TWO APPRACHES TO CONTEXTTWO APPRACHES TO CONTEXT- CONTEXT -- CONTEXT -

• The term ‘context’ apparently has a The term ‘context’ apparently has a limitless range of potentially relevant limitless range of potentially relevant objects, and ‘context’ seems to be a vague objects, and ‘context’ seems to be a vague notion. According to Mey (1993:182), this notion. According to Mey (1993:182), this can be understood in two ways: can be understood in two ways:

• either as extending the individual either as extending the individual utterances making up the text = utterances making up the text = co-textco-text; ;

• or, alternatively considering those or, alternatively considering those utterances in their natural ‘habitat’. In this utterances in their natural ‘habitat’. In this case we are dealing with the larger case we are dealing with the larger contextcontext in which people use language. in which people use language.

ELEMENTS OF CONTEXTELEMENTS OF CONTEXT

• setting or spatio-temporal location of U setting or spatio-temporal location of U (utterance): that is, the particular moment (utterance): that is, the particular moment and place at which Speaker utters U, and and place at which Speaker utters U, and the particular time and place at which H the particular time and place at which H (hearer) hears or reads U.(hearer) hears or reads U.

• the world spoken of in U: that is, the world the world spoken of in U: that is, the world evoked in the utterance.evoked in the utterance.

• The textual environment (the utterance is The textual environment (the utterance is the result of what has been said before).the result of what has been said before).

CONTEXT - EXAMPLECONTEXT - EXAMPLE

• (Two linguists, call them Jacob and Mark, are coming out of (Two linguists, call them Jacob and Mark, are coming out of a lecture hall at a university which is neither’s home a lecture hall at a university which is neither’s home territory, but where Jacob has been before; so he thinks he territory, but where Jacob has been before; so he thinks he knows the campus, more or less)knows the campus, more or less)

• Jacob: Do you know the way back to the dining hall? We can Jacob: Do you know the way back to the dining hall? We can go in my car.go in my car.

• ((Marks gets into the car; after the first turn, he starts giving Marks gets into the car; after the first turn, he starts giving directions, which greatly amazes Jacob, and irritates him a directions, which greatly amazes Jacob, and irritates him a little – he was under the impression that ‘he’ needed to little – he was under the impression that ‘he’ needed to guide the other, not the other way round. After several guide the other, not the other way round. After several more turns – which Jacob is taking at greater and greater more turns – which Jacob is taking at greater and greater speeds, so the other doesn’t get a chance to interfere – speeds, so the other doesn’t get a chance to interfere – Marks says:)Marks says:)

• Mark: Oh, I thought you Mark: Oh, I thought you didn’tdidn’t know the way to the campus. know the way to the campus.• Jacob: I thought Jacob: I thought youyou didn’t know! didn’t know!• (whereupon they both start laughing)(whereupon they both start laughing)

THE ETHNOGRAPHIC THE ETHNOGRAPHIC APPROACHAPPROACH

• The sociolinguist Dell Hymes (1964) The sociolinguist Dell Hymes (1964) puts forward a useful acronym, i.e puts forward a useful acronym, i.e SPEAKING,SPEAKING, to cover the factors that to cover the factors that must be taken into account when must be taken into account when trying to describe what happens trying to describe what happens when people use language:when people use language:

SPEAKING GRIDSPEAKING GRID

• S=S= the the Setting and Scene Setting and Scene of the exchange; the of the exchange; the setting refers to the concrete physical setting refers to the concrete physical circumstance in which speech takes place, e.g. circumstance in which speech takes place, e.g. courtrooms, classrooms, telephone conversations, courtrooms, classrooms, telephone conversations, passing acquaintances in the street, etc.passing acquaintances in the street, etc. The scene The scene refers to the psychological and cultural refers to the psychological and cultural circumstances of the speech situation, e.g. circumstances of the speech situation, e.g. consulting, pleading, conferringconsulting, pleading, conferring. The settings and . The settings and scenes do not necessarily remain constant scenes do not necessarily remain constant throughout a particular language exchange, throughout a particular language exchange, although it appears to be easier to shift scenes although it appears to be easier to shift scenes than to shift settings, e.g. a speaker’s attempt to than to shift settings, e.g. a speaker’s attempt to tell a joke to dispel a tense atmosphere.tell a joke to dispel a tense atmosphere.

SPEAKING GRIDSPEAKING GRID

• P=P= the the ParticipantsParticipants may be of various kinds may be of various kinds and may be referred to as Speaker, Hearer and and may be referred to as Speaker, Hearer and audience, or Addressor, Addressee.audience, or Addressor, Addressee.

• E=E= EndsEnds, i.e. the conventionally recognised , i.e. the conventionally recognised and expected outcomes of an exchange as well and expected outcomes of an exchange as well as the personal goals that each of the P seeks as the personal goals that each of the P seeks to accomplish. Some speech events have to accomplish. Some speech events have conventional outcomes, e.g. ‘diagnosis’, conventional outcomes, e.g. ‘diagnosis’, ‘verdict’.‘verdict’.

SPEAKING GRIDSPEAKING GRID

• A=A= Act sequenceAct sequence, i.e the actual language , i.e the actual language forms that are used, how these are used. It forms that are used, how these are used. It refers to message for, i.e. topics of refers to message for, i.e. topics of conversation and particular ‘ways of conversation and particular ‘ways of speaking’. In a given culture, certain linguistic speaking’. In a given culture, certain linguistic forms are conventional for certain types of forms are conventional for certain types of talk.talk.

• K=K= KeysKeys refers to the tone, manner in which refers to the tone, manner in which a particular message is conveyed, e.g. light-a particular message is conveyed, e.g. light-hearted, serious, precise, etc.hearted, serious, precise, etc.

SPEAKING GRIDSPEAKING GRID

• I=I= InstrumentalitiesInstrumentalities, i.e, the choice of , i.e, the choice of channel: oral/written, general/specialised channel: oral/written, general/specialised language, formal/informallanguage, formal/informal

• N=N= Norms of interpretationNorms of interpretation, , i.e.interpretation which would normally be i.e.interpretation which would normally be expected for the speech event in question; expected for the speech event in question; norms of interactionnorms of interaction, interpretation in relation , interpretation in relation to the conventions of the conversation (e.g. to the conventions of the conversation (e.g. who usually talks, for how long)who usually talks, for how long)

• G=G= the the GenreGenre that has to be recognised, e.g. that has to be recognised, e.g. novels, poems, lecture, advertisement, etc.novels, poems, lecture, advertisement, etc.

STRENGTHS AND STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONSLIMITATIONS

• Dealing with rituals, ethnography seems very Dealing with rituals, ethnography seems very good in that it makes conscious the unconscious good in that it makes conscious the unconscious rules of our society. rules of our society.

• Problems: especially the question: from whose Problems: especially the question: from whose angle are we describing things? It cannot, angle are we describing things? It cannot, however, explain the many variations in however, explain the many variations in performance in less ritualistic situations. performance in less ritualistic situations.

• It does not enable us to explain why it is that one It does not enable us to explain why it is that one person performs very differently from another in person performs very differently from another in the ‘same’ linguistic situation (for example, why the ‘same’ linguistic situation (for example, why one person emerges form a job interview having one person emerges form a job interview having succeeded in gaining the job, while another does succeeded in gaining the job, while another does not).not).

A PRAGMATIC APPROACHA PRAGMATIC APPROACHACTIVITY TYPESACTIVITY TYPES

• LEVINSON, 1992LEVINSON, 1992• ……a fuzzy category whose focal a fuzzy category whose focal

members are goal-defined, socially members are goal-defined, socially constituted, bounded, events with constituted, bounded, events with constraintsconstraints on participants, setting, on participants, setting, and scene, but above all on the kinds and scene, but above all on the kinds of allowable contributions. Paradigm of allowable contributions. Paradigm examples would be teaching, a job examples would be teaching, a job interview, a jural interrogation, a interview, a jural interrogation, a football game, a task in a workshop, a football game, a task in a workshop, a dinner party and so on. (1992:69)dinner party and so on. (1992:69)

ACTIVITY TYPESACTIVITY TYPES

• Because of the strict constraints on Because of the strict constraints on contributions to any particular activity, contributions to any particular activity, there are corresponding strong there are corresponding strong expectations about the functions that expectations about the functions that any utterance at a certain point in the any utterance at a certain point in the proceedings can be fulfilling’[…] Activity proceedings can be fulfilling’[…] Activity types help to determine how one says types help to determine how one says will be ‘taken’ – that is, what kinds of will be ‘taken’ – that is, what kinds of inferences will be made from what is inferences will be made from what is said.’said.’

CHECKLIST (Thomas, 1995)CHECKLIST (Thomas, 1995) The goals of the The goals of the

participantsparticipants• notice that we are talking about the goals of notice that we are talking about the goals of

the individuals rather than the goals of the the individuals rather than the goals of the whole speech event. The goals of one whole speech event. The goals of one participant may be different from those of participant may be different from those of another. For example, the goal of a trial is to another. For example, the goal of a trial is to come up with a fair verdict, but the goals of come up with a fair verdict, but the goals of the prosecution lawyer (to get a verdict the prosecution lawyer (to get a verdict ‘guilty’) are diametrically opposed to those ‘guilty’) are diametrically opposed to those of the defense lawyer and the defendant. An of the defense lawyer and the defendant. An individual’s goals may also change during individual’s goals may also change during the course of an interaction.the course of an interaction.

CHECKLIST (Thomas, 1995)CHECKLIST (Thomas, 1995)Allowable contributionsAllowable contributions

• some interactions are characterised by some interactions are characterised by social or legal constraints on what the social or legal constraints on what the participants may say. For example, in participants may say. For example, in courts of law the prosecution is not courts of law the prosecution is not allowed to refer to a defendant’s allowed to refer to a defendant’s previous convictions; in the British previous convictions; in the British House of Commons members may not House of Commons members may not use certain abusive terms. What is use certain abusive terms. What is pragmatically interesting is the way in pragmatically interesting is the way in which people will work round these which people will work round these restrictions. restrictions.

EXAMPLEEXAMPLE

• Coulthard (1989), for example, relates Coulthard (1989), for example, relates how one prosecution lawyer was able how one prosecution lawyer was able to indicate that the defendant had to indicate that the defendant had previous convictions by referring to previous convictions by referring to the circumstances in which the the circumstances in which the defendant had injured his foot (it had defendant had injured his foot (it had been broken during a burglary); been broken during a burglary); Churchill (prohibited from calling an Churchill (prohibited from calling an opponent a ‘liar’), famously came up opponent a ‘liar’), famously came up with the phrase ‘guilty of a with the phrase ‘guilty of a terminological inexactitude’.terminological inexactitude’.

CHECKLIST (Thomas, 1995) CHECKLIST (Thomas, 1995) The degree to which the The degree to which the

Gricean maxims are adhered Gricean maxims are adhered toto• the expectation of the way in which the maxims will the expectation of the way in which the maxims will

be observed varies considerably from culture to be observed varies considerably from culture to culture and from activity type to activity type (e.g. in culture and from activity type to activity type (e.g. in Parliament, in media interviews with politicians, or in Parliament, in media interviews with politicians, or in the law courts), there is a very low expectation that the law courts), there is a very low expectation that what is said (or implied) will be the whole truth; in what is said (or implied) will be the whole truth; in other activity types (such as going to a Confession) other activity types (such as going to a Confession) the expectation that the speaker will tell the whole the expectation that the speaker will tell the whole truth is extremely high. Some inferences can only be truth is extremely high. Some inferences can only be drawn in relation to the activity type. For example, drawn in relation to the activity type. For example, the actor Nigel Hawthorne, talking about unsuccessful the actor Nigel Hawthorne, talking about unsuccessful plays he had been in before he became famous, said: plays he had been in before he became famous, said:

• ‘‘Friends would come backstage and talk about the Friends would come backstage and talk about the weather’.weather’.

CHECKLIST (Thomas, 1995)CHECKLIST (Thomas, 1995)Turn taking and topic controlTurn taking and topic control

•to what degree can an indvidual to what degree can an indvidual exploit turn-taking norms in exploit turn-taking norms in order to control an interaction, order to control an interaction, establish his or her own agenda establish his or her own agenda (topic of conversation), etc.(topic of conversation), etc.

CONCLUSIONCONCLUSION

• Language is not simply a reflection of the Language is not simply a reflection of the physical or social context, but language is physical or social context, but language is used in order to establish and then change used in order to establish and then change the nature of the relationship between A the nature of the relationship between A and B and the nature of the activity type in and B and the nature of the activity type in which they are participating.. In other which they are participating.. In other words, context cannot be seen only as words, context cannot be seen only as ‘given’, as something imposed from ‘given’, as something imposed from outside. The participants, by their use of outside. The participants, by their use of language, also contribute to making and language, also contribute to making and changing their context.changing their context.