US-China Education Review 2013（3B）

8/12/2019 US-China Education Review 2013 3B

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Publication Information:US-China Education Review B(Earlier title: Journal of US-China Education Review, ISSN 1548-6613) is published monthly inhard copy (ISSN 2161-6248) by David Publishing Company located at 9460 Telstar Ave Suite 5, EL Monte, CA 91731, USA.

Aims and Scope:US-China Education Review B, a monthly professional academic journal, covers all sorts of education-theory researches on Higher

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US-China

Education ReviewB

Volume 3, Number 3, March 2013 (Serial Number 22)

Contents

Teacher Education

A Potential Approach to Support Pre-service Teachers Professional Learning:

The Video Analysis of the Authentic Classroom 149

Wang Xiong

An Investigation of How Lecturers Teaching Strategies Promote Productive Classroom

Interaction 162

Helena Hing Wa Sit

Educational Policy and Adminis tration

Science Education and the Challenges Facing Its Integration Into the 21st Century School

System in a Globalized World: A Case of Igbo Nation 172

Ezeudu F. O., Nkokelonye C. U., Ezeudu S. A.

New Method of the Earth Mineral Resources Study at Ilia State University, Georgia 183

Avtandil Okrostsvaridze

Home-School Collaboration in Sweden and China 188

Margaretha Kristoffersson, Limin Gu, Yan Zhang

Educational Psychology

Finnish Sauna Behaviors, Dirty or Decent 202

Riitta Parvia


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US-China Education Review B, ISSN 2161-6248

March 2013, Vol. 3, No. 3, 149-161

A Potential Approach to Support Pre-service Teachers

Professional Learning: The Video Analysis of the Authentic

Classroom

Wang Xiong

Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai, China

This article focused on a deeper analysis of pre-service teachers observations of video lessons based on the

authentic classrooms across three stages in eight sessions in order to reveal their changes in the abilities to

understand pedagogical content knowledge and the effects of specific observation frameworks introduced in the

observation sessions. With those aims, we developed the coding schemas at the content and the method level to

analyze the pre-service teachers observation reports and reflections. It was found that the video lesson analysis

based on the authentic classroom teaching has a great potential to support pre-service teachers professional

learning with the appropriate guidance.

Keywords:pre-service teacher, professional learning, video lesson

The Significance of the Research

It has been recommended that pre-service teachers should be offered more authentic experiences toprepare them to handle the complexity and challenges of the school context (Darling-Hammond, 1997;

Goodlad, 1990; Huling, 1998; National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983) with the two following

assumptions: (1) exposure to examples of teaching creates learning opportunities for pre-service teachers; and

(2) through authentic experiences pre-service teachers meld theory into practice (Santagata, Zannoni, & Stigler,

2007).

Nevertheless, the previous program for the pre-service teachers professional development was mainly

operated to impart the theories on the mathematics education and the experiences abstracted from the teaching

practice in Shanghai Normal University. The pre-service teachers have such few opportunities to come into

contact with the authentic classroom teaching that they believe that: (1) The theories on the mathematics

education are so far away from the teaching practices that they are not useful to serve the future teaching

practices of pre-service teachers when they will have been in-service in one or two years; and (2) The

experiences abstracted from teaching practices stay only in the master teachers minds but far beyond mine

(Huang, 2012). The apparent chasm (Bencze, Hewitt, & Pedretti, 2001) between what often happens in

The outcome of this paper is a part of the achievements of the project The Development and Application of a Method to

Research Classroom Based on Discourse Analysis (B12031) funded by Shanghai Municipal Education Commission, and the

project The Development and Application of a Method to Research Mathematics Classroom Based on Discourse Analysis (No.SK201209) funded (2012-2013) by Shanghai Normal University.

Wang Xiong, Ph.D., associate professor, Mathematics and Science College, Shanghai Normal University.

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APPROACH TO SUPPORT PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS PROFESSIONAL LEARNING150

university-based teacher education and teaching in schoolsa theory-practice gaphas caused the instructors

to shift much of their instructing efforts out of academia and into the usage of case (Koc, Peker, & Osmanoglu,

2009) to provide opportunities for pre-service teachers to apply their theoretical and practical knowledge to

classroom contexts (Lundeberg, Levin, & Harrington, 1999).

Given the shift challenge, this research has built the pathway to getting the pre-service teachers involved

in both observation and analysis of two video lessons for the purposes of facilitating their professional learning.

The use of video in teacher preparation programs has progressed from being a means to expose pre-service

teachers to specific behaviors to be imitated to a tool for the development of teachers professional judgment.

While the video-based teacher learning projects offer promising results, many questions still remain open. On

the one hand, many would agree that, unless one has a clear goal in mind, classroom observations can easily

turn into messy and unstructured notes. Although most programs provide pre-service teachers with some kind

of guidance, the focus varies widely. What counts as effective guidance is still one open question (Santagata et

al., 2007). On the other hand, researches that document the knowledge growth and the conceptual changes of

pre-service teachers in the learning process are lacking. This paper aims to address the two gaps by analyzingthe pre-service teachers learning process in the video lessons analysis activities.

Methods

Videotaped Lessons

Two seven-grade mathematics videotaped lessons were chosen to be the case video lessons in this research.

The two lessons videotaped by the research team were an experienced teachers authentic classroom teachings

in Shanghai Tianlin Middle School, China. Its assumption was to provide an authentic classroom teaching

situation for students to analyze the learning activities in the lessons, even without the field observation. The

teaching contents of the two lessons were both about the proof strategies in geometric problems. And the two

lessons were similarly structured with the aim of learning activities arrangement for pre-service teachers

professional learning in the research. The first video lesson would be taken as a learning practical platform on

which students were able to obtain the basic skills and knowledge about how to observe and analyze a lesson;

while the second one would be done as the field of the acquired skills and knowledge application. Thus, the

similar construction of the second lesson to the first one was potential to stimulate students to apply the

obtained skills and knowledge within the second lesson situation.

Session Organization

The whole sessions were grouped into three stages with eight sessions and each session was 80 minutes.

Only Chinese was used in the sessions.

Stage oneBrainstorming observation and analysis. The first session: Encouraging students to observethe first video lesson which was projected on a big screen. Seventy-six participants who were pre-service

teachers majoring in mathematics education of Shanghai Normal University were divided into 19 groups to

facilitate the sharing of participants ideas in the observation and the analysis of video lessons. Each member

within every group was assigned the specific observation task by the group leader or initiatively took the task.

For instance, some members took notes of the lesson sequence, and others focused on the case teachers

discourse, and so on. Then, every group uploaded its observations and reflections on the first lesson to the

online forum at http://qun.qq.com/air/#141854935 which was built up for the group discussion in the research.


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APPROACH TO SUPPORT PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 151

After the first session, the instructor (the corresponding author) reviewed the reports of every group submitted

at the online forum. The results demonstrated that: (1) Participants mainly analyzed the lesson according to

their perceptions rather than reliable data collected from the lesson; and (2) Participants were not able to

logically express their opinions in their report of lesson observation and analysis.

Stage twoThe application of the selected analysis framework. The second session: Offering thepre-service teachers the guidance to the observation of the video lesson. Taking the review results into account,

the instructor recommended Hiebert, Carpenter, Fennema, Fuson, Wearne, and Murrays (1997) critical

dimensions of mathematics classroom as the classroom observation framework and instructed how to logically

express the analysis results. Meanwhile, the instructor presented the excellent groups reports and her own

analysis report of the lesson observation. The third session: Encouraging the pre-service teachers to re-observe

the first video lesson. The procedure of the observation activity was the same as that of the first session. Its aim

was to improve pre-service teachers abilities to observe a lesson and express their viewpoints by application of

the classroom observation framework. The fourth session: Reviewing every groups report downloaded from

the online forum and presenting the review results. The fifth session: Encouraging pre-service teachers toobserve the second video lesson. The procedure of observation was the same as that of the first and the third

sessions. This kind of design was conducive to pre-service teachers transformation of their obtained

knowledge from the previous sessions to this round observation task. Moreover, the members in each group did

not change. Under this situation, it is possible to observe the each members knowledge increase and

conceptual changes during the professional learning process through the video lesson observation and analysis.

The sixth session: Online discussion. Each group uploaded its report at the online forum. As a facilitator, the

instructor encouraged the pre-service teachers to look into the other groups reports and give the feedback on

them. The seventh session: Reviewing the group reports on the second video lesson.

Stage threeThe refinement of analysis method. The eighth session: Encouraging the pre-serviceteachers to reflect the whole learning process. A questionnaire was used to exam the pre-service teachers

capacities of refining the analysis method on the classroom teaching and their gains and experiences. The

questionnaire included the following questions: (1) Explaining how to analyze a mathematical classroom

teaching based on your previous learning activities; and (2) Summarizing the knowledge and experiences which

you acquired from the previous learning activities.

Data Sources

The data consisted of the videotaped group discussion, the groups reports, the instructors feedback, and

the questionnaires. Videotaping the group discussion was mainly intended to snatch the whole scene of the

group discussion. The group reports were downloaded from the online forum and amounted to 44. The

instructors feedback contained her own observation report, the reviews of the groups reports, and the

instructions in the sessions. The questionnaire was implemented as an exam, and therefore, every participants

answer sheet was marked. In addition, participants did not post any substantial comments on the groups reports

at the online forum, so we only catch a glance at the data from online forum discussion.

Data Analysis

The content analysis techniques were utilized (Neuendorf, 2002) to explore the participants knowledge

growth and conceptual changes and the effects of analysis frameworks provided for them. In order to capture

the pre-service teachers viewpoints and thoughts in the video lesson analysis, the coding schemes based on the


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five-dimensional framework of classroom (Hiebert, Carpenter, Fennema, Fuson, Wearne, & Murray, 1997)

were developed at the content and the method level: (1) mathematical task, teachers roles, classroom culture,

tools, and accessibility in Table 1; and (2) statement, portion, formalization, and elaboration (including

innovation) in Table 2 with the low and the high quality of coders in each dimension.

Table 1

The Codes at the Content Level

Codes Core features

Mathematical task Mathematics problems; Connect with where students are; Leave behind something of mathematical value

Teachers roles Select tasks with goals in mind; Share essential information; Establish classroom culture

Classroom cultureIdeas and methods are valued; Students are encouraged to share their ideas or methods; Mistakes arelearning sites for everyone; Correctness resides in mathematical argument

ToolsMeaning for tools must be constructed by each user; Used with purpose to solve problems; Used forrecording, communicating, and thinking

Accessibility Tasks are accessible to all students; Every student is heard and contributes

Table 2The Codes at the Method Level

Codes Descriptions Score interval

StatementThe context is expressed without framework and the five-dimensional

framework is not applied

Low quality: 6064

High quality: 6569

Portion Parts of the five dimensions in the framework are mentioned or discussedLow quality: 7074

High quality: 7579

FormalizationThe five-dimensional framework is applied by rote, but all the five

dimensions are mentioned or discussed

Low quality: 8084

High quality: 8589

ElaborationThe five-dimensional framework or other reasonable framework is taken asthe analysis tool

Low quality: 9094

High quality: 95100

Particularly, the participants answer sheets on the Question 1 at stage three were assigned a score by thefollowing procedures: (1) confirming a score interval by looking at the quality in each dimension at the method

level (see Table 2). Comments that did not include the certain instances of the video lessons to support the

general ideas summarized from the lessons were coded as low quality. Comments that included the certain

instances of the video lessons to support the general ideas summarized from the lessons were coded as high

quality; and (2) specifying a score within the score interval by looking at the emerging viewpoint amount. The

more viewpoints were mentioned or discussed, the higher score were marked within a score interval.

Coding Reliability

We followed three procedures to ensure coding reliability: Firstly, two coders (the corresponding authors

postgraduate students) individually coded the data. Then, we examined the code-matching rate. Initially, we

found the matching rate was 67%; Secondly, in order to increase the matching rate, the corresponding author

coordinated the disagreements negotiation in a three-way conference by going over every coded message until

the coding match rate reached 85%; and Finally, the two coders coded the entire data set maintaining the 85%

match rate.

Results

In this section, we provided the results of two types of analysis at the content and the method level. The

results were organized into the following three dimensions.


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Dimension One: The Shift From Superficial Features to Pedagogical Content Knowledge

At stage one, the pre-service teachers were encouraged to observe and analyze the first video lesson in

their own way in the first session. When they first observed the first video lesson, the pre-service teachers

tended to pay a lot of attention to the superficial features in the lesson. Firstly, during the observation process,

they kept a watchful eye on the laughable scenarios. For instance, they could not help laughing when they saw

a chubby student sitting beside the student who was answering questions, and they also talked about that the

case of teachers necktie was slanting; Secondly, in the first group reports, some groups attached importance to

the description of the superficial circumstances. For example, of 19 group reports, three focuses on the

description of what was going on in the lesson without substantial comments; Another three highlight on the

discussion of the characteristics of the case teacher, such as the appropriate dress style, nonstandard mandarin,

and the friendly face emotion; Thirdly, in the first group reports, many groups mainly stayed at the superficial

perceptions on the five dimensions of the framework. For example, of 19 group reports, two mention the

mathematical task in one very short sentence, such as The examples are typical, five mentioned the case

teachers roles in one phrase, such as Making the connection between new and previous knowledge andexplaining the proof process step by step, two mentioned the classroom culture in one phrase, such as The

active interaction between the teacher and students, three mentioned the tools in one phrase, such as The

usage of the mini blackboard, and one mentioned the accessibility in two clauses, such as The instruction is

vivid and accessible, which is easy for most students to access. Consequently, even those groups mentioned

the two, or three, or even four dimensions of the five-dimensional framework, they adopted the very general

way to discuss those without the reasoning process from the instances of the lesson.

At stage two, firstly, the pre-service teachers were encouraged to re-analyze the first video lesson, and

then to analyze the second video lesson with the instructors guidance based on the review of the groups

reports and the introduced analysis framework. Under the guidance of the instructor, and finally, the pre-service

teachers were able to focus on the analysis of the lesson tasks, the way of the case teacher helping students

construct reasoning in the proof, and the students thinking in the interaction between teacher and students, and

the tools application, and so on. The specific description was as follows:

Firstly, building on their first observation and assimilating the five-dimensional framework, all the groups

were able to organize their viewpoints into five dimensions in their second observation of the first lesson.

However, the viewpoints were still expressed in very general way, such as Teacher roles: instructing with the

targets, stimulating students initiative thinking by pointing out the key points, mobilizing the students

interests by question and interaction in the classroom. It was hard to link such viewpoints with the specific

scenarios from the lesson. Therefore, it was also difficult to examine how the viewpoints were generalized from

the evidences collected from the lesson;Secondly, taking the above situation into account, the instructor presented her own analysis report of the

first lesson and explained how to generalize and express the viewpoints based on the specific scenarios from

the lesson under the five-dimensional framework. For instance, the core feature of the examples selected in the

lesson in the dimension of mathematical task was the emerging variation theory. It could be illustrated by the

gradual changes in the structure, the background, the covered knowledge points, the questioning type

(open-closed), and the question numbers of the examples. Then, with the features, it is reasonable to understand

its significance through the students performance in the examples of learning process. Therefore, the


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viewpoint-variation in the example and its expression-substantial comparison data were written in very

coherent way. With the coherent expression way, it was potential to facilitate the pre-service teachers to not

only improve their viewpoints expression, but also acquire the deep understanding of the knowledge of

mathematical task. The instructors analysis report was available at the online forum;

Later on, the pre-service teachers were encouraged to observe and analyze the second video lesson taking

the instructors analysis report as a reference. Among 19 groups submitting reports, it was found that 16 groups

were able to express their viewpoints in very coherent way in each dimension of the five-dimensional

framework. For example, CG (Clover-Four Group) generalized the following six viewpoints in the dimension

of teachers roles: (1) helping students go over the previous knowledge; (2) instructing how to prove the two

lines perpendicular; (3) guiding students thinking to grasp the concept of the analytical method; (4) helping

students to find out the logical starting point of a proof; (5) paying close attention to the students feeling; and

(6) summarizing the proof method. Not only were the viewpoints generated well and truly, but also they were

illustrated by the specific scenarios from the lesson. For instance, the third viewpoint was illustrated by the

learning process of example one which was demonstrated by the photograph of blackboard-writing in thelesson and described by text referring to the black-writing photograph (see Figure 1). In addition, two groups

did not complete their reports in very serious way. They simply mentioned some facts from the lesson in their

reports without analysis of thinking inclusion. And one group did not submit the report.

Figure 1.The report segment of CG.

Overall, from stage one to stage two, the pre-service teachers were able to observe and analyze the lessons

from the focus on the superficial features to an understanding of pedagogical content knowledge with the

five-dimensional framework.

Dimension Two: The Shift From Illogical Statement to Structured Analysis

It was found that the reports of classroom observation at stage one mainly demonstrated illogical feature in

the viewpoints expression. Only one of the 19 group reports had sub-titles in the statement of observation.

Three of them stated their viewpoints in only one paragraph containing multi-dimensional viewpoints at


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random, such as the report of the ZG (Zhuo Group) (see Figure 2). In the report, we can see that the viewpoints

were disorganized based on the emerging codes pattern-mathematical task, teachers roles, classroom culture,

teachers roles, teachers roles, mathematical task, accessibility, and teachers roles, in one paragraph. Four

groups paragraphed their statements based on group members comments, and five paragraphed their

statements based on the following two dimensions: merits and demerits, such as the report of the LG (Life

Group) (see Figure 3). In the report, the viewpoints were organized into merits and demerits paragraph. Each

paragraph generally mentioned multi-dimensional viewpoints. For example, the merits paragraph contained the

following messages: detailed explanation (teachers roles), multi-consideration of students situation (teachers

roles), proper organization and linkage of classroom activities (teachers roles), interaction with students

(classroom culture), and going over the previous knowledge to deepen students memory at early stage of the

lesson (teachers roles).

Figure 2. The report and coding of the ZG.

Figure 3.The report of the LG.


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At stage two, when the groups re-observed and re-analyzed the first lesson, it was found that 16 of 17

groups used the five-dimensional analysis framework to organize their reports (Note: Two groups did not

submit their reports). However, seven groups thereof directly adopted the table and its features of the

five-dimensional analysis framework to state their comments, such as the report of Lu Group (see Figure 4). It

was not difficult to find out that the group tended to fill out the features of each dimension in the table by the

general facts abstracted from the lesson. Therefore, to a great extent, such usage of the analysis framework as

filling out the table limited pre-service teachers thinking in the analysis of the lesson. The other nine groups

were able to elaborate their viewpoints and link them to the specific instances collected from the lesson under

the five-dimensions of the analysis framework.

Figure 4. The report of the Lu Group.

More importantly, when the groups observed and analyzed the second video lesson under the instructors

guidance, 16 of 19 groups substantially improved the capacities of generalizing and expressing their viewpoints

when they used the five-dimensional framework as the analysis tool. For example, in the report of AG (see

Figure 5), each dimension led a paragraph and each paragraph discussed one topic that related to the dimension

of the analysis framework. Therefore, the analysis framework facilitated the groups to clear up their viewpoints

that came out during the lesson observation and analysis. Meanwhile, the analysis framework was able to

stimulate the groups to deepen their concepts on the dimensions. For example, as for the dimension of tools, thegroups not only discussed the obvious material objects, such as mini blackboard, ruler, and compasses, but also

recognized the role of the soft tools. For example, CG considered the role of underscoring the keywords by

colored chalk in helping the students understand the problems structures. And the EG (E Group) insightfully

recognized the role of the flow charts used in the explanation of problem-solving process in helping the

students construct a clear train of thought.

Overall, from stage one to stage two, the pre-service teachers were able to demonstrate their viewpoints

from illogical statement to structured analysis based on the five-dimensional framework.


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Figure 5.The report of the AG (Ao G.roup).

Dimension Three: The Shift From the Skilled Video Analysis to the Valued Beliefs on Mathematics

Teaching

At stage three, based on the two previous learning stages, the participants were asked to reflect the whole

process of the video analysis activity with the intention to refine the method of analyzing a classroom teaching

in the form of exam. Therefore, the collected answering sheets showed the participants independent thinking

results. Thus, to some extent, it is possible to examine the individual involvement in the previous learning

activities through the statements in the answering sheet.On one hand, it was found that 84.2% participants had set the mind upon applying the five-dimensional

framework (including the other created proper frameworks) to analyze a lesson, even 15.8% participants

thereof could not completely apply it (see Figure 6). This meant they were capable to refine the analysis

method of the classroom teaching from the video lesson analysis process.

For example, Miss Xu offered the answer in the following way (see Figure 7): Level oneIf we want to

analyze a classroom teaching, we should firstly understand the teaching content and its key pointsThe

dimension of mathematical task was taken as a tool to observe a classroom teaching; Level twoFor example,

when I observed the first video lesson, it was found that the teaching content-analytical method and synthesized

method were clearly wrote down on the blackboardThe facts were selected from previous observation

activities to support the dimension; and Level threeIt was very useful to stimulate students to realize the

lesson focusThe application of the two methods in the proof problems, which definitely would mobilize their

thinkingThe comments based on the facts that were able to indicate the significances of the dimension as a

tool to observe a lesson. With such statement pattern, she discussed the other four dimensions of the

five-dimensional framework. It was reasonable to confirm that pre-service teacher Xu was able to apply the

five-dimensional framework in the methodological perspective and refine the analysis method from the

previous activities as the commentsthe clear analysis framework and the exact cases in pointoffered from

the instructor at the top of the sheet and her own summarizations in the front of her answering from


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disorganization to proper organized and multi-dimensional framework in the analysis (see Figure 7).

34.2 34.2

15.8 15.8

0

10

20

30

40

90-100 80-90 70-80 60-70Percentage

of

Peop

le

Number

Score Interval Figure 6.The reflection scores.

Figure 7. The report of the pre-service teacher Xu.

The reflection not only facilitated pre-service teachers to refine the method of observing and analysing a

lesson, but also deepened their views on the lesson plan, the students cognition, the interaction between

teacher and students, and even the career as a mathematics teacher. For example, as for the lesson plan, Mr. Jin

believed that a teacher should consider the selected examples in variation theory at the lesson plan stage and

Miss Yang stated that a teacher should fully prepare himself for a lesson before it started in terms of the

teaching content, the predicable students difficulties, and the full mind state. As for the students cognition, Mr.Sun suggested that teaching was to help students find out the solution when they confronted a new problem, not

only impart to them the new concept or problem-solving skill. And Miss Li further indicated that a teacher

should pay close attention to not only the students cognitive situation but psychological health as well. For

example, if a student could not answer a question, the teacher should encourage the student to further his/her

thinking by offering some prompts, which was able to build the students confidence. Likewise, Mr. Ye

mentioned that an active interaction between teacher and students would exalt students learning interests.

More importantly, as for the teachers career, 98% pre-service teachers in their reflections stated that being a


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References

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mathematics with understanding. Portsmouth, N. H.: Heinemann.

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US-China Education Review B, ISSN 2161-6248March 2013, Vol. 3, No. 3, 162-171

An Investigation of How Lecturers Teaching Strategies Promote

Productive Classroom Interaction

Helena Hing Wa Sit

Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia

Both the Mainland and Hong Kong have witnessed the trend of educational internationalisation since the handover.

The recruitment of non-local students is regarded as an important strategy to internalise universities in Hong Kong.

Within Hong Kongs western-style educational setting, an increasing number of Mainland students attracted by the

English-medium education and widely adopted western-oriented pedagogy have become the majority non-local

students. Studies explored the adjustment experiences of Mainland students to study in Hong Kong and found

evidence that the adjustment of the host group was as difficult as the sojourning group did in classroom interaction.

Nevertheless, limited research examines the role of teachers in promoting interaction between diverse learners from

pedagogical perspective. Effective teaching strategies can enhance positive classroom interaction. There is

substantial literature within disciplines, such as healthcare, economics, and teacher education, but there is little

investigation of effective strategies in English that studies as a discipline, particularly, in the new context of the

HKSAR (Hong Kong Special Administrative Region), PRC (Peoples Republic of China). This paper attempted to

investigate how lecturers teaching strategies promoted productive interaction through surveys in the discipline of

English. The results should have implications for other worldwide institutions other than Hong Kong involved in

enhancing quality teaching and learning in higher education.

Keywords: higher education, teaching strategies, cross-cultural teaching and learning, English studies

Context of the Study

Having had British colonial regime for over a century, Hong Kong as a special administrative region was

reunited with the PRC (Peoples Republic of China) in 1997. Due to the closer relationship between Hong

Kong and Mainland China, a set of strategic collaborative programs across all fronts including education as one

of the main public services have been broadened and deepened. In particular, the UGC (University Grants

Committee) (2011), a local funding body that sponsors the Hong Kong public-funded institutions and offers

expert advice to the government on higher education has set up the goal of attracting and retaining high quality

of non-local students to study and live in Hong Kong to further internationalize its higher education sector.

In terms of the student resources of Hong Kongs higher education, a significant change has also occurred.

Hong Kong attempts to do whatever the government could to link with the Mainland including education. In

the late 1990s, only several hundred talented Mainland Chinese undergraduates on scholarship were brought

into Hong Kongs universities to study (Shive, 2005). From then on, more Mainland students were recruited by

many local graduate programs. So far the non-local student quota for publicly-funded programs has been raised

Helena Hing Wa Sit, lecturer, Ph.D., Learning and Teaching Centre, Macquarie University.

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LECTURERS TEACHING STRATEGIES, PRODUCTIVE CLASSROOM INTERACTION 163

from 10% to 20%. Currently, the Mainland Chinese students have become the majority of non-local students in

Hong Kong higher education (UGC, 2011). Other non-local students are from South-Asian countries (e.g.,

Indonesia, Japan, and Malaysia), European countries (e.g., UK, Italy, and Spain), North America, and Australia.

In the academic year of 2010/2011, 8,713 full-time Mainland Chinese (out of 10,074 non-local students)

accounted for approximately 90% of the total student population. As a result, how to enhance quality teaching

and learning has drawn academics attention when facing students diversity and cultural inclusivity. To

implement the project in a manageable way, this study only focused on the Mainland students as the largest

non-local student source.

Previous cross-cultural teaching and learning studies conducted in Hong Kong can be generally classified

as two main research streams. The one is concerned with Hong Kong Chinese background students. For

example, Watkins and Biggs (2001) examined the Hong Kong students learning approaches and challenged

the paradox of Chinese surface learning; Kember (2001) learned the process of teaching and learning as a

factor in Hong Kong students adjusting to study in higher education. The other focuses more with newly

arrived Mainland Chinese background students. For instance, recent research studied Mainland Chinesestudents acculturation experiences (Zeng, 2006) and their shifts in English learning strategy use in the host

university in Hong Kong (Gao, 2007). Only a few studies have drawn attention on both groups of students. As

a result, another new research stream is become available. Examples can be seen from the research that

compared learning approach use between Hong Kong and Mainland construction engineering students in Hong

Kong and Mainland China (Leung, Li, Fang, X. H. Lu, & M. Lu, 2006), but it did not discuss these samples

learning situations in the same context of Hong Kong. When the adjustment experiences of a group of

Mainland undergraduate students from the first cohort to study in a university of Hong Kong in 1999, Lam

(2006) unexpectedly found evidence that the adjustment of the host group was as difficult as the adjustment of

the sojourning group due to their different social, cultural, and educational experiences. However, the study did

not examine the role of a teacher in promoting positive interaction between diverse learners from pedagogical

point of view.

This study reported an investigation of the lecturers preferences for teaching strategies at universities in

Hong Kong and how these strategies promoted productive classroom interaction. To date, there is a small body

of research which deals with teaching strategies for advanced learners of English in Hong Kongs universities

although methods of teaching English have been repeatedly discussed in language education in Hong Kong.

This study focused on teaching strategies that promoted interactions between Mainland Chinese students and

local Hong Kong students at the senior level of learning disciplines in English.

Research Methods

The taxonomy of teaching strategies proposed by Killen (1998) was used as the framework design for the

study. In general, the seven commonly used teaching strategies in western contexts: DI (direct instruction), CD

(classroom discussion), SGW (small group work), CL (cooperative learning), PS (problem-solving), SR

(student research), and PA (performance activities)are described to effectively facilitate students to learn and to

interact. A study conducted by Sit (2012) has identified that their existence and frequency of use in the

discipline of English in Hong Kongs universities. Following this trend, this study aimed to find evidence on

the effectiveness of these strategies for enhancing classroom interaction within the learning environment of

Hong Kong.


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LECTURERS TEACHING STRATEGIES, PRODUCTIVE CLASSROOM INTERACTION164

To gain an understanding of lecturers attitudes towards teaching diverse advanced English students, a

survey as quantitative data collection procedure was designed to identify teachers preferences for strategies and

examining the effectiveness of these strategies for promoting classroom interaction. Survey research can help

the researcher to generalize a numeric description of a specific sample, characteristics, attitudes, perceptions, or

opinions on a particular issue to the wider population. There is an economy of the design and the rapid

turnaround in data collection (Creswell, 2009, p. 146) and the ability to tap the subjective feelings of the

public (Fowler, 2002, p. 2).

This study was conducted in the English departments, the HKU (University of Hong Kong) and HKIEd

(Hong Kong Institute of Education). HKU is a leading comprehensive university while HKIEd is an inclusive

educational institution focusing on teacher training and development. Both the two universities have an

increasing number of local and Mainland students applying for first-year-first-degree places (EDBThe

Education Bureau, 2007). Two sets of data will allow a comparative analysis.

Table 1

HKU Participants Surveyed

No. Gender Level of course Years of teaching Role in the course English native speaker

1 Female Year 2 and 3 More than 10 years Lecturing No

2 Female Year 2 and 3 13 years Coordinating and lecturing Yes

3 Male Year 2 More than 10 years Lecturing Yes

4 Male Year 2 and 3 More than 10 years Coordinating and lecturing No

5 Male Year 2 and 3 More than 10 years Lecturing No

6 Male Year 1 and 2 46 years Lecturing and tutoring No

7 Female Year 1 46 years Lecturing and tutoring No

8 Female Year 2 13 years Lecturing No

9 Female Year 1 13 years Lecturing Yes

10 Female Year 1 4

6 years Lecturing No11 Female Year 1 46 years Lecturing and tutoring Yes

Table 2

HKIEd Teachers Surveyed

No. Gender Level of course Years of teaching Role in the courseEnglish nativespeaker

12 Male Year 2 More than 10 years Lecturing and tutoring No

13 Male Year 1 13 years Lecturing and tutoring Yes

14 Male Year 2 and 3 More than 10 years Coordinating, lecturing, and tutoring Yes

15 Male Year 1 More than 10 years Lecturing and tutoring No

16 Male Year 1 46 years Coordinating, lecturing, and tutoring No

17 Male Year 1 1

3 years Lecturing and tutoring No

18 Female Year 1 13 years Coordinating, lecturing, and tutoring Yes

19 Female Year 2 46 years Lecturing and tutoring No

20 Female Year 2 and 3 More than 10 years Lecturing No

21 Female Year 1 and 2 More than 10 years Lecturing and tutoring Yes

22 Female Year 2 More than 10 years Coordinating, lecturing, and tutoring No

The participants were teachers who were teaching an undergraduate course in the English Departments of

HKU and HKIEd. Of the total 36 academics sampled, 22 (11 at HKU and 11 at HKIEd) completed the

questionnaires posted to them and the response rate was 61%. The researcher was aware of the limitation of


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survey for a small number of subjects. Since the data collected in a small sample size, any results must be

accepted with a caution. Tables 1 and 2 summarize background information of the subjects.

Tables 1 and 2 show that each institution consisted of 36% of the subjects speaking English as their

mother-tongue. They were from English-speaking or European countries while the remainders were from Hong

Kong or Mainland China. Ten (out of 22) academics were experienced lecturers, because they had already

gained more than 10 years of lecturing and tutoring experience. The rest were either novice teachers or

short-term contract teaching fellows.

Study Results

All the participants responded to the questionnaire that was designed to scrutinize the seven teaching

strategies identified by Killen (1998), so that teachers preferences for these strategies could be revealed. With

a purpose to check students interaction from the eyes of lecturers, the other section of the survey was

concerned with classroom interaction and teaching strategies that promoted communication between these two

groups of students. The data were processed by SPSS (Statistical Program for Social Sciences) software togenerate means and SD (standard deviations). T-tests were conducted to look for differences in response

between the institutions. With regard to gender, educational backgrounds, and teaching experience, the

quantitative statistical results could not provide much significant or valuable evidence because of the limited

number of subjects.

Preferences to Use Teaching Strategies

This section of questionnaire was designed to investigate the teaching strategies preferred by the teachers.

Table 1 summarizes the responses from the participants in terms of their preferences for each teaching strategy.

The question includes statements in relation to seven individual strategies and requires participants to give their

opinions by indicating their agreement or disagreement on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (Strongly disagree)

to 5 (Strongly agree). These items and relevant indicators are listed below:

(1) DII prefer direct instruction because it is very effective for teaching fundamental concepts or knowledge of the

subject. It allows me to convey a large amount of information in a relatively short time;

(2) CDI prefer classroom discussion because it can involve students in learning actively, motivate them to express

ideas, and help enhance their social communication means, such as listening, speaking politely, and respecting others

views;

(3) SGWI prefer small group work because it can help students exchange ideas from diverse perspectives, deepen

their understanding of course content, improve their communication skills, and increase their active participation in

learning;

(4) CLI prefer cooperative learning because it can encourage students to achieve a desired task cooperatively. It not

only helps students to share responsibilities for their own learning, but it also enhances the learning of other group

members;

(5) PSI prefer problem-solving because it helps develop students critical thinking skills, resourcefulness,

independence, and self-confidence and their ability to apply knowledge to some real-world situations;

(6) SRI prefer student research because it can enable students to develop a deep understanding of the subject and

develop their organizational and time-management skills;

(7) PAI prefer performance activity because it can engage students in learning activities and provide them with

opportunities to develop their communication skills.

The above items and statements were used as indicators of preference and reasons for preference. The use

of a 5-point Likert scale resulted in statistically comparable results (see Table 3).


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Table 3

Preferences to Use Teaching Strategies at HKU and HKIEd

Preferences for teachingstrategies

HKU (n= 11) HKIEd (n= 11) T-test(Sig.)Mean SD Mean SD

DI 3.81 0.75 3.54 1.04 nsCD 4.27 0.47 4.18 0.87 ns

SGW 3.63 0.92 4.27 0.47 ns

CL 3.82 0.75 4.18 0.60 ns

PS 4.18 0.60 3.55 1.04 ns

SR 4.27 0.65 3.27 1.27 t= 2.32*

PA 3.45 0.69 3.82 0.75 ns

Notes.*p< 0.05; ns = non-significant.

On the HKU site, preferences for SR (4.27) and CD (4.27) were rated as the highest. Preference for PS

(4.18) was also high but PA (3.45) was the lowest. On the HKIEd site, the results showed that SGW (4.27), CD

(4.18), and CL (4.18) were highly rated, but SR (3.27) gained the lowest rate. The t-values of preferences for

most teaching strategies except for SR were more than 0.05. No major differences were found between the two

institutions. However, preference for SR was estimated as t= 2.32, p< 0.05. This showed that there was a

significant gap between the two research sites. The HKU group was more enthusiastic on SR than the HKIEd

group.

Classroom InteractionHow Classes Are ConductedA question surveyed the participants responses on classroom interaction. They needed to consider how

they conducted their classes to promote interaction between Mainland and Hong Kong students and rate the

items on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree). Five items are listed as:

(1) LecturingLecturing is used as a major means of communication with students in my classroom;

(2) Students with different cultural backgrounds working together

Students with different cultural backgrounds are

encouraged to work together to generate ideas or opinions;

(3) Mainland and Hong Kong students participate in classBoth Mainland students and Hong Kong students

participate in class activities by raising questions and expressing their ideas;

(4) Mainland and Hong Kong students cooperate in classMainland students and Hong Kong students interact and

cooperate well in most collaborative classroom activities;

(5) Mainland and Hong Kong students have troubles in interactionWhen Mainland students and Hong Kong

students meet each other in class, they communicate less than when they are with other Mainland or Hong Kong students.

Table 4 shows the overall picture of students interaction.

Table 4

Classroom Interaction Between Mainland and Hong Kong Students

Classroom interaction between Mainland and Hong Kong studentsHKU (n= 11) HKIEd (n= 11)

T-test (Sig.)Mean SD Mean SD

Lecturing 3.18 1.17 3.27 1.01 ns

Students with different cultural backgrounds working together 3.73 0.65 3.82 1.08 ns

Mainland and Hong Kong students participate in class 2.91 1.38 3.81 0.75 ns

Mainland and Hong Kong students cooperate in class 3.64 0.67 3.09 0.83 ns

Mainland and Hong Kong students have troubles in interaction 2.90 0.74 3.73 0.90 t = -2.31*

Notes. *p< 0.05; ns = non-significant.


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The numbers displayed in the table indicated that there was no striking difference between the HKU and

HKIEd groups with respect to the first four items. The first item about encouraging Mainland and Hong Kong

student to work together by the HKU group (3.73) and the HKIEd group (3.82) was the strongest response.

There was an obvious gap between HKU (2.90) and HKIEd (3.73) in terms of the last item indicating Mainland

and Hong Kong students had troubles in interaction. The t-value (t = -2.31, p < 0.05) provided sufficient

evidence that the HKIEd group of teachers found more problems in relation to the interaction between

Mainland and Hong Kong students than the HKU group did. The rate of agreement on cooperation between

Mainland and Hong Kong students in class at HKIEd (3.09) was also statistically lower than that of HKU

(3.64).

However, not many written responses were added to the open space of the question. Only one teacher at

HKIEd expanded the reason pertaining to the problems with Mainland and Hong Kong students interaction. It

was reflected that this might depend on the student composition of the two groups of students because one

teacher reported that if there were fewer Mainland students in class, they would mix more with the local

students.

Classroom Interaction-Effective Strategies to Promote Interaction

The participants answered a question which required them to report what teaching strategies should be

effective for promoting productive classroom interaction. Again, their responses varied on a 5-point Likert

scale from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree). Table 5 shows their ratings.

Table 5

Effective Strategies to Promote Interaction

Effective teachingstrategies

HKU (n= 11) HKIEd (n= 11)T-test (Sig.)

Mean SD Mean SD

DI 3.45 1.29 3.00 1.26 nsCD 4.36 0.50 4.18 0.40 ns

SGW 3.73 0.65 4.27 0.47 t= -2.27*

CL 3.73 0.65 4.09 0.83 ns

PS 3.91 0.54 3.91 0.54 ns

SR 3.64 0.67 3.91 0.70 ns

PA 4.00 0.63 3.82 0.98 ns

Notes.*p< 0.05; ns = non-significant.

In general, the participants at HKU and HKIEd found that teaching strategies including CD, SWG, CL, PS,

SR, and PA were more effective than DI to promote classroom interaction. Particularly, CD (4.36), PA (4.00),

and PS (3.91) got the first three high ranks at HKU. SWG (4.27), CD (4.18), and CL (4.09) ranked highly atHKIEd. Except for SGW (t = -2.27, p < 0.05), t-tests found no significant difference between the two

institutions for other strategies. This gap showed that the HKIEd favored SGW than the HKU group. As to the

reasons behind this gap, analysis would be made in the discussion section.

Four lecturers from HKIEd wrote down their additional opinions about effective teaching strategies to

enhance productive classroom interaction. Other helpful strategies, such as weekly feedback online and

biographical sharing were recommended to give students an opportunity to ask questions, which is not

always possible in or after class. These comments seemed to illustrate that teachers at HKIEd were more

enthusiastic in considering more effective strategies beyond those seven checked in this study.


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Discussion

On the whole, all the participants were keen to use these seven strategies. The majority had greater

preferences for student-centred teaching strategies including CD, SGW, CL, PS, SR, and PA. This tendency

might derive from their educational backgrounds and qualifications. Most teachers in this current study wereacademics trained internationally and received their Ph.D. degrees in western countries where student-centred

teaching practices are widely used and emphasised. Most teachers in this study may expect students to

construct knowledge by themselves rather than rely on teachers transmissive knowledge. Therefore, students

acquisition of independent study skills was more valued. Westwood (2008) claimed that student-centred

teaching strategies are necessary to empower learners with great autonomy and to establish collaborative work

with others. The statistics showed that whether the participants were English native speakers or not, they had

been strongly influenced by the rationales of student-centred approaches. Teachers tended to expect students to

learn through their firsthand experience. This was also consistent with Hong Kongs western style higher

education sector that emphasizes on autonomous learning and independent thinking. As such, the frequencies of

using student-centred strategies at the two institutions were higher than direct instruction which is more

teacher-centred.

In addition, the quantitative data indicated that the two groups of participants had different preferences for

some specific student-centred teaching strategies. For example, the HKU group was keen on SR while the

HKIEd group favoured SGW more. Context of teaching and learning might account for differences between

the two sites. In the highly research-orientated environment of HKU, research capability and academic insights

are particularly valued (School of English-HKU, 2009). The teachers at HKU tended to emphasize the

scholarship of subject matter in English studies. The written response from the HKU group stated explicitly that

analyzing data as a research activity was also used as an alternative strategy. By contrast, the teachers at HKIEd

were inclined to pay more attention to the professional development of students since their main responsibilityis preparing new teachers for the workforce. Teaching competence is a major concern in teacher training

institutions because teachers are playing a role model for students. Most HKIEd teachers hold a teaching

qualification in addition to an academic higher degree. They have been trained in how to use various teaching

strategies effectively apart from a command of academic side of subject matter. Their written response could be

a good reflection of this point. Providing class time for SGW may have provided students with opportunities

to use this teaching strategy and to understand the value of the student-centred approach. As a result, the

contexts of teaching and learning in the two research sites are different. The institutional culture and the

composition of the teachers with various academic and teaching qualifications could be the contributing factors

to the preference of using some specific teaching strategies.

The other noteworthy point was related to classroom interaction, especially the communication between

Mainland and Hong Kong students through the teachers eyes. The interaction difficulties raised by the HKIEd

participants were bigger than the HKU teachers. To some extent, this could be linked with student minority

status or majority status in class. Liu (2002) concluded that Mainland students with their minority status in

American classrooms were inclined to keep silence as a means of self-protection or as a sign to express their

agreement and harmony with the majority of local students. During classroom communication and interaction,

it was natural for them to work as a subordinate group when interacting with the dominant social group usually

enjoying more power over the minority groups. Similarly, student composition of Mainland and Hong Kong


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students at HKU and HKIEd might be a factor that affects their interaction. The confident Hong Kong students

with higher self-esteem tended to place themselves in a more favourable position in terms of the power

relations with Mainland students.

Although HKU is one of the most prestigious comprehensive institutions, attracting the largest population

of Mainland students (UGC, 2011), it had relatively less Mainland students studying in the Department of

English. In the observed lessons for this study, only a few had some Mainland students. For example, 16 out of

117 students in a mass lecture were from the Mainland and accounted for 13% of the total class population.

Major selection could be considered as a reason behind this. In accordance with the employment statistics in

Hong Kong, more than 50% of Mainland university graduates worked in Hong Kong in 2009 and the financial

services industry were their largest employer (EIC, 2010). It would be easier for most Mainland students to

choose careers, such as business, medicine, information technology, and media in Hong Kong (Qiu & Lin,

2010). One of the HKU teachers also noticed that the degree of interaction between Mainland and Hong Kong

students seemed to depend on the number of Mainland students among the host students. If there were fewer of

them, they needed to mix more with local students. Due to their minority status, Mainland students tended to

follow the mainstream in class activities. Furthermore, their presence often drew little attention from the

majority, namely, large numbers of Hong Kong students. In this sense, conflicts between students might be

invisible.

By contrast, the Department of English at HKIEd recruited a large number of Mainland students. In the

recent academic years, over 57% of the student intake in the department was Mainland undergraduates studying

English language teacher education programs (Gao & Trent, 2009). The majority of the visited classes were

predominantly Mainland Chinese (with Hong Kong students becoming minority) and some comprised half

Mainland and half Hong Kong students. This kind of student body indicated that the English language teaching

profession was also highly attractive to a great number of Mainland and Hong Kong students. Employmentmay direct such a choice. Both research sites may compete not only academically, but also in graduate

employment.

Teaching is a highly respectable profession in traditional Chinese culture and English language teaching is

today considered a prestigious occupation. In 2005, teaching was rated as the third most desirable profession by

Hong Kong local secondary school students among 20 careers (Lai et al., 2005). To most Mainland students

who want to work in or migrate to Hong Kong, studying a four-year-language education program can be

helpful, because the immigration policy requires them to spend at least seven years on permanent residency,

with monthly starting salary no lower than HK$11,000 (EIC, 2010). Statistics show that HKIEd graduates

excelled and achieved full employment at 100% in 2009, earning an average monthly salary of HK$18,014

(HKIEd, 2010). As a result, more and more Mainland and Hong Kong students tend to choose language

education, because it can not only improve their English competence, but also help them to get a job easily.

As such, both majority and minority should have an impact on students interaction. Mainland students

had become a majority group in class. In other words, they could also exercise power over subordinate groups

and form their own mainstream of learning and communication. Some lecturers from both research sites found

that getting Mainland and Hong Kong students to interact was hard because seldom did they talk with each

other until it was required. The two groups of students preferred to stick to their own groups. However, the

more the two groups of students worked separately, the less Mainland and Hong Kong mixed groups would be


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References

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May 2, 2008, from http://www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/EN/Content_927/legco%20brief-e.pdfEIC. (2010). Employment rate in Hong Kong: Most of mainland students ideal careers in Hong Kong. Retrieved June 2, 2010,

from http://news.eic.org.cn/News.aspx?id=8150

Fowler, F. J. (2002). Survey research method(3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, C.A.: Sage Publications.

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Kong.Innovations in Language Learning and Teaching, 1(2), 193-207.

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Gieve, S., & Clark, R. (2005). The Chinese approach to learning: Cultural trait or situated response? System, 33(2), 261-276.

HKIEd (Hong Kong Institute of Education). (2010). Press release: HKIEd graduates excel in job hunt; First early childhood

graduates all employed. Retrieve August 16, 2010, from http://www.ied.edu.hk/web/news.php?id=20100519

Kember, D. (2001). Beliefs about knowledge and the process of teaching and learning as a factor in adjusting to study. Higher

Education, 26(2), 205-21.Killen, R. (1998). Effective teaching strategies: Lessons from research and practice (2nd ed.). Katoomba, N. S. W.: Social

Science Press.

Lai, K., Chan, K., Ko, K., & So, K. (2005). Teaching as a career: A perspective from Hong Kong senior secondary students.

Journal of Education for Teaching, 31, 153-168.

Lam, M. H. (2006). Reciprocal adjustment by host and sojourning groups: Mainland Chinese students in Hong Kong. In M.

Byram, & A. W. Feng. (Eds.), Living and studying aboard: Research and practice (pp. 91-108). Clevedon: Multilingual

Matters.

Leung, M. Y., Li, J. Y., Fang, Z., Lu, X. H., & Lu, M. (2006). Learning approaches of construction engineering students: A

comparative study between Hong Kong and Mainland China.Journal for Education in the Built Environment, 1(1), 112-131.

Qiu, L. Y., & Lin, J. (2010). Business largely attracts Mainland students coming to Hong Kong for employment or education. In

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US-China Education Review B, ISSN 2161-6248

March 2013, Vol. 3, No. 3, 172-182

Science Education and the Challenges Facing Its Integration Into

the 21st Century School System in a Globalized World: A Case

of Igbo Nation

Ezeudu F. O., Nkokelonye C. U., Ezeudu S. A.

University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria

This paper is a study of historical foundations of science education in Igboland, its nature and scope as well as the

challenges facing its integration into the 21st century school system in a globalized world. The authors found that

there were many scientific activities in Igbo culture, but many problems hinder their integration into the basic needs

of modern society. For instance, imposing the needs of a globalized world of the 21st century on modernized

African (Igbo) science is like imposing industrial chemistry on non-industrialized society. Implications of the

findings were discussed in this paper.

Keywords: science education, globalization, Igboland, Igbo culture, Igbo metaphysics, Igbo science, indigenous

Igbo ideologies, western education in Igbo land

The Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to identify scientific activities in pre-colonial Igbo society and show howthese could be integrated into the school system. The paper also explored/examined the extent these indigenous

science process skills can be harnessed to meet the challenges of globalization.

Specifically, the study shall be investigating the following:

(1) History of education in pre-colonial Igbo society in order to dig up the root of Igbo science process

skills;

(2) The advent of western education among the Igbos and establishment of schools;

(3) The scientific process skills in Igbo culture;

(4) Globalization and science education;

(5) Issues, implications, and challenges of globalization in Igbo nation;

(6) Summary;

(7) Recommendations.

History of Education in Pre-colonial Igbo Society

Education in pre-colonial Igbo society was merely a process of enculturation through instructional agents.

Ezeudu F. O., Ph.D., Department of Science Education, University of Nigeria.Nkokelonye C. U., Ph.D., professor, Department of Education Foundation, University of Nigeria.

Ezeudu S. A., Ph.D., professor, Department of Social Science Education, University of Nigeria.

DAVID PUBLISHING

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SCIENCE EDUCATION AND THE CHALLENGES FACING ITS INTEGRATION 173

Indigenous people have culture. Colonial masters did not recognize this fact. It was believed that Africa, south

of Sahara, and north of the River Limpopo (the heartland of Igbo nation), was one universal den of waste,

misery, and desolation. They had no system of ethics and no principles of conduct (Otonti, 1964, p. 36). This

Eurocentric version of history notwithstanding, there were systems of ethics and principles of conduct which

formed the foundation of Igbo culture and civilization. Out of this matrix, Igbo traditional education developed

its objectives which gave rise to indigenous Igbo ideologies, namely:

(1) Communalism (Igbo socialism/extended family system);

(2) Utilitarianism (functional education);

(3) Conservatism (conservative socializing agencies/perennialism);

(4) Pragmatism (role preparation/skill acquisition);

(5) Totalitarianism (children learnt everything/i.e., holistic education).

Communalism

This is Igbo socialism/extended family system (Be your brothers keeper). To be your brothers keeper

is a basic norm in Igbo society. Extended family system is the authentic Igbo socialism not Russian socialism

or Chinese type. Igbo socialism is opposed to capitalism (Ejiofor, 2000, pp. 100-105). Some refer to Igbo

socialism as proto-socialism or proto-type of communism.

The purpose of capitalism is to create a happy society through exploitation, subjugation, and alienation.

Capitalists attitude infiltrated into Igbo society through colonialism.

Collective responsibility is a manifestation of Igbo socialism. Education is for the good of the community.

Riches and wealth are acquired for the good of all. Collective responsibility as opposed to the rugged

individualism of the Whiteman was Igbo tradition. Espirit de corps was cherished. No man was

self-sufficient. No man was an island. Every blood relation is a brother or sister. The idea of nephew or niece,

half-brother or half-sister is strange. The idea of grandmother or grandfather is basic in Igbo culture. This is

Igbo socialism, which needless to say is distributive, not acquisitive (Ejiofor, 2000, pp. 100-107). Wealth is

acquired to give help to less privileged relatives. It is strange to amass wealth in order to build personal political

or economic empire. Nobody wanted wealth in order to hand it over to others or gain political power. A rich

man acquired wealth in order to serve his brothers and sisters. The man who used his wealth to intimidate,

dominate, or subdue his relatives is despised. Education for the good of the community produced

public-spirited citizens of transparency and honesty.

Utilitarianism

Functional education or education for use not for ornamentation was upheld. There was no unemployment.

Vocationalization gave Igbo education job orientation. Apprenticeship system was another term for Igbo

education system.

Conservatism

This is education for promotion of cultural heritage. Eternal values were conserved. The family and elders

of the land were conservative socializing agencies. These were Igbo perennialists who viewed the unwritten

(hidden) curriculum as a package consisting of permanent studies which included spiritual values, human

values, and material values. They saw knowledge as fixed and permanent.

Induction into the society was by indoctrination. Desirable status quo was conserved. Ideological


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conformity was achieved.

Pragmatism

Role preparation through skill acquisition for successful adult life was a cultural universal in Igboland.

Practical training for adult life was cherished. Children were trained for future roles. Boy-child trained as futurefather. Girl-child trained as future mother. Mother-craft was part of skill acquisition.

Ability to perform productive tasks was valued more than producing a bookful blockhead with loads of

learned lumber in his head (described as a spurious inheritance of pure intellectualism).

Totalitarianism

Children learnt everything. Some Igbos called it Pan-Sophism. Others felt it was Holisticism (Nebonta,

2009, pp. 43-50; Ochitti, 2007, pp. 59-61). It was education for all-round efficiencymoral, spiritual, physical,

mental, economic, and political efficiency. No choice of subjects was allowed. However, elements of culture

were not lacking, viz.:

(1) Cultural universals: Core values (marriage, language, festivals, and ceremonies) were retained;

(2) Cultural specialties: These were professions like carving and smithery. Religions groups, priests, and

diviners specialize in fortune-telling. There were trading oligarchies. The Aros and Nri constitute the two

hegemonies in Igbolandthe Aro trading oligarchy and Nri ritual hegemony. Nri dominance and hegemony

was founded on the control of Igbo calendar, ritual and agricultural cycle. Nri is the centre of Igbo culture and

the cultural metropolis of Igboland. All Igbo culture came from Nri and Aro hegemony was based on

long-distance tradethe slaving oligarchy (18071927), bolstered up by a widely recognized Aro

oracleChukwu-Ibini-Ukpabi, and strong alliance with warlike neighbours with martial tradition, viz., Abam

Ohafia and Edda. With these warmongers, the Aro maintained commercial oligarchy and dominance in the

economic life of the Igbo and their neighbours. The blow-up and military overthrow of Chukwu-Ibini-Ukpabi

in the Aro expedition of 19011902 brought Aro hegemony to an end, even though the Aro struggled hard toretain their hegemony long after the famous Aro expedition (up to 1927);

(3) Cultural alternatives: There were likes and dislikes, fashions and fads, choice of diet, and alternative

ways of doing things.

The above five ideologies were rooted in three Igbo philosophies of lifemetaphysics, epistemology, and

axiology.

Igbo Metaphysics

Belief in life after death, Igbos are very religious. Ancestor worship is basic in Igbo cosmological

education. All the three aspect of metaphysics form part of the cosmological education, namely:

(1) Ontology: Belief in Supreme Being, God, the creator, or almighty god and pantheon of gods andgoddesses or minor gods/deities. They believe in reincarnation, witches, and wizards;

(2) Cosmology: Origin of the universe richly found in Igbo mythical charter was preserved in Nri corpus

of myths. Origin of Igbo market days and certain food crops constitute Igbo cosmology and worldview;

(3) Causality: Cause and effect relationship were amply elaborated. Nemesis, Karmic laws (retributive

justice) was taught through oral literaturefolktales, myths, and legends.

Epistemology

Igbo oral tradition/oral literature was the main source of knowledge. Oral literature could be divided into


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three:

(1) Mythsconcerned with superhuman elementsactivities of gods and goddesses in human affairs;

(2) Legends: concerned with human elementsactivities of human heroescultural heroes and warlords;

(3) Folktale/folklore: concerned with ballads, proverbs, riddles, and poems.

Axiology

This is taught by presenting Igbo ethics, aesthetics, and political philosophy.

(1) Igbo ethics: Concerned with moral content of Igbo civilization. It is the Igbo moral philosophycode

of conduct and social norms. Three types of norms in Igbo culture:

(a) Folkwayssocial convention;

(b) Morestaboos;

(c) Lawlegal codes, rules, and regulations;

(2) Aesthetics: Concerned with principles of beauty and ugliness. Lay emphasis on Igbo arts and crafts,

rules of hygiene, use of cosmetics, cultural refinement, and general aesthetic awareness;

(3) Political philosophy

democratic gerontocracy.

The above is a basic outline on which Igbo pre-colonial education was made to revolve. It was on this

outline that Igbo science was rooted.

Igbo Science

Science is knowledge obtained by observation and testing of facts. It is empirical or sensory information

about the behaviour of natural and physical world-based on facts and figures which can be proved by

experiment. Igbo cosmological experience is filled with scientific knowledge as can be seen in the inventory of

Igbo science processes.

The above was the state of the art before the introduction of western education in Igboland on July 26,

1857, by Samuel Adjai Crowther, Simon Jonas, and Christopher Taylor of the CMS (Church MissionarySociety) Niger Mission.

The Advent of Western Education and Establishment of Schools

Igboland is found on both banks of the River Niger between Lokoja in the north and Bonny-Opobo in the

Niger Delta. Majority of Igbo people are living towards the east of the great River in Anambra, Imo, Abia,

Enugu, Ebonyi, and parts of Rivers State. These are the people of eastern Igboland. Igbos inhabiting the

western bank of the River Niger is called western Igbos or Ika Igbos. Cross River Igbos are the Aros and their

neighbours. Among the Igbos of southeast Nigeria, western education came along with the Niger Mission of

1857.

Specifically, the Niger Mission was launched from three axis (Afigbo, 1981, p. 338): the River Niger

Front, Bonny-Opobo axis, and the Cross River axis.

The River Niger Front

The Niger Mission dated back to July 26, 1857 when Dr. Baike, Bishop Adjai Crowther, and John

Christopher Taylor arrived at the palace of Obi Akazua of Onitsha for courtesy call and formal introduction.

Dr. Baike requested to open up a trading station. Bishop Adjai Crowther asked for a piece of land to

establish a mission station. The king welcomed them and granted their request. The agreement was sealed the

following day with gun salute. A piece of land few kilometers from Onitsha waterside known as slave market


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or slave beach was given to them to open up mission station.

The CMS Niger Mission took off in earnest. The first primary school in Onitsha was opened on Monday

November 15, 1858, with 14 girls between 10 to 16 years of age. All were naked. Taylor gave them clothes.

Boys showed no interest at all. Both day and night schools were opened by Taylor in 1864 for young slaves

who became the school pioneers. Day school had 50 pupils and night school had 70 pupils on roll. Boarding

house was maintained with funds from overseas charitable organizations. The most popular was Coral Fund

sponsored by Miss Barber Brighton of England (Ekechi, 1971, pp. 6-8, 17). The aim of the fund was to enable

the infant mission to maintain boarders at three pounds per child per year.

By 1864, attendance was 42 adults. In 1864, roll calls increased to 120fruit of six years labour. By 1867

after labouring for ten years, attendance jumped to 310.

The Niger Mission was reinforced on December 5, 1885, when two Holy Ghost MissionariesFather

Joseph Lutz and the newly-ordained Father Horne and brothers Hermas and JeanGotto arrived at Onitsha

waterside (Slave Beach). They were the pioneer Catholic Missionary team that comes to Onitsha to be ready to

work in Igboland on the eastern side of the Niger. Trade disputes and internecine rivalries had been in existencebetween French and British nationals operating on the Niger. This Anglo-French rivalry made it suspicious and

unsafe for any French man to be found on British area of influence.

It must be noted that on their way to the Lower Niger, they came across a kind-hearted protestant factory

agent at Brass by name Charles Townsend who brought them in his own motor boat to Onitsha. The small boat

was too small to take the four missionaries and their 70 pieces of luggage. For this reason, they hurriedly

presented themselves to the King of Onitsha Obi Anazonwu and they went back to Brass to collect the two

brothers and their luggage. On December 29, 1885, the four missionaries arrived safely at Onitsha.

In January 1886, the Fathers met the King and requested for a piece of land near Nkisi stream. This land

had already been given to Anglican Bishop Adjai Crowther. The King sent the missionaries to meet Bishop

Adjai Crowther who willingly surrendered the land to them:

I acquired this piece of land for Gods cause. Take it. This is the present site of Holy Trinity Cathedral

Onitsha, about 20 hectares of land as they requested.

This marked the climax of the Holy Ghost Missionary enterprise in the Lower Niger. With Holy Trinity as

the centre and node of diffusion and influence planting of Catholic Church in Igboland started. By 1889, Obosi,

Ossomari, Nsugbe, Umuoji, Atani, Odekpe, and Nkwelle had received pa

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US-China Education Review 2013（3B）