USEFUL BUT OFTEN USEFUL BUT OFTEN FORGOTTENFORGOTTEN

USEFUL BUT OFTEN USEFUL BUT OFTEN FORGOTTENFORGOTTEN

from punctuation and nouns to from punctuation and nouns to numbers, word problems and numbers, word problems and

discourse markersdiscourse markers

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PUNCTUATION

Commas are used:

- after long adverbial expressions (when, where) before the basic sentence:

During the late 1920s and early 1930s, the standard of living of the workers was slowly improving.

BUT: At that time the standard of living of the workers was slowly improving.

- when adverbial expressions come between or inside parts of the basic sentence:

The standard of livingof the workers, during the late 1920s and early 1930s, was steadily improving.

- to separate non-indentifying relative clause (=clauses giving more information):

President Andrew Johnson, who followed Lincoln, was extremely unpopular.

- after consequently, however, therefore at the beginning of the sentence:

It was cold. However, it was pleasant. OR It was cold; however, it was pleasant.

- to separate adjectives that say the same kind of thing:

a tall, impressive figure a long, boring speechHis speech was long, detailed, boring and irrelevant.

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- to separate different things in a list:

The developing crisis affected manufacturers, distributors, marketing organizations and banks.

- before and if the last item is long:

The developing crisis affected manufacturers, distributors, banks, and major credit agencies.

- to introduce direct speech:

The Prime Minister said, “It is essential that we work together.” OR The PM said: “The Government is doing everything possible…”

- after thousands and millions:losses of £5,500,000

in decimal fractions full stops are used:losses of £5.5m (= five and a half million pounds)

Commas are often used:

- in sentences with conjunctions, especially in longer sentences:

The situation changed noticeably for the worse after 1932, when the export markets began to contract.

BUT: The situation changed when the export markets began to contract.

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Commas are not usually used:

- when adverbial expression come after the basic sentence:

The standard of living was slowly improving during the late 1930s.

- to separate a noun from the adjectives or other expressions that go with it:

the mainly foreign labourers in the north-eastern regions

Commas are usually used:

- if we start with the conjunction:

When the export markets began to contract, the situation changed.

Commas are not used:

- after verbs of saying, thinking etc in indirect speech:

Many commentators declared that the economy was in deep trouble.

No one knew how serious the situation would become.

- before that:

They did not understand that the economic conditions that had existed earlier had disappeared for good.

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Colons (:) are used

- to introduce details and explanations:

Manufacturing industry was in crisis: in particular, textiles

and shipbuilding.

British firms were no longer competitive: labour costs had priced them out

of the market.

Dashes are common:

- in informal writing, they can be used in the same way as colons, semi-colons or brackets:

I really don’t know what we’re going to do - Joe’s out of work, and

there’s no money coming in.

Apostrophes are used:

- for contractions, possessives:

isn’t, doesn’t, won’t

John’s brother, my parents’ house, my children’s school,

my boss’s car, Dickens’ novels, Joe and Ann’s children

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NOUNS FOREIGN PLURALS STILL USED & OTHERS

-is -esanalysis analysesaxis axesbasis basescrisis crisesdiagnosis diagnosesellipsis ellipsesemphasis emphaseshypothesis hypothesesparenthesis parenthese

ssynthesis synthesessynopsis synopsesthesis theses

othersantenna antennaeappendix appendicescriterion criteriacurriculum curriculaformula formulae (or formulas)nucleus nucleiphenomenon

phenomena

schema schematasyllabus syllabi (more often syllabuses)radius radiistimulus stimuli

remember:

The plural data and media are now often used with singular verbs. The data are/is difficult to interpret.

 The media are/is too powerful.

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NUMBERS

A/one hundred...

A hundred, a thousand is less formal than one hundred...

One hundred is used if we wish to sound more

precise: It costs exactly one

hundred.

One hundred is used before another number or inside a larger number:

1,300: one thousand, three hundred

$1.75: one dollar seventy-five

4,120: four thousand, one hundred

and twenty

Dozen, hundred, thousand... have no –s after a number, few or

several three dozen eggs, twenty billion euros, a few hundred times,

several thousand years

In other cases we use dozens (of), hundreds (of)...:

He’s done it hundreds of times.

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Fractions

5/8 five eighths 3/10 mile three tenths of a mile

Decimal fractions are written with full stops (“point”), not commas.

6.625 six point six two five 0.5

nought point five

Fractions between one and two are treated as plural

add 1 1/2 pounds of sugar a mile is

about 1.6 kilometresDates

We write and say dates as follows:

writing dates 3 June 2010 or June 3 2010

saying dates the third of

June/June the third, two thousand and ten

Telephone and credit card numbers and similar numbers are usually

said one number at a time

5164933 five one six four nine three three (or ... double three)

40695 four oh (or... zero) six nine five

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VERB + ....?

Verb + object infinitive Verb + infinitive

adviseencourage

inviteremindwarn

agreedecideoffer

promiserefuse

threaten

Examples: Jack encouraged me to look for a new job.

They invited all their friends to attend the presentation.

Examples: She offered to give him a lift to work.

My brother refused to take no for an answer.

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Verb + (that) Verb + gerundadmitagreedecidedeny

explaininsist

promiserecommend

suggest

denyrecommend

suggest

Examples: Tom admitted (that) he had tried to leave early.

She agreed (that) we needed to reconsider our plans.

Examples: He denied having anything to do with her.

Ken suggested studying early in the morning.

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Verb + object + preposition + gerund

Verb + preposition + gerund

accuseblame

congratulate

apologizeinsist

Examples: They accused the boys of cheating on the exam.

She blamed her husband for missing the train.

Examples: He apologized for being late.

She insisted on doing the washing up.

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WORD PROBLEMS

Some words can cause problems even at advanced level. This section

gives brief information about them.

After all does not mean “finally”. It can mean “contrary to expectations”;

at the beginning of a clause it introduces a fact which strengthens the

argument.

I expected to fail, but I passed after all.

Why take the bus? After all, It’s only half a mile.

Although & though introduce afterthoughts or restrictions to what has

been said. Though at the end of a clause is used as an adverb.

He’s a nice guy – (al)though I wouldn’t want to work with him.

He’s a nice guy – I wouldn’t want to work with him, though.

Anyone & any one

Anyone can sing. (=Anybody..)

This lift will take four people at any one time. (=any single time)

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Anyway & any way

I don’t feel like going out. Anyway, it’s getting late.

How should I play this? – Any way you like.

As well as (=in addition to) introduces background information that is

not the main focus

As well as birds, some mammals can fly.

She sings as well as she dances. (=Her singing is

as good as her dancing.)

Available is used before and after a noun

Send all the available tickets/tickets available.

Clean (=completely) in an informal style.

Sorry, I clean forgot your birthday.

Dead (=extremely, completely)

The captain was dead drunk at the time of the shipwreck.

You’re dead right.

Different is modified by very, not by much

You’re very different from your brother.

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Half (of) but half a/an

He spends half (of) the night on his computer.

Would you like half an orange?

However – modification to what was said before/on the other hand –

contrast

The climb was tough. However, I made it.

It’s a very expensive project. On the other hand, it could

be very profitable.

Indeed – normally used with very

It was very cold indeed.

It’s no use, it’s worth + -ing

It’s no use trying to explain.

It’s worth visiting the Lake District.

Likely, unlikely + infinitive

We’re likely to go to the mountains.

It’s unlikely to rain before weekend.

Possible – used before and after a noun

It’s the only possible solution/solution possible.

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Present – different meaning before and after a noun

It is difficult to find capital in the present situation.

Most of the people present voted against.

Proper – different meaning before and after a noun

She wants a proper wedding, in a church. (=organized as it should be)

After trekking through the foothills we finally

reached the mountain proper. (=the real mountain itself)

Quite less strong than / rather – before a/an

I’ve got quite an unusual request.

It’s quite a good film.

It’s rather a good

film.

Real – sometimes used instead of really, especially in American English

I was real sorry to hear about your accident.

She’s real nice.

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DISCOURSE MARKERS

words and expressions which help to structure spoken

exchanges and written text

communicate several things

introduce or clarify a topic

show divisions and changes of topic

show the type of communication that is going on

show one’s attitude to spoken, read or written texts

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Complete the sentences with expressions from the box.

A as far as B as for C first of all D for one thing E speaking of

1 , I was genuinely upset by what had happened; for

another, I knew it was pointless expecting him to change his mind.

2 , he knew how to listen – which is very rare.

3 And you, Fiona, words fail me.

4 But efficiency is concerned the work could be done

without nearly so many.

5 the wind, it was getting stronger and I was getting

colder.

A

B

C

D

E

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Put in the discourse markers from the box.

A apparently B at least C frankly D honestly E I’m afraid F I suppose G let me see H no doubt I or rather J so to speak1 This student has worked hard, but I _________ do not feel able to

recommend her for a scholarship.

2 _________ you will be paying your rent by the end of the week, Mr Jenkins?

3 She doesn’t keep promises. _________, not always.

4 “How did the team do?” “ _________ they lost.”

5 There’s meeting on Tuesday - __________ Thursday.

6 “When are you going to be ready?” “ _________ I’ve got to make

a couple of phone calls.”

7 _________ we can travel half-price at the weekend.

8 “Do you like my poetry?” “ _________, no.”

9 That child is a one person crime wave, _________ .

10 I don’t have much time to help you with the decoration.

__________ I could come in on Saturday for an hour.

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

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Discourse markers in formal text. Choose the best expression from the boxes to complete the sentences.

A as far as B as regards C in conclusion D in general E to a great extent F turning now

 

1 _________ , though there is no denying the seriousness of the problem,

many questions still remained unanswered.

2 __________ age is concerned, a person who has reached 18 has the legal

capacity to contract as an individual.

3 It is an old maxim but it is true: __________ , you are what you eat.

4 __________ to consider the other main group of younger household

carers, there is an increasing number, currently about 11 per cent, of

elderly people living with younger people, usually daughters and sons-in-

law.

5 __________ export credit, two types are available from most banks.

6 __________ , women are healthier and live longer than

ever before; indeed on average they can expect to live 5 years

longer than men.

A

B

C

D

E

F

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A briefly/broadly speaking B it is true that C on the contrary D or rather E what is more F broadly

speaking/briefly 7 Do not be afraid that people will look down on you because of your

regional accent - _________ , your accent may in all probability be your most

interesting and valuable possession.

8 _________ , if the referee points his fingers this indicates that someone has

done something wrong.

9 For the Third World, _________ the underdeveloped world, these questions

have existed for the greater part of this century.

10 _________ , the higher an individual is in the social starta the less likely

he or she is to be arrested, prosecuted and (if prosecuted) found guilty.

11 _________ three senators have been accused of fraud, bribery and tax

evasion in the past three years, but they have been cleared of these

charges by other senators.

12 The difference is that I have been fortunate to find a

career that I loved and, _________ get paid

reasonably for it.

A

B

C

D

E

F

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Informal discourse markers. Choose the best expressions from the boxes to complete the texts.

A all the same B frankly C incidentally D sort of E to tell the truth F you know

1 __________ , have you been to the local library yet?

2 __________ , I wasn’t really listening to what everyone was saying.

3 __________ , Dorothy, you and I will just have to go out together more

often.

4 I feel so ashamed because I didn’t recognise her and she was

__________ talking to me as if she knew me, and I thought oh very

friendly person, you know?

5 __________, what you’re saying is absolute rubbish.

6 You can’t expect a reference book to be quite as gripping as an

adventure novel, but __________ I read it cover to cover.A

B

C

D

E

F

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A anyway B as for C as I was saying D by the way E mind you F you see

7 He never called her. Because unattractive men don’t want

unattractive girls, __________.

8 We’re getting closer. Not much closer, _________ , but certainly

closer.

9 Maggie paused, then went on , “_________ , my own mother used to

make steak-and-kidney pudding.”

10 _________ , while I think of it, Anne was just about to leave the

country when you rang, but she says when she gets back in

September you’re to give her a call.

11 _________ you, you’re not only poor, you’re stupid.

12 I don’t know who was in charge, maybe the fat

man. _________ , he was the one who did the talking.A

B

C

D

E

F