Tv and Development

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TELEVISION AND SOCIAL CHANGE

(A) Chiefly an Entertainer: TV is the most popular entertainment tool nowadays. It is still notaccepted as a serious agent of transformation, though it has been able to effect morenegative change than positive change. It is available round the clock and for 365 days of the

year. This feature makes it more lovable. Its reach is the highest among all the mediatools of the new millennium. That is why, it is perceived as a major entertainer. It is thetheatreof the home.

(B) Facilitates National Development: TV has become a medium for national development. Itcan educate the masses about various social, political, and intellectual issues.

(C) Increases Aspirations of the Masses: It has been able to raise the aspiration levels of themasses. As a consequence, the people belonging to one stratum of the society long tomove to the next higher stratum. TV shows such movies and programmes as would enticethe people of one stratum to get elevated to the next higher stratum through unfairmeans. However, children and the youth adopt negative values first. It is very difficult tobe simple. It is all the more difficult to become and remain pious in terms of words anddeeds.

(D) Effects on Women, the Youth, and Children; The thrill of the audiovisual media like TVcan make people, especially women and children, media addicts. The ill effects are tellingfor many a children and women, who do nothing but watch TV for nearly six hours a day.We have discussed these ill effects in Chapter 6. Due to these ill effects, the viewersbecome depressed, violent, irascible, and violent. Thus, the society loses its decorum andbalance. The elements of the society head towards chaos and destruction and nottowards prosperity and mental enlightenment.

(E) Spoiling the Society on Five Accounts: TV software of the world is focusing on five majorrealms to influence the masses. These a^esex, violence, political manipulation,commercial exploitation, and cultural degradation. These five realms are the most talkedabout and sensitive features of any society. Hence, every society is at the mercy of TVsoftware. This trend is lethal for any kind of society, eastern or western. NGOs and organsof the State have made this trend known to the world. However, TV has become a

necessary evil, despite the fact that we can lock channels, put TV sets in secluded rooms,and reprimand children and the youth for watching such software as is not meant forthem. Children are growing up to become adults at a very fast pace; they learn what theyought to have learnedfive or ten years hence. The youth are eligible to watch many kindsofTV software. They are keen to experiment with what they have watched on TV. Thus, theyindulge in crimes of various kinds and hues because they want to enjoy life as has beendepicted in the software. Read Mass Media Effects Studies in Chapter 6. Further, readEffects of the Mass Media on Women and Children in Chapter 2.

(F) A Trigger for Intellectual Development: TV has also been able to effect intellectual andaesthetic development of personality of its viewers. It inculcates scientific temper amongthe audiences. It develops self-confidence, a healthy attitude towards hard work, and

feelings of patriotism. It develops integrity of the mind. Its software also promotesinternational understanding. These are the views of various experts and researchers andwe agree with the same.


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Sub voce

Doshi has stated that TV viewing does not lead to action. Rather, he avers, human intervention isessential. As human intervention is not always available, the audiences draw their own inferences bywatching TV software. They do so by filtering this software through the mesh of their own socialsettings, beliefs, attitudes and ambition sets. Such inferences, if not changed, become the bedrockfoundations of new value sets and beliefs.

(G) Surrogate Ads Lead to Negative Change: Surrogate advertising has changed the socialscenarios of many a society. People understand what is being advertised; they even knowthe brands that are being promoted, though they are feigned brands on the ad beingtelecast. The youth take to liquor, tobacco, and drugs when they watch surrogate ads onTV. Example: In a TV ad, Akshay Kumar says "Khoob Rang Jamega Jab Mil Baithenge TeenYaar...Mein, Aap or Bagpiper!" We hope our valued readers understand that the youthwould not rush to buy Bagpiper soda from the market but Bagpiper Whisky, the chieffocus of this ad.

(H) An Ideal Agent of Rural Transformation: TV has effected social change in rural areas.Farmers have come closer to one another through programmes on agriculture, traditionaldrama and dances, discussions on rural problems, weather, rates of the food grains markets

etc. Doordarshan has played a vital role in this context. Example: Krishi Darshan of DD (Delhi)was and is a big hit among the rural masses. Similarly, all the regional DD Kendras telecastprogrammes related to agriculture, farm management, livestock management, socialdogmas, taboos, rural problems, land disputes, irrigation practices, education of the ruralmasses, health of women, maternity etc. The rural folk watch these programmes anddevelop themselves. This change is positive and was the need of the hour.

(I) Develops the Poorest or Makes Them Aware of Poverty: The Kheda CommunicationProject had put forth a set of goals for TV software production to highlight the exploitation ofthe poor. Later, the DD made many programmes, which highlighted the poor plight of thepoor sections of our country. These sections, in turn, made efforts to improve their lot. Thus,TV has been able to effect social change amongst the poor in the sense that it has madethem aware of their needs, rights, aspirations, and demands in the changing socioeconomic

scenario. It can make all the sections of the society aware about the exploitation of the poorsections of that society.

(J) A Passive Change Agent: Contrary to the belief of many thinkers, TV has still not been ableto trigger the processes of the two-way communication model. Ifa viewer dials a VJ andsends his request for telecasting a film song or music number, it does not mean that TV hasbecome a two-way communication vehicle. TV L. still a passive media. People watch it, eat,drink, enjoy the programme, and go to bed. They do not care to call the TV station about thequality of software or the broad social, economic, or political problems. TV is still a tool ofentertainment for the majority of audiences. It has not become an interactive agent ofchange. Example: Many TV channels involve viewers in live talks and discussions. Theseprogrammes are rising in terms of number. However, such audiences are not decision-makers; they dial in only to express their views. Decisions are taken by those that are in

power. They are not concerned about this software. Moreover, discussions quite oftenremain inconclusive (because the subjects handled by TV anchors are burning issues andcannot be resolved through a brainstorming session of half an hour). Hence, TV is not


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Communication and Theories of Social Change 5.75

broadcast was started on January 26,1986 and ended on August 21,1986. The totalnumber of listening posts was 900 and 1,080 women were interviewed while the projectwas underway. We are not giving the details of the project or studies related to theMother-Child care programme in this chapter due to space constraints. The gist of this

study was that radio was able to give support to mother-child care programmes in India.It promoted participatory education and community participation. It also sensitisedbroadcasters and decision makers to the problems of women ad children. Itdemonstrated the power of action research in planning and production of the media,especially radio. The advent of TV has given radio setbacks of a unique kind. However, therural masses still depend upon it to get vital data and guidance regarding children's care,maternal health, disease control, and children's education. Adult education programmesare also being supported by the AIR.

(D) Entertains the Masses: Music and humour shows on radio are still popular in all the partsof the world. These programmes are the cheapest mode of entertainment; one has onlytobuy a radio to get all types of music, jokes, chat etc on it. This entertainment makes the

listener relaxed, though it may no transform his deep-rooted values or beliefs. Radiobrightens the lighter side of the life of a listener.

(E) Favourite Change Agent of the Elite: Political thinkers, teachers, researchers, andstudents listen to radio programmes to develop themselves in intellectual terms (we arenot discussing political awareness in this point). The BBC, AIR (Medium Wave channels),Vividh Bharati etc air many talks and discussions from time to time. These discussions areinformative and provocative. These help the listeners develop new thoughts andconcepts.Later, these thoughts and concepts become a part of their psyche (it does not happen soeasily or quickly). Filially, after discussions with friends, family members, or teachers, theperson adopts these thoughts or concepts as his own. For this purpose, the radioprogramme must be of high quality and only experts must be called to give thought-

provoking ideas.

5.15.3 THE PRINT MEDIA AND SOCIAL CHANGE

(A) Education is the Major Focus Area: Books educate, enlighten, and transform the masses.Formal as well as informal education can be obtained through books of various kinds.Books have been able to effect deep-rooted social transformation.

(B) Can Bring About Revolutions: It has been said that the poems of PB Shelley wereinstrumental in effecting the French Revolution (1799). The printed words of the elitethinkers can motivate the masses to such an extent that the latter can bring aboutrevolutions. Naturally, the writers and thinkers ought to be reliable elite of theirrespective societies. Today, leaders are writing through the print media, but theirconcepts are hackneyed or shallow. The glory of the writers of the past cannot be

redeemed at least in this era. That is why, we have not witnessed any revolution after1989 (fall of the Iron Curtain).

(C) Dialogue Can Supplement Their Efforts: If discussions and dialogue are used to supportthe knowledge gained by the reader, the result can be synergistic as well as dramatic.Example: A student reads a book and discusses the problems mentioned in that bookwith his teacher or friends. He learns quickly. He would not, if he were to read only thebook. Dialogue paves the way for better understanding and comprehension of theconcept being


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5.76 Mass Communication and Journalism

studied. Hence, the print media can effect social change with great finesse, if they aresupported by dialogue.

5.15.4 THE PRESS AND SOCIAL CHANGE

(A) A Powerful Political Change Agent: In recent times, the Press has become the mostpowerful agent of political change agent. Newspapers are current, provocative, andoffensive towards those who make mistakes. The masses read newspaper editorials,news, and views of experts. They imbibe quickly whatever has been printed in thenewspapers. An event is converted into news. News reflects the realities or seriousness ofevents. These events, in turn, transform the psyche of readers slowly but surely.

(B) The Media of the Elite: Just like books, newspapers and magazines also effect deep-rootedsocial transformation. The process may be slow, as already stated, but it takes place in allthe nooks and corners of the society. Even after the advent of TV, the Press has not lost itsvital grounds. It is still the most powerful feeder of news, views, and concepts to theminds of the elite thinkers of the world.

(C) Enlightenment through Information: Just like other media, the Press provides informationto the masses. This information is used by the masses to develop themselves inintellectual and commercial terms. Many of the sets of such information have commercialhues. Hence, people find jobs, indulge in business transactions, and sell their products orservices through the tools of the Press. This is but one aspect of the role of the Press intoday's societal transformation. Intellectual development goes along side commercialdevelopment. Thus, individuals develop themselves in commercial and intellectual terms.This change is an outcome of the use of information supplied by the Press.

(D) Provides Technical Data: Technical journals provide engineering, medical and other datato professionals. This helps them develop in their respective professional streams.Examples: Living Computer, Data Quest, Cable Quest, Popular Science, Popular Electronics etc aresome of the magazines that provide technical data.

(E) Entertainment: Film magazines, family magazines, and other periodicals entertain the

masses. They also' provide information on latest trends of the society. Examples:Magazines like Society, Filmfare, Femina, Griha Shobha, Sarita, Nandan, Mukta, Savvy etcprovide wholesome entertainment to their readers.

5.15.5 CINEMA AND SOCIAL CHANGE

(A) Entertainment: The most important role of cinema is entertainment of the masses. Itcovers topics such as sex, history, the fine arts, celebrities of the past, rural life, bandits, theyouth etc. These topics develop the mental faculties of the masses and make them awareof their aspirations, responsibilities, and immediate tasks.

(B) Changes Values: Cinema changes the value system slowly but with an amazingdoggedness. It has been alleged that it leads to decay in values of the masses.

(C) Binds the Nation: It binds the nation with the glue of patriotism.

(D) Information Provider: It gives information about the currently vital topics like exploitationof women, health of children, problems of adults, AIDS, environment, ecology etc. It alsouses various messages dedicated to religion, caste, sports, fashion, the youth, women,development, the arts, crimes against women and children, the underworld, literature,the sciences etc to enlighten the minds of the audiences. However, its


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entertaining feature is more prominent; that is why, it is not a major agent of change inthe parlance ofEnlightenment through Information.

5.15.6 MUSIC AND SOCIAL CHANGE

(A) Soothes and Entertains: Music soothes the soul. It transforms an individual into a stablehuman being. It entertains the masses through various programmes. Classical music is afavourite mode of entertainment of the senior citizens of the society.

(B) Binds a Nation: Music having patriotic themes binds the masses of a nation into one entity.It also uses various sports commentaries to do so.

5.15.7 THE NET AND SOCIAL CHANGE

(A) Ensures Enlightenment through Information: The Net is the most recent and presumablythe most reliable source of information. Latest sets of information make Netizensambitious, hard working, and highly result oriented.

(B) Changes the Tastes and Demands of the Youth: the Net makes them demanding,

ambitious, and materialistic.(C) Spoils the Youth and Children: The Net has various pornographic web sites, which are

affecting the youth and children of all the societies. The moral implications of this changehave been addressed by researchers and States but no solution could be found out tilldate.

(D) A Health Hazard: Internet Addiction Disorder, eyestrain, backache, irritability, seclusion,irascible behaviour etc are associated with Internet operations the world over. Theseeffects far outweigh its positive effects in social and health terms.

(E) An Agent for Cultural Homegenisation: The Net effects cultural homogenisation at a fastpace. People voluntarily given in to the lure of the Net. They imbibe the values that arebeing promoted on the Net. In this process, they forget what they really were. This trendcannot be reversed.

5.16 LATEST VIEWS ON COMMUNICATION AND SOCIAL CHANGE

As we have already entered the new phase of time, we cannot ponder over the failures of thepast. Rather, we would have to look at the future of the humankind from a new differentviewpoint. After reading many books, journals, and articles, we have come to some conclusionson communication and its role in effecting change. These are as follows:

(A) Social change is inevitable. It is almost always coupled with economic and political change.

(B) Most of the non-participant societies are trying to become participant ones. There is noharm in developing to provide good standards of~Living to the masses.

(C) In the process of development, many positive values, social beliefs, and taboos would bedone away with. Some of them would be very dear to the old generations of a society;

however, this shedding of values, beliefs, and taboos cannot be circumvented. Despitethe best efforts of mediated communication, these values cannot be restored.

(D) In the process of development, many negative values, social beliefs, and taboos would alsobe done away with. That is a good harbinger of change for the human kind. However, wefear that new negative values would replace the old ones that have been discarded. Thecommunication exercises of the new millennium would help in this adoption. Thisphenomenon is inevitable; it is already happening!


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(E) In the process of development, some any positive values, social beliefs, and tabooswould becreated (the chances are minimal). Mass communication exercises can be done to hastensuch processes, which are likely to be painfully slow, cumbersome, and not result

oriented.

(F) In the process of development, many negative values, social beliefs, and taboos would becreated. Both the societies, participative and non-participative, must be prepared to shedthem, lest they should be slaughtered due to the ill effects of these values.Communicationstrategies of the new millennium must focus on how these negative values, social beliefs,and taboos can be eliminated. Such strategies can be defined to check this onslaught,though the chances of success are minimal.

(G) We have noted that some deep-rooted cultural values and beliefs cannot be changed.Theywould remain as such. They would be chief causative factors for the destruction of many

arace.

(H) The dominated societies would continue to thrive in the hybrid culture that is an outcomeof the mediated communication exercises primarily initiated by the West. This hybrid culturewould have the negative and positive features of the cultures of the east and West. Within aculture, there can be pockets of traditional culture. The presence of a hybrid culture doesnot guarantee the uniformity of culture and values in a dominated society. In such cases,mediated communication exercises would make these old elements active and dedicated forthe cause of a change. These elements would start a revolution to return their nation orsociety to the original cultural fold to which, it once belonged. Naturally, such elementswould be far and few in number. (I) The world is being dominated by the value system andsocietal norms of the West- This is being done (by various nations and societies) to get

material advantage over the West. Once this process of flow of materialistic prosperity ends(ie, the developing nations come at par with those of the West), the masses of these newlyrich nations would stop aping the cultural norms of the West. Instead, they would try toreturn to their old value systems; that is because they would have enjoyed the benefitsoffered by the materialistic liberal society of the West. In that case, the societies of the eastwould go back to their roots and their modified cultures would tread a path that would takethem to the traditional old culture that was once their own. (J) A shift to the old traditionsand values cannot be sans violent reprisals from the forces within and without the system.Hence, there can be wars, minor battles, sporadic guerilla attacks, and another World War.After this chaos, the newly developed nations would start turning towards their oldtraditions and cultural norms. It would take them time to do so. However, they wouldcontinue to be a part of the materialistic operations of the West because they would haveintegrated their own systems with the global econo-political system. Change would be

desired in socia1

and cultural spheres and not in economic and political spheres of themodified societies.

(K) Slowly but surely, the social systems of the east and West would head towards an ultimategoalglobal cult


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(L) Many authors have talked about cultural homogenisation of the dominated societies intheir theories and statements. This is not a contentious issue nowadays. The east would


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ape the West in many spheres and the West would ape the east in some others. Thehuman race must become mature enough to comprehend the vital problems that face ittoday. The problems of hunger, poverty, unemployment, illiteracy, backwardness, anddogmas should bother researchers and not those concerned with dominance of the

primitive societies. The advanced societies look to the dominated ones not for the sake ofimproving the latter but for the sake of creating new markets. Mediated communicationfocuses on commercial activism nowadays and not on societal transformation. In a bid towoo the dominated societies in commercial terms, the dominant society also effectssocietal transformation through the mediated communication. This process is inevitable.However, the dominated societies must take care not to forget their old values andcultural norms. The dominant societies must mingle with the dominated ones to meettheir commercial objectives, but they should become a part of the dominated societies atthe first instance. There are three methods to influence or win a society you can usecoercive measures to tame it (eg, the British Raj), or you use mediated communication tochange its demand sets (eg, the communication blitzkrieg of the West in the easternsocieties), or you become a part of it and understand its needs to satisfy them throughyour products and services (the new strategy that is being followed by many a

transnational corporation). In our view, the last method would work well in the newmillennium.

(M) The societies of the world must intermingle to develop the human race; currently, theyare trying to prove their supremacy over one another by effecting culturalhomogenisation. They are also trying to use the mass media to create new market nichesin other societies, which they deem as their competitors. The human race is one society.The human brain is the most advanced organic mechanism of the world. It is not beingused to effect development of the human race. Rather, it is being used to destroy ancientcultures and traditions; the reaspns for this trend are commercial (business andtransnational trade), ethnic (racial supremacy), and psychological (detestation of humansbased on economic and religious bias). There is no difference between any two humanbeings. Superficial differences have been created based on caste, community, language,

development, economic progress, and beliefs. Intellectual development can removethese differences. Mass communication can be used to develop the human race inacademic and intellectual terms. Thus, the focus of mass communication should beintellectual development of the human race and not coercive or inadvertent culturalhomogenisation. The societies of the world should voluntarily adopt a new societalculture. Within this culture, the individual identities of such societies must be retained.They must contribute in a synergistic manner to a New World Social Order (NWSO). ThisNWSO must be created to perpetuate the interests of the human race on this planet aswell as on the other planets that are likely to have life. Think ahead of your presentproblems; do not fight over petty issues! Cultural homogenisation should be welcome as long as itdoes not change the basic pious value system of a society.

(N) Mass communication has just crossed its phase of infancy. Research is being done aroundthe world in this gargantuan field. New theories would be defined and implemented.These theories would help the human race develop in materialistic, intellectual, andsocial terms. The impact of mass communication exercises is negative in many areas ofsocial endeavour. However, humans are aware of such ill effects. They would certainlytake steps to minimise such effects. This would not happen overnight, though.


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may be from an altogether different culture. Although his respect for and support to such.

cultures is a glaring positive feature of this model, yet no researcher has pointed out that

these interactions would lead to commercial gains for the communicator (individual, firm,or nation). When commercialism creeps in, the ad world is used to change the attitudes.

preferences, and demands of the audiences. Ironically, all this is done in the name of a

democratic process (it is your child who wants to buy this chocolate!).

If the society is changed without altruism, the objective of the communicator is deemed pious. If

this action is done with Dollars in both of his eyes, the concept of societal change becomes anugly

monster for the society that has been kept under the guillotine of change. That way, its major

cultural and social norms are likely to be lost, though it may remain a democratic set-up.

5,9.9 THE DOMINANT PARADIGM

The model of research in the field of mass communication has been described as DominantParadigm. The concepts of media, society, and mass have been used to describe it. It is known asthe dominant paradigm because of the following reasons:

(A) It is still taught and applied.

(B) It is deemed oppressive in nature.

(C) It is still valid or effective in many parts of the world.

Everette M Rogers, DeFleur and Ball-Rokeach have given useful inputs to define this paradigm.

Further, Denis McQuail has also done a lot of research on this paradigm; our discussion is basedon the text created by Denis McQuail. According to McQuail, the Dominant Paradigm:

(a) takes a liberalist-pluralist ideal of the society;

(b) has a functionalist perspective;

(c) is a linear transmission model of effects;

(d) concludes that powerful media are modified by group relations; and

(e) can be studied or analysed by quantitative research and variable analysis.

This paradigm combines a view of powerful mass media in a mass society with research practicesof the emerging social sciences. Of particular importance are social surveys, social psychologicalexperiments, and statistical analyses (in the context of usage of such new social sciences). Thisparadigm is an outcome of painful communication research; it is also a guide to the same. The

view of the society under it is normative. Hence, it presumes that a certain type of good societythat operates in the nation under focus. Such a society could be democratic, liberal, pluralistic, ororderly (Denis McQuail).

The media of the totalitarian system (communism) were altered to make them the tools forstifling democratic values. Hence, the liberal and pluralist norms of the society were challengedor even threatened in a communist nation. However, the Dominant Paradigm emerged toexpress the western values and the media played vital roles in disseminating the thoughts ofliberalism, pluralism, and freedom, the parts of the well-known forte of the West.


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The origins of this paradigm draw their power from sociology, social psychology, and informationscience. Researchers like Tunstall, Lasswell, and others delineated the roles of social sciences andparticularly, of the functions of communication in the society (we are not giving details here).These researchers, including McQuail, concluded that communication works towards theintegration, continuity, and maintenance of a society. They also averred, however, that mass


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communication can also have disruptive consequences. These studies are better known as

Functional Analysis and form the foundation of this paradigm.

Further, Shannon and Weaver defined and described the Information Theory. It was related tothe

technical efficiency of communication channels for carrying information. These researchers

developed a model for analysing information communication as a sequential process beginning

with a source, which selects a message, which is transmitted, in the form of a signal, over a

communication channel, to a receiver, who transforms the signal into a message for adestination.

Noise and interference also affected the transmission of signals, aver Shannon and Weaver. Due to

this noise and interference, there were differences between the message actually sent and theone

actually received. This model had not much to do with mass communication. However, it was

viewed as a method to explain the modus operandiof human communication. These studies and

many more were done during the middle of 1950s. Shannon and Weaver had come out with their

thesis in 1949.

Everette M Rogers has showered encomium over the Dominant Paradigm. He avers that it has ledcommunication scientists into a linear effects-oriented approach to human communication after1949. According to him, this model would help researchers find out the effects of communication,especially mass communication. This paradigm is more flexible than the Stimulus-Response (SR)model. The linear causal approach of this paradigm was found effective. Communication must alsobe viewed from the side of the receiver. Many theories of mass communication were propoundedby researchers during the past. However, no such model was put forth that could representcommunication as human, social, interactive, and concerned with sharing the meaning and notimpact (Hardt). The Dominant Paradigm fills this void and comes close to a communication modelthat is human, social, and interactive.

The effects of the mass media have remained the focus areas of this paradigm. The contents of

media messages, motivations, attitudes and features of audience, intended effects, and

unintended effects have also been studied under the aegis of this paradigm. Media organisations

have also been studied under it. Traces of functional thinking and linear causal m6del are found in

its tenets and modus operandi. The one-way model seems to be mechanistic as well as deterministic.It is in tune with the concept of mass society; this concept substantiates the thought that a small

number of elite people (who are rich and powerful) use powerful media tools to achieve persuasive

and information effects in the society. DeFleur and Ball-Rokeach have explained this process

through the famous Magic Bullet or Hypodermic Syringe Model. Some critics have defied the Magic

Bullet concept, though. They contend that during the past/roe decades, the mass media have not

directly affected the masses. The correlation of the mass media with their effects was difficult to

prove, they argue.


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This paradigm helps researchers test null hypotheses. The findings that have accumulated around

its failure have helped to sustain the positive image of the liberal-pluralist society as still in a good

shape and not under the control of a few powerful rich people. 5.9.9.1 CRITIQUE OF THE

DOMINANT PARADIGM

This paradigm was criticised by many researchers because of its simple linear approach.Empirical research has proved that the simple transmission model is not of use because of the

following reasons::

(A) Signals do not reach receivers.

(B) Signals do not reach those receivers who should get such signals.


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(C) Messages are not understood because of the noise in channels.

(D) There is less unmediated communication; it is filtered through other channels or is opento checking with personal contacts.

(E) The simple transmission model does not lend support to the concept of powerful media.

This paradigm supports the notion of powerful media being modified by group relationsIn the modern world, the powerful media are modifying group relations; it is not theotherway round, avers A Kumar.

(F) McQuail states that media effects are judged from a western viewpoint. Thecontradictionswithin this viewpoint of society and its distance from social reality were ignored.

(G) The model can be analysed with the help of quantitative research tools, as already stated.However, A Kumar contends that media effects cannot be studied as mere cause andeffectstudies that could be quantified. Human psyche is fragile, dynamic, and whimsical. A TV

ad may generate a desired response from the viewer at one point of time but at someother,it may fail to generate any response from the same viewer. So much so, the response onsome occasion could also be negative. Such results cannot be quantified because thehuman psyche is time-specific, issue-specific, and nature-specific. Quantitative techniquescannot be used to product human behaviour, or delineate the impact of the media on thesociety. This paradigm concentrates chiefly on media effects. These effects are difficult tomeasure, quantify, and analyse whereas the paradigm has defined quantitative researchasone of its primary engines (according to McQuail).

5.9.9.2 CRITIQUE OF THE DOMINANT PARADIGM: LATEST VIEWS

Researchers have given the following critical comments in the context of the efficacy andsuccess of this paradigm (students can use these for the purpose of examination):

(A) It has a linear model effect and general mechanisms (Mills).

(B) The market and military affect demands on research and the media (Mills).

(C) The interpretations of research findings about media effects and audience motivationsaretoo hyperbolic to be believed (Gitlin).

(D) The ideology of society is liberal-pluralist in this paradigm; the same has not beenacknowledged (Hall).

(E) The technology has potentially de-humanising effects (Carey).

(F) The highly quantitative and individual-behaviorist methodologies and the prevailingscientism of research and theory are not acceptable (Smythe).

(H) The neglect of vast realms of culture and human experience by communication research is

another issue to be dealt with (Carey). The aforementioned views were given by Denis McQuail in

his book Mass Communication Theory.

5.9.10 THE ALTERNATIVE PARADIGM


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This paradigm balances the Dominant Paradigm. It views society from a different angle. Hence, itdoes not digest the prevailing liberal-capitalist concept. It also does not lend support to rational-cakulative utilitarian model of social life. The Alternative Paradigm is not a worked out model ofan ideal social set-up. However, its glaring feature is the rejection of pluralism and conservativefunctionalism. The mass media were criticised because of their commercial, immoral, andmonopolistic features. They were also censured due to their falsity. They were studied from a


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Communication and Theories of Social Change

5.43

different perspective under the Alternative Paradigm. Marxism was one such perspective, thoughits form was changed to study the mass media under this paradigm. The origin of the paradigmwas the Frankfurt School where researchers propounded an alternative view of the Dominant

Commercial Mass Culture. These scholars viewed the mass communication process asmanipulative and oppressive. They provided a strong basis for the study of mass communicationas a manipulative process. After the researchers of the Frankfurt School, C Wright Mills did somework during the fifties of the last century. He broke the feel-good cover of pluralist control. Hedescribed the media of the post-War USA as one powerful tool of an interlocked power elite (andas the means of inducing total conformity to the State and economic order).

The Alternative Paradigm:

(a) has a critical view of society and rejection of value neutrality as its mainstay;

(b) rejects the transmission model of communication, which is held supreme by the Dominant

Paradigm;

(c) uses cultural and qualitative methodology;(d) has a preference for cultural or political-economic theories;

(e) addresses the inequality and sources of opposition in the society; and

(f) has a non-deterministic view of media technology and messages.

The Dominant Paradigm was reigning supreme in Europe up to the mid-sixties. The Alternative

Paradigm probably took roots during the early seventies.

The major components of this paradigm are as follows:

(A) The ideology of media content has allowed researchers to decode the ideological

messages of mass-mediated entertainment as well as news. This concept gives legitimacy topower structures and dilutes opposition. (B) The ideology of fixed meanings in media contentthat leads to a measurable impact has also been defied. In place of this ideology, the conceptof construction and transmission of socially relevant messages has been promoted. Theambitions and interests of receivers have been kept at a high platform. This ideology is asubstitute of the ideology of an obstinate audience that was discovered during the course ofempirical media effects

research. The mass media firms have been re-examined under the Alternative Paradigm.Their structures have been scrutinised at national and global levels. Their operational strategieshave been put under a sharp focus by researchers, who aver that such strategies are far fromneutral or non-ideological. The domination effect has been studied in the context of effects on theyouth, alternative sub-cultures, gender, and ethnicity. Such changes have been matched by a shift

to more qualitative research in the fields of culture, discourse or ethnography of usage of themass media. This has led to new alternative paths to knowledge. This has also helped researchersreconnect the missing links with sociological theory of symbolic interactionism (Jansen andJankowski). Due to changes in technology, communication relations between First World nationsand Third World nations have changed considerably. Hence, researchers are taking a fresh look atthe entire gamut of mass communication. The Alternative Paradigm does not view the exchangeof messages between these two worlds as a transfer of development and democracy to the ThirdWorld nations from the First World nations. This paradigm has also changed or forced to changethe previous thinking about media effects. This has happened because researchers are no longer


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keen to accept the unidirectional mass communication model as the de facto guide for effectingchange.


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This paradigm is not merely the opposition to the mechanistic and applied view of

communicaticr. Rather, it is complementary to and an alternative of the Dominant Paradigm. It

has followed a different route to address the issues of change through communication. The

major points orrs agenda are as follows:

(A) To engage critically with the political and economic activities of the media.

(B) To understand the language/meanings of the media and media culture.(C) To discover how meaning is created by groups of diverse social and cultural backgrounds

(D) To explore the meanings of the practices of usage of the mass media.

All these four main points have one guiding spiritsocio-cultural experiences and media

experiences are intertwined and interacting with each other.

Sub voce

(1) COMPARISON OF THE DOMINANT PARADIGM AND ALTERNATIVE PARADIGM

The following vital comparisons were done by Denis McQuail:

(1) The practitioners of the Dominant Paradigm never supported it. Rather, it was the theory that was

put forth by its own critics. It was never a cohesive whole, though its creators used scientificmethods to explain its various components. On the other hand, the Alternative Paradigm is slightlymore unified. It is slightly self-proclaimed too.

(2) Just like the Dominant Paradigm is fading into the oblivion, the Alternative Paradigm is also likely tomeet its end (if its intellectual bases shift or break up). This paradigm was held in its place by itscommitment to the concept of just and equal society. Its tenets were opposite to those of capitalists,communists, and kingdoms. It has revised the mass society theory repeatedly to remain in force.The communist block has ended its reign. The political ideologies of the present time have becomediffusive after the fall of the communist block (the erstwhile USSR). Gitlin has concluded that in thepost-modern thinking has also led to the weakening of the political ideology. Further, the installationof a free-market system has also led to the weakening of political ideology. Thus, the diffusion ofcritical spirit in diverse directions due to the fall of the communist block and the rise of the freemarket system has made it dynamic but fragile. Hence, it would also be replaced by a newparadigm in the times to come. The mass society theory is being revised on a continuous basis.Hence, what is valid point in the Alternative Paradigm may not be valid in the next decade, becausethe mass society theory would alter the contexts, goal sets, and ambitions of the targeted societiesthat it aims to affect and change.

(2) THE DIFFUSION MODEL OF ROGERS

This model was propounded by Evrette M Rogers in (Circa) 1986. In fact, it is not a model but a

communication theory. However, we are accepting it as a full-fledged model due to i ts rationale and

effectiveness. It is a part of the Modernisation Paradigm; Servaes has referred to it while discussing the

Modernisation Paradigm.

Rogers states that the role of communication was to:

(a) transfer technological innovations from development agencies to their clients; and

(b) create an appetite for change through raising a climate for modernisation among the members of

the public.

Hence, the concept propounded by Rogers was in tune with the Modernisation Paradigm. Thisparadigm referred to such development agencies (mentioned by Rogers in the aforementionedtext) as the ones belonging to the West. From the viewpoint of the Dependency Paradigm, suchdevelopment agencies had to be indigenous (local). However, the role, in both the paradigms(Modernisation and Dependency) was that of an elitist vertical (top-down) process. In thediffusion model, the emphasis is on persuasion of the masses. The concept of informationexchange is missing; it is the USP of the Participatory Model.


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Tv and Development