UBEats · comprised of science teachers and music teachers developed innovative modules for upper (i.e., 4th and 5th) and lower elementary (i.e., 2nd and 3rd) grades that conform

UBEats (Universal BioMusic Education Achievement Tier in Science)

Created and Produced by

The University of North Carolina at Greensboro

and North Carolina State University

with funding from the National Science Foundation

UBEATSModUlE ovErviEw and PrEliMinary inforMation

Universal BioMusic Education Achievement Tier in Science

UBEatsBioMusic Curriculum for Elementary Grades 2/3 and 4/5

UBEATS is a BioMusic formal education initiative funded by the National Science Foundation

as a Discovery Research K-12 exploratory project.

The project is a collaboration of The University of North Carolina at Greensboro and

North Carolina State University.

ProjEct lEadErshiP

Dr. Patricia Gray, PI, Clinical Professor and Senior Research Scientist of BioMusic, The University of

North Carolina at Greensboro

Dr. Sarah Carrier, Co-PI, Assistant Professor, Elementary Science Methods, North Carolina State University

Dr. David J. Teachout, Co-PI, Associate Professor and Chair of the Music Education Department,

The University of North Carolina at Greensboro

Dr. Eric Wiebe, Co-PI, Associate Professor, Dept. of Mathematics, Science, and Technology Education,

College of Education, North Carolina State University

virtUal MEntors

Dr. Roger Payne, (whale songs) Ocean Alliance

Dr. Steve Nowicki, (bird songs) Duke University

Dr. Don Hodges, (music/brain) The University of North Carolina at Greensboro

Dr. Doug Quin, (bioacoustics) Syracuse University

Dr. Tecumseh Fitch, (animal communication) University of Vienna

advisors

Dr. John Bransford, PI, NSF-SLC LIFE Center, College of Education, University of Washington

Dr. Cynthia Williamson, Director, Curriculum, Instruction & Technology, North Carolina Dept.

of Public Instruction

Ms. Christie Ebert, Arts Education Consultant, North Carolina Dept. of Public Instruction

Dr. Sam Houston, North Carolina Science, Mathematics, and Technology Education Center,

Research Triangle Park

consUltants

Ms. Zebetta King, NC Science Teacher of the Year 2009

Mr. Philip Blackburn, composer and bioacoustician, American Composers Forum

doctoral rEsEarch fEllow

Ms. Cathy Scott, UBEATS Program Coordinator. Ph.D. candidate in Science Education, The University

of North Carolina at Greensboro

tEachEr-aUthors

Ms. Debra Hall, Kenan Fellow, Science Specialist, Bugg Creative Arts and Science Magnet School,

Wake County School System

Ms. Crystal Patillo, Kenan Fellow, Music Specialist, Bugg Creative Arts and Science Magnet School,

Wake County School System

Ms. Cathy Scott, UBEATS Fellow, Science Specialist, Ph.D. Candidate, University of North Carolina

at Greensboro

Ms. Christen Blanton, UBEATS Fellow, Music Specialist, St. Pius Elementary School, Greensboro, NC

Ms. Carmen Eby, UBEATS Fellow, Music Specialist, St. Pius Elementary School, Greensboro, NC

UBEATS ModUlE ovErviEw And PrEliMinAry inforMATion (i) https://sites.google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home

https://sites.google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home

what is BioMUsic?

BioMusic is an interdisciplinary field—biology, animal

communication, ethnomusicology, music theory, neuroscience,

physics, bioacoustics, and evolutionary anthropology—that

studies how music’s biological and cognitive elements are

expressed in relationships and meaning-making in human and

non-human communication systems.

BioMusic is an outgrowth of the scientific concept of

biodiversity. Lead researchers in BioMusic initially worked

through the National Music Arts’ BioMusic Program at the

National Academy of Sciences and now are part of the Music

Research Institute (MRI) at the University of North Carolina

at Greensboro. BioMusic researchers have presented at the

American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)

meetings and published articles in Science and other peer-

reviewed journals.

BioMusic research focuses on the underlying structures and

processes of human music-making as a communication system

and compares it with other animal communication systems.

(NOTE: In the BioMusic context, we use the term ‘music’ to mean

a complex system of communication based on sound, time, and

intentionality.) New research confirms human musicality is based

in genetics suggesting deep evolutionary roots (Science News

special edition, 2010; Zenter and Eerola, 2010). Key to exploring

the biological foundations of animal communication and human

music-making is understanding how manipulating time and

sound is grounded in the natural sciences.

BioMusic research studies the commonalities of musical

sounds in all species—in relations of sonic patterns, frequencies,

rhythms, volume, structures, and significance—and their role

in biodiversity. Current interdisciplinary research areas include

bird songs, whale songs, elephant songs, mice songs, music

perception in apes, human brain/music, prehistoric musical tool-

making, bioacoustics, nanotechnology, physics of sound, and

habitat soundscapes as bio-indicators.

BioMUsic EdUcation initiativEs

UBEATS (Universal BioMusic Education Achievement Tier in

Science) is a ‘science of music’ formal education curriculum for

elementary grades 2 to 5. UBEATS was developed over two-and-

a-half-years by The University of North Carolina at Greensboro

and North Carolina State University with funding from the

National Science Foundation. Two teams of in-service teachers

comprised of science teachers and music teachers developed

innovative modules for upper (i.e., 4th and 5th) and lower

elementary (i.e., 2nd and 3rd) grades that conform to national

science and music standards. The lessons feature inquiry-

based learning that builds science-processing skills through

investigations of the natural world’s musicality. The current

materials have gone through various iterations after two years

of testing in elementary classrooms across North Carolina.

Virtual Mentors include: Roger Payne, (whale songs)

Ocean Alliance; Steve Nowicki, (bird songs) Duke University;

Don Hodges, (music/brain) UNCG; Doug Quin, (bioacoustics)

Syracuse University; and Tecumseh Fitch, (animal communica-

tion) University of Vienna.

Advisors include: Dr. John Bransford, College of Education,

University of Washington; Dr. Cynthia Williamson, Director,

Curriculum, Instruction and Technology, North Carolina

Department of Public Instruction; Ms. Christie Ebert, Arts

Education Consultant, North Carolina Department of Public

Instruction; and Dr. Sam Houston, North Carolina Science,

Mathematics, and Technology Education Center, Research

Triangle Park.

Consultants include: Ms. Zebetta King, North Carolina Science

Teacher of the Year 2009; and Mr. Philip Blackburn, composer

and bioacoustician.

__________________________________________________________

wild Music: Sounds & Songs of life, is a BioMusic informal

science education project that includes a 4,000 square foot

science exhibition, public programs and website (www.

wildmusic.org). Wild Music, funded by the National Science

Foundation and Harman Industries, is a project of The University

of North Carolina at Greensboro, the Science Museum of

Minnesota, and the Association of Science Technology Centers,

Inc. Wild Music was guided by a prestigious international

multi-disciplinary board of science advisors (see website)

and includes institutional partners —Cornell Laboratory of

Ornithology, Johns Hopkins, Harvard, American Composer’s

Forum, and the Exploratorium. The exhibition provides a rich,

interactive environment that employs multisensory learning and

outstanding listening experiences. The exhibition is bi-lingual

and accessible to the visually impaired. Wild Music also includes

a website (www.wildmusic.org) that is an interactive, up-to-date

science information resource; a School Outreach Guide; and a

Compendium of Live Performance opportunities that provide

integrated musical experiences. Wild Music has been the

subject of the Association of Science and Technology Centers

Roundtables for Advancing the Profession; has presented public

programming in each host site featuring musicians of diverse

musical cultures and scientist-musicians; and has commissioned

new music by renowned naturalist/composer Steve Heitzig.

Wild Music and UBEATS share many of the same advisors and

consultants.

__________________________________________________________

UBEats wEBsitEs

UBEATS project description:

http://performingarts.uncg.edu/music-research-institute/

research-areas/biomusic/ubeats

For UBEATS educators:


www.wildmusic.org

UBEATS ModUlE ovErviEw And PrEliMinAry inforMATion (1) https://sites.google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home

http://www.wildmusic.org



http://performingarts.uncg.edu/music-research-institute/




UBEATS Modules consist of Science activities that allow

students to tell a story. The story narrative is based on the

scientific inquiry genre. That is, it has a formalized structure

based on scientific ways of thinking and expressing oneself.

The UBEATS Modules narrative is built around the inquiry cycle

as articulated in the National Science Education Standards. The

purpose of the narrative develops both enhanced conceptual

understanding of a particular science topic, but also develops

basic science process skills—scientific ways of thinking and doing.

The UBEATS Modules use the science notebook as a powerful

tool for organizing and recording this narrative.

The UBEATS Modules use some existing Lab activity kits that

provide resources for developing the narrative, but they are

not an end unto themselves and are not the central driver for

the activity.

The UBEATS Modules use reflective thought as central to the

module’s narrative and thread this practice throughout the

individual lesson plan’s activities. The lab work (i.e., equipment

setup and preparation, conducting the investigation, recording

the data) is not the majority of time spent on the activity. The

lab work is preceded by a development of what is known and

what is to be explored and is followed by a synthesis of the

findings, reflection back on what the initial goals were, and

where one would go next to find out more.

The UBEATS Modules assume that ‘All students can do

science.’ Both interests and core abilities mean that students’

narrative will vary in both their grasp of the science concepts

and process skills and in exactly how they express themselves.

UBEATS activities allow for these ranges, within the logistical

constraints of the classroom.

Goals and stratEGiEs

UBEATS incorporates BioMusic concepts into elementary math and science curricula and enables science and music

teachers to collaborate to teach students about biodiversity, physics of sound, animal communication, animal perception

and cognition, human evolution, and cultural diversity.

thE UBEats Basic assUMPtions and BEliEfs


UBEATS Modules consist of Music activities that allow students

to find affinities with others and the external world. The process

is based on perceiving musical structures in both sound and time

across human and other animal cultures. The use of innate human

music faculties is grounded in contexts of scientific inquiry and in

ways of creating alternate pathways of expression and meaning.

The UBEATS Modules exploration of music concepts and the

process of music-making supports the National Music Education

Standards. The purpose of the musical activities is to engage

in structured listening and doing that enhances conceptual

understanding of science and the process of music-making.

The UBEATS Modules use the creation and imitation of musical

structures across cultural and species’ lines as powerful tools for

engaging students in the process of meaning-making.

The UBEATS Modules use some existing music education

materials and recorded music that provide resources for

developing awareness of musical processes, but they are not an

end unto themselves and are not the central driver for the activity.

The UBEATS Modules build on an understanding of music-

making as the manipulation of sound/time for the co-creation

of meaning. Both perceptual and cognitive processes are

developed in wide-ranging settings to enable new analytical

skills and to support new creative approaches.

The UBEATS Modules assume that ‘All students can do music.’

Both interests and core abilities mean that students’ awareness

of the other will vary in both their grasp of the science and

music concepts and their process skills and in how they express

themselves. UBEATS activities allow for wide ranges of doing

music, within the constraints of the learning environment.

Science Music


National Science Education Standards

(K-8) ConTEnT STAndArd A: Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry

• Understanding about scientific inquiry

• Employ simple equipment and tools to gather data and extend the senses

(K-4) ConTEnT STAndArd B: Physical Science

• Properties of objects and materials

• Position and motion of objects

• Light, heat, electricity, and magnetism

(K-4) ConTEnT STAndArd C: Life Science

• The characteristics of organisms

• Organisms and their environments

(5-8) ConTEnT STAndArd C: Life Science

• Structure and function in living systems

• Reproduction and heredity

• Regulation and behavior

• Populations and ecosystems

• Diversity and adaptations of organisms

(K-8) ConTEnT STAndArd E: Science and Technology

• Abilities of technological design

• Understanding about science and technology

• Abilities to distinguish between natural objects and objects made by humans

(K-8) ConTEnT STAndArd G: Science as a Human Endeavor

oPPortUnitiEs—how UBEats ModUlEs offEr nEw ways to EnhancE lEarninG

1. UBEATS modules focus on how the auditory system is used for observation and sense-making. They

focus on building Aural Skills as important observational tools and central to the development of

science process skills at the elementary level.

2. UBEATS modules offer opportunities for students to engage with sound analysis techniques and to invent

notational systems for recording aural observations. The curriculum encourages students to think about

how representing the data in words, graphics, numbers, etc. can help them further understand sonic

phenomena. Because a crucial part of direct and reflective science is the representation of data, auditory data

provides an opportunity to have students think about how one should represent these data initially and how it

can be re-represented. This is both valuable and different than what most science activities offer.

3. UBEATS Modules show that using symbols to capture auditory events enables students to develop analytical

skills and develop technology skills. Multiple ways of representing aural events and musical experiences

provide both scientific and cultural perspectives that offer important and diverse ways to access and reflect

upon information.

4. UBEATS Modules build on motivating and engaging students through their innate interests in music. In

addition to exploring the biological foundations of music-making, the modules explore how the properties of

sound and the structures of musical sounds are used in the natural world to communicate and are adapted for

human music-making.

5. UBEATS Modules use auditory data to more fully understand many scientific phenomena.

6. UBEATS Modules help build deep listening skills in combination with traditional music ear-training skills to

enable a better understanding of others.

7. UBEATS Modules’ auditory-based activities can potentially offer opportunities to ESL students (and other

students for whom language is a barrier) that are not available with activities that are heavily based on the

written and spoken word.

national MUsic and sciEncE EdUcation standards intEGratEd in UBEats ModUlEs

National Music Education Standards

GoAl 1: Singing alone and with others

GoAl 2: Performing on instruments, alone

and with others, a varied repertoire

of music

GoAl 3: Improvising melodies, variations,

and accompaniments

GoAl 4: Composing and arranging music

within specified guidelines

GoAl 5: Reading and notating music

GoAl 6: Listening to, analyzing, and

describing music

GoAl 7: Evaluate music and music

performances

GoAl 8: Understanding relationships

between music, the other arts, and

disciplines outside the arts

GoAl 9: Understanding music in relation

to history and culture



rEsoUrcEs & PrEParatory inforMation

Timing of Lessons: A lesson is not necessarily equal to one class period. Time estimates for each lesson

are suggestions based on beta testing in classrooms over a two-year period. The teacher is given the

flexibility to design the flow of the concepts with how class periods are organized.

Website URL’s Referenced in Lessons: The Lessons cite URL’s for specific websites that support the

content and activities. URL’s work differently in different browsers; if you’re having difficulties, type the

URL into a different browser, i.e. Firefox, Safari, Internet Explorer, etc. The websites are also linked at

the UBEATS users website.

UBEATS Users Website: This is a dedicated website for potential and current users of the UBEATS

curriculum. It is a resource for sound files, websites, and other materials. We invite registered users to

share ideas, new resources, and updates with the entire UBEATS community. This will enable future

additions and refreshed UBEATS iterations. Please go here to register and participate: https://sites.

google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home

RavenLite™ is a sound analysis software program used throughout the 4/5 module. It is available

for free from Cornell University at: http://www.birds.cornell.edu/brp/raven/RavenVersions.

html#RavenLite.

The software program provides both sound samples and visual representations of sounds,

called ‘spectrograms,’ for a wide variety of birds and other animals. After downloading, to access these,

open Raven Lite™, then select ‘Open Sound Files.’ Check the sample you want to hear and then press

enter. The file will open and play the sound while showing the spectrogram.

Musical Instrument Resources: You may need to contact a music specialist teacher in your school or

district to help you acquire or borrow some of the following instruments for various lessons found

in the 4/5 module. Additional community resources could include music clubs, performing arts

organizations, churches, music stores, and private music teachers. The list of musical instruments used

in the UBEATS modules are:

• Classroom Instruments: These are music instruments typically used at the K-6 Elementary level.

They may include xylophones, Metallophones, Glockenspiel, Finger Cymbals, Triangles,

Woodblocks, Hand Drums of various sizes, Claves, Tambourines, Maracas, Boomwhackers, etc.

• Percussion and Wind Instruments: These are instruments used in most band programs. They

may include Woodwind Instruments (e.g., flutes, oboes, clarinets, saxophones), Brass Instruments

(e.g., horns, trumpets, trombones, euphoniums, tubas), and Percussion Instruments (e.g., snare

drum, cymbals, bass drum, timpani).

• Guitar and Other Stringed Instruments: These are instruments found in specialty classes (e.g.,

guitar class at the secondary level) or in the orchestra. Stringed orchestral instruments include the

violin, viola, cello, and double bass.

rEfErEncEs

Science News, Your Brain On Music, Special edition, August 14th, 2010; Vol.178 #4

Zentner M., Eerola T. 2010. Rhythmic Engagement with Music in Infancy. Proceedings of the National

Academy of Sciences, March 15, 2010, http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2010/03/08/1000121107


https://sites

http://www.birds.cornell.edu/brp/raven/RavenVersions

http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2010/03/08/1000121107


5E EnGAGE ExPlorE ExPlAin ElABorATE EvAlUATE

UBEATS curricula includes two modules – a 2/3 module with 17 lessons and a 4/5 module

with 17 lessons. The modules are integrated sets of age-appropriate, inquiry-oriented

learning activities based on the 5E learning model developed by the Biological Sciences

Curriculum Study (BSCS). In this model, each ‘E’ refers to one of the five stages of a lesson

activity: engage, explore, explain, elaborate, and evaluate. This lesson model serves as

the template for all UBEATS lessons in both modules and gives each lesson’s activities

an organized and predictable structure that enhances learning. The above icons are used

throughout the modules for easy recognition of the lesson’s sections.


lEsson forMat


BioMusic is a field of study that incorporates ideas from biology, animal communication,

ethnomusicology, music theory, neuroscience, physics, bioacoustics, and evolutionary

anthropology. The ways these areas converge are unique and complex. What follows is

information presented across two sections.

The first section, BioMusic Concepts: A Guide, presents a series of concept statements and

terms intended to illuminate BioMusic’s rich and varied nature. These terms are used often

throughout both BioMusic Modules.

The second section, Science Process Skills – From a BioMusic Perspective, presents

six traditional science process skills with descriptions common to the world of science

education. Subsequently, each traditional description is followed by an enriched

contextualization of that process skill from a BioMusic perspective.

UBEATSUniversal BioMusic Education Achievement Tier in Science

concEPts and sciEncE ProcEss skills

UBEATSAbsorption (3)

Acoustics (4)

Amplitude (1)

Amplification (6)

Anthrophony (4)

Beat (2)

Biophony (4)

Call (2)

Call and Response (2)

Duration (1)

Dynamics (2)

Echo (2)

Echolocation (4)

Frequency (1)

Geophony (4)

Human Music Making (2)

Instruments (2)

Larynx (4)

Loudness (1)

Medium (or Material) (3)

Melodic Contour (2)

Melodic Pattern (2)

Musical Instruments (6)

Musical Memory (2)

Niche Hypothesis (4)

Patterns (2)

Phrase (2)

Pitch (1)

Reflection (3)

Repetition (2)

Rote Singing (2)

Rhythm (2)

Signature Sound (4)

Sine Wave (5)

Songs (2)

Soundscape (4)

Sound Wave (3)

Spectrogram (5)

Syrinx (4)

Tempo (2)

Timbre (1)

Time (1)

Tools (2)

Vibration (1)

Vocalization (2)

Wave Form (5)

tErMs

Each of the terms is coded to the concept statement in which it is discussed

(e.g., items coded with (1) can be found in the ‘1. Describing Sound’ concept statement).

dEscriBinG soUnd

Central to describing sound is to realize that sound is the result of vibrating objects that produce waves of energy (i.e.,

sound waves). Vibrations can be thought of as the end result of the energy of sound traveling through matter in waves.

The oscillation of matter back and forth is described as a vibration. The wave describes how the energy changes in

direction and intensity over time. These waves travel through most all types of matter (i.e., gases, solids, liquids) and

are received by our sensory system into what we know as sound. The matter being oscillated can be a gas, liquid or

solid, though it is most readily visible to the human eye in liquids or pliable solids (e.g. oobleck). While the basic sensory

systems of the brain register the energy waves as vibrations or sound, the higher functions of the brain process the

information by grouping into meaningful units such as a musical phrase or spoken sentences or clauses. To talk about

sound, we need to have descriptive language.

AMPLITUDE/LOUDNESS: How loud we perceive a

sound to be is determined by the width of the vibration

of the sound wave. Because a sound wave is created

by vibrating material made up of atoms and molecules,

there exists a relationship whereby the larger the

distance available for the molecules to move back

and forth, the faster the molecules will move and

therefore, the louder the sound will be. The distance

that vibrating molecules move is also related to the

amount of energy required to move the molecules,

with the more movement resulting in louder sounds.

Because sound is waves of energy, sound is often

graphically represented as a wave. The height of the

wave represents the amplitude or loudness of the sound

wave. Amplitude roughly describes how much energy

the sound waves have.

The distance that vibrating molecules move is

always very small. Humans can discriminate changes in

the sound of just a ten-millionth of an inch. However, for

some vibrations, you can actually see the material move

with the human eye. Since it takes more energy to move

a larger surface area of material, the larger the vibrating

surface, typically the louder the sound. Another

important factor is the distance between the source of

continued

1.

BioMUsic concEPts: a GUidE

concEPt statEMEnts

1. Describing Sound

2. Sound Construction and Organization

3. Physics of Sound

4. Sound and the Environment

5. Sound and Visual Representation

6. Sound and Human Technology

ConCEPTS And SCiEnCE ProCESS SKillS (7) https://sites.google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home


the sound and the listener. As the wave moves through

a medium (including air), the energy is absorbed and

dissipated. Loudness will drop off the farther you are

away from the sound source.

Loudness is typically measured in decibels (dB).

Examples of loudness levels (though they vary due to

the proximity to the source of the sound) are: the rustling

of leaves is about 15dB, a conversation is about 45dB, a

vacuum cleaner is about 75dB, and 150dB would result

in immediate deafness. Loudness is sometimes also

referred to as volume. The higher the volume, the louder

a sound is. Musicians often refer to a sound’s amplitude

as the dynamics of a sound (see Dynamics in Section 2).

FREQUENCy/PITCH: The rate at which an object

vibrates (e.g., the number of vibrations per unit of time)

determines the frequency or pitch of a sound wave.

Again, using the wave representation of sound,

frequency describes the time it takes for a vibration

wave to go forward and come back to its original

position; so if three vibrations occur in one second then

the frequency is said to be three vibrations per second.

Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz) where one vibration

per second is equal to 1 Hertz.

When you blow across two straws having different

lengths, the sound made by each straw will be different.

This is because the column of air within each straw

is vibrating at a different rate. When measuring the

frequency of the vibrations, we are able to measure very

precisely. For example, many music ensembles tune to

A=440hz. Interestingly, most humans are unable to hear

fine distinctions between a small range of frequencies;

for instance, distinguishing between 439hz, 440hz,

441hz, or 442hz. Instead our brains group these

frequencies into a category that is assigned as a ‘Pitch.’

So 439hz, 440hz, 441hz, and 442hz is averaged as ‘A.’

Pitch and frequency are nevertheless co-dependent. The

higher the frequency – the higher the pitch, and the lower

the frequency – the lower the pitch. The air in the short

straw will make a higher pitched sound than the air in the

longer straw.

Sound can only be heard if it is in the frequency

range that the animal or human’s sensory system can

perceive. Humans are able to hear frequencies from

20 Hz (a low rumble) to 20,000 Hz (a very high pitched

whistle). Sounds that exist above that range are referred

to as ultrasound; sounds below our range of hearing are

referred to as infrasound. Animals have different hearing

ranges than humans although we overlap hearing ranges

with many animals. Dogs and cats can hear ultrasound

frequencies (over 20,000 Hz); whales and elephants

can hear infrasound (frequencies below 20 hertz).

Ultrasounds are used in medicine to provide prenatal

scanning. Infrasounds can be made by earthquakes

and thunderstorms.

TIMBRE (pronounced tam-bur): Timbre can be described

as the quality of the sound. Rarely ever does the sensory

system detect a single sound wave. Instead, our hearing

detects multiple sound waves of different loudness

and frequency. Often, multiple waves emanating from

a single source will combine to form what is perceived

as a single sound. Many different sound sources may

have combined waves that produce what seems to be

the same pitch, but they will still sound different. Two

instruments (e.g. a violin and a clarinet) can play the

same pitches but sound very different. This difference

applies to how we perceive all sounds. One way we

describe these different sound wave combinations is by

saying they have different timbre.

The material that sound interacts with, as well

as ‘how’ the sound is made, has characteristics that

affect its timbre. While we can mathematically describe

the combination of sound waves each sound maker

creates, timbre is used to describe these differences

based on how we perceive a sound. Because of this, we

use descriptive words to characterize these perceptions.

Some adjectives used to describe timbre include:

Brassy Heavy or Light Resonant

Breathy Mellow Rough

Clear Metallic Rounded

Dark or Bright Piercing Sharp

Flat Raspy Strident

Gravelly Rattly Warm/Smooth

Harsh Reedy

TIME/DURATION: How long a sound, a pattern, or

an event lasts is as important as which pitches are

used or the timbre of the sound. Time is a fundamental

component of communication systems for all animals.

Brains perceive and organize time in units of duration –

a process that unfolds by recognizing the nuanced

differences of short and long – and on several levels

simultaneously. Typical hierarchies of time include:

the moment, seconds to minutes to hours to years to

lifetimes (see Beat and Rhythm).



soUnd constrUction & orGanization

The internal relationships of the elements of music-making and other types of communication events shape the message

and select the possible participants. Some species have a wide range of options for participation, perception, and meaning-

making while others are more narrowly determined. How these elements are used depends on the specie’s genetic

inheritance, its cognitive capacities, and the complexity of the social system that supports its survival. While these elements

are individually represented in the communication of other species, human music-making uses all of these elements in wide-

ranging combinations to construct cultural meaning.

BEAT: All animals have physiological functions that

operate with a sense of regularity (i.e., heart beat, inhale/

exhale, walking, running, etc.). We call a regularly

recurring, underlying pulse – the Beat. It assists brains

in organizing external sonic information and is central

to real-time social interactions. For instance, a crowd

can spontaneously clap along at a concert because

individuals are feeling together the underlying pulse or

beat. The Beat is basic for coordinating actions with an

‘other’ (synchrony or turn-taking) and is fundamental for

music-making. Whether doing or listening, the beat helps

organize the way time is perceived and manipulated.

CALL AND RESPONSE: Human music-making builds

on the importance of same/different and repetition by

constructing an alternation between Response (same

pattern always repeated) and Call (changing pattern

after Response). This form is often found in work songs

or songs associated with ritual or religious practices. It

enables a musical pattern to unify the group (Response)

while an evolving message or pattern (Call) advances

the intent.

CALL: An animal’s Call is a simple vocalization that

functions to maintain contact among members of a

group. In non-human animals, calls alert others to danger

or to potential food.

DyNAMICS: Loud and soft sounds can be discussed in

two different ways – Dynamics or Amplitude. Scientists

and acoustic engineers measure the precise intensity of a

sound as amplitude, which is indicated with a particular

number representing a decibel level (db). Dynamics also

refers to loud and soft sounds but also represent the

continuum between soft and loud sounds. Dynamics,

as used in music-making, is an impression of loud and

soft that is influenced by its context. For instance, in a

loud environment one sound may be perceived as softer

than another but if the same sound is placed in a soft

environment, it may be the loudest sound. Dynamics in

music are typically indicated by descriptive Italian terms

such as piano (soft), mezzo piano (medium soft), mezzo

forte (medium loud), forte (loud). Unlike the objective and

consistent nature of how decibel numbers represent the

loudness and softness of amplitude, the manipulation

and inflection of dynamics for interpretation and

performance plays a large part in musical expressiveness

in human cultures. Changes in dynamics, whether

sudden or gradual, can affect listeners emotionally and

physiologically (see Amplitude/Loudness).

ECHO/ROTE SINGING: An exact repetition of an external

sound or sound pattern.

HUMAN MUSIC MAKING: Recent scientific research

has established that humans are born musical. All normal

human beings are born with a suite of abilities that are

required for communication, including music-making,

and may be found in other animals’ communication

systems. They include the ability to: (a) entrain a beat;

(b) distinguish one pitch from another; (c) remember

sound patterns.

MELODIC CONTOUR: Pitches are perceived as rising

or falling, going up or down, getting higher or lower,

or staying the same. This ability makes it possible

to describe a series of pitches (the up/down/higher/

lower) as a shaped line. This visualization of the moving

direction of pitches – rise/fall/same – illustrates how the

brain interprets patterns, phrases, or whole melodies as

melodic contour.

MELODIC PATTERN: A pattern of pitches. The ability to

discriminate pitches moving high to low, low to high, and

staying the same is foundational to perceiving patterns.

MUSICAL MEMORy: The ability to recognize and recall

combinations of pitch patterns, rhythms, tempos, specific

timbres, and slight variations of all of these is essential

for culture building, group identification, and full

participation in human musical cultures. Types of musical

memory are represented in the wild and are required

for survival. Scientists study other animals’ abilities to

discriminate these essential elements and to require

exact copies or to accept and create modifications. For

humans and other species the quality of musical memory

is fundamental for recognizing group members and

high valued events. Human cultures assign important

values to specific types of music-making and associate

these valued expressions (emotional or iconic) with full

participation in a culture. continued

2.



PATTERNS: Brains are constantly working to organize

information from the external world. One of the ways brains

do this is to recognize repetitions in sensory information

and to organize them as a memorable unit. It is easy to see

a pattern: X X X P X X X P X X X P. But we can also hear this

pattern if you sing or play the same pitch and duration of

the sound for X and a different pitch or different pitch and

duration for P. When hearing sound patterns – our brain

can recognize pattern organization by pitch, by duration, or

a combination of both. Recognizing ‘Same’ and ‘Different’

are essential qualities used by our brains to organize and

use patterns. Sound patterns are the basis for all animal

communication and human music-making.

PHRASE: A phrase is a unit of combined melodic and/or

rhythmic patterns that form a longer unit and is perceived

as a clear demarcation point. It is not the full, complete

statement or idea but rather a sub-unit of the whole. For

instance, if you sing: “Row, row, row your boat gently

down the stream” – you have sung one phrase. The next

phrase is: “Merrily, merrily, merrily, merrily, life is but a

dream.” Animal songs also subdivide into phrases that

scientists study and compare.

REPETITION: Brains pay attention to repetition. It is

the way brains perceive pattern, and the way that

organisms communicate successfully with each other

over time. It is an essential component of memory.

In non-verbal communication such as music-making,

the repetition of musical patterns or phrases signifies

importance. Human music-making builds on this

phenomenon by using repeating snippets or phrases to

organize listening or participation in the whole musical

event. For example, repetition can be a short three-

note combination (motif) such as the beginning of the

1st movement of Beethoven’s 5th Symphony (click on

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_4IRMYuE1hI ) or a

longer phrase that repeats such as the first half of “Old

MacDonald Had a Farm.” In other animals, repetition of

pattern, phrase, or song also represents significance. For

instance, songbirds use short repeated patterns to build

distinctive songs similar to the Beethoven example, and

whales sing repetitions of long phrases similar to human

song construction. Repetition by echo of an ‘other’ also

contributes to bonding and social cohesion.

RHyTHM: Rhythm is a combination of short and long time

durations organized by an underlying beat. Recognition

and performance of rhythms are key elements for

music-making and for animal songs. Brains organize

the occurrence of sounds, actions, or movements as

combinations of short and long time units or rhythmic

patterns. Rhythm and Rhythmic patterns are distinctive

even without a melody and influence how we hear a

melody (pitch/frequency patterns). For instance, we

recognize rhythm in a percussion solo or an imbalanced

clock’s tick-tock pattern or a distinctive door knock or in the

way a person walks.

SONGS: In animals, Song is a complex learned

vocalization. For human music-making, it is a complex,

learned, non-speech vocalization. In birds and other

animals in the wild, Songs are typically used to identify

individuals or groups, establish and defend territory, and

attract mates. While humans use songs in these ways as

well, human songs are also vehicles for emotion, memory,

and meaning-making.

TEMPO: Brains perceive the speed of sounds or sonic

events. In music, tempo is calibrated by measuring the

speed of the beat or pulse in relation to the minute. In

Western Classical music notation, tempo is indicated to the

performer by a value representing the number of beats per

minute (e.g., beat = 60), which provides a quantitatively

consistent indication of the rate of the speed. Tempo may

also be indicated descriptively by words that provide

stylistic meanings. For example, ‘presto’ is used to indicate

swiftly or fast, ‘andante’ indicates a walking tempo, and

‘adagio’ indicates a tempo that is slow and graceful.

Regularity and predictability of the beat are critical

elements for the perception of the speed of patterns,

phrases, and the anticipation of cohesive musical events.

In the wild, the tempo of sonic events conveys important

species and environmental information. And changes in

tempo, especially sudden tempo changes can indicate a

need for a response or an action. Many sound sources

within a biome or ecosystem occur at various tempos (e.g.,

bird calls, cricket sounds, leaves rustling in the wind, wind

moving through trees, etc.) but may have interdependent

tempo relationships. This interplay among speeds of

the sounds of a biome, e.g., the same breeze that slowly

moves tall trees back and forth may also move the leaves

on the ground producing a rapid rustling sound, imparts

important listening awareness.

TOOLS/INSTRUMENTS: An external means or device used

to extend the body’s innate capacities to create sound.

Musical instruments are tools that enable humans to

make higher or lower pitches of sounds, louder sounds,

different quality of sounds, longer lasting sounds than

vocalizations or other body generated sounds are able to

do. The acoustic properties of spaces are also tools. Other

species also use tools and acoustics for sonic extensions

and advantage.

VOCALIZATIONS: Vocalizations are the general

categorization for sounds that are internally generated

by the body and are used externally for communication.

Vocalizations include songs and calls.


http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_4IRMYuE1hI


Physics of soUnd

As described previously, sound energy is a form of mechanical energy. Sound energy is produced through vibrations as

they travel through a specific medium. Sound vibrations cause waves of pressure which lead to some level of compression

and rarefaction in the mediums through which the sound waves travel. If a sound wave is of large enough amplitude and

an appropriate frequency, we can not only hear it through our ears, but can feel it with our body. This sensation is produced

by the material that contacts our body (e.g., the air around us or the piece of metal we have our hand on) and transfers the

sound energy through waves.

ABSORPTION: The characteristics of materials determine

how much sound energy is absorbed. Materials and their

surfaces can transform sound wave energy into other kinds

of vibrational energy by spreading it out and redirecting it

in ways that diminish the original sound wave’s directed

energy. This absorption can be achieved by both the

microscopic properties of molecules and how they bond,

but also the macroscopic properties of how the material

is shaped. A material like foam sheeting or carpeting is

good at sound absorption both because of the microscopic

properties of the material and because the material’s shape

includes millions of crevices that trap and redirect sound

waves. Even though molecules in gases are distributed

farther apart than those in solids, gases still absorb some

sound energy. This affects the sound’s amplitude, or

loudness, because it falls off the farther one is from the

sound source. How much sound energy is absorbed is

dependent both on the frequency of the waves and the

type of gas the sound waves pass through (see Amplitude).

MEDIUM OR MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS: Sound waves

are considered longitudinal waves and are characterized by

their push-pull motions. Sound waves move through each

of the mediums (air, gas, solid) by vibrating the molecules

in the matter. The molecules in solids are packed very

tightly. This enables sound to travel much faster through a

solid than a gas. Sound waves travel about thirteen times

faster in wood than air. Liquid molecules are not packed as

tightly as solids and therefore sound waves will typically

pass through more slowly than solids. Gas molecules are

very loosely packed. Sound travels about four times faster

and farther in water than it does in air. This is why whales

can communicate over huge distances in the oceans.

Sound waves also travel faster on hotter days as the

molecules bump into each other more often than when it is

cold. Quantitatively, sound waves travel at a rate of 19,685

feet per second in granite, at approximately 4,900 feet per

second in water and 1116 feet per second in air.

Sound waves interact with matter in complex ways.

Sound waves travel through solids, liquids, and gases at

varying speeds because the composition of molecules

differs in each state of matter. Sound waves will always be

altered in some way by the material that they interact with.

As the sound waves pass through a material, some of the

vibrational energy can be reflected (echo) or absorbed,

in varying amounts, depending on the surface materials.

How a material reflects, absorbs or passes through sound

waves is typically referred to as the acoustical properties of

the material.

REFLECTION: Reflection can be thought of as a redirection

of sound waves. Higher frequency waves that are more

directional are more easily reflected in a specific direction.

For instance, when a bat makes a high-pitched sound it

bounces off the wall of a cave as an ultrasound ‘echo.’ The

bat can detect the distance to the wall due to the amount

of time it takes for the sound wave it created to go out to

the reflecting surface and return. The term ‘echo,’ as used

here, describes the time delay between the wave going out

and returning. A wave can reflect off of multiple surfaces

at different locations, creating multiple echoes at different

time delays. Dolphins also echolocate using high frequency

clicks. When a dolphin makes a clicking noise, the sound

vibrations bounce off the object, and return to the dolphin

by traveling through its lower jaw, into to its ear, and finally

to its brain. Because different materials of different sizes and

shapes will absorb and reflect sound waves differently, the

dolphin’s brain is able to distinguish the object’s shape, size

and location through echolocation. Dolphins can distinguish

between different materials such as tin or aluminum cans,

live or dead fish and items as small as a pea.

Objects like smooth, hard plastics, metal, concrete,

or polished stone are unable to trap wave energy or

absorb the sound’s energy. These materials therefore

are good reflectors. Additionally geometric properties or

shapes such as concave parabolas, can reflect, collect, and

concentrate sound. (i.e., amplified). This is why satellite

dishes are shaped the way they are (see Acoustics in

Section 4).

SOUND WAVE CHARACTERISTICS: Depending on the

frequency and other characteristics of a sound wave, it

may have a very specific directionality (i.e., unidirectional),

it may spread out in all directions (i.e., omnidirectional),

or somewhere in between. You can get a sense of the

directionality of a sound by walking in a circle around the

sound source and sensing whether the loudness changes

as you circle. Generally, the higher the frequency of a

sound wave, the more directional it is. Standing right

in front of a speaker, you hear pitches across the full

frequency range. If you move progressively to the side of

the speaker, the higher pitches will begin to drop off until

you increasingly hear more low (bass) pitches.

3.



soUnd and thE EnvironMEnt

The communal space in which communication and music-making occurs affects all of the participants in that space. How

species use the space for sound-making and sound-receiving, and how those results are perceived by the participants

impacts biology, adaptation, and future outcomes. An important area of research is the study of sound environments

and the impact that sounds have on all organisms – including humans. The volume of sound, the competition of sounds,

intrusive vs. acceptable, the value and timing of quiet vs. sound-making are areas that provide important scientific data

about species’ wellness and environmental management.

ACOUSTICS: Acoustics refer to the properties of the

space where sound is initiated and/or received, or how

the mediums that the sound waves travel through

influence what is heard (received), by whom, and how

far away. These combined qualities and how they impact

sound reception are referred to as Acoustics.

ANIMALS IN THE ENVIRONMENT: Other Animals, like

humans, often need to communicate with each other

over long distances. Over time, animals have adapted

to leverage the opportunities their environment has

afforded them to use sounds to survive and thrive in their

environments. In some cases, animals use characteristics

and objects from the natural world to enhance their

vocal ranges and the distance their calls can travel. For

instance, dolphins and whales have evolved to transmit

and receive sounds under water rather than through

air as humans do. Bats use ultrasound not just as a

communication tool but as a way of echolocating to

navigate through woods and caves and locate insects to

eat. Some species of frogs have evolved to use the inside

of hollowed trees to amplify their croaking. Similarly,

woodpeckers use the outside of hollowed trees to amplify

rhythmic pounding with their beaks.

Other animals and humans use sound as a means

to communicate, find a mate, protect and warn against

predators, or locate community members. Species must

create a sound that others can identify, often done by

creating distinctive repetitive patterns. Some species rely

on individuals composing novel patterns that are learned,

imitated, and recognized as Signature Sounds. Like our

own speech patterns, the use of signature sounds depends

on the brain’s ability to understand and interpret patterns.

Distinctive sounds provide animals one of the

important means to survive in the wild. The great variety

of species leads to a wealth of sounds, vocalizations,

calls, and songs. Some examples include the following:

1) Humpback whales are known to sing ‘songs’. They

make sounds that are rhythmic and melodic, that can

typically last 10 to 35 minutes, and that are comprised

of phrases that are strung together without pauses to

create a song. Humpback whales use song

construction patterns that are similar to patterns

humans use.

2) Mockingbirds make harsh, raspy noises when

chasing other birds out of their territory. A similar but

distinct call is used when defending against predators

like a hawk or falcon. Other Mockingbird calls include

a wheezing noise, a ‘chuck’ note, and a very piercing

series of notes ‘high low’ repeated twice.

3) Blue Jays are also imitators and use their copy skills

for several purposes. The Blue Jay frequently mimics

the calls of hawks, especially the Red-shouldered

Hawk. These calls may provide information to other

jays that a hawk is around, or may be used to deceive

other species into believing a hawk is present so that

they can eat.

4) Chimpanzees identify intruders to their community

by the use of sound.

5) Bees help lost members back to the hive through

sound, and

6) Young animals locate their mothers through sound

just as mothers use sounds to locate young.

Animals’ ways of communicating are determined

by their biological inheritance; however, they often learn

how to perform important sound patterns when they are

young from their parents, just as a human child learns

from their adult caretakers. In this way, fundamental

performance traits of the specie’s communication system

are handed down from generation to generation. Just as

with humans, there are regional variations. For example,

birds of the same species living in different habitat zones

may not perform the same song patterns in the same

ways and, for that reason would not necessarily be able

to communicate with each other.

CREATING SOUNDS: Humans and other animals are

capable of creating a wide range of sounds. Sounds

require an energy source to initiate vibrations that

form sound waves. For humans and other animals,

vocalizations result from a vibrating mechanism inside

the throat called the larynx. Many people call it their

voice box. The larynx houses vocal cords that are

stretched across the larynx. When humans speak or

sing, air pushes between the cords, causing the cords

continued

4.



to vibrate and produce sound. Muscles in the diaphragm

control how much air is forced through and pushed

across the larynx, controlling the loudness of produced

sounds. Other muscles adjust the tension and space of

the vocal cords causing variance in pitch.

For birds, the vocalization organ is called a syrinx. The

syrinx is located where the bird’s windpipe branches to

its lungs, allowing the bird to make more than one sound

at a time, which humans cannot do. The muscles in the

syrinx tighten to produce sound – the tighter the muscles,

the faster the vibrations, making a higher pitch. As the

bird breathes out, it can change the amount of pressure

it puts on the syrinx, which changes the sound produced.

Humans are able to produce only one sound at a time,

because their larynx is located higher up in their trachea,

or windpipe. Because a bird has its syrinx close to its two

lungs, it has two sources of air to make sound, and can

produce two sounds at the same time! Each side of the

syrinx is controlled separately, allowing this to happen.

Other ways the body can produce sounds include

using other types of muscular energy. For instance,

humans strike parts of the body, hands and, feet

and beavers and whales slap their tails. All of these

approaches transfer energy that sets up vibrations and

have potential communication value.

ECHOLOCATION: Certain animals such as dolphins and

bats use a sensory system in which sounds are emitted,

and their echoes interpreted, to determine the direction

and distance of external objects.

NICHE HyPOTHESIS: Bioacoustician, Bernie Krause, has

proposed a new approach to understanding the sounds

of the wild called the Niche Hypothesis. He advocates

that any given biome is recognized and recognizable

by the combined sounds of all its habitants. Instead

of narrowing scientific attention only to the study of

individual species’ sounds, Krause proposes that the

entire community of sounds influences the survival of all

the inhabitants. To help organize the sounds of the Niche

Hypothesis, he suggests groupings based on the sources

of the sounds. They include: biophony (e.g., sounds

emanating from animals, insects, plants, trees, etc.);

geophony (e.g., sounds emanating from geophysical

inorganic activity in the earth system, including wind,

earthquakes, dripping, ice cracking, rainfall, thunder,

water flowing, earthquakes, volcanoes, etc.); anthrophony

(sounds emanating from man-made devices). The Niche

Hypothesis builds on many concepts of biodiversity.

RECEIVING SOUNDS: Animals can also sense the

vibrational energy that makes sounds. In humans and in

many animals, the ears are the primary mechanism for

collecting and interpreting these sound waves. Human

ears, along with those of many other animals, have an

outer, middle and inner ear. The outer ear is what is

visible on the outside of the body and is used to collect

sound waves into the middle and inner ears. The shape

and size of the outer ear, as well as the way that it is

constructed, allows an animal to hear a range of sounds

and pitches. Some animals, such as horses, are able

rotate each outer ear independently, allowing them to

better collect sound waves. For humans, the outer ear

ends in a membrane called the ear drum. Vibrations of

the ear drum are transferred to the middle ear where

a set of three bones further concentrate the direct the

sound wave vibrations. Finally, in the inner ear, a very

hard, fluid-filled bone transfers the vibrations to special

hairs that transform the vibrations into nerve impulses

transferred to the brain for interpretation. In addition to

the normal processes of aging, sounds we are exposed

to can cause damage to the hearing system of the ear,

resulting in either temporary or permanent loss of

hearing. This can mean loss of amplitude (loudness) or

frequency range.

Various species have abilities to hear frequencies

and amplitudes that the human ear is unable to detect.

For example, the dolphin can hear fourteen times better

than humans, but it does not have visible outer ears. This

is because dolphins hear through a sophisticated hearing

sensory system that is located in small ear openings

on both sides of the head. However, it is believed that

hearing underwater is mainly done through the lower jar

bone that conducts sounds to the middle ear.

SOUNDSCAPE: The combined sonic environment,

including the sounds from animate and inanimate sources,

is a distinctive and memorable event. Soundscapes are

dynamic, ever-changing, and representative of the forces

impacting the biome. Soundscapes deliver important

information that enables listeners to determine how to act.



soUnd and visUal rEPrEsEntations

Sound waves are often represented graphically as a wave form. More specifically, the wave takes the form of a

mathematical sine function. A sine wave function can mathematically represent changes in both the amplitude (loudness)

and frequency (pitch) of the wave. Similarly, multiple waves can be mathematically combined to create complex wave forms

representative of kinds of typical sounds found in the natural environment.

An alternative graphical representation of sound is called

a spectrogram. A spectrogram represents a sound along

an x and y axis, with the x axis representing the passage

of time and the y axis representing the frequency of the

sound (higher pitches

show higher on the

y axis, etc.). Some

representations will

have a third dimension

representing amplitude.

Alternately, amplitude

can be represented by

color in the visualization.

Visually representing

human music-making

is a challenging

and complicated task that has engaged the human

imagination and confounded experts for eons. Human

music cultures have historically devised many kinds

of symbol systems to represent the actual sounds

and processes of musical engagement. For Western

music cultures, the standard accepted symbol system

evolved from European traditions and focuses on the

simultaneous visualizations of pitches, rhythm, dynamics,

timbre, and tempo as organized by an underlying beat.

Because Western music notation averages how rhythm,

pitch, and tempo are represented, efforts to improve the

system continue to more accurately convey the nuances

of live music-making.

While scientists and musicians most often use

standardized methods to represent sound, scientists

and musicians take advantage of opportunities to

invent or improve symbol systems. Sometimes new

representations are created for a specific task or

experiment. In other cases, artists and other creative

individuals invent visualizations that capture a

particular emotion or convey a narrative of a specific

site or performance. These invented systems are still a

communication tool and can be created graphically or

with other 2D or 3D media. Computer-based tools are

expanding the ways we think about representing sounds

and are expanding our capacities to convey how sound

and time affect the moment.

5.

soUnd and hUMan tEchnoloGy

Humans uses their bodies to create communicative sounds such as speech and music-making. The human voice is the

basic device for sound communication; however, finding ways to expand the natural limits of the human voice motivate and

have motivated the invention of technologies throughout history. Using tools to extend the body’s normal range of pitch,

amplitude, and time manipulation have produced many technologies or musical instruments. Typically sounds can be made

by tapping (percussion instruments), plucking (stringed instruments) or blowing air (wind instruments) across a hole or

making a reed vibrate. Each of these technologies extend communication possibilities to everything from practical messages

to emotional narratives. Earliest examples of humans making musical tools include rhythm making instruments (rattles,

drums) and pitch making instruments (flutes).

6.

The history of musical instruments reflects the evolution

of human technology. From mechanical (piano) to

electronic (electric guitar) to digital (music software),

humans manipulate available technology to extend their

range of musical participation.

We and other animals also leverage the

reflective properties of the environment to advantage

communication. Because making sound waves requires

energy, we animals work with available acoustics and

materials, (e.g., woodpeckers and frogs using hollow

trees) to concentrate and direct sounds, and to create

sounds that are perceived as louder than they would

otherwise. Humans also leverage energy provided by

electricity to amplify sound. Modern sound amplification

converts sound vibration, which is a form of acoustical

or mechanical radiant energy, into electrical energy

continued


spectrogram


and then back into mechanical energy in the form of

vibrations again.

Microphones pick up sound wave vibrations and

convert them to a very minute electrical voltage or signal.

This signal may go directly into a recording device to

capture it in a magnetic form on a computer hard disk

or magnetic tape for later editing and playback. On a

computer, the recorded sound can also be analyzed

using visualization tools like a spectrogram. Whether the

microphone signals are played immediately or from a

recording, the signal must be strengthened or amplified

many thousands of times in order to have enough

energy to create vibrations humans can hear. For this

purpose, an audio amplifier is used. Many amplifiers

can also accommodate receiving signals from several

microphones or other sources, combining them, and then

amplifying a synthesized, more powerful version required

for an audience to hear easily.

This amplified sound may go to a single listener in

the form of headphones or to a single room in the form

of a pair of speakers. Large sound systems may utilize

many amplifiers, each working to supply the sounds

to a specific area, where the audience may consist of a

few persons or many thousands. Finally, the amplified

electrical signal is fed into one or more loudspeakers. The

loudspeaker acts as a sort of microphone in reverse. A

cone or a diaphragm is set to vibrating by the amplified

electrical current. Electrical energy is thereby converted

into mechanical energy, setting up vibrations in the

adjacent air once again with sound waves that are

audible to our hearing.

wEBsitEs

first movement of Beethoven’s 5th Symphony





UBEATSOBSERVING: Observation involves using the senses to gather information about an object or an

event. This includes describing similarities and differences in specimens and identifying changes

(both quantitative and qualitative) in environmental conditions (Lancour, 2004). Participants will use

their senses of sight, touch, and hearing to create accurate, detailed descriptions of each specimen

and sound found and of the environment in which they were located.

Music-making is a two-way activity that places equal emphasis on the Doer(s) and the Listener(s).

The Listener may respond in an active way to the Doer and may even opt to engage in a music-

making response that sets up a turn-taking relationship. A passive-appearing Listener (such as an

infant) may show no outward signs of active engagement with the Doer but may be internalizing

information about the sounds and may even be learning how to respond or participate with the Doer.

No reaction to the Doer is also a meaningful response because that can shape the next music-making

event initiated by the Doer. Music-making is always a closed loop of Doer and Listener and that

relationship shapes the music-making outcomes for maximum benefit.

When we participate in creating or initiating music-making, we may use all or a combination of

senses to impart information. From an auditory perspective, whether Doers or Listeners, our biology

pre-selects the sounds and methods available to us for joint music-making purposes. As we engage

musically with each other, we select sounds, make patterns, and use methods that are appropriate

for the participants, the context, and the intent of the action. We do this by leveraging our cultural

preferences, the acoustics of moment, and the available sound-making or technology resources.

We often signal our engagement in music-making through our movements and gestures.

These kinesthetic actions convey how we internalize and interpret the music-making moment.

Dancing, clapping, toe-tapping, swaying, head-bopping, singing along, the size of the movements,

the loudness of the movements, the chosen movements – all shape and intensify the experience of

music-making.

Seeing how others or we actively engage with music-making shows us what is perceived and

assists us in understanding the musical moment and its purpose. Visual cues help us observe,

participate, and interpret the collective experience. Visual representations of the act of music-making

whether in the moment (recordings, videos), or the creation of symbol systems to describe how to

reconstruct it, all support interactive and active engagement in music-making.

sciEncE ProcEss skills – froM a BioMUsic PErsPEctivE

Inquiry-oriented activities stress questioning, discovering, analyzing, explaining, and drawing conclusions.

Thinking and analysis skills are developed by having students: (a) summarize key points from text, video, or graphics;

(b) make observations and draw conclusions; (c) collect, display, and interpret qualitative and quantitative data;

(d) express concepts orally and in writing; and (e) solve practical problems. Traditional science process skills include

Observation, Inference, Classification, Measurement, Prediction, and Communication (Padilla, 1990). Additionally,

Reflection serves as a tool for students to think about what they have learned and for the teacher to assess student

understanding (Deaton, Deaton, & Leland, 2010). Below, each of the six traditional science process skills is presented

with a description common to the world of science education.

Subsequently, each traditional description is followed by an enriched contextualization of that process skill from

a BioMusic perspective.

1.



INFERRING: Through inferring, participants use evidence to determine what events have already

occurred. Those who use their inference skills form assumptions based upon past observations to create

testable hypotheses (Lancour, 2004). Unlike observations, which describe current conditions, inferences

are created based on past events (Lancour, 2004).

We humans infer a lot of information about the external world and about each other by using the

fundamental elements of music-making. Those building blocks include the ability to match pitch/

tone/volume, the ability to entrain a beat, and the ability to recognize previously heard music-making

patterns. We attend to these elements as our caretakers and our community practices them. The rules

and how that culture’s music-making traditions unfold teach us how to discriminate what we are hearing

and how we interpret it. Some of the inferences we make about music-making are individualized and

reflective of age, location, and social context. However, larger cultural pressures instill preferences and

biases from birth that are typically unconscious and rarely consciously examined. These imbedded

cultural rules and understandings allow us to intuit how to interact with each other, how to make and

enjoy music, and what we accept as music-making.

CLASSIFyING: Classification is the sorting of objects and events into different categories based on

properties and criteria. Classification systems may be binary, dividing objects into two groups based on

attributes, or multistage, sorting items through a hierarchy of characteristics (Bass et al., 2009).

The action loop of Doer(s) and Listener(s) relies on many classifications and categories. How the

engagement is structured is determined by many qualities of the sound such as: 1) is the sound made

by an organism or by a man-made device; 2) what is the perceived intent; 3) are body movements a

positive or negative aspect of the event; 4) is looking at the other required or is the communication

possible without it.

Other classifications focus on the details of the sounds such as pitch/frequency, timbre, tempo,

beat, rhythm, dynamics/amplitude, phrases, patterns, et al. (see Section 1). All of these in various

combinations contribute to rapid classifications and categorizations that happen in the moment and are

reflective of the participants’ biology, experiences, and knowledge.

MEASURING: Measurement is one of the key process skills and one used regularly throughout inquiry

science programs. Through measurement, participants collect quantitative data including lengths and

time. Measurements collected may be either metric or English measurements.

Research measures the quality and appropriateness of music-making by studying the Audience. Who

is available to listen, how many of the available attend, and how they respond or do not respond

are central considerations. Measuring can include: 1) which music-making elements are appropriate

or inappropriate for the Audience; 2) is the Audience response affecting behavior of either or both

Doer and Audience; 3) is the music-making accepted for a short or long term inclusion in the group’s

communication. The behaviors of the participants can be studied by observing how many adopt the

same beat or synchronize movements with each other; or if the music-making patterns are imitated

or repeated by others and for how long, and how far away. Further, how the participants attend is

important. Measuring the levels of the listener’s discrimination often indicates how dedicated the

Audience is. By giving rapt attention to the music-making, the Audience indicates full engagement, a

possible turn-taking role, and possible future behaviors.

2.

3.

4.



PREDICTING: Often, scientists will make predictions of future events based on evidence. Prediction

plays a crucial role as scientists develop a hypothesis to test. Data will then be collected as evidence to

support or refute the hypothesis.

We can predict behaviors or outcomes for music-making once we understand how the Doer and the

Audience are likely to interact and with what resources. Some of the critical forecasting variables include

the participants’ prior musical experiences and comprehension of the rules. These factors that predict

engagement are based on common or cultural experiences with the style of music-making, individual

acuity about the music-making rules and cultural practices. These elements enable the participants to

intuit meaning from the musical event or observe how others may be impacted by the musical event.

COMMUNICATING – Active or Passive Participation Systems: Logical link of evidence and musical

knowledge to make sense of events. Once scientists collect data, they must share their data and

communicate their findings through graphs, charts, text, formal papers, and oral presentations. These

modes of communication enable scientists to present their information in a clear form that is accessible

to the general public.

We can communicate about music-making by doing or by describing or by representing. Non-verbal

communication about music-making is action based and typically includes joining in, turn-taking,

attending to someone else’s moment of music-making through silence, protecting the sound space from

external intrusions. These actions involve visual, aural and kinesthetic expressions that communicate

important information about the musical event for the participants. For instance, when participants

choose to play an instrument to extend the communication options and then practice ways to enhance

musical effectiveness, they are using non-verbal communication to convey meaning-making beyond

self. Beyond practicing to improve one’s own skills, it may also include recruiting others to participate,

interacting with recordings, downloading/sharing sound files, attending performances, seeking out more

ways to interact with others about or doing music-making.

Other effective skills for communicating about music-making include using symbol systems to

describe or represent it. The goal of capturing and saving the moment of music-making traditionally

uses writing approaches such as music notation or descriptive words. But as technology advances, so

have the ways of capturing the musical moment. Recordings, spectrograms, audio technology, and

software programs bring more precision and more ways to study music-making. But the subtleties of

how music-making unfolds while doing it – still challenges the current technologies and symbol systems

and provides opportunities for new representational systems to develop.

Underlying the importance of communicating about the musical moment is the clear understanding

that music-making is deeply embedded in the cognitive process. Whether using non-verbal,

representational, or verbal methods, music-making creates powerful associations and memories that

contribute to cultural memory, community bonding, and future outcomes.

REFLECTION: Inquiry-based activities enable Reflections of the music-making event that incorporate

each of the science process skills. In reflecting on their observations, measurements, inferences,

classifications, and predictions, participants may consider alternative ideas and methods for data

collection and analysis. Reading the reflections of peers may also serve students in further developing

their understanding of scientific knowledge and processes. In addition, the teacher may use student

reflections as a tool for analyzing both their teaching strategies and student performance.

7.

6.

5.



rEfErEnCES

Bass, J.E., Contant, T.L., & Carin, A.A. (2009). Teaching Science as Inquiry,

11th ed.. Boston, MA: Pearson.

Deaton, C.M., Deaton, B.E., & Leland, K. (2010). Interactive reflection logs.

Science and Children, 48(3), 44-47.

Lancour, K.L. (2004). Process skills for life science. Science Olympiad National Office.

Retrieved May 9, 2011, from http://soinc.org/tguides.htm

Padilla, M.J. (1990). The scientific process skills. Research Matters – to the Science Teacher, 9004.

Retrieved May 10, 2011, from http://www.narst.org/publications/research/skill.cfm


http://soinc.org/tguides.htm

http://www.narst.org/publications/research/skill.cfm


Documents

UBEats · comprised of science teachers and music teachers developed innovative modules for upper (i.e., 4th and 5th) and lower elementary (i.e., 2nd and 3rd) grades that conform