Unification of Germany Last One

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Evaluate the events and ideas that led to the Unification of

Germany and the impact of this on the future of European

Politics.

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to assess the road that led to the unification of

Germany, as well as the aftermath of the unification, with a particular emphasis on

the way a unified Germany under Bismarck transformed European politics and

altered the balance of power. So much so, that one may argue that both World War

I, and World War II were long term consequences of the early stages of the German

unification. However, it is essential for our scope to have a point of departure, and

that is, without doubt the impact the French Revolution had on the social and

political development of the German states. Moreover, an analytical view of the

1848 revolutions, the emergence of Bismarck, the wars between Prussia and Austria,

and the final war prior to the proclamation of the German empire between France

and Prussia, is important in assessing the path that led to the unification of Germany.

Germany and the French Revolution

According to many, the road towards the Unification of Germany started with

Napoleons1 attempt to occupy Europe, through which the most tangible exports of

the French Revolution took place. Napoleon also tried to re-organise Europe, in

fact, in Germany he replaced the Holy Roman Empire which had been dissolved in

1789,2 with the Confederation of the Rhine. The Confederation was made up of

1 This attempt is known as the Napoleonic Wars, which started in 1799 and were ended at the battle

of Waterloo with the defeat of Napoleon.2 See The French Revolution and Germany (on-line) : http://www.germanculture.com.ua/library/

history/ bl_french_revolution.htm.


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Saxony, Bavaria, Baden and 14 other states, and it was under direct French control.

Moreover, the various laws and judicial procedures of each state within the

Confederation were replaced by the famous Napoleonic Code.3 Thus, this

Confederation was the first, though minute beginning in the political and judicial

unification of Germany, because even though with Napoleons defeat the

Confederation ceased to exist, the Napoleonic Code and other exports of the French

revolution remained.

The French Revolution left Europe somewhat in disarray, so to restore some

order, the Congress of Vienna was convened in 1815 by the four European powers

which had defeated Napoleon. The first goal was to establish a new balance of

power in Europe, which would prevent imperialism within Europe, and maintain the

peace between the great powers. The second goal was to prevent political

revolutions, such as the French Revolution, and maintain the status quo.4 The

congress also established the German Confederation, which replaced the

Confederation of the Rhine. This German Confederation consisted of most of the

area of the Holy Roman Empire which had been transformed from an area of some

300 semi autonomous states to an area with only 39 but larger states. This was

under the presidency of Austria, as at the time, Austria was the most politically and

economically stable state of them all.5 The central political figure within this

confederation was Prince Clemens von Metternich, who also directed Austrias

foreign policy from 1809 till 1848.His main objective was to prevent the revolution

from spreading in Europe by making sure that much of the political and social orderthat was present before the French Revolution was restored.6

Particularly because of Metternichs objectives, this German Confederation did

3 Ibid.4 Ibid.5 See The French Revolution and Germany (on-line) : http://www.germanculture.com.ua/

library/history/bl_french_revolution.htm.6 See German Confederation 1815-66 (on-line) : http://www.germanculture.com.ua/library/

history/bl_german_confederation.htm.


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not strive to unify Germany. It was a very conservative organization, and thus many

states went back to the status quo of the pre-Napoleonic period, with the Monarch as

the absolute leader. This was accepted by most citizens except for a few university

students and academics.

Political Movements working for reform

With the defeat of Napoleon, these students and academics started propagating

ideologies such as nationalism and liberalism all throughout Germany, thus making

the unification of Germany constantly on the agenda. As a result, numerous

campaigns were held during which various acts of violence occurred, and minor

upheavals took place. Nonetheless, these alarmed Metternich who with the approval

of the King created the Carlsbad Decrees7 in order to try and contain these

upheavals. Moreover, the development of liberalism and nationalism made

Metternich feel extremely uneasy about the future of the German Confederation. He

was of the idea that what happened in one State could happen in another, and that is

why he was constantly on the alert, because he feared that once an ideology is

widespread, it could also challenge his Monarch in Austria.

Economic Movements

The only successful and probably the most important common German interest in

this period was the Zollverein, which was a Customs Union formed under the

leadership of Prussia. In 1816 Prussia boldly got rid of internal custom duties and

taxed duties only at the external frontiers.

8

Due to the success of this Customs Unionby 1834 other German states joined, and from the 1st of January 1834 the Zollverein

was created.9 Austria was however not included, mainly because it had a highly

protected industry. From 1834 till 1867 the Zollverein was under the control of the

7The Carlsbad Decrees established a strict system including University laws which hindered German

intellectual life and censored most of the publications promoting liberalist ideas. Also it set up a

central investigating commission armed with certain powers set out to find conspiratorial

organizations. See Carlsbad Decrees (on-line) : http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/96098/Carlsbad-Decrees.8

Confer Hajo Holborn,A history of Modern Germany 1648-1840,New Jersey 1964, 461.9 See Denis Richards, An Illustrated History of MODERN EUROPE 1789-1984, Singapore, 1985,

108.


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central authority known as the Customs Congress.10The building of the first German

railways helped the union prosper, as it made transport of merchandise much easier,

and thus, this success attracted other German states to join, in fact, by 1844, the

Zollverein nearly covered all of Germany.11 The Zollverein was initially created

mainly to strengthen ties between German states but it did much more than that. It

laid out the economic foundation for the later unification of Germany. 12 Other

unions such as The Middle Union were created, however they all failed by time,

only the Zollverein kept becoming stronger and stronger.

In the meantime, in the 1820s Metternich succeeded in securing a certain iron

grip on Germany, however, the fall of the Bourbons in France in 1830 once again

caused havoc in Europe, because this gave rise to new riots.13 These riots which

were started by the liberals quickly failed, however not for long, because the liberals

would go on to be more successful in the 1848 revolutions.

Causes of the Revolution

What had happened was that between 1815 and 1848, population growth and

urbanization took place in every European country. So 1848 in the German states

brought the shifting nature of society to modernisation. It showed the problems of

the transition period. Since the mass migration from the country to the towns

resulted in a rapidly growing town proletariat, who had given up their home and

familiar ties, without at first succeeding in creating new systems and new forms of

association.14

The revolutions of March 1848 can be seen to have been sparked by the news of

10 Confer International Trade (on-line) : http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/291349/

international-trade/61731/The-Zollverein.11 See Denis Richards, An Illustrated History of MODERN EUROPE 1789-1984, Singapore, 1985,

108.12 ConferZollverein (on-line) : http://www.bambooweb.com/articles/z/o/Zollverein.html.13 See Denis Richards, An Illustrated History of MODERN EUROPE 1789-1984, Singapore, 1985,

107.14 Therefore the personal relationship between the employer and the employee changed to animpersonal one and that internal decay of the liberal middle classes led to the revolution.


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the successful revolution in Paris which led to the overturn of King Louis Phillip.

They started in the south-west and spread to Berlin and Vienna. Success in one state

generated confidence in another and so on. Thus, these revolutions became

widespread, and at first they seemed very successful, in fact even Metternich, the

apparently immovable senior statesman of Europe, was forced into exile by events in

Vienna.

In March 1848, rioting began in Berlin,15and it soon crossed across Prussia into

Austria. Prussia, whose very existence had been the most seriously threatened,

carried out the most resolutely reforms.16 It was no longer the old, traditional, and

anachronistic Prussia of Frederick the Great with an army of mercenaries, but it was

a modern Prussia, with a flexible administration and a national army embracing all

sections of the population.

The Frankfurt Parliament and its failure

Moreover, the dramatic news of revolution in Paris brought the liberals and the

radicals together at a meeting based in Heidelberg which led to the organization of

the preparatory Frankfurt Parliament (Vorparlament). The members included large

numbers of men, important in industrial life. They possessed good knowledge but

they lacked political experience. They were not particularly fiery revolutionaries,

and were essentially unwilling to consider violent revolution. During these times the

Federal Diet of the German Confederation was debating processes of election

towards reaching decisions about the future of Germany.

17

However, the position ofthe Frankfurt Parliament was weak because its members lacked experience, and they

possessed neither the power nor the authority to take decisions, and neither the

15Stadelmann Rudolph, Social and Political History of the German 1848 Revolution, translated byJames G. Chastain, Ohio University 1975, 31.16 They were planned and put into operation in a short space of time, at least in the administrative,

economic and military spheres.17 It was agreed by the German governments that extensive diplomatic, military and commercial

powers were to be entrusted to an Executive Body that was to concern itself with the welfare of the

Confederation without direct involvement in the framing of the Constitution. This Executive Body of

responsible ministers was to be headed up by a titular Regent of the Empire. This title was awarded toArchduke John of Austria - a proposal that it should go to the King of Prussia having failed to find

support.


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money nor the army to make their resolutions prevail.18

In 1849, the Frankfurt Assembly offered Germany to Frederick William IV.19

Frederick William IV knew that accepting would mean war with Austria; apart of

the fact that accepting such a deal would make him a constitutional monarch, neither

of which he desired. He therefore turned down the offer. Germany remained

fragmented after 1848, and the small rulers of the various small German states came

back to power. With the refusal of the crown, the revolution of 1848 had collapsed.

The Prussian Union Plan

Moreover, Prussia's withdrawal from the Frankfurt Assembly also meant that any

kind of move it made to unite Germany would be looked upon as suspicious.

Nonetheless, Radowitz proposed the so-called Prussian Union Plan.20 This scheme

envisaged a smaller federation within a larger league, which would include Austria.

However, Hanover and Saxony agreed to join the plan only if Baden and

Wrttemberg did too. The latter two South German states refused and so Hanover

and Saxony also withdrew. However, although this Prussian Union Plan entailed a

lot of problems, in January 1850, a Parliament based on this plan actually met in the

city of Erfurt.21

PrussiaIn 1858 Frederick William IV of Prussia was succeeded by his younger brother

18 Mann Golo, The History of the Germany since 1789, translated from German by Marian Jackson,London 1968, 95-97.19 King William the IV had become Prussias Monarch after the death of the King of Prussia in 1840.

King William IV was a very important figure in regards to the unification of Germany, however, he

was considered to be a very fluctuative character as he would change his mind very often regarding

important issues.See Frederick William IV of Prussia (on0line) :

http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Frederick_William_IV_of_Prussia.20 See Mann Golo, The History of the Germany since 1789, translated from German by Marian

Jackson, London 1968, 11221 But Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, Wrttemberg and some smaller states had refused toparticipate in the election.


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William I. The latter was a very different man form his brother, he was more

authoritative, more decisive and far less afraid of Austria. His training in the

Prussian Army had given him authoritarian views, and therefore he logically

detested liberal and democratic ideas. Some of his first actions showed these

tendencies clearly. In fact he appointed two keen military minds, both anti Liberal

to the key positions of the Prussian Army. Soon afterwards it was decided that the

army had to be greatly increased both in number and in strength. All this would

naturally involve considerable expenditure. The problem was how to make the

liberals of the Prussian Parliament agree to these military changes, especially

because these changes would have undoubtedly increased the taxes, and therefore

would have affected the budget. The Liberals in the Prussian Parliament succeeded

in gaining a majority against the proposed taxation, and thus, the King`s demands

were rejected. This was not just some random opposition by the liberals to

militarism, but their opposition symbolically meant the refusal to accept the control

of the King and of his military advisers. They therefore proposed certain

amendments to the military laws in return of acceptance of the new taxes.

Meanwhile the King went ahead and created the new regiments using funds

which were not allocated for that purpose. The Parliament was against this and

refused to accept this budget prepared by the Chief Minister. This inevitably created

a tense situation between the King and the liberal opposition. At this point William I

began to contemplate abdication. He was persuaded that what he needs was a Chief

Minister who could push the army reforms through Parliament against the wishes ofthe liberal majority. The choice fell on Otto von Bismarck, who was called from

Paris where he was acting as the Prussian ambassador. The King appointed him

head of the government as Minister President.

Bismarck


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Otto von Bismarck22was one of the most brilliant diplomats of all time. He was

born at Schnhausen, northwest of Berlin in 1815, in the year of waterloo. Through

Bismarcks efforts, Germany was transformed from a loose collection of small states

into the German Empire, the strongest industrialized nation in continental Europe.

During his early political life, Bismarck was an ardent supporter of the monarchy,

where he believed that the dynasty of the Hohenzollern was governing Prussia by

divine right and that the state was part of a divine world plan. Although Bismarck

was full of ambition, he did not seek power for his own advantage but he simply

wanted to do well for Prussia. He believed that a states foreign policy must be

shaped by reasonable interests and not by personal quest for power or glory. As a

matter of fact, when it came to Prussias domestic affairs, Bismarck began to see

himself as a mediator among conflicting interest group that would destroy society

unless there was conciliation.23 During his early political career, he opposed any

attempts to challenge the position of the landowning aristocracy, thus creating a

controversy even between the people that agreed with him.

The clash between King and Parliament that had begun in 1860 could have never

been resolved without the strength and persuasion of a man like Bismarck. There

were various politicians who wanted to settle the conflict, but it seemed that neither

William I nor the Parliament were interested to negotiate.24 Later on it was in merit

of Bismarck who came up with a solution. However, many liberals disapproved of

Bismarck being appointed as Chief Minister and were expecting him to commit

disastrous mistakes which would have forced William I to come to terms with theParliament.25 Instead, Bismarck surprised people with his handling of the situation.

He proceeded to collect the additional taxes needed for the military reform based on

the 1861 budget and he did this without the approval of Parliament. Bismarck argued

that despite the standoff between Parliament and the King, the government must

continue to function. Since the constitution did not provide for the case of an

22 See Otto Von Bismarck Early Life (1997), in Encarta Online (online) : http://encarta.msn.com/

encnet/refpages/RefArtTextonly.aspx?refid=761571668&print=0 [14 April 2009].23

See Otto Von Bismarck Early Life (1997).24 See Otto Von Bismarck Early Life (1997).25 See Otto Von Bismarck Early Life (1997).


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impasse and no new budget existed, he would have to apply for the preceding years

budget. To justify increasing the army he argued that, the great questions of the day

will not be settled by speeches and majority decisions but by blood and iron.26

To liberal suggestions that the people should refuse to pay taxes, Bismarck argued

that he had two hundred thousand soldiers ready to persuade them. Parliament

declared that his actions are illegal, however he ignored it, and in the following years

he collected taxes and re-organised the army as if the Parliament did not exist.

Austro-Prussian Conflict

Bismarcks will to reorganise the army, and his determination to ensure sufficient

military power was his answer to the German question, which according to him, was

to be at the expense of Austria.

The Schleswig-Holstein Policy

In 1863 the childless King of Denmark died. He was also the ruler of the two

duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, and which had been under Danish rule for four

hundred years. Holstein was largely German and was a member of the German

Confederation; it resented the Danish connection, whilst Schleswig was mostly

Danish in population.

During the era of nationalism, national Danes wanted to take up the two

provinces completely under the Danish rule. On the other hand, national Germans

wanted to save them from exactly that, so later they can be brought into anintegrated Germany. A conference of the great powers in London in 1852 had

determined that the Duchies should be kept as they were part of the lands of the

King of Denmark, but without falling under the laws of the Danish Kingdom. This

did not satisfy the Germans, nor the Danes, so the only solution to this was war.

Bismarcks policy towards the dispute

26 See Otto von Bismarck : http://www.age-of-the-sage.org/historical/biography/otto_von_bismarck.html

[14 April 2009].


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Bismarck had no intention of standing aside from this controversy. It was, in fact,

a development as far as his aims were concerned; to gain the support of the German

nationalists who wished to incorporate the two Duchies into Germany. The small

states of the German Confederation invaded first, by sending an army to occupy

Holstein. In the meantime, Bismarck persuaded Austria to take joint military action

against Denmark on the basis that King Fredericks promise to maintain the separate

rights of the Duchies had been broken. In January 1864 a combined Prussian and

Austrian army advanced through Holstein and into Schleswig. The war was too

much for the Danes to bear and therefore they had no choice but to surrender.

After the war, the future of the Duchies created a lot of tension, especially

between Austria and Prussia. By the summer of 1865 the future of the Duchies was

still not settled, and tension between the two great powers was high. Neither country

wanted war; Austria for economic reasons and Prussia because Bismarck believed

that Prussian army was still not ready for war with Austria. Meanwhile Prussia was

on good terms with both France and Russia. Bismarck, in case of war with Austria

had secured the neutrality of Napoleon the III by promising him future

compensation. However, the war was inevitable because apart of the problem of the

two Duchies, there was also the question of who would lead a unified Germany,

Prussia or Austria? Should it be a kleindeutschlandor a Grossdeutschland?

The Seven Weeks War

The war consisted of Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, and certain minor

German states.27 Prussia won, and this meant the exclusion of Austria from the

process of the German unification. Thus, it was to be a kleindeutschland, and an

important step forward towards the unification. Prussian objectivity, meanwhile

dealt with the forces of Bavaria and other German states that had sided with Austria.

During the same period, in parallel to the Seven Weeks War, a campaign was fought

27

Seven Weeks War, (2009), In Encyclopaedia Britannica, April 04, 2009, from EncyclopaediaBritannica Online (on-line) : http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/536531/Seven-Weeks-

War.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/44283/history-of-Austriahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/44283/history-of-Austria


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in Venetia between the Austrian army of the south and Italy, after the latter had

made a secret alliance with Prussia.

Bismarck was already in possession of most of todays Germany. The main

change was the abolition of the old German Confederation by substituting it with a

new body called the North German Confederation, this change was essential in order

to solidify the dominance of Prussia. However, Bismarck thought that by winning

this war he achieved what his liberals of the 1848 revolution failed to achieve by

peaceful means; a unified Germany.

With an efficient military force that startled the whole of Europe, Prussia overran

the German states allied with Austria and consequently also crushed the Austrians.

By doing so, Bismarck made evident the military might of Prussia. However,

Bismarck never aimed to destroy Austria, as he still saw Austria as a future potential

ally of a unified Germany, and that is why in the peace Treaty of Prague he did not

acquire any territory from the Austrians. On the other hand, against Italy the

Austrians had won victories on land,28 however because they lost their war against

Prussia they ceded Venetia to Napoleon III of France, who in turn surrendered it to

Italy.

Moreover, the Habsburgs were enduringly barred from German affairs. The

Kingdom of Prussia, thus established itself as the only foremost power among the

German states. Soon after the treaty of Prague, Bismarck extended the Zollverein to

include four southern states and involve them in the new ZollParliament/customs

Parliament. Bismarck hoped that by time this Parliament would be transformed from

an economical, to a commercial one, as a further step in the Prussian domination of a

unified Germany.

The North German Confederation

28 "Austro-Prussian War." 04 Apr. 2009, (On-line) : http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/history/

A0805396.html


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The North German Confederation that replaced the German Confederation

consisted of twenty-two German states. The agreement of this Confederation stated

that each state retained its own government but must submit its military forces to the

control of the confederation; the commander in Chief of the collective armies was

the King of Prussia. A legislative organization was created; its president was the

King of Prussia, but the duties of the office were performed by a chancellor.

Moreover, The North German Confederation was an important stepping stone

towards the unification of Germany. In fact, the North German Confederation and

the remaining areas of the former German Confederation, excluding Austria, formed

later on the German Empire. Furthermore, the constitution of the confederation was

adopted, although modified slightly, as the constitution of the German empire.

During this period, Otto von Bismarck became ever more popular in Prussia. This

initiated a new highly important era of co-operation between Bismarck and the

liberals.

Prussia and France 1862-1872

The rivalry of Prussia and Austria for the leadership of Germany also led to a

dispute between France and Prussia. The Luxembourg Crisis was a stepping stone

for the diplomatic dispute and confrontation in 1867 between France and Prussia

over the political status of Luxembourg. The confrontation almost led to war

between these two, but was resolved by the Treaty of London peacefully. Bismarckcertainly did not want war with France, especially because Prussia had not yet

recovered from the effects of the 1866 war. Moreover, he did not intend to fight the

French on an agenda set by the national liberals; if war had broken out over the issue

of final unification as they wanted their position would be strengthened and

pressure for further constitutional change intensifies.

In acknowledgement to Prussia, Luxembourg was to be a member of German

Confederation, with several thousand Prussian soldiers stationed there. In fact,


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Bismarck, being increasingly more popular in Germany, proposed a policy which

referred Luxembourg as being part of Germany and argued that Germany must risk

war rather than surrender. Yet, the Luxembourg crisis has been also described by

some historians as the point where Bismarck stopped being a Prussian patriot and

became a German one. He saw Germany as the mother of Europe.

War with France

The sudden growth of Prussia alarmed France very much and wanted to check its

strength. In fact, after the Austro-Prussian war, Napoleon III demanded Bismarck to

keep the territorial promises he had made before the war, for Frances neutrality.

In the meantime, in Spain we have the Spanish succession which becomes a

controversy between France and Prussia. The Spanish throne had been unoccupied

since the revolution of September 1868, and the Spanish offered the throne to the

German prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. Fearing that a Hohenzollern

King in Prussia and another one in Spain would upset the balance of power, France

became determined to stand up to the expansion of Prussian influence. So Napoleon

III protested by sending ambassador Benedetti to try to talk to Leopold to give up his

candidacy and support peace. During their meeting in Ems, William I accepted the

withdrawal of Leopard but he didnt assure Benedetti that the Hohenzollern

candidature for the Spanish throne would never be renewed. Immediately

afterwards, William I sent a telegram from Ems to Bismarck telling him about the

negotiations. But before publishing it, he altered some words making it appear as ifWilliam I had incited Benedetti by refusing to see him again when requested. As a

result France immediately declared war on Prussia in 1870. The Ems telegram gave

Bismarck his chance. Strictly speaking, the edited version was not a forgery; but it

was certainly designed to precipitate war. And war fought on an issue of national

honor against the old foe was only a combination which could only enhance the

prestige of the Prussian crown. Bismarck certainly bears responsibility at least for

the outbreak of war. He did this because he wanted to make Germany the strongest

state in Europe and this could only be achieved if he defeated France of Napoleon
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Spanish_monarchshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glorious_Revolution_(Spain)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold,_Prince_of_Hohenzollernhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Spanish_monarchshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glorious_Revolution_(Spain)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold,_Prince_of_Hohenzollernhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain


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III. This was a good time to initiate war since France had no allies to turn to for

help. It turned out to be Bismarcks master-stroke, as Napoleon the III who

personally led his forces at the lost Battle of Sedan, surrendered and was deposed in

the civil war that boiled over in France, resulting in the Third French Republic. In

the meantime the Prussian forces laid siege to Paris between September 1870 and

January 1871, starving the city into surrender.

Historians disagree whether it should be called the Franco-Prussian war or the

Franco-German war. Although there was no official unification of the German

states, it was the first genuinely German war, fought by the newly defined

Kleindeutschland. Although in the beginning of the war there were different

emotions toward the unification of Germany, by the end of it all Germany was

united by a blind hatred of France and all things French. Moreover, Bismarck had

not only achieved the complete unification of Germany but also its establishment as

the most powerful state in Europe. It was unified as a modern nation- state in 1871,

when the German Empire was forged, with the Kingdom of Prussia as its largest

constituent. After the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, the German Empire

was proclaimed in Versailles on 18 January 1871. The fact that this German empire

was proclaimed in Versailles is evidence of the huge humiliation that the French had

suffered in the hands of the Prussians. On January 28, 1871, the French capitulated

and signed an armistice followed by a preliminary peace in February and a definite

treaty, The Peace of Frankfurt, in May. It was a humiliating peace treaty for France,

German troops were to remain in eastern France until a heavy fine of 200 millionhad been paid, and Alsace and the eastern half of Lorraine became part of Germany.

These harsh terms created anger in France, even because Bismarck had treated them

in a degrading way especially in contrast to the way he had treated Austria after the

latters defeat. The years of 1870 and 1871 were dramatic for Bismarck and Europe,

with France defeated, Germany united as an empire. Furthermore, the balance of

power in Europe totally altered and the beginning of a Franco-German hatred was to

go on until the Second World War.


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After the outbreak of war, Bismarck had been willing to concede negotiations

over unification. In fact, a memorandum was formulated in the outlining of the

constitutional basis for the future arrangements in Germany. The new German

Empire, of which William was Kaiser, was a federal state which was reduced from

39 states of the German Confederation to 25 by the loss of Austria to the Prussian

annexations. Moreover, the newly founded German Empires federal states were

mostly constitutional monarchies. Eight separate states had universal equal manhood

suffrage, as did the national Parliament, the Reichstag. Eleven states had franchises

based on class system. In fact, the Law Regarding the Constitution of the German

Empire, promulgated by the emperor on 16 April 1871, took effect on 4th May

1871 with the acceptance of the terms emperor and empire.

The aim of the liberals of 1848 to create a German state now appeared to have

been achieved, although not in a manner they would have necessarily approved.

Their aim had been a Germany united by a popular national movement. The reality

was unity imposed from above, a Prussian dominated empire, brought into being by

Bismarck.

The impact of German Unification on the future of Europe

In his domestic politics Bismarcks aim was always to unify and consolidate the

new empire socially and politically. Moreover his foreign policy in the 1870s and

1880s was directed towards the creation of a breathing space during which real unity

could be developed. However, this does not mean that Bismarck had suddenly beenconverted to the cause of national liberalism. Although like any other Prussian

conservative, he definitely opposed any links of liberalism and nationalism, it seems

as if he was being a nationalist when he believed that the three larger states were

truly German. At bottom he was a loyal servant to his monarch. Like Frederick the

Great he simply intended, to make the Kingdom of Prussia, the most dominant

power in that geographical area, by seizing every opportunity that arose.


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Due to the German victory of 187029 the balance of power in Europe was altered

altogether. Suddenly the German empire emerged as the largest, with regards to

population, a great economic power with a strong re-enforced army. It was clearly

going to be a new beginning in international relations. The proclamation of the

German Empire turned a new page in the history of Europe. One could instantly

visualize that the former, weak and dismantled Germany, of the first half of the

century, had now reached its peak. Austria-Hungary and France were no longer

considered as two of the major powers of the continent. They were both still trying

to recover from the heavy defeats they suffered to Prussia. Russia remained a treat,

as it was equally interested in both Central Asia and Europe. Britain was still

thinking that it was better off on her own. So Germany was assured a temporary

position of relative hegemony in Europe. At the moment it was more than a

traditional Great Power but less than a World Power in the class of Britain and

Russia.30

The greatest danger for Germany was the government of the French Republic31

because it was still trying to come to terms with the loss of Alsace-Lorraine at the

end of the war, for which Bismarck was responsible. This made the French vow that

they will take back the territory that was taken from them. In fact, in the early 1870s

France made a rapid military recovery on the German lines which totally surprised

and alarmed many Germans. Bismarcks foreign policy was to isolate France, by

ensuring the support of all great powers. The friendship of Austria was important to

Germany because it deprived France from a potential ally and it gave Bismarck adegree of independence when dealing with Russia.

The Eastern Crisis

At the time the Eastern question was also a very important issue since two of the

major players in international relations, Britain and Russia, almost came close to

29The bulk of the French army was encircled at the battle of Sedan and the German's took 104,000

prisoners of war, among them the seriously ill Emperor Napoleon III.30It was once remarked by a historian.31Had to put up with German occupying troops until 1873.


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war on several occasions over the loss of the territory of the Ottoman empire in the

Balkans. Due to the intervention of Bismarck the Treaty of Berlin32 was signed in

1878. The Ottoman Empire took back its territories, and Bulgaria was reduced to a

third. The French wanted a free hand in Tunisia and so took it in 1881. Bosnia

Herzegovina passed under Austrian rule, and Britain gained Cyprus because of its

proximity to the Mediterranean.33 Peace was maintained at the expense of small

countries and their future stability. Thus Bismarck pursued a system of alliances

aimed at preserving German security. He believed that this could be achieved only if

the three great powers, Britain, France, and Russia were satisfied and united.

Although Italy had gained certain power, it was still not close to becoming one of

the great powers. Through these alliances the balance of power was regained and the

result was a significant period of peace.34

The Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente

Bismarcks concern was not with the distant future but with the immediate

situation. The alliance of 1879 served its purpose well; it strengthened Austria

against Russia and ensured that she would not seek alliance elsewhere. Bismarck

briskly proceeded to bring back Russia into the fold. By the end of 1879 Russia was

thoroughly alarmed by her diplomatic isolation and was anxious for an

understanding with Germany. In 1880 trouble came from Vienna where the new

foreign Minister Haymerle was seeking an alliance with Britain, the natural enemy

of Russia. The anti-Russian and pro-Austrian conservatives were defeated in 1880

and the Treaty of the Three Emperors' Alliance was signed between Russia, Austriaand Germany. Bismarck had accommodated the Austrians in 1879 and the Russians

in 1881; however, in order to keep peace on both sides of the borders, he now had to

satisfy both powers indefinitely.

A sharp decline in the friendship between Russia on one hand and Austria-

Hungary and Germany on the other pushed Bismarck to form a secret defensive

32

See Also the Treaty of San Stefano.33From Cyprus Britain could keep a closer eye on India.34Due to Bismark Germany gained twenty years of peace.


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alliance in 1879. This Dual Alliance was formed with Austria-Hungary. In 1882,

angry at France chiefly because it had forestalled an Italian advance by occupying

Tunis, Italy signed another secret treaty, which bound it with Germany and Austria-

Hungary, and therefore the Triple Alliance was formed.35 The Three Emperors'

League died a slow death and by 1890 its days were over. Germany refused to renew

its treaty with Russia and so Russia sought assurance with France. At the same time,

face to face with an increasingly powerful Germany and a hostile Central Europe

combination, France felt great need of an ally, so French diplomats began to make

overtures to Russia for an agreement to counterbalance the Triple Alliance.

Meanwhile, the fall of Bismarck, after the accession to the throne of the German

Emperor William II,36 was followed by the appearance of more adventurous foreign

policies. Germany committed itself to colonial and commercial expansion.

Friendship between Britain and France did not seem possible because of their

colonial quarrels in Africa and more importantly their rational enmity. Although

Great Britain and France had been on the verge of war in 1898, the matter was

settled and the way opened for further agreements between the two powers. Though

there was no alliance, the Entente Cordiale,37 was established in 1904. Colonial

rivalries between Russia and Britain had in the late 19th century made these powers

hostile. Their fields of contest were Asia, Persia, Afghanistan, China and India. But

after the defeat of Russia in the Russo-Japanese War, Britain was in favour of a

friendly settlement in 1907. This agreement created an international group opposingthe Triple Alliance. France, Great Britain and Russia had formed the Triple Entente.

35Germany, Italy and Austria.36

He lacked a sense of proportion and combined arrogance with inferiority and therefore led hiscountry to disaster.37 A friendly understanding.


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The road to World War I

Eventually Bismarck had managed to divide Europe into two armed camps 38and

their rivalry brought about a serious of crisis. Due to the amount of tension that was

building up only a simple excuse was needed to start war and it came with the

assassination of Austria's Crown Prince, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife, on

the 28 June 1914, which triggered the start of World War I. Germany, as part of the

unsuccessful Central powers, suffered defeat against the allied powers in one of the

bloodiest conflicts of all time. By the end of October a revolutionary situation

existed in Germany. Four years of war-time, privation and hardship had gradually

eroded the relationship between the rulers and the people. The German revolution

broke out in November 1918 and Emperor William II and all German ruling princes

abdicated. An armistice putting an end to the war was signed on 11 November and

Germany was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles in June 1919. Its negotiation

contrary to traditional post-war diplomacy, excluded the defeated Central powers.

The Treaty was perceived in Germany as a humiliating continuation of the war, and

by other means its harshness is often cited as having facilitated the later rise of

Nazism in the country.

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