than that of a happy fool.

Mill’s Proof Mill’s Proof

Part I:Part I: Everyone desires his/her happiness for Everyone desires his/her happiness for

its own sake.its own sake. Everything that is desired for its own Everything that is desired for its own

sake is desirable. (Every object that is sake is desirable. (Every object that is seen is visible).seen is visible).

If something is desirable, it is If something is desirable, it is intrinsically valuable.intrinsically valuable.

One’s own happiness is therefore an One’s own happiness is therefore an intrinsic good for oneself, which implies intrinsic good for oneself, which implies that general happiness is intrinsically that general happiness is intrinsically good for the aggregate of persons.good for the aggregate of persons.

Part II:Part II: If some other things besides happiness If some other things besides happiness

that are desired for themselves, they are that are desired for themselves, they are desired as part of the end of happiness.desired as part of the end of happiness.

Thus, happiness is the only intrinsic good.Thus, happiness is the only intrinsic good. Criticism:Criticism:

““Desirable” is ambiguous. It can mean Desirable” is ambiguous. It can mean “able to be desired” or “worthy of “able to be desired” or “worthy of being desired”.being desired”.

Strength of UtilitarianismStrength of Utilitarianism

A secular moralityA secular morality Based on human natureBased on human nature A common sense approachA common sense approach EgalitarianismEgalitarianism Focus on human wellbeingFocus on human wellbeing Simple: only outcome countsSimple: only outcome counts A decision procedureA decision procedure Cost-benefit analysis is a utilitarian Cost-benefit analysis is a utilitarian

approach that is widely used in public approach that is widely used in public policy analysis and decision making.policy analysis and decision making.

Objections to UtilitarianismObjections to Utilitarianism

The problem of comparability.The problem of comparability. Too demanding: The money for an Too demanding: The money for an

ice cream could be used to bring ice cream could be used to bring about much greater happiness in a about much greater happiness in a very poor country. Supererogatory very poor country. Supererogatory actions become obligatory.actions become obligatory.

Too impartial: Whom should you save Too impartial: Whom should you save when both are drowning? Your when both are drowning? Your mother who is very old or a young mother who is very old or a young and famous professional?and famous professional?

William’s story of Jim and the IndiansWilliam’s story of Jim and the Indians Utilitarianism makes no distinction Utilitarianism makes no distinction

between doing and allowing something between doing and allowing something to happen. For utilitarians, one is equally to happen. For utilitarians, one is equally just as responsible in one case as much just as responsible in one case as much as in another (the doctrine of negative as in another (the doctrine of negative responsibility).responsibility).

Utilitarianism could undermine ones Utilitarianism could undermine ones moral integrity.moral integrity.

Human Rights and Criminal JusticeHuman Rights and Criminal Justice The values of freedom of speech and so The values of freedom of speech and so

on are intrinsic. They are respected on are intrinsic. They are respected even they cannot bring out the best even they cannot bring out the best outcome.outcome.

Suppose a police officer has found some Suppose a police officer has found some convincing evidence to press charge convincing evidence to press charge against the top leader of a triad society, against the top leader of a triad society, but he actually has not committed the but he actually has not committed the crime in question. It seems that he crime in question. It seems that he should be prosecuted if the utilitarian should be prosecuted if the utilitarian approach is followed.approach is followed.

Political Equality Political Equality Suppose having a landfill nearby will Suppose having a landfill nearby will

diminish property value by 20% within a diminish property value by 20% within a one-mile radius.one-mile radius.

According to CBA, people in the poor According to CBA, people in the poor side of the town will have to suffer in side of the town will have to suffer in order to avoid a greater monetary losses order to avoid a greater monetary losses by rich people.by rich people.

Equal worth to each dollar vs. equal Equal worth to each dollar vs. equal worth to each human being.worth to each human being.

Our obligations to others: A promise Our obligations to others: A promise still has its moral force although still has its moral force although breaking it can so happen to produce breaking it can so happen to produce a better outcome.a better outcome.

Using individuals as means.Using individuals as means. Claims of needs vs claims of utilityClaims of needs vs claims of utility

Rationing in an Accident and Emergency Rationing in an Accident and Emergency Ward.Ward.

Organ transplant.Organ transplant. WelfareWelfare

Act-utilitarianism vs Rule-Act-utilitarianism vs Rule-utilitarianismutilitarianism

Following a moral rule can bring about Following a moral rule can bring about desirable effect in the long run.desirable effect in the long run.

Complexity: The cost of figuring out Complexity: The cost of figuring out whether we should break a rule can be whether we should break a rule can be higher than the benefit gained.higher than the benefit gained.

Rule-utilitarianism:Rule-utilitarianism: An action is right if one act in accordance with An action is right if one act in accordance with

a moral rule whose associated utility in the a moral rule whose associated utility in the long run is no less than the utility associated long run is no less than the utility associated with any alternative moral rule.with any alternative moral rule.

Criticism:Criticism: Suppose it is clear and obvious that Suppose it is clear and obvious that

breaking a rule in a certain situation breaking a rule in a certain situation would not have long term negative would not have long term negative effect. Should you break it?effect. Should you break it?

If you say “no”, it means that you are If you say “no”, it means that you are not a true utilitarian.not a true utilitarian.

If you say “yes”, the distinction between If you say “yes”, the distinction between act-utilitarianism and rule-utilitarianism act-utilitarianism and rule-utilitarianism becomes blurred.becomes blurred.

Pluralistic (Restricted) UtilitarianismPluralistic (Restricted) Utilitarianism

Outcome matters, though not Outcome matters, though not exclusively. It is not everything, but it is exclusively. It is not everything, but it is not nothing either.not nothing either.

Utilitarianism is acceptable if other moral Utilitarianism is acceptable if other moral constraints are taken into considerations.constraints are taken into considerations.

The application of utilitarianism The application of utilitarianism sometimes can promote other values. sometimes can promote other values. Efficiency and justice are not always Efficiency and justice are not always incompatible.incompatible.

Some public agencies are created to Some public agencies are created to achieve certain results. They are not achieve certain results. They are not supposed to produce results better supposed to produce results better than any others, than any others, all things all things consideredconsidered..

The consequentialist consideration The consequentialist consideration should be constrained by the should be constrained by the functional specialization of the public functional specialization of the public agency in question.agency in question.

Very often moral agents are Very often moral agents are expected to maximize only a expected to maximize only a specificspecific kind of results in a certain context.kind of results in a certain context.

Example 1: The triage in ICU aims to Example 1: The triage in ICU aims to maximize medical utility, not social maximize medical utility, not social utility. Otherwise, the education utility. Otherwise, the education background and other factors of the background and other factors of the patient have to be taken into patient have to be taken into consideration, and the result can be consideration, and the result can be ruthless.ruthless.

Example 2: Drugs outside the Example 2: Drugs outside the Standard Drug FormularyStandard Drug Formulary (1) (1) Drugs proven to be of significant Drugs proven to be of significant

benefits but expensive for the public benefits but expensive for the public health care system to provide as part of health care system to provide as part of its subsidized serviceits subsidized service

(2) Drugs which have preliminary medical (2) Drugs which have preliminary medical evidence onlyevidence only

(3) Drugs with marginal benefits over (3) Drugs with marginal benefits over available alternatives but at significantly available alternatives but at significantly higher costshigher costs

(4) Life style drugs e.g. anti-obesity drugs(4) Life style drugs e.g. anti-obesity drugs