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Unit 9
»Work design
Work design and motivation...• 28% of HT shine poll respondent gave a
thumbs down to Wednesday• Vaibhav bhasin, Relationship manager,
Allcheckdeals gets a weekly off on Tuesdays so Wednesday have a Monday like feel for him
• And that day seems demanding• “ We have weekly meeting on Wednesdays
with the regional head• This involves a lot of coordination and
updates from my team members on anything and everything that happened over the week
Part 3
• To explore work design as a central component of E.I. interventions
• To approach work design from an engineering, motivational and socio-technical perspective
• To understand how different approaches align with different technical and interpersonal conditions.
Learning objectives
Work design approaches
Engineering:
• efficiency and simplification
• traditional jobs and work groups redesigns
• Call centres, data entry positions, product support executives
Motivational Theories
• job enrichment
Sociotechnical Systems:
• optimizing social and technical work systems aspects
• self-managed teams
Traditional job and work group• When the work can be completed by one
person such as bank tellers and telephone operators, traditional jobs are created– Simplified, with routine, having clear
specification regarding time and motion• When the work requires coordination among
people such as automobile assembly line then work groups are developed– Group tasks are broken in to simpler and
discrete parts
Engineering approach
• Engineering Approach is less an OD intervention and more a benchmark of management history
• However it is important to recognize the strengths of engineering approach because its immediate cot saving and efficiency can be measured readily
Specialization in Business: Advantages
For Management:
1. Simplifies training
2. High productivity
3. Low wage costs
For Labor:
1 . Low education and
skill requirements
2. Minimum
responsibilities
3. Little mental effort
needed
Disadvantages
For Management:
1. Difficult to motivate
quality
2. Worker dissatisfaction,
possibly resulting in
absenteeism, high
turnover, disruptive
tactics, poor attention
to quality
For Labor:
1. Monotonous work
2. Limited opportunities
for advancement
3. Little control over work
4. Little opportunity for
self-fulfillment
Analyzing the Job• Flow process chart
– Chart used to examine the overall sequence of an operation by focusing on movements of the operator or flow of materials
• Worker-machine chart– Chart used to determine portions of a
work cycle during which an operator and equipment are busy or idle
FLOW PROCESS CHART
Job Requisition of petty cash
Details of Method
Op
erat
ion
M
ove
men
t
In
spec
tio
n
Del
ay
Sto
rag
e
Requisition made by department head
Put in “pick-up” basket
To accounting department
Account and signature verified
Amount approved by treasurer
Amount counted by cashier
Amount recorded by bookkeeper
Petty cash sealed in envelope
Petty cash carried to department
Petty cash checked against requisition
Receipt signed
Petty cash stored in safety box
Motion Study Techniques
• Motion study principles - guidelines for designing motion-efficient work procedures
• Analysis of therbligs - basic elemental motions into which a job can be broken down
• Micromotion study - use of motion pictures and slow motion to study motions that otherwise would be too rapid to analyze
Therbligs
• Therbligs: Basic elemental motions that make up a job.– Search– Select– Grasp– Hold– Transport load– Release load
1. Eliminate unnecessary motions
2. Combine activities
3. Reduce fatigue
4. Improve the arrangement of the workplace
5. Improve the design of tools and equipment
Developing Work Methods
Work Measurement
• Work measurement: Determining how long it should take to do a job.
– Standard time
– Stopwatch time study
– Predetermined data
– Work Sampling
Standard time
Standard time: Standard time:
The amount of time it should take a qualified worker to complete a specific task, The amount of time it should take a qualified worker to complete a specific task,
working at a sustainable rate, using given methods, tools and equipment, raw working at a sustainable rate, using given methods, tools and equipment, raw
materials, and workplace arrangement.materials, and workplace arrangement.
Stopwatch Time Study
• Stopwatch Time Study: Development of a time standard based on observations of one worker taken over a number of cycles.
• The basic steps in a time study:
1. Define the task to be studied
2. Determine the number of cycles to observe
3. Time the job
4. Compute the standard time
Predetermined Time Standards
• Predetermined time standards: Published data based on extensive research to determine standard elemental times.
• Advantages:
1. Based on large number of workers under controlled conditions
2. Analyst not requires to rate performance
3. No disruption of the operation
4. Standards can be established
Work Sampling
• Work sampling: technique for estimating the proportion of time that a worker or machine spends on various activities and idle time.
• Work sampling involves making brief observations of a worker or machine at random intervals
• Work sampling does not require – timing an activity– continuous observation of an activity
Motivation approach
• Motivation approach is based on the researches of Hertzberg (Two factor theory of motivation) and Hackman and Oldham (Job characteristics theory)
• Motivation and hygiene factors are difficult to put in to operations and measure
Equity TheoryEquity Theory
Upward social comparison: Upward social comparison: comparing oneself to another who is better offbetter off on a particular attribute
frequently results in decreaseddecreased satisfaction
Downward social comparison: Downward social comparison: comparing oneself to another who is worse offworse off on a particular attribute
frequently results in increasedincreased satisfaction
Working Conditions
T e m p e r a t u r e &H u m i d i t y
V e n t i l a t i o n
I l l u m i n a t i o n C o l o r
Working Conditions (cont’d)
Noise & Vibration
Causes of AccidentsSafety
Work Breaks
Applying Motivation TheoryApplying Motivation Theory
1.1. Motivational job design– job enlargement– job enrichment– job rotation
2. 2. Work scheduling options– job sharing
3. 3. Recognition, empowerment, & economic incentives– variable pay
© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights
reserved.6–24
Comparison of Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers
Factors characterizing events on the job that led to
extreme job dissatisfaction
Factors characterizing events on the job
that led to extreme job satisfaction
E X H I B I T
6–2
E X H I B I T
6–2
Source: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. An exhibit from One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees? by Frederick Herzberg, September–
October 1987. Copyright © 1987 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College: All rights reserved.
How can managers redesign existing jobs to increase employee motivation and performance?
– Job enlargementJob enlargement – horizontal expansion of a job by increasing number and variety of tasks performed
– Job enrichmentJob enrichment – vertical expansion of a job to provide more autonomy, responsibility, and decision-making authority for employee
– Job rotation Job rotation – shifting of workers from one job to another to broaden an employee’s skill base
– Popular motivational tools Popular motivational tools – Work-scheduling options, employee recognition programs, empowerment, variable-pay programs
Job Characteristics Model - a framework for understanding person-job fit
through the interaction of core job dimensions with critical psychological states within a person
Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) - the survey instrument designed to measure the elements in the Job Characteristics Model
Job
Characteristics
Theory
© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights
reserved.6–27
The Job Characteristics Model
E X H I B I T
6–6
E X H I B I T
6–6
Source: J.R. Hackman and G.R. Oldham, Work Design (excerpted from pp. 78–80). © 1980 by Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc. Reprinted by permission of Addison-
Wesley Longman, Inc.
(cont’d)Skill Variety
The degree to which a job requires a variety of
different activities.
Task Identity
The degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable
piece of work.
Task Significance
The degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of
other people.
Job Design Theory (cont’d)Autonomy
The degree to which the job provides substantial freedom and discretion to the
individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used
in carrying it out.
(cont’d)Feedback
The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by a job results in
the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of
his or her performance.
© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights
reserved.6–31
Computing a Motivating Potential Score
People who work on jobs with high core dimensions are generally more motivated, satisfied, and productive.
Job dimensions operate through the psychological states in influencing personal and work outcome variables
rather than influencing them directly.
People who work on jobs with high core dimensions are generally more motivated, satisfied, and productive.
Job dimensions operate through the psychological states in influencing personal and work outcome variables
rather than influencing them directly.
Job enrichment at Travelers insurance company
• A programme took place in a data entry operation
• Before the intervention , the deptt. was ineffective, due dates and schedules were frequently missed and absenteeism was higher than average
• The job were split up, highly standardized providing workers with little opportunity for discretion, skill variety and feedback
contd
• First the consultant conducted an educational session with supervisor who was introduced to Hackman and Oldham’s approach to job enrichment
• Relevant job changes were designed using five concepts
• Natural work units..operator’s handled account rather than batches at random
• Task combination where some planning and controlling functions were combined with the task of data entry or varyfying
Contd.• Client relationship ..where each operator was
given several channels of direct contact with clients
• Feedback..operator received weekly record of productivity and error from other departments
• Vertical loading..Operators were permitted to set their own schedule as log as they met departmental schedules..mgt permitted operator to work with fewer external control
International Perspectives on the Design of Work
The Japanese Approach– Emphasizes strategic level– Encourages collective and
cooperative working arrangements
– Emphasizes lean productionlean production
Using committed employees with ever-expanding responsibilities
to achieve zero waste, 100% good product,
delivered on time, every time
Lean Production
Emerging Issues in Design of Work
• Telecommuting - employees work at home or in other locations geographically separate from their company’s main location
• Alternative work patterns– Job Sharing - an alternative work pattern
in which there is more than one person occupying a single job
– Flextime - an alternative work pattern that enables employees to set their own daily work schedules
Emerging Issues in Design of Work
• Technology at work– Virtual Office - a mobile platform of
computer, telecommunication, and information technology and services
– Technostress - the stress cause by new and advancing technologies in the workplace
• Task Revision - the modification of incorrectly specified roles or jobs
• Skill development
Counter-Role Behavior - deviant behavior in either a correctly or incorrectly defined job or role
Role
Characteristics
Standard
Role
Behavior
Extra Role
Behavior
Counter Role
Behavior
Correctly Specified Role
Ordinary good
performance
Excellent performance
(organizational
citizenship and prosocial behavior)
Poor performance
(deviance, dissent, and
grievance)
Incorrectly Specified
Role
Poor performance
Very Poor
performance
(bureaucratic zeal)
Excellent performance
(task revision and
redirection, role
innovation)
Performance Consequences of Role Behaviors
Two fundamental notions
1) An organisation/work unit is a combined, social-plus-technical system
2) This system is open to its environment.
Sociotechnical Systems STS
.
Types of TeamsProblem-solving Teams
Groups of 5 to 12 employees from the same department who meet for a
few hours each week to discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency, and
the work environment
Self-Managed Work Teams
Groups of 10 to 15 people who take on the responsibilities of their
former supervisors
.
Types of Teams (cont’d)
• Task forces
• Committees
Cross-Functional Teams
Employees from about the same hierarchical level, but from different work areas, who come
together to accomplish a task
Work Designs to optimise personal needs
Self-Managed Teams (SMT)
• Responsible for producing an entire product, component, or service.
• Formalized as part of the organization structure.
• Employees are assigned to it on a full-time basis, and its duration is long.
• Utilize employees whose jobs are similar but who may have different levels of skill.
Self-Managed Teams (continued)
• Team members combine their skills to produce an important organizational outcome.
• Have authority to make many decisions that traditionally have been made by supervisors or managers.
• Members need a variety of skills:– Technical skills
– Management skills
– Interpersonal Skills
STS Approach: Self-managed TeamsThe most prevalent application of STS approach is
Self Managed Work teams
Alternatively referred to as Self directed, Self regulating and high performance work teams
They control members task behaviour and make decisions about task assignment and work methods
A survey of fortune-1000 companies indicates that
70% of these firms using SMTs
Some major companies are intel, General mills, General electric, Motorola, and Dr. Reddy’s lab
Designing work for technical and personal purposes
Technical Factors:
Technical interdependence
• Extent to which cooperation among workers is required to produce a product or service
Technical Uncertainty
• Amount of information processing and decision-making that employees must do to complete a task
Designing work for technical and personal needs
Personal-Need Factors:
Social Needs
• Desire for significant social relationships
Growth Needs
• Desire for personal accomplishment, learning and development.
Work Designs to optimise technology
Corporations can secure several competitive advantages through the successful introduction of Self-Managed
Work Teams• 1) Cost Control. Companies using this approach often require fewer
managers and supervisors. Scrap rates typically decline and productivity increases. Absenteeism and turnover rates often decline as well.
• 2) Speed. With quicker decision making, corporations can respond faster to changing inputs and outputs. For example, a vendor delivery problem or a change in customer demand rate is more manageable.
• 3) Flexibility and Innovation. Self-Managed Work Teams are more capable
• of responding to changing product lines and serving the special needs of their customers. They are quicker to adopt to change and more likely to incorporate innovative practices.
• 4) Quality. When a team becomes the only identifiable group responsible for a product or service ,The quality of that product or service almost always increases. This demonstrates pride of ownership.
