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TE

662

.A3

no.FHWA-

RD-72-15

leport

No.

FHWA-RD-72-15

Tunnel

Ventilation and

Air

Pollution Treatment

S.

J.

Rodgers,

F.

Roehlich, Jr.,

and C.

A. Palladino

Mine Safety

Appliance

Research Corporation

Evans

City,

Pennsylvania

16033

DEPARTMENT

OF

TRANSPORT

OCT

2

-

197Z

LIBRARY

4

*r5

ov

June

30,

1970

This document is available

to the

public

through the

National

Technical

Information

Service,

Springfield,

Virginia

22151.

Prepared for

FEDERAL

HIGHWAY

ADMINISTRATION

Office

of Research

Washington,

D.C.

20590



NOTICE

This document

is

disseminated

under the sponsorship

of

the Department

of Transportation in the interest

of

information exchange. The United

States

Government

assumes no

liability for its contents

or

use

thereof.

The

contents

of this report

reflect

the

views of the

contracting

organization,

which is responsible

for

the

facts

and

the accuracy

of

the data presented

herein. The

contents

do

not

necessarily

reflect

the

official views

or policy of the

Department

of

Transportation.

This

report does not

constitute a

standard,

specification, or

regulation.



TE

u.S.

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\{\Jnv+*y

Aolm.'n.'str^^n.

•;

^

department

o

TRANSPORTATI

ECHNICAL REPORT

tTANTD^

T$T CE

l|Q(

.-/r

1.

Report

No.

FHWA-RD-72-15,

2.

Government

Accession

No.

3. Recipient's

CataloglNo.

LIBRARY

4. Title

and

Subtitle

\s *

Tunnel Ventilation and Air Pollution

Treatment

5.

Report

Dote

QctOl

Date

of

Preparation

6.

Performing

Organization

Code

7.

Author's)

Sheridan

J.

Rodgers

,

Ferdinand

Roehlich,

Jr.,

Cataldo

A.

Palladino

8.

Performing Organization Report

No.

MSAR-71-187

9.

Performing

Organization

Name

and

Address

Mine Safety Appliance Research

Corporation

Evans.

City,

Pennsylvania

16033

10.

Work

Unit

No.

FCP

33F3012

11.

Contract

or

Grant No.

FH-ll-7597

12.

Sponsoring

Agency Name

and

Address

U.S.

Department of Transportation

Federal

Highway

Administration

Washington,

D.

C.

20590

13. Type

of

Report

and

Period

Covered

Final

Report

June

30,

1970

14.

Sponsoring Agency Code

Ab

2980

15.

Supplementary

Notes

16.

Abstract

The dangers

such

as

harmful

physiological

effects

and nuisances

for various

tunnel air impurities for

occupants

were

usually negligible,

especially because

of

limited

exposure periods. Only

carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons,

nitrogen

oxides, and

particulates

pose

any significant problems.

From

the

foregoing

analysis, standards

of American Conference

of

Government

and

Industrial

Hygienists,

Federal

ambient

air

and

occupational

safety

and

health

regulations, and tunnel

occupancy,

tentative limits

include:

Safety

for

Unmanned

Tunnels

Carbon

Monoxide

500

ppm

Nitric

Oxide

37.5 ppm

Nitrogen Dioxide

•

5

ppm

Particulates

lOmg/meter

A

computer

program

was

developed

and

validated to predict

various

significant air

contaminants.

Instrumentation

to monitor

tunnel air quality was proposed.

Treatments

of

tunnel

air

for

either

discharge to

the

surroundings or

recycling

were

examined.

Economic

and

processing

constraints

such as dilute

concentrations were

probed.

Limited

laboratory

tests

were

conducted. Removal

of carbon

monoxide

appears

to be

impractical.

Adsorption of

nitrogen dioxide

and

more

noxious

hydrocarbons by

activa-

ted

carbon showed

promise.

Particulates

can be largely removed

by

electrostatic

precipitation,

filtration,

and

wet scrubbing.

17.

Keywords

TnTinel

f

Mr

pollutants

Ventilation

Instrumentation,

Air Purifica'

tion,

Air

Quality

Standards

18.

Distribution

Statement

Availability

unlimited.

The

public can

obtain this

document

through

the

National

Technical

Information

Service,

Springfield,

Virginia

22151.

19.

Security

Classif.

(of

this

report)

Unclassified

20. Security

Classif.

(of

this

page)

Unclassified

21.

No.

of Pages

267

22.

Price

Form

DOT

F

1700.7

<s-69)





ABSTRACT

This

study,

funded

by

the

Department

of

Trans-

portation,

Federal

Highway

Administration,

was

aimed at

evaluating

current

air

quality

in

existing

tunnels

and

determining

means

of upgrading air

quality

in

existing

and

future

tunnels.

The study

consisted

of six

phases:

1.

Identify

the types

and

quantities

of

impurities

in

vehicular

tunnels.

2. Evaluate

the

physiological

effects

of these

impurities

on

tunnel workers

and

transients.

3.

Establish air quality criteria

for

vehicular

tunnels.

4.

Determine available

methods for

improving

air

quality

in

vehicular

tunnels.

5.

Perform

laboratory

tests

to

demon-

strate the

applicability of

selected

purification procedures.

6.

Recommend

instrumentation

for

vehicular tunnels.

Phase

1

consisted primarily

of a literature

survey

of

past

tunnel

studies

as

well

as

vehicle

emission

rates

as a

function

of various

driving

modes.

Those

of

major

concern are

CO, N0

X

,

HC and particulates.

A

computer

program

was

developed

which

adequately

predicts

the

concen-

tration

of various

impurities

as a

function of driving

mode

and ventilation

rates.

Some

on-site

sampling

was

performed

to

verify the validity of

the computer program.

Phase 2 involved

a survey

of

the

literature to

determine

both

short term and

long term

effects

on

humans

exposed to

specific

tunnel impurities.

These effects

were

considered

in

terms

of

both safe levels

and

comfort

levels

with respect

to

tunnel

employees and tunnel

transients.

The work

of Phase 3 evolved

as

a

result

of the

findings

in

Phase

2.

Criteria for tunnel impurity

levels

were

established

with the basic

guidelines

being

the

Recommended

Levels

of

the

American

Conference

of

Governmental



Industrial Hygienists, the

EPA

standards

as

set forth

1n

the

Federal

Register

and other

references

on the

effects

of

air

impurities

on

safety

and

comfort.

Phase

4

involved

a

review

of

current

literature

on

methods

and

procedures

for

purification

of

contaminated

atmospheres. Typical purification

systems

which

were

reviewed

included

catalytic combustion,

adsorption,

absorp-

tion, wet scrubbing and

electrostatic

precipitation.

These

methods

were

considered within

the

constraints

imposed

by

tunnel

atmospheres

(i.e.,

low

impurity levels and

large

gas

volumes). An

economic evaluation

of

selected

systems

was

made.

Phase

5

reguired

laboratory

evaluation

of

the

most promising methods

of

tunnel

atmosphere

purification.

Small

scale testing was

performed

in

a

chamber

containing

actual automobile

exhaust

gases.

Parameters

which were

studied included temperature,

space velocity,

residence

time and

so

on.

Hopcalite

at

225°F

to

250°F

reduced

the

CO

to

zero.

Activated

carbon

proved

to

be

effective

in

the

removal

of

NO2

and

heavy

hydrocarbons.

Phase

6 reguired

the

recommendation

of

impurity

monitors

which should

be used

in

tunnels.

For tunnels

where

the air

guality

is

maintained

by

ventilation,

the recommen-

dation

was made

that

CO

continued to

be

monitored

and used

as

the

primary

indicator

of

tunnel

ventilation

rates.

It

was also

recommended

that

smoke meters

be

installed

in

tunnels, particularly

those which have heavy

diesel

traffic.



TABLE

OF

CONTENTS

Page

No

INTRODUCTION

1

RESULTS

OF THE

PROGRAM

3

Identification

of Types

and Quantities

of

Impurities

in

Vehicular

Tunnels

3

Literature

Survey

3

Computer

Model

21

Emission

Rates

for

CO, H-C, N0

X

and

Particulates

38

Verification

of Computer Model

45

PHYSIOLOGICAL

EFFECTS OF

TUNNEL

CONTAMINANTS 69

Contaminants

Which

Have

Been Found

in

Tunnel

Atmospheres

69

Selected

Contaminant

Levels

for

Vehicular

Tunnels

72

Specific

Limits

for

Manned

Tunnels

72

Unmanned Tunnels

76

Summary

of Recommended Levels

79

EVALUATION

OF

POLLUTANT

REMOVAL

METHODS 81

State of

the

Art

-

Applicable

Control

Technology 81

Applicable

Tunnel

Pollution

Control

Technology

83

Carbon

Monoxide and

Hydrocarbons

84

Catalytic Oxidation

87

Thermal

Afterburning 93

Adsorption

94

Wet Scrubbing

97

Nitrogen Oxides

101

Source

Control 105

Particulates

108

Tunnel

Pollution Control

-

Feasibility

and

•Economic Evaluation 113

Tunnel

Pollution

Control

Strategies

116

Exhaust Emission

Projections

119

Tunnel

Air

Treatment:

Problem Statement

125

Tunnel Ventilation

Costs

130

Process Feasibility: CO

and

Hydrocarbons

134

Process Feasibility:

Hydrocarbons

139

Process Feasibility: Particulates

143

Process Feasibility: Water

Solubles

150

General

Feasibility:

Recycle

&

Compart-

mentali

zation

151

iii



TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

Conclusions

of Alternative Control

Technologies

Selection

of

Control

Techniques

to be

Evaluated

General Discussion

Carbon

Monoxide

Removal

Systems

Hydrocarbons

Oxides of

Nitrogen

Particul

ates

Purification

Test

System

Run No.

1

-

Blank

Run

No.

2

-

Cold

Hopcalite

Run No.

3

-

Activated Carbon

Run

No.

4

-

Purafil

Run No.

5

-

Hot Hopcalite

Run

No.

6

-

Silica

Gel

-Hopcal

i

te

Run

No.

7

-

Hopcalite

Runs

8

and

9

-

Filter Media

Run

No. 10

-

Mn02-Cu0

Run No.

11

-

Charcoal Plus Hopcalite

Run

No.

12

-

Charcoal

Plus

Moisture

Tolerant

Hopcal

i

te

Purification

Systems

for

Tunnels

TUNNEL INSTRUMENTATION

171

Carbon

Monoxide

'

Smoke

or

Haze

Other Monitors

Hydrocarbons

Nitrogen

Oxides

Total

Aldehydes

Carbon

Dioxide

and

Recommendations

for

Tunnel

CONCLUSIONS

177

REFERENCES

181

BIBLIOGRAPHY

191

A.

Specific

Tunnel

Studies 191

B.

General

Tunnel

Studies

192

C.

Emission Rates

194

D.

Traffic

Surveys

and Studies

197

E.

Ventilation

Requirements

and

Equipment 199

F.

Physiological

Effects

201

G.

Emission

Control

204

H. Pollutant

Monitoring

205

Page

No.

155

158

158

159

159

159

160

160

162

164

164

166

166

166

167

167

167

167

168

168

171

173

174

174

174

174

Oxygen 174

Instrumentation 174



TABLE

OF

CONTENTS

(Continued)

Page No.

APPENDIX

I

-

Final

Report

- IHF

209

APPENDIX

II

-

Pollutant

Removal Proceas

Calculations

241

from

Final

Report

—

Patent Development

Associates,

Inc.







LIST OF

ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued)

Figure

No.

14

Page

No

Multiplication

Factor

for

Gradient

G

Increases

For

oiesels

31

decrease/

15 CO Emission

at

5500 Ft.

Compared

with

That at

500

ft.

32

16

Ventilation Rates

and Roadway

Gradient

for

Baltimore

Harbor-East

Tube

47

17

Actual Trace

of

CO Monitor

Readings

in

The

Baltimore

Harbor

Tunnel

48

18 Computer

Predicted

CO

Profile-Baltimore

Harbor

Tunnel-East Tube

50

19

Calculated

and

Actual

CO

Concentration

For

Baltimore Harbor

Tunnel-East

Tube 51

20 Ventilation Rates

and

Roadway

Gradient

For

Allegheny-North Tube 53

21

Computed

Traffic

Conditions

for

Armstrong

Mountain Tunnel 54

22 Carbon Monoxide Profile

Lincoln

Tunnel-

North Tube 56

23

Actual and Calculated

CO

Values for

the

Lincoln Tunnel-North

Tube

57

24

Actual and

Calculated CO Values for the

Lincoln Tunnel

-Center

Tube

59

25

Actual

and

Calculated CO Values

for the

Lincoln

Tunnel-2

Way

Traffic

60

26

Carbon Monoxide

Profile of

Fort

Pitt

Tunnel-West

Tube

62

27 Measure of CO

Values for

the Naturally

Ventilated

Armstrong

Tunnel

67

28

Schematic

Diagram Proposed

by Sir Bruce

White 82

29

Emissions

of Carbon Monoxide

vs.

Vehicle

Speed 117

VI

i



LIST

OF

ILLUSTRATIONS

(Continued)

Figure

No.

30 Projected Average

Exhaust

Emissions,

Period

1970-1980

31

Automotive

Exhaust

Purification

Test

Chamber

32 Removal

of

Hydrocarbons

by

Activated

Carbon

33 Effect of Catalyst

Temperature on CO

Concentration

Page

No

126

161

165

169

1

x





LIST

OF TABLES

Table No.

Page

No.

1

Suspended

Particulate

Parameters

in

Sumner Tunnel

Outlet

and

Inlet

Air, Sept.

14-20,

1961

10

2

Comparison

of Mean

Concentrations

of

Particulate

Pollutants at

Sumner Tunnel

as

Two-Way

Tunnel,

Sept.

14-20,

1961

With

Operation as

One-Way

Tunnel

April

20-28,

1963

12

3 Results

of

Tunnel

Experiments, Summer

1958

15

4

Pollution in Blackwall

Tunnel, May

14,

1959

16

5

Average

Annual

Amounts

of

Smoke and

7

Polycyclic Hydrocarbons Per

1000

Cubic Meters

of

Air

at the

Mersey

Tunnel 17

6

Average

Annual

Amounts

of

Selected

Impurities

at

the

Mersey Tunnel 18

7

Exhaust Gas

Emission

Rates (ft^/min

25

8

Carbon

Monoxide Production

as

a

Function

of

Carburetor Adjustment

(Cubic Feet

CO

per Foot

of

Travel

26

9 CO

Emissions

Reported

in Reference

22

Emission

Rate gm CO/veh-mi

40

10

Grams

of

Pollutant

Emitted

per

Mile

For

Fixed

Mode

of

Operation

(gm/veh-mi)

41

11

Carbon

Monoxide

Emission, gm

CO/Vehicle-

Mi. 42

12

Analysis of Material

Collected

From

Ventilation Building

of

The

Fort Pitt

Tunnel

63

13

Fort Pitt

Tunnel

Test Data

April

7,

1971 65

14

Measured

Tunnel

Contaminants

70

XI



LIST

OF

TABLES

(Continued)

Table No.

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

TLV

and

STL

for Selected

Pollutants

Tentative

Pollution Levels

for

Tunnels

Comparative

Process

Capabilities

Combustion-Related

Vehicular Emissions

Removal Process Summary Catalytic

Oxidati on

Scrubber Capabilities (Imperato)

Results of

a

Typical Analysis

of

Automobile

Exhaust

Gases

Simplified

Reaction Scheme for

Photo-

cehmical Smog

Suspended Particulate

Parameters

in Sumner

Tunnel Outlet and Inlet

Air,

Sept.

14-20,

1961

National Air Quality

Standards Proposed

by EPA

Primary

Standards

Exhaust Emission

Standards and

Goals

Automobile

Longevity

Tunnel Pollutant

Loadings

Preliminary

Single-Pollutant

Optimum

Process Indication

Estimated

1970 Tunnel Ventilation Blower

Capital Costs

as

Function

of

Head

Regui

rement

Operating

Costs of

Tunnel

Ventilation

Blower as Function of

Head Reguirement

Summary

of

Catalytic Oxidation

Costs

Spray

Holdup

Time

&

Chamber

Volume

as

Function

of

Dust

Particulate

Size

Page

No.

77

79

85

86

89,90

98

103

104

110

120

122

124

127

129

132

133

139

148

xii



Table

No.

33

34

35

36

LIST

OF

TABLES

(Continued)

Influence

of Recycle on

CO

Concen-

trate on

Process

Cost and Feasibility

Summary

Summary of Purification

Systems

Application of

Continuous

Monitoring

Instruments to

Tunnel Atmospheres

Page

No

154

156

163

172

x i i i





INTRODUCTION

This is

the

final report

on

Contract

FH

11-7597

with the

U. S.

Department

of

Transportation,

Federal

Highway

Administration. The

work

which covered

Tunnel

Ventilation

and

Air

Pollution

Treatment was

performed

by

MSA

Research

Corporation

and

covered a

period

of

16 months.

The

basic

objectives

of

the

program

were

to

identify

the

impurities

and

the

level

of

these

impurities

in

vehicular tunnels,

establish

the

toxicity

levels

of these

impurities

and rec-

ommend

desirable

time-concentration

limits

for

the

Impurities,

determine and

test

applicable processes

for

removal

of

the

impurities,

and recommend

air pollution

monitoring

devices

for

tunnels.

The

work

statement

as

presented

in

the contract

is

quoted below:

The

contractor

shall

furnish

the

necessary facilities,

materials,

personnel

and

such

other services as may

be

re-

quired,

and

in consultation

with the

Government,

conduct

a

research and

development

project

entitled

Tunnel

Ventilation

and

Air

Pollution

Treatment.

The

contractor shall

direct

its

best

efforts

toward

achieve-

ment

of

the

program

objective

to

the

extent

that

time and

funds

are

provided.

The

objective

is

to

conduct

research

on

the feasibility of

removing

impurities from

the

air with-

in

vehicular

tunnels

and

to

maintain

a

purity level

so as to

relieve

the

discomfort

and

eliminate

the

dangers

to

the

traveling

public without

exhausting vitiated

air to

surround-

ing

areas.

To

fulfill

the above

objective,

the contractor shall obtain

through comprehensive

literature

surveys and

other

sources,

pertinent

information and

analyze this material to:

Recognized

variables

include

traffic

conditions

and

vehicle

mix

under

various

circumstances such

as

speed,

load

and,

fuel

type-,

road conditions

including gradient,

pavements,

and

elevation

above

mean

sea

level;

and

atmospheric

conditions

such

as

ambient

temperature

and

winds

at

portals.



3.

Establish

criteria for

desirable

and allowable time-

concentration

limits

of

the

pertinent

impurities

for

the

maintenance

of

a

safe

and

comfortable

tunnel atmosphere for

various

conditions and with due

consideration to

operating

personnel

as

well

as the

traveling public.

Reasoning

be-

hind

the

criteria

shall be

formulated.

4.

Determine available

methods,

processes,

and mechanisms

for removing contaminants

from

the

tunnel

air

which may

in-

clude

but

not

be

limited

to cooling,

scrubbing,

electro-

static precipitation,

and deacidi fi

cation. The interplay

of

natural

additions

and flow,

vehicle

induced

air

movement,

internal

ventilation

patterns,

and

exhausting

to

the

atmos-

phere

shall

be

considered.

Physical feasibility of

the

systems

including

power,

space,

and

disposal problems

shall

be

included

in

the

analyses. Cost

effectiveness,

and

other

economic

factors

will be involved

in

arriving at

practical

and

practicable

systems

for various tunnel

conditions.

5. Investigate and

establish the adequacy,

practicability,

reliability,

and

costing

of

available air pollution

gauges

and

detection devices

(and

systems

of

these)

in the tunnel

environment.

The local

concentrations

as

well

as

the

large

scale

concentrations

of

pollutants

shall

be

subject

to

me

asurement.

6.

Perform

laboratory tests

as

required

to demonstrate

the

applicability

of chosen clean

up

procedures.

This phase

of

the

work

must be carefully

considered

so

that

unnecessary

work

is

not

expended.

Two

subcontractors

were

used in

the

performance

of

the

program.

The

Industrial

Health

Foundation

of

Pittsburgh

Pennsylvania contributed in evaluating

the

physiological

effect

of

tunnel impurities. Patent

Development

Associates,

Inc.

of

Glenshaw, Pennsylvania

reviewed current

impurity

control

technology and

performed

feasibility

and

economic

evaluations

of

the

current

technology.



RESULTS

OF THE

PROGRAM

This section presents

the

results

of

the various

phases

of the

program.

One

of the

more

difficult

tasks

was

to

recommend

desirable

time-concentration

limits for vehicular

tunnels.

These recommendations

were to

cover

three

general

categories

-

safe

levels

for

tunnel

personnel

(Maintenance

men

or

police

officers)

who would

spend

hours

per

day

1n a

tunnel,

safe

levels for

transient

users

who

would

spend

5-

15 minutes In

a

tunnel

and comfort levels

for

the

transient

users.

Identification of

Types and

Quantities

of Impurities

in

Vehicular Tunnels

Literature Survey

-

All artificially ventilated

tunnels

have

instrumentation

for continuous

monitoring

of

CO.

In

almost

every

case,

the

type

of

instrument

which is

used

to

monitor

CO 1n

vehicular

tunnels

is

the

Hopcallte

type

where the

change

1n

temperature

due

to

the

heat

of

catalytic

oxidation

of CO

can

be

related to

the

CO concen-

tration

in

the

air

samples.

Although

a

wealth

of data

exists

on

CO

concentration

as

a result

of

this continuous

monitoring,

it is

difficult

to relate the CO

concentration

to

the

traffic

density,

type

of

vehicles

(gasoline or

diesel),

vehicle

velocity

and

so on

since these

parameters

are

not

routinely

measured.

Furthermore, the

monitoring

systems

1n

tunnels

measure

only

CO, while this

program

is

directed

toward

establishing

typical concentration

values

for other Im-

purities which

are

present

1n

vehicular

tunnels.

One

addi-

tional

shortcoming to

this

Information is

that

1t

represents

point

concentrations

either

at the

site of

the

analyzer

or

an

average concentration for

a

complete tunnel section

when

the

monitoring station

is

located

1n

a

ventilation duct.

A

number of studies have

been

made on

the

concen-

tration

of

impurities other

than CO

1n

vehicular tunnels.

Some

studies

have been devoted

to

measuring the complete

CO

profile

throughout the

length of

a

tunnel. These

studies

were

helpful

1n

trying

to

determine

typical

and

maximum

values

of

Impurities

in

tunnels,

but

again

1n

many

cases

the

studies failed

to present

real

time

data on

traffic

patterns

and ventilation

rates.

Two

studies

were

made

on

the

1.1 mile

long Sumner

Tunnel

in

Boston, Massachusetts.

The

first study was

made

in

196l(U

when

the Sumner

Tunnel

was

a

single tube

carrying

two way

traffic. .A

second study on the

Sumner

Tunnel

was

performed

in

1963(2)

when a

sister tunnel,

the Callahan

Tunnel

was

opened and

the

Sumner

Tunnel

was

converted

to



a

two

lane,

one way

traffic pattern.

The

Sumner

Tunnel

has

intake and

exhaust

fans located

at

both

the Boston

and

East

Boston ventilation

buildings.

The

ventilation

rate

ranged from

73,000

cfm to

613,000 cfm.

using

t

vehi

cle

maximum

and

eve

plot

of

day,

we

to

Sept

tration

time,

week of

August

during

closed

the

amo

equatio

During

he

tunnel

flow

was

flow

was

ning

rush

traffic

ekend and

ember

20,

in

the t

Figure

3

Septembe

2,

1961.

the study

system

an

unt

of

po

n:

the

f

was

a

200

v

2,200

hours

flow

v

weekl

1961.

unnel

shows

r

14-2

The

h

was

2

d

thus

llutio

i

rs

t

s

bout

3

ehi cle

vehic

(8

A.

ersus

y

aver

Figu

exhaus

the

pe

0,

196

ighest

56

ppm

offer

n emit

tudy,

5,000

s

per

les

pe

M.

and

time

o

age

fo

re

2

s

t

stac

ak CO

1

as

w

insta

.

The

s

the

ted

pe

the num

per

day

hour

at

r

hour

4

P.M.

f

day

f

r

the

w

hows

th

k

for t

concent

ell

as

ntaneou

tunnel

opportu

r

vehic

ber of ve

The

mi

5

A.M.

a

during

th

).

Figur

or

a

typi

eek

of Se

e

mean

CO

he same

p

ration fo

the

week

s

peak

co

is

essen

nity

to

d

le

mi

le u

hi

cles

nlmum

nd the

e

morning

e

1 is

a

cal

week-

ptember

14

concen-

eriod

of

r

the

of July

27-

ncentration

tlally a

etermine

sing the

Amount

measured

=

(Outlet

cone.

-

Inlet

cone.

)(Vo1ume

of

ventilation

air) /i

\

(No.

of

veh1cles)(0.55

mile

of

tunnel

length)

*

'

The

term 0.55 mile

was

used

since only half of the tunnel

served by

the

Boston ventilation

building

was used

in the

calculation. From

1

A.M.

to

5

A.M.

the

calculated

emission

rate for

CO

was 35

gm

per

vehicle

mile.

During

the

remainder

of the

day,

the

values for

emission rate were

approximately

twice

this

value.

The

higher

rate

is

due

to

the effect

of

traffic

modes,

varying periods

of

idle,

acceleration

and

deceleration

as

a

result of

traffic

tie-ups.

The mean soiling

index

was

measured, also,

and is

shown in

Figure

4.

The

highest mean coefficient

of haze

and

smoke

(Cons) per

1000

feet

of

air was

6.5

Cohs.

In

Allegheny

County,

Pennsylvania

the

following

classifications

are

used

for

soiling

index:(3)

0-1.0

Cons/1000

ft

1.0-2.0

Cohs/1000 ft

2.0-3.0 Cohs/1000

ft

3.0-4.0

Cohs/1000

ft

slight pollution

moderate

pollution

heavy

pollution

very

heavy

pollution

Thus,

in terms

of

this arbitrary

assignment

of pollution

values,

the 6.5 Cohs/1000

ft

measured

in the

Sumner

Tunnel

would

correspond

to

very

heavy

pollution.

Suspended

particulates were

measured over a

sampling

period

of

8

hrs

with the

maximum

concentration

being observed

during

the period from

9 A.M.

to

3

P.M.

The

total

particulate



3000

uj

2000

1000

1

1

I

i

i

.A

A

f\ k

/

\ \

J

f\\\

.Â

—

\\\syi

v

WEEKDAY

—

,

.r--v\

l/s.

\

y.\

i

1

\

r

1

**zzf

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WEEK—

5

/

If

s

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^—WEEKEND

v~\

r

1

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*\

^ 1

/

*

\*S\

*

^v

Jl

v

s*

1

V

i

i

1 1

12

HOUR

OF

DAY

IS

20

24

FIGURE

1

-

MEAN

HOURLY TRAFFIC

FLOW

THROUGH

SUMNER

TUNNEL,

BY

TIME

AND

TYPE

OF

DAY, SEPT.

14-20, 1961



12

HOUR

OF

DAY

16

J

?0 2»

FIGURE

2

-

MEAN CARBON MONOXIDE CONCENTRATION IN

SUMNER

TUNNEL

BY

TIME

AND

TYPE

OF DAY,

SEPT. 14-20, 1961



300

SEPTEMBER

14-20

A

7

£Vv

JULY 27-AUGUST 2

\

'

20

24

HOUR OF DAY

FIGURE

3

-

PEAK CARBON

MONOXIDE CONCENTRATION

IN

SUMNER

TUNNEL,

BY

TIME

OF DAY, JULY

AND

SEPTEMBER 1961



if

^

TUNNEL

CENTER

x

--

—

TUNNEL

OUTLET AIR

—

\

HOUR

OF

DAY

FIGURE

4

-

MEAN

SOILING

INDEX

AT

SUMNER

TUNNEL

STATIONS

ON

WEEK

DAYS,

BY

TIME

OF

DAY,

SEPT.

14-20,

1961

8



conce

solub

mg/m3

for

7

The

b

metal

cern

1

11s

Using

ticul

(0.16

ntrati

le

mat

)

of

t

.5%

(.

alance

s

othe

due

to

ts

the

equat

ates

(

gm/ve

on

durtn

erial

(o

he

total

045 mg/m

of the

r

than 1

its

tox

composi

ion

(1)

0.36 gm/

hide mi

g

that

rganic

parti

3

)

of.

parti c

ead.

icity,

tion

o

emissi

vehicl

le)

an

peri

s)

ac

culat

the

t

ulate

Cadmi

was

f

the

on

ra

e

mi

1

d

lea

od

wa

count

e inv

otal

s

wer

urn,

a

qui te

coll

tes

w

e)

, o

d

(0.

ere

calculated for

par-

rganic particulates

031 gm/vehicle

mile).

of

6 samp

study was

two

lane,

daily

tra

nif

icant

was

attri

mode

and

5 shows

t

Mean

morn

ranged

fr

centratio

showing

3

two

way

t

centratio

The secon

ling stati

made afte

one

way

t

ffic

densi

decrease i

buted

to

o

a

decrease

he CO

cone

ing

rush

h

om

100-120

n

was

^90

.5

Cohs fo

raffic. T

n

for

the

d

Sumne

ons thr

r the

t

raffic

ty

of

2

n impur

peratio

of

36%

entrati

our

con

ppm

CO

ppm

CO.

r

one

w

able

2

two mod

r

Tunn

oughou

unnel

c

o

n

f i

g

2,000

ity

le

n

of

t

i

n

mo

on

as

centra

,

whil

The

ay tra

compar

es

of

el stu

t

the

had

be

uratio

vehicl

vel

s

w

he

tun

tor ve

a

f

unc

tions

e

the

s

o i 1 i

n

ffic

v

es

the

traffi

dy

in

tunne

en

co

n

wi

t

es

pe

as

no

nel

i

hide

tion

for

t

one w

g

ind

ersus

mean

c.

volve

1.(2)

nvert

h

an

r

day

ted

;

n a

o

traf

of ti

he

ay

ex

6

tw

mo

wa

5

part

d

a

total

This

ed to

a

average

.

A

sig-

the

decrease

ne

way

traffic

fie.

Figure

me of

day.

o way

mode

de

mean con-

s

also

lower

Cohs for

iculate

con-

Additional

pollutants including SO2,

N0«,

aldehydes

and

NO

were

measured

during

the

second

study.

The

concen-

trations

of these

impurities

are

shown in

Figure

6.

It

was

concluded

that

automotive exhaust

does

not

contribute

sig-

nificantly

to

the S0

2

content of

tunnel

air.

The

results

showed

that

the

ratio

of NO/NO2

was

approximately 5/1.

Finally,

the

aliphatic

aldehydes ranged from

about

0.01 to

0.1 ppm.

An

early study

on

the

CO and

particulate

levels

in the Holland

Tunnel was performed

by

the

Bureau

of

Mines.

(4)

The

data in

this

report is

probably

of

limited value

due

to

the

difference

in emission

rates from

gasoline

powered

ve-

hicles,

gasoline

composition

and the

number of

diesel

powered

vehicles

of today

compared with the types

of vehicles

in

use

at

that

time. Standard

operating

procedure

at

that

time

was

to

allow

the

CO

concentration

to

rise to

250 ppm with

no

change in

ventilation

rate.

If the

level

remained at

250

ppm

for

longer

than

5

minutes,

then

additional

fans were

acti-

vated. The

authors noted

at

that

time

that

the

CO concen-

tration

was

highest

on

the

upgrade

sections

of the

tunnel.



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LAND

SECTION

BOSTON

HARBOR

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•--'

EAST

BOSTON HARBOR SECTION

••-••EAST

BOSTON

LAND SECTION

K

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8 10 12

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16

18

20

22

24

26

Time of Day

FIGURE 5

-

MEAN CO CONCENTRATION

AT

SUMNER TUNNEL

STATIONS

BY

TIME OF DAY, APRIL

20

THROUGH

28,

1963

11



TABLE

2

-

COMPARISON OF

MEAN

CONCENTRATIONS OF

PARTICULATE

POLLUTANTS

AT SUMNER

TUNNEL

AS

TWO-WAY

TUNNEL,

SEPT.

14-20,

1961

WITH

OPERATION

AS

ONE-WAY TUNNEL

APRIL 20-28,

1963

Concentration,

ug/cu

m

Two

-Way One-Way*

Tunnel Tunnel

Outlet Inlet

Outlet

Inlet

Pollutant Air

Air Air

Air

*36%

decrease in traffic

Total

particulates 588 104

424

86

Benzene-soluble

organic

substances

Sulfates

Nitrates

Lead

225 11

144.2

8.3

29 22 18.1

0.3

2.4 3.4

0.3

0.9

44.5

1.1

9

0.1

12



to

l~

c

CD

o

c

o

o

45

40

35

SO

-

25

20

15

10

-

Station Locations

1

-

toll

booth,

E.

Boston

2

-

1/3

of distance

into

tunnel

3

-

center

of

tunnel

4

-

2/3

of

distance

into

tunnel

5

-

Boston

ventilation

bldg.,

(inlet

air)

6

-

Boston

ventilation bldg.,

(outlet

air)

UJ

o

>-

X

UJ

o

UJ

o

X

o

UJ

o

o

CC

u

<

X

0.

-J

<

UJ

o

X

o

U.

i-J.

-,

*

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2

t/(

o

re

U.

o

to

UJ

o

Xo

li

J

.

23456

123456

123456

Sampling

Stations

12

3456

FIGURE

6

MEAN

DAILY

CONCENTRATION

OF

GASEOUS

POLLUTANTS

IN THE

SUMNER

TUNNEL

BY

SAMPLING

STATIONS,

APRIL

20

THROUGH

28,

1963

13



Work d

emissi

tunnel

CO

per

than t

ticul a

with a

of

the

but

it

that

a

other

S

i

n

g

s

t

motive

1000

v

of 880

370

ft

cfm.

one

by Katz and

Frevert^

5

'

led

to

on

rate

of

10 cu

ft per

car

while

This

would correspond

to

an

em

vehicle mile, a

factor

of

approx

he currently

accepted

average emi

te

concentration

in

the

tunnel

ra

mean particle

diameter

of less

t

particulates

showed

lead

and ars

was

concluded

on

the

basis

of

in

rsenic

was

not

contributed

by

aut

point

of interest in

this

study w

ad's work(6)

on

the

induced

pisto

traffic

in

vehicular tunnels.

S

ehicles

per

hour

produced

longitu

ft/min.

Assuming

a

free

cross-s

2

,

this

is

equivalent to

a

volume

an

estimate

of CO

traversing

the

ission rate

of 220

g

imately 10

higher

ssion rate.

Par-

nged up

to 1

.88

mg/m

3

han 1

micron. Analyses

enic

to

be present,

let

air

concentrations

omotive

exhaust.

One

as

a

reference

to

n

effect of

auto-

ingstad stated that

dinal air velocities

ectional area

of

trie flow of 315,000

Waller,

et

an?) studied the

impurity levels of

the

Blackwall

and

Rotherhithe

Tunnels

in

London during

a

period

of high traffic

density. Table

3

summarizes

the

concentration of

CO,

smoke

and

hydrocarbons which

were

found

in the

two tunnels. Table 4 summarizes

additional

tests

which

were

made

in the Blackwall Tunnel

only and

in-

cludes

lead,

NO

and N0o

in addition

to

the

previously

men-

tioned

contaminants.

it was reported that

the

mass median

diameter

of the smoke

particles

was 1 micron.

Stocks

et

a

W studied

the

concentration of seven

polycyclic hydrocarbons

and 13

trace

metals

in

the Mersey

Tunnel

in

England.

Table

5

shows

the

average

annual

con-

centration

of

smoke and selected hydrocarbons

found in the

Mersey

Tunnel.

Table 6 lists the average

annual

concen-

trations for the 13 metals

which

were analyzed.

fi

cal

Baker

to me

prof i

and

o

tunne

stall

file

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u r

i

n

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i

c a

t

level

the

t

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asure

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ne

ca

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th

g

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unnel

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i

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20



cantly

lower

than

the actual

maximum

in

the tunnel

(290

ppm

CO).

Figure

9

shows

the CO profile of

the

3613

ft

long

Fort

Pitt

Tunnel

durinn

the

early

morning rush hour.

In

this

case,

the

maximum

reading

of the CO

monitor was

150

ppm

CO

while

the

maximum CO

concentration

in

the tunnel was

195

ppm

CO.

Figure

10

is

a

CO

profile of

the Liberty Tunnel

during the evening

rush

hour.

The

Fort Pitt

and

Sguirrel

Hill

Tunnels have a

longitudinal distributive

type of

venti-

lation

while the Liberty

Tunnel

has

a

basic

longitudinal type

of

ventilation.

Specifically,

fresh

air is

drawn

in

through

the entry portal

and

exhausted

at

the

center

for

the

first

half

of

the tunnel,

then

fresh

air is

injected

about

50 ft

beyond the center

and exhausted

through

the exit

portal.

This mode

of ventilation

accounts

for

the

CO

peak

at

the

center of the tunnel

.

Computer Model

-

After havino

reviewed

the pertinent

literature, two

facts

became

obvious. First, the

bulk

of the

work

on

tunnel

impurity

levels

had

been

limited

to

the

measure

ment of

CO,

and second the bulk of the

data which

had been

reported represented averages

over

time

periods

ranging

from

1

hr

to

24 hr

with

little

or no

information

on

ventilation

rates

as

well

as

traffic

density,

traffic

mix,

road

grade

and

so on.

As

a result

of

these deficiencies

in

the studies

which had

been made,

it was

concluded that

a

computer

model

should

be

developed

which

would predict concentration

levels

of

any

exhaust

impurity

at

any

point in

a

tunnel.

The quantity

of

each

component

emitted from

a

particular

vehicle

at

a

specific

time

is

dependent

upon

a

number

of

factors

:

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

Type of engine

(gasoline, diesel,

etc)

Size

of

engine

(displacement, horsepower)

Condition of engine

Type

of

fuel

(octane

rating, additives)

Adjustment

of

carburetor

Driving

mode

-

acceleration

-

rrnuinn

ru

i

si ng

-

idling

-

deceleration

Velocity

Rate

of

acceleration

Road

grade

Elevation

above

sea level

Ambient

temperature and

relati.

Vehicle

load

Condition of

control

devices such

a

valve

and gasoline

tank

vapor suppr

ve humidity

as

PCV

essors



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23



When

considering the

total

pollution generated

within

a

given

tunnel,

the following additional parameters

must be considered:

1.

2.

3.

4.

Vehicle

mix

-

cars,

diesel trucks, busses,

of

each

the

ult

represe

calcula

tunnel

both

fo

and

for

speci

f

c o n d

i

t

i

by

the

p

o 1

1

u

t

i

Du

of

t

imate

n

t

i

n

g

tion

or

pr

r

det

the

c

a

t

i o

ons

a

descr

on

co

ring

th

hese fa

goal

i

any

tu

of poll

oposed

e

rm i n

i n

e

s t a

b

J

i

ns.

(A

ff

ectin

i

ption

ncentra

engi

prop

a ga

carb

wher

Howe

engi

gas

emi

s

vehi

dece

A

nes

are

ortions

sol

ine

on

mono

eas

a

d

ver,

th

ne may

powered

si

ons

o

cle

ope

le

ratio

Ithough

simi

lar

of thes

powered

xide

emi

i

e s e 1

bti

e hydroc

be

seven

automob

f four

e

e early

part

of

the

program an

evaluation

ctors

and

parameters was

initiated

with

n

mind

of

establishing

a

mathematical

model

nnel. Such

a

model would then

enable

ution

levels

expected

in

any

existing

tunnel

and

thereby

serve as

the

basis

g

pollutant removal

system

requirements

shment of pollution

monitoring

system

preliminary summary

of the

study

of

the

g

exhaust emission

is

given

below followed

of

a

computer program for

calculating

tion.

the exhau

to

those

e constit

automobi

tted duri

s may

emi

arbon emi

times

th

i

le.

Tab

xhaust

co

namely

ac

An important

factor in

exhaust

emission

rates

aside from

the

engine

is

the

carburetor.

This

is

particularly

so

with

larger

vehicles

as

illustrated

in

Table

8

which com-

pares

CO

emission

of

cars

and trucks as a

function

of car-

buretor adjustment.

(1

3)

Another

exhaust

factor

is

crankcase

ventilation.

The

control device

introduced

in

1963 reduces

pollution

rates

considerably when it

is in

proper

condition.

The

concentrations of

other exhaust

pollutants

-

nitric

oxide

and

hydrocarbons

as well

as

CO

-

are

influenced by

the fuel/

air

ratio

delivered

to

the

engine

as

shown

in

Figure

11.^4)

24



TABLE 7

-

EXHAUST

GAS

EMISSION RATES

(ft

3

/min)

Mode

Gas

auto

Diesel

bus

Gas auto

Diesel bus

Gas

auto

Diesel

bus

Gas

auto

Diesel

bus

CO

NO*

HC

R-COH

Accel eration Crui

se

Idle Deceleration,

6.000

0.200

0,700

0,080

0,400

0.025

0.400

0.040

0.050

0.400

0.020

0,083

<0.001

0,007

<0.001

0.009

0.016

0.100

0,006

0.030

0.005

0,045

0.024

0.100

0.002

0.008

<0.001

0.003

<0.001

0.001

0.001

0.009

25



TABLE

8

-

CARBON

MONOXIDE PRODUCTION

AS

A

FUNCTION

OF

CARBURETOR ADJUSTMENT

(Cubic Feet CO per Foot of Travel)

Cars Trucks

Adjustment

of 18.8

mi/ 9.4 mi/

5.6

mi/

Carburetor

qal 1 on

r/

qal

Ion

qal 1

on

Good

/.•5

0.000248

H2.\

0.000494

%C.o

0.000829

Average

0.000646

.

S^

0.001292 0,002152

Bad

5*;

-5

0.001033

}7f,&

0.002066

3

5 %

7

0.003358

26



r—

oi

VO

u

cove

<-

cm

c

oo«ott

cm

o

«»»• AM01N3?

yjd

anniOA

-

noiiiimhoo

s*o isnvmo

00

Ul

z

o

2:

o

o

<:

X

Ul

o

c

c

IT)

o

I-

o

o

Wdd-»0N

u_

1

oc

M

<

u_

-

UJ

X

u.

u.

Z

Ul

UI

K

t-

U»

1

Ul

K

3

r—

t-

X

2

Ul

O

e;

<

3

(

H

H»0SV)

uidd

'NOUVUlNaDNOD NOOHVDOMQAH



Another

factor,

particularly

in

hydrocarbon concentration,

the timing

adjustment

of

the

ignition

spark

cone

.(15)

1

s

Exh

distance

trav

much

greater

50

miles/hrl

in

the litera

vehicle

veloc

some

of

these

squares

equat

fol

lows

aust

emission

rates

in

units

of

weight

per

unit

eled

for

a

slow

moving

vehicle are

generally

than

for

one cruising

at

speeds in

excess of

Several

experimental

studies

have

been

reported

ture

which

correlate carbon

monoxide

emission

with

i

ty

and

acceleration.

('4,

16-19)

/\

summary

of

results is given in Figure

12.

A

least-mean

ion

of

the

combined

data was

calculated

as

v

=

1.478xlO

J

+

10.43

where

v

=

spe

y

=

CO

Other studies

of

pollutants

rating mode

(

rvT°

is

r?-o6

4-b

in,

ik

*&

fs.^n

So

3^.??

55

37-

3

°

&o

3£T,

(s

(2)

ed

in miles

per

hour

emission

in gms/veh-mi

have been

reported

in

which

the

exhaust emission

other

than

CO

have been related

to vehicle

ope-

velocity,

acceleration, etc).

the

r

an up

of

ac

Conve

decel

state

obtai

give

di

ese

cl

imb

norma

car

d

it

wo

estab

sea 1

m

o

b

i

1

will

examp

5500

When

human

prese

A few

repor

tunne

about

E

a

d , i

-grade

celera

rsely

erati

o

d

as

a

ned

f

the

gr

1

true

ing

a

1

ly

wo

escend

u 1 d

w

i

1

i

shed

xhaust

.

e

.

,

i

on th

t

i

o n

,

the

e

n.

Th

mul

ti

om

Equ

ade

co

ks. F

2%

gra

uld

on

ing

a

th

zer

for

o

emi ssi

n

c

1

i

n

a

t

e

exhau

that

is

ffect

o

e effec

pi

i

cat

i

ation

2

ef

f

i cie

or

exam

de wi 1

a

flat

3%

grad

o

grade

ther

ex

on

is

a

1

ion

of th

st

emissi

,

it

i n c

f

a

down-

t of

grad

on coeffi

J

The

gr

nts

for

C

pie,

Figu

emi

t

1,4

(0-grade

e

will

em

Coeffi

haust

pol

o

aff

e roa

on ra

eases

grade

e

on

c

i

e

n

t

aphs

emi

re 13

time

)

roa

it on

c

i

e

n

t

1

utan

eve

e

who

be

co

le of

feet

coup

body

nts

a

expe

ted,

1 nea

11

,0

Another

of the

se

carb

n

s

i

d

e r

a

this i

e

1

e

v

a

t

i

ed

with

decrea

seriou

rimenta

primari

r

Denve

00

feet

exha

roadw

ureto

bly

g

s

giv

on co

the

ses a

s

pro

1 stu

ly th

r

whi

abov

ust

p

ay.

r i

s

reate

en

in

mpare

fact

salt

blem

dies

ose

m

ch wi

e sea

arame

The

e

ad jus

r

at

Figu

d

wit

that

i

t

u

d

e

i n

a

of

th

ade i

11

be

leve

ter

is

xhaust

ted

fo

higher

re

1

5

h thos

the CO

i ncre

high

a

e

al

ti

n

conn

locat

1.(21

J

ected

dway

te is

the

i

s s

exhau

appl

of

Fi

s s

i

o

n

show

s as

dway

ly

70

s can

ts.U

the

emi

s

r

sea

elev

for C

e at

tole

ases

,

ltitu

tude

e

c

t

i

o

ed

at

by

t

The

s i

m i

exhau

i m

i

1

a

st

vo

ied

t

gures

of

c

s

tha

much

while

%

as

be

s

8)

he

gr

effe

lar t

st

vo

r

to

1

ume

o

the

13

a

ars

a

t

a

c

CO

as

the

much

i

m

i

1 a

ade

of

ct of

that

1 ume.

that

of

may

be

points

nd

14

nd

ar

it

same

CO as

rly

elevation

above

si on

of

an

auto-

level

conditions

ations.

An

emissions

at

500

feet.

16

)

ranee

of the

this

parameter

de tunnel.

(

2

°)

effect

have

been

n

with

a

proposed

an

elevation

of

28



180

1

1

'

1

160

(*]

140

ELEVATION

O

—

Acceleratl

»—

u.

o

o

to

</

100

y

•

i—

<

\

\

•

E

i

-C

>

—

E

o

o

no

60

40

£>

Deceleration

*

Deceleration

<T

20

Deceleration

Deceleration

O

-

©

-

D

-

-

Surgeon General

Report, 1958

Study

-

Cars

Stern,

Los

Angeles

&

Cincinnati, 1965

-

Cars

0TT,

1962

Study

-

All

vehicles

Tlppetts,

JFK

Airport

study

1

10

I I

20 30 40

Vehicle

speed (m1/hr;

i

J

L

50

60

FIGURE

12

-

CO

OUTPUT

VS

VEHICLE

VELOCITY



%

Grade

(x)

A

=

1

.00

+

0.0542

x

where

x

=

percent grade

A

=

CO

emission

multiplication

factor

for

cars on

grade

(t

wpDCflccX

DECREASE/

F0R

GASOLINE

POWERED CARS

30



%

Grade

(x)

B

=

1

+

x/2 for grades

>-0.25%

B

=

0.91

+

0.11

x for

grades

<-0.25%

where

x

=

percent

grade

B

=

CO

emission

multiplication

factor

for

diesels

on

grade

FIGURE

14

-

MULTIPLICATION

FACTOR

FOR

GRADIENT

(deCREASe)

F0R diesels

31



180

160

140

120

E

100

I

-C



*->.

«/>

E

o»

v

~

-

80

•o

o»

4->

+>

•f

-

E

Ul

o

o

i

I

r

40

20

t—

i

r

10 20

30 40 50

60

Vehicle

speed

(mi/hr)

FIGURE

15

-

CO

EMISSION

AT

5500 FT

COMPARED

WITH THAT

AT

500 FT

32



Available data

has

been

correlated

in

order

to

establish

an

altitude

coefficient

for

our

mathematical

model

Two

regression

lines have

been

computed

as

follows:

CO

emission

vs

altitude

with

zero

grade

F

=

1.0

+

0.166

1000

A

-

0.7035xl0

_8

h

2

(3)

where h

=

altitude above

sea

level

in

feet

F

=

CO emission

multiplication

factor

for

altitude

b.

CO

emission vs

grade

at

elevations

exceeding

7500 ft above sea

level

y

=

92.99

+

28. 2x

+

6.924x

2

where

x

=

percent

grade

y

=

CO emission

in

gms/vehi cl e-mi

1 e.

(4)

van

mix

,

so

o

powe

bure

thes

This

car

stra

be

a

emis

abl

es

vehi

n)

r,

th

tor

a

e are

is

t

.

De

ightf

diff

si

on

(jhe com

such

as

cle

velo

ther

fac

e

condit

djustmen

unknown

o

say

th

velopmen

orward

w

i

c

u 1

1 t

a

rate.

puter

emi

s

city,

tors

ion

o

t

and

vari

at

th

t

of

hile

sk in

progr

s

i

o n

r

road

such a

f

the

so

on

ables

ere i

s

the

co

select

terms

am wh

ates

,

grade

s eng

e

n

g

i

n

coul

whi

ch

no

s

mpute

i on

o

of

s

i ne

ich

was

developed included

ventilation

rates, vehicle

induced

ventilation

and

displacement

and horse-

e,

age

of

the

vehicle,

car-

d

not

be

included

since

exist

in

any

traffic mix.

uch

thing as

an

average

r

program

was rather

f

emission

rates

proved

to

electing

an

appropriate

The

expected

concentration

level

of

lutant in

a

given tunnel may

be calculated

if

data are known:

a

gaseous

pol-

the

following

a.

Quantity

of pollutant

generated

(cfm/vehi

cl

e)

b.

Traffic

load

(vehi

cles/hr)

c.

Fan

air flowrate

(cfm/mile)

d. Traffic speed (miles/hr)

e.

Ambient

air

pollutant

concentration

(ppm)

The

average

pollutant

is

then

calculated

by

concentration

the equation:

within

the

tunnel

(f

f(ppm)

=

axbxl06

+

e

cxd

(5)



In

order

to

calculate

a

more

definitive

profile

of

a

given

pollutant

through

the

length

of the tunnel, the

following elementary model was

derived.

The

assumptions

made in the

derivation

are

minimal hence the

chief

possible

source

of

error

is

the

accuracy

of the input data.

The

assumptions

made

are:

a.

There is no appreciable

removal

of

oxygen

nor

production

of

CO2,

or

water vapor.

b.

The

gas

composition

at

a

given

tunnel point

has

constant

access

to

the

tunnel

cross

section.

c.

Longitudinal diffusion

is low.

Assumption

a

is

implied

by

the

mass volume balance

for

air

flow. It states,

essentially,

that

the

net

gain

or

removal (of

these

substances)

is small

when

compared

with

the

quantity

of ventilating

air

passing through the

tunnel.

The combustion

process

is

3N

+

2

°2

+

M

CH

2)N

—

>NC0

2

+

(N

+

1)H

2

(6)

where

the

second term represents

the

saturated

hydrocarbon.

This

process does produce

a slight

increase in air

volume.

The second assumption

(uniform composition

at

a

given cross section)

is

based on

turbulence induced by

traffic.

Since

the axial

air velocity

differs

from

the

vehicle velocity,

a

turbulent

swirl is

produced

behind

each

vehicle which

tends

to

homogenize

the tunnel

air.

Also

the

inlet

and outlet air flow patterns

minimize the

possibility

of

stagnant air

pockets. In

the

third

assumption the pure

axial diffusion

is extremely low. The

axial

diffusion

caused

by

the

swirls in the wake

of

the

vehicles

is

larger. How-

ever for

long

tunnels

it

is

small

when

compared

with the

axial

transport of

pollutants.

If

these

assumptions

are

applied,

the

differential

equations

for

pollutant

concentration

become

simple

air

and

pollutant

mass balances. The

differential equation

for

air

is

$

M

v

o

(7)

where

Q

=

quantity of

air

flow

in

axial

direction

1

=

length

v

i

»

v

o

=

cross flow

in

and

out

(quantity per

unit length).

34



The

differential equation

for

pollutant

is

4|^£l

=

v.c

r

\

c+z

(8)

where

C

=

pollutant

concentration

q

=

ambient

pollution

concentration

G

=

pollution

generated

per

unit

length of tunnel.

The above

equations

are

subject

to

the

boundary conditions:

Q(0)

=

Q

(9)

and

C(0)

=

C

in

(10)

where

Q

-

inlet

axial

flow

Cj

n

=

pollution concentration

at

tunnel inlet.

The

above

equations

can best

be

cast

in

a

finite

difference

form.

Several

forms are

available of

which

the

following

are the

simplest:

Q(n)

=

Q

(n-1)

+

(V

i

(n)-v

(n))dl

(11)

c(n)

=

V

i

(

)

C

-,-

d

1

+

Q(n-1

)c(n-l )+G(n)

(

12

)

where

(n-1)

positive

and

V

n

and

(n).

and

G

are

evaluated

at

the

mid

point between

These equations

require that

Q

be always

are

always

stable.

The

computer

program

solves

the above

set

of

equations stepwise from

tunnel

entrance

to

tunnel exit.

The

step

length

(dl)

may

be

selected

as

desired.

The

program

is

written

so

as

to

check

the direction of axial air

flow at

each

step and will

stop

if

Q

becomes negative.

For

tunnels

in

which

air

flow

direction

in

some segments

is

opposite

that

in other segments,

the

program

would be applied

to

the

individual

tunnel

segments

so as

to

keep

Q

positive. Since

the exit

air flow

is

given

the

tunnels

or tunnel

segments

may

be conveniently

linked.

A

print

out

of

the program

is

presented on

page

36.

The

program

is

normally read

from

magnetic tape,

however

a

punched

tape recording

of

the

program

has also

been

prepared

and will be

forwarded

with

this

report.

A

glossary

of

input

and

readout

data

is

given

on page 37.

This

lists

the

units

and encoding

symbols used for each of

the

variables

used

in

the

program.



L

C

P

IS GU

FT/VEH

MILEJ

QTI/O IS

CFM/MILEJVI

IS

CFM

C

TUNNEL

LENbTH

AND DELT

IS

MILESJVEH

IS

VEH/HH;CONC

ARE

PPM

DIMENSION

GTK5>*QT0C5>

24

TYPE

I

1

FORMAT

</#/*/*

TUNNEL CONC #/» POL. COEFS

>

ACCEPT

2* P1*P2

2

FORMAT

<E)

TYPE

3

3

FORMAT C/* TRANS

AIR

IN *

/# TRANS

AIR

OUT )

ACCEPT

2*QTIU >*0TI(2 >*QTl

<3>*QTI

<4>*QT1<5>

ACCEPT 2*GT0<1

>*QT0<2>*QTOC3>*QTOC4>*QTO<5>

6

TYPE

4

4

FORMAT

C/* END

AIR IN

TUNNEL

LENGTH TUNNEL

DELT

L

>

ACCEPT

2*V1*BL*DL

IF (VI) 6*7*7

7

TYPE

27

27

FORMAT C/* VEHICLES/KR;

INLET*

AMBIENT

CONC )

ACCEPT 2*VEH1*VER2*CI*C0

TYPE

32

32

FORMAT

</* CONT >

ACCEPT

2*C0NT

IF

(CONT)

33*34*34

33 W=0.0

GDIS«0.0

34

TYPE

5

5

FORMAT

(/*/* TUNNEL

POS

CONC )

ALs0.0

lSWT<=i

35

IF

<AL*DL-BL>

8*8*36

36

DLnBL-AL

ISWV=-ISWT

8

AL-=AL<DL/2.0

13

QTIC

=

(((eTI(5>*AL+QTI<4))*AL+QTI(3>)*AL+QTH2))*AL+QTI<l

>

IF

<QTIC>

15*16*16

15

TYPE

17*QTIG

17

FORMAT C/* TRANS

IN

IS NEli *E>

00

TO

25

16

QT0Cn(CCQT0(5)*AL+QT0C4))*AL+QT0C3>)*AL+QT0<2)**AL+QT0<l)

IF <QT0C>

18x19*19

18 TYPE

20*OTOC

20

FORIiAT C/* TRANS

OUT IS

NEfo *E>

bO TO 25

19

VO VI+DL*CQTlC-QTOC>

IF

CVO)

21*22*22

21 TYPE

23

23 FORMAT

(/*

AIR VEL

ZERO ?

AL=AL+VO/<QTOC-GTIO+0»5*DL

bO'TO 25

22

CI=VI*CI+QT1C*DL*C0+<VEHI*P1+VER2*P2)*1

.6667E4*DL

CI-CI/(VO*QTOC*DL>

ALnAL+DL/2.0'

VJ-VO

TYPE 28*AL*C1

28

FORMAT (/*E*E)

QDI5 GD1S*QT0C*DL

u<=v;+UT0C*r)L*ci

IF

<XGWT>

31*31*35

31

TYPE

30*VO

'

30

FORMAT </* DI5CHARUE

FLOW'VE)

IF(QDIS) 38*24*38

38 ClÛ/QDXS

TYPE 3V/CI

37

FORMAT (/* AV'b

CONC *E>

1.0

TO

24

25

TYPE

26*

AL

2C

FORMAT

t/*

M

P05ITON *E>

.„,-«,»«

co

to 24

TYPICAL

PRINT

OUT

OF

uiu

COMPUTER

PROGRAM



<D

Ol

OH

CD

©

oc

a.

oc

LU

o

o

o:

o

—i

o

CO

>-

«c

co

t/j

o

_l

CD

o

•p-

•p-

OI

.»»

E

E

E

r—

3

r-

i-

t-

p—

E

a>

O)

O

>

Ol

p—

01 01

0)

>>

u

+j

+->

4J

-O

p-

3

3

3

>—

jC

C C C

0)

•r—

•p •p-

i-

c

>

E E

E

3

o

o

•P

fc.

J-

J-

U x:

p-

01

0)

Oi

Ol

p

-

D-

O-

c

o.

OI

•p-

E

+J

4->

+>

•-»

a.

01 o>

01

OI

t-

^~» ^~»

01

OI

OI OI

to

Ol

p—

p—

M-

«4-

«4-

«r-

OI

p »

O-

o

>

o

>

t/>

U

o u u

to

to

u

to

to

^-^

^-*

1—

•p-

•P

•p-

T-

OI

OI

•p-

•-»

Ol

M

X)

-O

-Cl

J3

p—

p—

.e

i-

p—

E

s:

E

z:

3

3

3 3

•p- •p-

0)

«a c

•p-

ta

u_

ta

r:

U

u

o>

c

c

3

o

u

OI

c

c

3

•M

«*-

o

U

OI

c

c

3

M

O

E E

>

a.

c

o

•p-

+j

o

•r-

to

CO

•p-

E

Ol

u

3

T3

i-

o

**-

ty>

c

•p

E

E

E

c

3

O

t_> to.

c

o

•p*

<o

1-

+>

c

0)

u

c

o

u

u

+>

+*

+J

-C

&.

3

O-

3

•a

C 3

c

+J

4->

10 TJ

01

•r-

O

•r-

0>

C

«4-

2

+>

c

OI

OI

c

O o

•M

+j

2 %

3

OI

o

3

o

p

-

to

•r™

o o O

Jd

p—

c

C

•r-

C «r- 3

E

p*-

p—

p—

4->

5

o

•p-

->

o

<o

Oi

**- *»- «-

CJ>

p—

O

u

-M

•r-

•p-

S-

JC

c

/a

p—

c

M

+>

•p

X

c

tO 10

t-

OI •t->

*p-

•M

o

O

(O (O

Ol

UJ

o

l/> (/)

•r—

r—

c c a

Q. J-

~i

•p-

o o

<0

01

u



+J

01

CQ

+J

t-

J-

r—

E

•p-

M

n

p—

c

to

CT>

<C

3 o

u

p

-

OI

01

«4-

3

Ol Ol

3

<o

»—

i

r—

to

c

s-

«p-

p— p~

c

u

<e J-

cc

p—

i-

s-

•p

c u

<a

p—

+

c

c

sz Ol

<c

o

•p-

•p-

X

3 c

L.

O 3 o X

>

>

Q-

(O <o

(0

•M

•p-

l->

Q.

to

Ol

o

P

o

Ol

to

_j

c

r-

o

•

=)

CO

O

II

O.

s:

1—1

o

IE

z

I—

>-

1—

r-

»—

I

_J

_J

LU

o

P-

3

to

O. cr

o-

> CQ o > o

1

O



An

actual

data computation

is

presented

on

page

39.

Output

data

consists

of columns

showing concentration levels

for

a

given

pollutant

at

incremental

distances

along various

sections

of

the

tunnel.

Section

boundaries

are

usually

de-

termined

by

blower

shaft locations and

changes

in road grade

level

(or

percent

inclination).

The

exhaust

air

flow from

the section

is

given

below the

concentration/location

columns

followed

by the average

concentration

of

the

given

pollutant

in

the

exit

air

duct

(where

applicable).

As stat

to

be

a

gress

o

existed

ported

later

t

predict

CO,

N0

X

f

u n

c

t i o

same

re

of carb

Emission Rate s

for

CO

ting

appd befo

di

f

f

i

c

n

Road

in reg

in

this

hat in

emissi

,

HC

an

n

of mo

ference

uretor

re, selec

ult

and

f

Tunnel

s

I

'

ard to

em

referenc

some case

on

rates.

d

R-COH

f

de

of ope

also

rep

adjustmen

H-C,

N0_£

and Particulates

51

ropriate emission

rates

proved

strating

task. The XIII

World

Con-

showed that

a

great discrepancy

ission

rates.

Some

of

the

data re-

e dated back

to

1919,

and

it was

found

s

this

data is still

being used

to

Table

7

shows

the

emission rates

of

rom gasoline

and

diesel engines

as

a

ration

as

reported in

1965. This

orts

emission

rates

of

CO

as

a

function

t for

cars

and

trucks (Table

8).

Table 9

lists

the

emission rates for

CQ^s

sum-

marized in

XIII

World Congress

on

Road Tunnels.

(

22

'

This

table represents

the best data

available

in 1957

and

is

com-

posed

primari ly

.of

resul

ts reported

by

the Coordinating

Re-

:ouncil.

(

23

'

search

Ci

The

Surgeon General's Report

of

emission

rates

for late

1950

automobiles,

the results;

values for

H-C

and

N0

X

are

shown

in this

table

also

and will

be

discussed

later.

1962<

24

)

lists

the

Table

10 lists

Over the

past

few

years,

the

emission

rate

of CO

from

gasoline

powered

vehicles

has

been decreasing.

Table

11

shows

the emission rates for

pre-1966,

1966-1969

and 1970

passenger cars and

light

trucks as

well

as

heavy

duty

trucks

25

»

2

Stormont'

2

^)

reports

emission

rates

of

65

g

CO/veh-

mi for

1965-1967

models,

35

gm

CO/veh-mi for

1968 models,

25 gm CO/veh-mi for

1969

and

1970

models.

A

target

of 4.7

gm

CO/veh-mi

is

set

for

1975

models.

Federal

Regulations

for

CO

emissions

as

reported in

Environmental Science and

Technology(

28

) are:

Year

gm

CO/veh-mi

1968

35.1

1970

23.0

1972

39.0

1975 4.7

38



0.7209

0.3341

TRANS

AIR

IN

TRANS

AIH OUT

0.4684E6

0.264E6

to

end

aih

in

tunnel

lenbth tunnel

delt

l28600

0.235

0.02

vehicles/hr; inlet*

anient

conc 11&0 352

CONT-I

TUNNEL

POS

0.200000E-1

0.400000E-1

0.599999E-1

0.800000E-1

0.999999E-1

0.119999E+0

0.139999E+0

0.159999E+&

0.179999E+0

0.199999E+0

0.219999E+0

0.2350O0E+0

DISCRAKbE

PLOW

CONC

0.850087E+1

0.142818E+2

0.1&3770E+2

0.213752E+2

0.236307E+2

0.253666E+2

0.267267E+2

0.27815SE+2

0.2869S4E+2

0.294170E+2

0.300154E+2

0.304023E+2

-766339E+5

Section

N4

40

ppm

CO Monitor

Chart

Reading

AVb

CONC

0.235749E+2

TUNNEL CONC

POL.

COEFS

0.9876 0.86

TRANS

AIR

IN

TRANS

AIH

OUT0.6011E6

0.6266E6

end

aih

in

tunnel

lenuth

tunnel

delt

l

0.76634e5

0.4868

0.05

vehicles/hr; inlet* ambient

conc

1180

352

30.4

CONT-l

TUNNEL POS

CONC

0.5000U0E-1

0.333033E+2

0.1Uu)kJt3t3L

+

kJ

0.3S41

40E+2

0.1S000WE+0

0.369414E+2

Section

0.200000E+0

0.3b0414fc;+2

0.250000E+0 0.3bb298E+2

0.3000O0E+0

0.393920E+2

0.35O000E+0

0.39790911+2

0.399999E+0

0.400723E+2

0.449999E+0

0-40269bE+2

0.466600E+0 0.403804E+2

DISCHARbE

PLOW

0.642205E+5

AVO

CONC

0.381655E+2

N3

50

CO

ppm

Monitor

Chart Reading

TUNNEL

CUNC

POL.

COEFS 1.1944

2.7607

TRANS

AIH

IN

TRANS

AIH

OUT

0.&786E6

0.&76E6

END

AIH

IN TUNNEL

LENbTri TUNNEL

DELT

L

0.642205E5 0.4621

0.05

VEHlCLES/HH;

INLh.T#

AMBIENT

CONC

1

1 bo

352

40.38

CONT-l

PORTION

OF

COMPUTER PRINTOUT

FOR

LINCOLN

TUNNEL-WESTBOUND

TUBE



TABLE

9

-

CO EMISSIONS

REPORTED

IN REFERENCE

22

Emission

Rate

gm

CO/veh-mi

Downgrade Level Accelerati

on

Upgrade

?£

£

3

'Jx

5

/

73

41

56

r

195 86

(3

45

64

225

99

s

6

^/

(3

40 70

269

112

56 78 311

128

i?

2. f

«5

?

74 99 410

159

?*-

Z-7

/<£S

^

106 128 573

214

40



TABLE

10

-

GRAMS OF

POLLUTANT

EMITTED

PER

MILE

FOR

FIXED

MDDE OF

OPERATION

(gm/veh-mi

Mode

Cruise:

20 miles

30 miles

40

miles

50

mi les

per

per

per

per

hour

hour

hour

hour

Acceleration

:

to

60 miles

per hour

to

25 miles per

hour

15

to

30

miles per hour

Decelerati on

50

to 20 miles per hour

30

to 15 miles per

hour

30

to miles

per hour

40

to 20

miles

per

hour

CO

Gross

HC

M

x

72

57

47

40

9.1

6.4

5.4

7.7

2.7

5.2

381

240

120

28

29

14

10.2

26

40

60

30

6.8

5.9

7.7

5.0

41



o

o

o

C7>

co

co

ol

o

$.

4-

SJte

c

o

c

o

u

.

o

E

o

c

CM

•r-

1/1

V)

•p-

E 3:

CD

1

:=>

o

o

O

o

C

o

o

*o

o

o

CO

r

mm

*

î

o

U

CM

3

S-

J—

>

s

-l->

I

>

3

o

o

O o

o

o

>

O

>

ID

O

«o

A

.£

o

2=1

^~I

o

«a- t—

ro

•—

*a-

in

o

CO

CVJ

r-

r-

in

CO ro

,

r>.

i—

ro

o>

CM

CM r—

«—

CO

CO

O

f—

vo

o

I-**

CM i—

r—

UJ

Q

X

o

o

o

ZJ

r>.

J-

cr>

>—

CM

CO

«S-

o

CM

r—

r—

O

cn

o

I

CO

•f

CTi

-J

ve

©a

1

CO

If)

ic

CM in

CO

fe?

CO

CM

to

CT.

S-

(O

O

s-

0J

U3

ex

CO

c

CT>

i—

f»»

•3-

o»

Ol r—

i—

4

CO

If)

CO

i/1

1

^~

CO

CJ

<o S-

D. Q.

T3

CL)

01

O.

CO



IT)

O

•—

CM

CO

If)

42



This

applies

only to

light

duty

vehicles.

Many other

references

were reviewed

and

are

in-

cluded

in

the Bibliography

section

of

this

report.

For

the

current

mixture

of

model years we

have

selected

an

average

CO emission

rate

from

gasoline

powered

vehicles

of 40 gm

CO/

yeh-mi

.

If

the

Federal

Standards

are

met

and

as

older

models

are

phased

out

of

operation,

this

value

will

decrease.

Less

information

was found

on CO emission from

diesel

powered

vehicles, and again

some

of

this information

was contradictory.

For

example,

all

references

on

CO emis-

sion

from diesel

engines listed

some

positive values,

whereas

the Surgeon General's Report of

1962(24)

listed an

emission

rate

of zero for CO.

Rispler

('2)

reported

a

CO emission

rate for

diesel

engines at

40 mph

cruise

of 4.3

gm/veh-mi.

Rose(29)

reported an emission

rate of

CO

from

diesels

of

about

3.5

gm/veh-mi under

crui

se,

condi tions .

From this

limited data, we conclude that under cruise

conditions, the

CO

emission

rate

from diesels

is

M

gm/veh-mi.

Emission rates

of

CO

from

diesels

for

the effects

of road

grade

can

be

ad-

justed

using.

the data

in

Figure Ik.

Hydrocarbon

emissions have

been studied by

a

number

of

investigators. In the

case

of hydrocarbons, emissions

are much more dependent

upon

the

condition

of

the

car

and

the

emission

control devices installed

on

cars

than

are

CO

emission rates.

The

Surgeon

General's

report(24)

listed

the emission rates

as

a

function of mode of operation.

(Table

10).

This

same

reference

reports

diesel

emission

of

H-C

as

4.5 gm

H-C/veh-mi

at

30

mph (cruise), 20.5 gm

H-C/

veh-mil

under

acceleration

and

17.3

gm

H-C/veh-mi under

'decelerati

on.

Stormont(27)

reports

H-C

emissions according

to

the

year

of

the

automobile

under cruise

conditions. The

values are:

Year

1965-1967

1970

1972

1975

gm H-C/veh-mi

12

6

2

0.5 (Projected)

The Federal Standards

(28,

30)

for

H-C

emissions

from passenger

vehicles are

as

follows:

Year

1972-1974

1975

gm H-C/veh mi

3.4

0.46



These

values

apply

to

light

duty vehicles only.

In

1965,

Rose'29)

reported

H-C emission for

gaso-

line

and

diesel

engines under cruise

conditions

as

5.8

gm

H-C/veh-mi

1

and

6.2

gm

H-C/veh

mi,

respectively.

On

the basis

of

the data

which

were

compiled on

H-C emissions,

we selected

an average

emission

rate

of

2.7

gm

H-C/veh-mi

for

gasoline powered vehicles

and

3.4

gm

H-C/veh-mi

for

diesels.

Hydrocarbon emission

by diesels

are

about 8.0

gms/veh-mi under

accelerating conditions and

10.5

gm/veh-mi

under

decelerating

conditions.

The

emission

of

oxides

of

nitrogen

from

motor

ve-

hicles

exhaust is generally

reported

in

terms of

N0

X

,

i.e.,

the

total of NO

plus

N0

2

.

Studies

have shown

that

approxi-

mately

80%

of

the N0

X

emitted is in

the

form

of

NO.

In

tunnels,

where the residence time of

the

exhaust gases

is

of

the

order

of seconds, there

is little time for

NO

to

con-

vert

to

NO2,

hence

approximately

is there

as

NO.

80%

of

the N0

V

in

tunnels

The Surgeon General's

Report

lists

NO

emissions

of

2.6

gm

NO

x

/veh-mi

at

30 mph

and 5.2

gm

NO

x

/veh-mi

at

50

mph

cruise.

The

same

reports

lists

the emission

from

diesels

as

8.9 gm

NO

x

/veh-mi

and

8.8

gm NO/veh-mi under

acceleration.

Stormont reported

N0

X

emissions

according

to

the

vehicle

year:

Emission

Rate

Year (gm NO

y

/veh-mi)

1960

6

1965-1971

5

1972 4

1973

3

1975 1

The

values listed

for

1972-1975

are

projected

values.

Rose

reported

an

emission

rate

of

3.9

gm

NO

x

/veh-mi

for gasoline

engines

in

the

cruise

mode. Diesels

in

a

cruise

mode

emitted 10.0

gm

N0

x

/veh-mi.

Although the data

are

limited with

respect

to N0

X

emission, the reported values

are

in

relatively

good agree-

ment.

We

have selected

an

emission rate

of 4.0 gm

NO/veh-mi

for gasoline engines and

8.0

gm

NO/veh-mi for

diesel engines.

It must

be

recognized that various

driving

modes

will

change

these emission rates,

but

the

data

on

function of

driving

mode is limited.

N0„

emissions as

a

44



The data

on

particulates

are

even

more

limited

than for

other

exhaust

contaminants.

Frey

and Corn^

31

'

studied

the

particle

size

and concentration

in vehicle ex-

haust

gases.

The particle

size

ranged

from 0.01

to 5

u.

Gasoline engines

were reported to

emit

0.4

gm/veh-mi

while

diesel

engines

emitted

5.0

gm/veh-mi.

The Environmental

Protection

Agency'

32

)

has

set

standards

for

particulate

emissions

for

1975

model

cars

-

0.1

gm/veh-mi.

In

summary, it has

been

difficult to select standard

emission rates

for gasoline and

diesel

powered

vehicles

under

various

driving modes, with the

possible

exception

of

CO.

However,

by

limiting the

selection

during

the

1

960

' s only,

we believe

representative of the gasoline and

mix which is

currently on

the

road

we

have

selected are

as

follows:

of

emission

rates reported

the selected rates are

diesel powered vehicle

The emission

rates

which

Type of

Vehicle

Gasoline

Diesel

Mode of

Operation

Cruise*

Cruise

Emission Rates

(gm/veh-mi)

N0

V

ParticulatesO, HC

40

2.7

4.0

3.4

Gasoline Projected

1970

23

2.2

Gasoline

Projected

1975**

4.7 0.5

-x

4.0

8.0

0.9

0.4

5.0

0.1

Emission

rates

for

CO can

be

corrected for grade

by using

factors

given

in

Figures

13 and 14.

Federal

Standards

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Baltimore

Harbor

Tunnel

Allegheny Mountain Tunnel

Lincoln

Tunnel

Fort Pitt

Tunnel

Armstrong

Tunnel

In most

cases, the

CO

levels

of

the

tunnel were

taken

from

the

continuous

monitoring

data while

in

one

case

CO,

H-C,

NO

and/or

particulates

were measured.



The Baltimore

Harbor

Tunnel is

a

6700

ft

long

dual

tube

tunnel

which

is

part

of

an

expressway

circling

the

city

of

Baltimore.

The

Harbor

Tunnel is

located

beneath

the

Patapsco

River.

The northern

portal and

ventilation

building

are

surrounded

by

industrial

plants while the

southern

one lies

in

rather open country.

Tolls

are

collected

at

booths located

about 0.7 miles from

the

south

portal.

Each

tube

is

staffed

by

3 or

4 patrolmen

on

a

continuous

basis

with

a

shift

change

every

two hours.

Each

tunnel patrolman spends

a

total

of

4

hours

per day

inside the tunnel

-

most

of the time

in

semi-

enclosed shelter

booths.

The

traffic load

varies

from

55,000

to

75,000 vehicles

per day. Transverse

ventilating

is used

and CO

is

continuously

monitored

in

the exhaust

stacks.

One

of

the chief reasons

for

selecting the Harbor

Tunnel

for

our

survey

was

the

fact

that complete

records are

maintained

which

include

the following:

•

Traffic

counts

and

traffic

type,

according

to

number

of

axles

•

Continuous

ventilation

rate

data

•

Detailed accounting

of

all traffic

stoppages in

the

tunnel

•

Complete

set

of engineering

drawings

•

Ambient weather

conditions.

During

the

visit

spot

checks were

taken of traffic

count

and

mix

and

vehicle residence time

or

speed. Particulate

samples

were

also

obtainedby

portable

MSA

mine

samplers

placed on

the

tunnel

catwalk.

The weight

per

unit-volume

of

sample

collected

was about

0.6

mg/m^

which

is

the

same

concentration

as the

sample

taken

at the

Fort

Pitt

Tunnel.

The

average

CO

concentration

in the tunnel,

as

recorded

by monitors

sampling

exit

air,

averaged

about 75

ppm

over

a

three

day

period

and

rarely exceeded 180 ppm

during

peak

traffic

periods.

Traffic

counts were

made of

both

gasoline

and

diesel

powered vehicles in the

east

tube over a

period

of

about

15

mins.

The

CO

traces

for this

period were

then

ob-

tained from

the

Baltimore

Harbor Tunnel

authorities.

Figure

16

shows the

road

grade of the

tunnel and

the

reported

ventilation

rates for the

period

during

which

traffic counts

were

made.

Figure

17

is

an

actual

trace

of

the

CO

monitors

in

the tunnel

during

the period when traffic counts

were

made.

The

inputs

to the

computer program

included:

1.

Ventilation pattern

and

flow

rates,

road

gradient and

tunnel

section

lengths

are shown

in

Figure

16.

2.

Traffic

count and

mix:

1260 gas/hr

268

diesel/hr

I

5

l

46



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CO

Concentration (parts

per

10,000)

Ol

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/

1

1

AM

\

10

AM

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12

AM

11

AM-

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,

FIGURE

17

-

ACTUAL

TRACE

OF

CO

MONITOR

READINGS IN

THE

BALTIMORE

HARBOR TUNNEL

48



3.

Vehicle

velocity:

4.

Ambient

CO

level

:

5.

Piston

effect:

6.

Emission

rate

for

42-50

mph

2 ppm assumed

^23%

of fan

rates

(50,000

cfm)

CO

as

a

function

of the

above

conditions.

The

CO

concentration

profile

calculated

by

the

mathematical

model

method

is

presented in Figure 18.

The

sharply

defined

maximum

and minimum

values

are

similar to

pattern obtained

by other

investigators.

These peaks

are

caused

by

the

combined

effects

of

ventilation patterns

and

CO

emission

rate

differentials.

the

Since the

tunnel

CO

monitor's sampling probes are

installed

in

the exit

air

ducts

instead

of

at

road

level,

a

direct

comparison

with

calculated

results at

a

given point

in the

tunnel

can

only

be

obtained

by actual CO

measurement

at

a

given point.

However,

an

average

CO

concentration

calcu-

lated

from the

profile values

should agree with

the

CO

levels

indicated

by

the

permanent

tunnel CO

monitors. Hence

an

additional

step was

added

to the

computer program

which yields

average

CO

concentration

values

at

the

end

of

each

tunnel

section

and

a cumulative

average

value for

a

series

of com-

bined

tunnel

sections.

Average CO

concentration

values ob-

tained

were:

a. 71.1

ppm

for Section

(1

and

2)

b.

75.9 ppm for Sections

(3,4,

5 and

6)

Actual

values

taken from the

recorders

in

the

control

during

the time of this

test were,

respectively:

room

a.

b.

60

i

65

+

15

15

ppm

ppm

(1

and

(3,

4,

2)

5 and

6).

Figure

19

is

a plot

of these

average

results.

The

results

indicate

that the computed CO

level

falls

within

the measured

CO

concentration.

locat

the

o

rural

is

61

tunne

Venti

ei

the

steps

air i

readi

Th

ed on

t

ther

tu

area

w

00 ft

1

1

s are

lati

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r

porta

from

4

s

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ngs

of

e

Alleg

he

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nnels

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a

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sted th

wind

ve

heny Mounta

sylvania

Tu

hich

we

vis

e others

we

has

an

ave

ted in

a

lo

ided by

ove

ch

tube.

F

cfm/tube to

rough the

t

locity insi

in

Tunnel

is

a

dual tube

tunnel

rnpike.

It differs from all

of

ited

in

that

it

is

located

in a

re all urban

tunnels.

Each

tube

rage grade of

t

0.5%.

The

ngitudinal

distributive

fashion,

rhead ducts and fans

mounted

at

lowrates

may

be adjusted

in

four

1,200,000

cfm/tube.

Vitiated

raffic portals.

Anemometer

de the duct

of the south

tube

49





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o

<

ZTLU

LU

CO

UD

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yielded

values of

600

ft/min

at

a point

30

ft from

the intake

fan and

390

ft/min

at

duct

midpoint.

Traffic

and

gas/diesel

mix was

rather

constant

throughout

the

day and was nearly identical

in

both directions

295

±

10

gasoline vehicles/hr

105 ±

5

diesel vehicles/hr

Average

speed

for

the

vehicles

was

determined

by

telephone

communications at each portal

9

and

was

55

to

60 mph for

cars

and 50

mph for

large

trucks.

Carbon

monoxide monitoring

instruments

are

located

in

the ventilation building

control rooms. Air

inlet

probes

are

located in three niches

in the

wall

of

each tube.

The

CO

levels indicated

by

the center tunnel

monitors

are

gen-

erally

higher than those of

the

other monitors. However,

the

concentration

ranges

of all six

monitors

were

below 40

ppm

throughout

the

day of

our visit.

(Fig.

20)

Input parameters:

Traffic

count and

mix:

Ventilation

flow

rate:

Ambient CO

level

:

Road

gradient:

Tunnel length:

291

gas/hr

110 diesel/hr

450,000

cfm/duct

(see

Fig.

20)

1

.

ppm

assumed

See

Fig.

20

See

Fig.

20

The CO

level

was quite

low and

nearly

constant

throughout

the

length

of

the

tunnel

during

the

period

that

the traffic

counts were made. Monitors

located

in niches

at three points inside the

tunnel

each showed

CO levels

averaging

20 ppm.

Since the

response accuracy

of

the

moni-

tors is

I

10

ppm

the computed

result

(15

ppm

CO)

is

considered

in agreement

with

actual. If

a

20%

factor

is

added

for

piston

effect

the

calculated average

CO

concentration

drops to

12

ppm

which is

still

in agreement

with

the

monitors.

Other

potential

conditions

for the Allegheny

Tunnel

were computed (Figure

21).

These

included:

1.

1000 cars/hr @

40 mph

with

450,000

cfm

forced and 50,000

cfm natural

and

piston

ventilation

(Curve A).

2.

A

complete

power

failure with

1000

cars/hr

@

40 mph

with a

180,000

cfm

piston

effect

(Curve

B).

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54



3.

A traffic

jam

with

a

forced

ventilation

rate

of 600,000

cfm

(Curve

C).

4. A

traffic

jam

with

a

forced ventilation

rate

of

450,000

cfm

(Curve

D).

With 1000

cars

traveling at

40 mph

and

a

ventilation

rate

of

450,000

cfm,

the average

CO

concentration

would be

35

ppm.

Under

a

traffic

jam

condition,

the

CO

would

be

160

ppm

with

a

600,000

cfm ventilation

rate

and

225

ppm

with

a

450,000

cfm ventilation

rate. With

a power

failure

where

the only

ventilation would

be due

to

the piston

effect,

the

CO

profile would

range

from zero

at

the entry portal to

150

ppm

at

the

exit portal.

Traffic

counts

were

made at

the Lincoln Tunnel

in

New

York

City and CO

data

from

the permanent monitors

in the

tunnel

were acquired. This

information

was

used

to

predict

the

CO

level

in

various

sections

of the tunnel

and

to

compare

the

predicted

with

the

actual

concentration.

veloped

Authori

was to

and

Hoi

air

and

length

used in

equatio

nant

pr

identic

chosen,

differe

A

mat

in

1965

ty-Engi

n

predict

land

Tun

contami

of

tunne

the

MSA

ns

which

ofi

les.

al

if

a

The

MS

ntial

eq

hematica

by

the

eering

D

the amou

nels.

T

nant

i

n

f

1. Inst

R model

,

are

der

The dat

suf

ficie

AR

model

u a

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i

o

n s

.

1 mod

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epart

nt

of

he mo

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ows

ead

o

the

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ved

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ntly

does

el of

i

v

i

s

i

o

ment

.

any

c

del

wa

and ou

f

the

PNYA

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for bo

erated

smal

1

not

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tunnel

n of

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The

p

ontami

s

form

tf

lows

finite

odel

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th ven

by bo

length

equi re

vent

he Po

urpos

nant

ulate

for

diff

mploy

til

at

th

me

deri

deri

ilatlon

rt

of N

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of

th

in

the

d

by

ba

each

se

erence

s

diffe

ion

and

thods

s

v

a

t

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v e

v a t

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was de-

ew York

is

model

Lincoln

lancing

ctional

equations

rential

contami

-

hould

be

(dl)

is

of

The

carbon monoxide

profile

of

the Lincoln

Tunnel-

north tube

was calculated using the PNYA

model.

The results

were

then

compared with

observed CO

values

as

shown

in

Figure

22.

Agreement

between observed and calculated

CO

profiles is

good except

at

the tunnel portals.

55



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w>

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i

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ZD

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h-

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c_>

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1—

UJ

C£

1—

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<:

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_j

i

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_J

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4->

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cr

LD

CD

c

<c

z

1—

Q

i—

z

z

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c

c

3

o

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—1

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oo

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vo

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(uicJd)

03

57



concentrations deviated

somewhat

from the

measured

concen-

trations. This was

also

true

in the

case

where

two-way

traffic

was used in

the

center

tube

(Figure

25).

However,

with

the

two-way

traffic

pattern the calculated and

measured

CO

con-

centrations

followed the

same

general trend.

Deviations

of

the

actual values

from calculated

values

could

be

due

to

in-

-

correct ventilation rate data, incorrect

CO

readings,

incorrect

inlet

air

CO

concentrations

or an

error

in

the

computer

pro-

gram.

However,

the

latter

reason is

unlikely

since

good

agree-

ment

between

actual

and calculated

values

were

found

in

all

other

tunnels

tested as well

as

the

north

tube of

the

Lincoln

Tunnel

.

The Fort

Pitt

Tunnel

is

a

dual-tube

urban

tunnel

which

carries

Interstate

Route

1-76

into

downtown Pittsburgh,

Pa.

Each

tube

is

4900

ft

long and

has

a

road level grade of

Mo

except

at

one

end of the

West

tunnel

which has

a

3.5%

up

grade

for about 400

ft.

(The North

portals

are on two

differ-

ent

levels which correspond

to

the

decks

of

the approach

bridge.)

Atmospheric conditions

were cloudy,

light

rain

all

day, very

little wind,

temperature

50

to

54°F

during

the

day

when

actual

measurements

were

made.

times

t

traf f

i

c

tube

be

hour

at

inbound

400

per

The

rat

varied

rush

ho

55

mph.

average

tunnel

den si

ty

A

s

hrough

rate

tween

peak

).

Du

hour

i

o

of

from

1

ur.

T

At

p

s

p

a

c

i

popul

may

i

eries

of 30-minute

counts were taken at

various

out

a

typical week

day.

Results

showed that

the

varied from

1500

to

1900

vehicles per

hour per

9

A.M.

and

4

P.M.

and

3200

to

3400

vehicles

per

times

(4

to

6

P.M.

outbound tube

and 7

to

9

A.M.

ring the night the

rate

is usually

down

to

200-

except

when

a

sports or civic

event is

scheduled,

gasoline

engine

powered to

diesel

powered

vehicles

3/1 in

late

morning

to

66/1

during

the

evening

raffic normally

moved

through

the

tunnel

at

45 to

eak

periods

speeds fall

to

20-25

mph. Since

the

ng

between

vehicles is about

20 ft,

the

maximum

tion is

250

vehicles

per

tube.

The

population

ncrease, of course,

in

case

of

a

stoppage.

empl

oy

intake

lines

in

the

tunnel

350 ft

signal

m

o

n i

t

o

the

n

i

day

it

rises

fan

sp

i ncrea

In

semi

-t

fans

b

for

the

tunnel

employ

in

fro

s from

red

by

ght

the

rises

to

100

eeds

ar

ses

the Fo

ravers

ut

no

CO

mo

wal

1

ed

two

m the

each

o

operat

CO

le

to

abo

ppm.

e

not

rt

Pit

e

or

s

exhaus

ni tori

about

moni

t

portal

f

the

ing

pe

vel

is

ut

50

Peak

p

i

n

c

r

e

a

t

Tunn

emi

-1

t fans

ng

equ

9

ft

a

ors

pe

sort

four H

rsonne

norma

ppm

ex

e

r

i o

d

s

e

d

in

el

,

a

n

g

i t

u

,

the

ipmen

bove

r

tub

unnel

opcal

1

in

lly

a

cept

level

adva

s

in

most

dinal ven

air

samp

t are

mou

roadway 1

e

;

each

o

ends.

T

i te-type

the

contr

bout

10

p

at

peak

p

may rise

nee

of

po

tunnels

which

t

i

1

a t

i

o

n

with

ling

intake

nted

in niches

e v

e

1

.

This

ne

located

about

he recorded

detectors are

ol

room.

During

pm.

During

the

eriods

when it

to

250

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if

llution

emission

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Spot

checks of

CO content

at

catwalk

levels were

made

with

a

portable

detector.

Readings during

off-peak

hours

agreed with

the

CO values

recorded in

the

control

room.

At

peak traffic

hours, however,

the spot check

values

ranged

about

60

ppm

higher

than

.those

recorded.

In

a

more complete

analysis

of

CO

level variations in

the Fort Pitt

tunnel,

it

was demonstrated

that

the CO level in

the central

portion

of

the

tunnel may

be considerably

higher

than that

at the

ends

(Figure

26).

Each

tube

contains

six fans

-

three at each end.

Only

two of

the three

are used as

fresh

air input fans. The

third fan is

used

as an emergency exhaust. Fresh

air is supplied

through

ceiling ducts from

either end of

each

tube.

Vitiated

air is

exhausted

through the traffic

portals. Considerably

more

air is

exhausted

via the

traffic

exit

portal

due chiefly

to the addition of

the piston effect. The magnitude of

this

difference

was measured by

taking

anemometer readings

on

the

catwalk. Air

velocity

at the inlet portal ranged from about

820 ft/min

compared with 1210

ft/min

at

the

exit

portal.

Air flow

rates

are

adjusted manually from the con-

trol

room according

to

traffic demand.

Flow

rates

range

from

121,000

cfm

(night-downgrade)

to

535,000

cfm (peak-upgrade)

with

a

maximum

fan

capacity

of

714,000 cfm (upgrade tunnel).

Each fan

can provide for

up to

85%

of

the normal requirement

for

its particular duct.

Ten-minute observations

were carried out

at

various

hours

along

the

tunnel catwalk. Results

showed

an average

noise

level

of

97

dBC

with

peaks

up to

106 dBC. The

peaks

were

produced

by

the

passage

of

large

trailer

and

cab

type

trucks. Operating

and

maintenance

personnel

are

normally

not

exposed

to

these

sound

levels for extended time periods.

A

constant

volume

air sampler was placed in

operation

at a point 264

ft

from

the

south

portal of

the east

tube on

the

catwalk

with

the

sampling

inlet

away

from the

stream

of

traffic.

A

filter

paper disc

(MSA

Part No.

25310)

was used

with

a sampling flow

rate of

15

cfm. The sampler

was operated

for

5 hours

during

the off-peak

hours (11

A.M.

to

4

P.M.). A

total of 68 mg

of

particulates

were

collected

which

represents

a

density

of 0.6

mg/m3.

A

3.2

gm

sample

of

particulates

was

collected

from

the

floor of

the

room

housing

the

Fort

Pitt tunnel

south

portal

ventilation

fans. An analysis

of this sample

was

performed

by

an emission

spectroscopy

method.

The

results are

shown

in

Table

12.

Extraction

with

benzene showed that the

sample was

9355 benzene

soluble

(organic).

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62



TABLE

12

-

ANALYSIS OF MATERIAL COLLECTED

FROM VENTILATION

BUILDING

OF

THE

FORT

PITT

TUNNEL*

Component

Concentration

Iron

7.5%

Aluminum 3.6%

Magnesium

1%

Silicon

14%

Boron 90 ppm

Cobalt

10 ppm

Manganese 8000

ppm

Tin

150

ppm

Lead

2000 ppm

Chromium

400 ppm

Titanium

1000

ppm

Nickel

500 ppm

Molybdenum 200

ppm

Vanadium

200

ppm

Sodium 1500

ppm

Niobium

<100

ppm

Calcium

<100

ppm

Zinc

1000

ppm

is

an

analysis

of

the benzene

in

soluble

fraction

of the

collected

material.



Samples were

taken

for total

hydrocarbons

and NO,

also.

The

total

hydrocarbon samples were taken in

glass

sampling bombs

and

ultimately transferred

to

the

laboratory

and analyzed.

Samples

for

NO

were

collected and

analyzed

by

the Saltzman

Method.

(33)

south

in

ea

trol

the

p

selec

The

p

The

N

predi

measu

diffe

NO

le

This

gener

could

for

t

bound

ch

tu

room

redi

c

ted

e

redi

c

B-l

s

cted

remen

rence

vel

s

may

i

al

,

h

prob

he cu

Vehi

tub

be.

oper

ted

miss

ted

amp

leve

ts

a

s

co

were

ndi

c

owev

ably

rren

cle

co

es and

Venti

ators

level

s

ion

ra

and

ac

es for

Is. H

nd

wer

uld be

equal

ate th

er

,

mo

be im

t

car

unts

we

sample

1

a

t

i

o

n

and the

based

tes.

T

tual CO

NO

and

owever,

e

made

expect

to

or

at

NO

e

st of t

proved

populat

re

made

s

were c

rates we

i nforma

on

the

c

he resul

values

HC did

since

t

near the

ed.

In

higher t

mission

he

resul

if

bette

ion.

in

bot

o

1

1 e

c

t

re

obt

t

i

o n

w

ompute

ts are

agree

not ag

hese a

entry

al

1

ca

han

th

factor

ts

agr

r

em

is

h the no

ed

at

tw

ained

fr

as used

r

model

shown i

quite we

ree

well

re point

of

the

ses,

the

e

measur

s are

in

ee

rathe

s

i o

n rat

rthbo

o

loc

om

th

to ca

and

t

n Tab

11

(±

wi

th

sour

tunne

pred

ed

va

corre

r wel

es

we

und and

a

t i

o

n

s

e

con-

1 cul

ate

he

le

13.

20%).

the

ce

1

,

some

i

cted

1

ues

ct.

In

1

,

but

re

known

One naturally

ventilated tunnel, the

Armstrong Tunnel

in

Pittsburgh,

was

visited and

data

were

collected on

CO

con-

centration

and noise

level. This two-tube

tunnel

is

located

near

downtown Pittsburgh,

Pa. It

carries

city

traffic

a

distance

of

1350

ft

and lies

beneath

the

campus

of

Duquesne

University.

Traffic

lights

are

located

at

the

intersections

at

either end

of

the

tunnel.

Since this

tunnel

has

no venti-

lating

fans,

it

was

selected

as an

ideal location

to

study

piston

effect.

The

tunnel

is also used

by pedestrians

(in

one tube

only).

The

number of

vehicles admitted to

the

tunnel

is

limited by

the

cycle

of

the traffic

control

lights. In the

west

tube

approximately 18 vehicles/min are

admitted

while

in the

east

tube

the

number

is

about 33

per minute..

Traffic

speed is

maintained

at about

30 mph.

Backing

does

occur

at

the

traffic

lights. This normally

involves

6

to

12

vehicles

for

times

of

30 seconds.

Gas/diesel

ratio

ranges

from

10:1

to

20:1.

Pedestrian

traffic

averages

8 per

hour

with

an

average

walk-through

time of

approximately

four minutes.

Readings

taken with

a

portable Hopcalite detector

averaged 50

ppm

inside the

tunnel

with

an

increase

to

200

ppm

at

the portal

at which

backed-up traffic

occurs,.

Anemometer

determinations

of

air

movement

showed

that

a

velocity of

370

ft/min

was

maintained

at sidewalk

level

with

an

intermittent

flow

of

1050

vehicles

per

hour.

Assuming a

tunnel

cross-

section

of

435 ft

2

,

the

volumetric

flow rate

could

be as

high

as

150,000

cfm. The CO

output

for

18

cars

at

30

mph

is 18

x

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60

gms/mile

or

270-

gm

per

tunnel

length

(1/4

mi).

Since

vehicles require

30

sec

to

pass

through the

tunnel the

CO

emission

rate

is

540

gms/min

or 15.3

cfm.

Assuming

a ven-

tilation rate

of

150,000

cfm

(4,860,000

gms/min)

yields a

possible

average

tunnel CO concentration of 110

ppm.

Figure

27

shows

the measured

CO

profile.

Traffic

noise

ranged

from

88

to 93 dBC.

In

conclusion,

the

computer program

appears to

adequately predict

the pollution level of

CO

in

tunnels

as

a function

of

the

variables

which

are

fed

into

the

program.

Computed

values

for

hydrocarbons

and

NO

appear to

be reliable

in some

cases

and unreliable

in

others.

However,

emission

rates for

the contaminants

are

not as well

defined

as

are

emission

rates

for

CO

and

vary considerably

depending upon

the

mechanical

condition

and

age

of the

car.

66



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67





PHYSIOLOGICAL

EFFECTS OF TUNNEL CONTAMINANTS

The

objectives

of this phase of

the

program

were

to

evaluate

the

effects

of vehicle

tunnel impurities

on

both

in-tunnel

workers

and

the transient

public,

and

to

set limits

for

maximum

allowable

concentrations for manned

tunnels

as

well

as

safety

and

comfort

levels for unmanned

tunnels.

Selection

of the

impurities

for which

limits

were

set was

based

on

the

contaminants

which were

found

in

tunnels

and

the

concentration

levels

at

which

these contaminants

were

present

in

vehicular

tunnels.

The Industrial

Health Foun-

dation,

Inc.

of Pittsburgh served

as

a

subcontractor

on

this

phase

of

the program.

The final report from Industrial

Health

Foundation is

included

as

Appendix

I

of

this report.

The selection

of specific limits

was

the

responsibility

of

MSAR and selected limits

along with

the

criteria for

se-

lection

of

these

limits

were submitted

to

and

reviewed

by

the

Environmental

Protection

Agency.

Table

14

is

a composite listing of ranges of tunnel

contaminants measured in

a

number

of different

tunnels.

These

values serve

to compare

relative concentrations

and

therefore

provide

a basis on

which

to select those

contaminants for

which

limits

should

be

set.

Carbon monoxide levels

in

tunnels

frequently

exceed

the

Threshold

Limit

Value

(50

ppm)

and occasionally

exceed

the

Short

Term

Limit Value

(400

ppm/15

min).

Since

CO

is

the

major health hazard

impurity

in

automobile exhaust,

limits

will

be

set

for this

contaminant.

69



TABLE 14

-

MEASURED TUNNEL CONTAMINANTS

Contaminant

CO

N0

2

Aldehydes**

'

SO2

Tota

Poly

1 pa

cycl

Pyre

Benz

Coro

Benz

Metals

Lead

Iron

Zinc

Cadm

rticul

ates

ic

hydrocarbons

ne

o(a )pyrene

nene

perylene

i

urn

Range

54-170

ppm

0.05-0.43

ppm

0.2-1

.63

ppm

0.05-0.12

ppm

0.04-<0.05

ppm

0.424-2.350

mg/m

0.04-1.20

yg/m

3

0.03-0.69

yg/m

3

0.03-0.53

yg/m

3

0.09-0.99

yq/m

3

9.5-44.5

ug/m

3

9.5-23.4 yg/m

3

2.2 yg/m

3

0.04-0.6

yg/m

3

(1)

It has been

estimated

that

formaldehyde

accounts

for

70-80%

of

the total

aldehyde

emissions.

70



as

a

combu

of op

appro

oxide

that

the

m

where

nants

and

o

plans

examp

conve

tunne

predi

tunne

that

resul

st

ion

erati

ximat

s

of

emi

tt

ore

t

as

th

appe

dor t

to u

le,

t

rt

an

1.

T

ct

an

1.

I

level

Oxides

t

of ox

.

The

on

but

ely

4/1

ni

troge

ed by

g

o

x

i c an

e

TLV

f

ar to

b

hreshol

se cert

he

Pitt

e x

i

s t

i

hese

bu

increa

n antic

s

would

of

nit

i

d

a

t

i

o

N0/N0

2

on

the

to

5/

n

emi t

a s o

1 i

n

d

more

or

NO

e

pres

d

1

imi

a

i

n t u

sburgh

ng tro

ses

wi

sed

le

i

p

a

t

i

o

be

se

rogen

n of

a

ratio

avera

I in

q

ted by

e

engi

i

rri

t

is

25

ent

in

ts

,

at

nnel s

Port

Hey

t

II be

vel of

n

of

t

t for

are

p

tmosp

vari

ge

th

a s

o

1 i

dies

nes

.

a

t

i

n

g

ppm.

1

eve

the

for d

Autho

unnel

d i

e s e

ox id

hese

NO

an

resent

h

e r

i

c

es ace

e

rati

ne

eng

el

eng

Of th

.

The

Altho

Is

bel

presen

i

e s

e 1

rity

T

into

1

powe

es

of

probl

e

d N0

2

.

i n t

ni

tro

ordi

n

o

is

i nes

.

ines

e

two

TLV

f

ugh

t

ow th

t

tim

traff

r

a

n s

i

a

mas

red

a

ni

tro

ms

,

i

unnel

gen

du

g

to t

in the

Howe

are

hi

oxide

or

N0

2

hese

c

e safe

e

,

the

ic

onl

t

inte

s

tran

nd

one

gen in

t

was

atmospheres

ring fuel

he mode

range

of

ver, the

gher than

s,

N0

2

is

is

5 ppm,

ontami

-

ty

limits

re

are

y.

For

nds to

sit

bus

woul

d

that

decided

The

other

impurity

in

tunnels which

has

been

ob-

served

to exceed the irritation

or odor

threshold

limit

is

formaldehyde.

The

irritation

threshold

for

HCHO

has been

reported

to

be as

low as 0.05 ppm while

levels

of 0.12

ppm

have been reported

in

tunnels.

Authorities on odor

have

frequently

attributed

the

objectionable odor

of

auto

exhaust

to the aldehyde

content.

Therefore,

limits

have

been

se-

lected

for

formaldehyde which

is the

major aldehyde

emitted

from

auto exhaust.

Other

impurities

present

in

tunnel

atmospheres

in-

clude,

as

two general categories,

partially

burned

hydrocarbons

and

metals. Benzo(a

)pyrene

has been of particular concern

to

the

environmental health

personnel

because of

its

carcinogenic

properties.

However,

the

maximum

value

measured

has

been only

0.5% of

the

TLV.

All

metals which have been

detected are

well

below

the

TLV.

Lead

is

the

metal that has

been measured

in

highest

concentrations

and

it

is

only

20%

of

the

TLV.

With

the

advent

of unleaded

gasolines,

the concentration

will

un-

doubtedly

decrease.

71



This

covers all

of

the contaminants

which

have been

detected

in

vehicular tunnels

except

for

S0«.

A

cursory

com-

parison

of the

concentration

level

versus tne

odor

level

would

suggest

that limits should

be

set for

SO?.

However,

the

work

which

provided these

values

showed

that the

S0«

level

was

present in the

intake

air

rather than

as

a

result

of auto-

motive exhaust. Therefore, no

limits

will be

set for

SO2.

Selected

Contaminant Levels for Vehicular Tunnels

In manned

tunnels,

police

officers

are located

at

three

or

four

locations in

the

tunnel.

These officers

spend

two hours in

the

tunnel

and

two hours

out of

the

tunnel

,

so

that during

an 8 hr work day, they are

exposed

to

the

tunnel

atmosphere for

a

total

period

of

four

hours.

Personal

in-

terviews

with

these

employees

revealed

that they

frequently

experience headache, tiredness

and

eye

irritation.

Personal

observation

of

these

officers

as

they

came

off duty

during

or

immediately

following rush hour traffic

indicated that

they

did

indeed

have

eye irritation.

whi

ch

such

and

w

perio

Turnp

way

t

eveni

being

the

t

that

a

sho

Ma

is

e

x

as

repl

ashing

d

s

.

In

i

ke

Tun

raff

ic

ng

and

washed

u n

n

e

1

i

mai

nten

rt

time

intenance

personnel

represent another

work

group

osed

to

tunnel atmospheres.

Routine

maintenance

acement of lights, repair

or

replacement

of tile

of the tunnel

walls is

scheduled

during

off-peak

dual tube

tunnels

such

as

the Pennsylvania

nels, Baltimore

Harbor

Tunnel

and

others,

two

is

shunted through

one

tube during

the

late

early morning

hours

while

the

other tube

is

or

repaired.

Emergency

maintenance

within

s

not frequently

required

and in general requires

ance

personnel

be

present

in the

tunnel for only

Three of

the

studies were

directly

pertinent to

setting

of

limits

for

manned tunnels

in

that

the

studies

in-

volved

clinical

examination of

personnel

who had

spent

greater

than

10

years working

in

tunnels.

One

of

the reports

stated:

No

mortality or

morbidity

from primary

lung

cancer

was found

among a group

of

97

retired

tunnel

police

officers who

had

worked

within

72



the

H

in

re

years

lung

pol ic

this

1 i v

i

n

cl

ude

mary

years

posur

study

37 ye

30

ye

oil

and

Li

ti

rement

of activ

cancer wa

e

officer

same reti

g

nontunn

din this

lung

cane

ago.

Th

e in

the

was

at

ars

;

a

rs

;

in

8

rs. (34l

nco 1

n

for at

e

serv

s

foun

s stud

rement

el

ret

study

er

sue

e

inte

tunnel

east

1

9.7%,

Tunne

leas

ice.

d

amo

ied w

peri

ired

,

the

cessf

rval

s and

8 yea

the

i

Is,

a

t

10

No

c

ng

th

ho

ha

od.

pol

ic

re

is

ul

ly

betwe

the

rs

an

nterv

nd

had

years

ase of

e 25

r

d

died

Among

e

offi

one w

resect

en i

n

time

o

d

as

1

al

was

been

after

25

primary

etired

during

the

16

cers in-

ith

pri-

ed

11

tial ex-

f

this

ong

as

over

The second article stated:

Resul

i

nvest

pulmon

to aut

nonspe

lent

i

more t

time

o

freque

did

no

of

age

The

ma

with t

cantly

speci

f

of the

ts

are

igatio

ary

fu

omobi

ci

f

i

c

n

men

han 10

f

empl

nt

in

t perm

or ci

ximal

he

Wri

lower

ic

res

worke

pre

n

of

ncti

e ex

resp

who

yea

oyme

thi

s

it

p

gare

expi

ght

in

pi

ra

rs

s

sented

the

r

ons

of

haust

i rator

had

wo

rs

tha

nt.

C

group

roper

tte

sm

ratory

peak

f

the wo

tory d

tudied

of

a

e

s

p

i

r

a

gr

in

a

y

dis

rked

n

in

hest

.

Th

asses

o

k

i

n

g

flow

lowme

rkers

iseas

(35

n

epi

atory

oup

o

road

ease

in

th

those

colds

e

siz

sment

on t

rate

ter

,

with

e

tha

demiol

og

sympton

f

men

ex

tunnel

.

was more

e tunnel

with

a

were

al

e

of

the

of the

his

popu

,

as

mea

was sign

chronic

n

in

the

i

c

s

and

posed

Chroni

c

preva-

for

shorter

so

more

sample

effect

1

a t

i

o

n

.

sured

ifi-

non-

rest

A

third stated

that:

Examination

of

a

group of 156 Holland

Tunnel

traffic

officers

exposed throughout

a

period

of

13 years

to

an occupational

carbon

monoxide

exposure averaging

70

ppm did not reveal any

evidence of

injury

to

health

contri

butable

to

carbon

monoxide

exposure.

(36)

the

basis of

the work

by Speizer,

one

may conclude

that

adverse effects

on the

respiratory

system are

imposed

exposure

to tunnel impurities.

In spite

of

the

large volume of

information avail-

on

physiological

effects of air

contaminants

on the

uman being,

it is still extremely

difficult

to

select

firm

for

employees in manned tunnels due to

the con-

data which

are presented. However,

this

dilemma

73



has apparently

been solved by the

Occupational

Safety and

Health Act of 1970,

Public

Law

91-596.(37)

This

Act

sets

standards to

assure

safe

and

healthful working

conditions

for working men

and

women . As

part

of this

Act,

concen-

trations

are set

for

air

contaminants

including

CO, NO,

NO2, HCHO and particulates (oil mist).

These

values

are:

Contaminant

CO

NO

N0

2

HCHO

Particul ates (oil

mist)

Al lowable

Concentrati

on

Time

Weighted

Avg.

Limi

ts(38)

50

ppm

75.0

ppm

25

ppm 37.5

ppm

5 ppm

10.0

ppm

3

ppm

6.0 ppm

_

10.0

mg/rrr

mg/m

3

Although

the

Act

does

not make

allowances

for

less than

8

hr

exposure periods, the

TLV

levels

do

provide

for

a

time

weighted

average.

By

definition, time weighted averages permit ex-

cursions

above the

TLV provided they

are

compensated

by equiv-

alent excursions below the limit during the work

day. In

some

instances it may be

permissible

to

calculate

the

average

weekly concentration for

a

workweek

rather

than

a

workday.

The

degree of

permissible excursion is

related

to

the

magnitude

of the

TLV

of

a

particular substance

as

shown

below:

TLV (ppm)

Permi

ssi

bl

Excursion

Factor

0-1

3

1-10

2

10-100

1.5

100-1000

1.25

It is

therefore

recommended that these time

weighted

average

limits be adopted as

standards for

manned

tunnels

since

tunnel

personnel

are

not exposed for

a

full 8 hr

workday.

Most

tunnels are

designed to

maintain

CO levels at

less

than

100

ppm

and

in general,

a

warning

light is

activated

in

the

fan control

room

when the

level

goes

above

250

ppm.

During rush hour

traffic,

CO

levels

in the

range

of

350

ppm

are not

unusual in

some tunnels.

It is

obvious

that

these

levels

significantly

exceed

the

above

recommended

values

for

manned tunnels. In

such cases,

the

workers are

exposed

to

levels exceeding

the

Occupational

Safety

and

Health

Act

of

1970

and some

remedial

action

must

be

taken to

bring

these

tunnels

within the

limits

as set

forth

by the

Act.

74



The

Act

does

allow

these

limits

to

be

exceeded

in

cases

where protective

equipment

or

protective equipment

in

addition

to other

measures are

provided.

Alternatives

to

maintaining levels at

less

than the

specified

limit should

be

considered

since

with appropriate

fan

operation

these

levels can

be

maintained

in most tunnels for

18-20

hrs

of

a

24 hr

day. Some tunnel

authorities have

already

considered

alternatives

:

1. Baltimore

Harbor

Tunnel Authority

con-

sidered the use of closed

circuit

tele-

vision surveillance

as

an

alternative

to

having personnel in the

tunnel.

In the

event

of an accident or breakdown

as in-

dicated

by

the

closed circuit television

system,

maintenance men, firemen

or police

officers

would

immediately

enter

the

tunnel

to

rectify

the problem. However,

the

authority

ultimately rejected the

idea

with

the reasoning

being

that

men

stationed

in

the

tunnel

could react

more

rapidly

to potentially

hazardous

situations

such

as accidents, fires and

so

on.

2.

The

i nst

Line

tai n

rapi

They

trol

mann

In

t

the

woul

of

t

will

is

h

to

c

1 i mi

the

tami

Port

Au

ailed

c

oln

Tun

police

d

respo

are cu

ley car

ed

by

a

he even

closed

d be

ra

he

prob

not

be

ighly

1

oncentr

t

at th

piston

nants

t

t h

o

r

i

losed

nel .

offi

nse

t

rrent

whic

pol

i

t

of

ci

rcu

P

i

d

1

y

1

em.

stat

i k

e

1

y

ation

e exi

ef

fee

hroug

ty

of N

circui

Howeve

cers

in

o

fires

ly

buil

h

would

ce

offi

a

probl

it

tele

d

i s

p

a t

Al

thou

ioned

i

that h

s above

t porta

t

of

ca

h the

p

ew Yo

t

tel

r,

th

the

,

bre

ding

be

c

cer

a

em wi

v

i

s

i

o

ched

gh

th

n

the

e

wi

1

the

Is

as

rs

ex

ortal

rk

Ci

evisi

ey st

tunne

akdow

a pro

onsta

t

eac

tness

n

,

th

to

th

e off

tunn

1

be

speci

a

re

haust

s.

ty

has

on in the

ill

main-

1 for

ns, etc.

totype

ntly

h

portal,

ed on

e

car

e

scene

icer

el

,

it

exposed

fied

suit

of

ing

con-

These

two

aforementioned

measures involve removing

the

offi-

cers

from the

tunnel,

and

it must be

admitted

that

this does

increase the

reaction time

to an

incident

in

the tunnel.

elude:

Other measures which

would

be feasible

would

in-

1.

A

direct air

supply

to

the officers'

cubicle

to

provide

clean,

outside air

75



was

tried in

at least

one

tunnel,

but the

inlet

vents

were

plugged

up

by

the

offi-

cers

during the winter

due

to the

chill

factor

of

the

cold air blowing in.

2.

puri ty

Health

that th

Confere

used,

ceeded

peak ho

adopted

tunnels

traffic

puri

fie

tection

In

limit

and

S

e

tim

nee

o

It

is

durin

urs

i

,

the

with

cont

a

t

i

o

n

summ

s i

n

afety

e-wei

f

Gov

reco

g

rus

n

som

n

rem

in

al

rol

,

of

t

ary,

manne

Act

ghted

ernme

g

n

i

z e

h

hou

e tun

edi

al

lowab

chang

unnel

the

re

d

tunn

of

197

limit

ntal

a

d

that

rs

in

nel

s.

actio

1 e

1

i

m

es

in

air

o

commen

el

s

co

with

s esta

nd Ind

these

all tu

If

th

n must

its.

tunnel

r

indi

dati

on

nf

orm

the

a

b

1

i

s

h

e

u s

t r i a

limit

nnel

s

ese re

be ta

These

venti

v

i

d u

a

1

i

s

ma

to

the

ddi

tio

d

by

t

1 Hygi

s are

and

ev

commen

ken

to

action

lation

respi

de

tha

Occup

nal

pr

he Ame

e

n i

s

t s

curren

en

dur

dati

on

bri

ng

s

may

proce

ratory

t

lm-

a

t i o

n

a

1

o v

i

s

i

o

n

r

i

c

a

n

be

tly

ex-

i

n

g

n

o

n

s

are

the

i

nclude

dures

,

pro-

min/day)

n i

f

i

c a

n

t

police

o

premise

should

b

safety

1

be

h

i g h

of

expos

shorter,

separate

Unmanned Tunnels

of

the t

ly

less

t

fficers

i

is made

t

e set

to

evel

must

r

than th

ure

to th

Safety

ly

in

the

The

pollutants which

are

considered

in

unmanned

tunnels

are

the

same as

those considered in

manned tunnels,

i.e.,

CO,

NO,

N0

2?

HCHO

and

particulates.

Since the

resi-

dence

time

of

an

individual

in

a

tunnel

is

relatively

short

(5-15

min),

then

safe

levels

for most

of the

contaminants

can

be

increased

over those

limits

set

for

manned

tunnels.

It must be remembered

that

if

one

contaminant

is

allowed

to

increase, then

all other

contaminants

increase

proportionately

according

to

their

relative concentrations

in auto

exhaust.

However,

if

internal purification

which

is

being

studied

as

part of

this program

proves

to

be

feasible,

removal

of

selected

contaminants

would be

possible.

76



Prior

to

setting

safe

limits

for unmanned

tunnels,

safe

limits

must

be

defined. The

definition

used

in this

case refers to

levels at

which short

term

exposure will

not

create any

physiological

effects on

the

individual.

One of

the problems

in

setting short term

safe

limits

is

that

limited

work

has

been

done

in

this

field,

and

no

systematic

rationale

has

been

developed for

relating Threshold

Limit

Values,

which

are set

for

long

term exposures,

to

short term

exposures.

The

American

Industrial

Hygiene

Association,

The

Pennsylvania

Department of Health

and

the

Aero Medical

Association

have

attempted

to set

tentative

standards and

at

this

time this

is

the only

established

information which

can

be reliably

quoted.

Table

15

lists

Threshold

Limit Values

and

Short

Term

Limits

(AIHF)

which

have been set

for

the

selected

tunnel

pollutants.

It is

obvious

from

Table 15

that

the

number of

Short

Term

Limits

which

have

been

set are

signifi-

cantly fewer than the number which

have

not

been

set.

How-

ever,

the

tunnel

engineer

needs

values

to

design

to

and

other

data

exist which can be used to set

tentative

limits.

TABLE

15

-

TLV

AND

STL

FOR SELECTED

POLLUTANTS

STL

(ppm)

Polluta

nt TLV 5

mm

10

min

1

5

mi

n

30 min

CO

50 ppm

_

_

1500 1000

800

NO

25

ppm

—

-- --

N0

2

HCHO

5

ppm

35 25

20

2 ppm

3

5

mg/m

5

--

--

Particulates

--

--

-- --

The assumption

is

made

that

during rush hour

traffic

with

a stop and

go

situation, the

time

to

traverse

a

tunnel

could be

of the order of

15

min.

The standard curves

for

effects

of

various carbon

monoxide

exposures

as

a

function

of time

shows that

at

500

ppm no perceptible

effects occur

within

15

min. Nitric oxide

(NO)

is

a

simple

asphyxiant

and

therefore

levels

significantly

higher

than

the

TLV

should

be

tolerable. However,

in

the

absence

of

any

firm

values

to

support this

conclusion,

it

is .recommended

that

the

STL

for

NO

be

set at 37.5

ppm.

The

STL for N0

2

(15

min)

has

been

tentatively

set

at

5 ppm. This

could

cause

temporary

eye

and nasal

irritation

but

no

permanent

physiological

damage.

Short

Term Limits for

formaldehyde

has

been set at

5

ppm for

5

min.

The

literature

states that

levels

above

5

ppm are

severely

irritating and

therefore

a

5

ppm STL

is

recommended

for

15

min.

exposures.

Particulates are

the

only

non-gaseous

77



impurities which

are

being considered

for

STL

values.

We

do

not recommend

a

level

higher than

the

TLV

for

particulates,

i.e.,

10 mg/m^.

In summary,

it is

difficult

to

set

Short Term

Limits

for tunnel pollutants

due to the

lack

of

specific

data

on short term

effects.

However,

using the

data

which

are

available

along

with what is believed

to

be

reasonable

extrapolations

of

related

data, the limits

which have been

selected are as

follows:

CO

NO

NO2

HCHO

Particulates

-

500 ppm

37.5

ppm

5

ppm

5 ppm

5 mg/m*

3

Comfort

level, as

used in this

case,

is

defined

as that level

of

contaminant which produces

no

irritation,

sense

of

unpleasant

odor or

physiological

effect such

as

minor

headache.

The

comfort

level

varies

from

person

to

person

depending upon his sensitivity

to a

given

contaminant.

Individuals

with certain

allergies

may

be

particularly

sensitive

to specific contaminants. Some individuals

are

more

sensitive

to

odors

than

are others. These

are

normal

differences

that

exist among the human

population,

so

in

general, odor

threshold

levels

or irritation

levels have

been

selected

on

the

basis

of the sensitivity experienced

by

the

major

portion of

the

public.

Carbon monoxide is colorless and odorless and

there-

fore

creates

no sensation

odor

or

eye

or

nasal

irritation.

Significant

levels

of

carbon

monoxide

over

certain periods

of

time

can cause headache. However,

assuming

a

maximum again

of

15 minutes residence

time

in

a tunnel,

a

level

of

1000 ppm

is

certainly

well

within the

tolerable

range.

Nitric

oxide

(NO)

is

also

a

colorless gas

with

a

slightly sweetish taste

or

odor

at

high concentrations.

No

data

were

found

on

either

the odor

threshold

limit

or the

irritation

threshold

limit,

hence for the

present

time the TLV of 25 ppm

will

be

used as

the

comfort limit

for

NO.

NO? exhibits an undesirable

odor and is a strong

irritant.

Trie

odor

threshold

limit

has

been

reported

to be

1-3

ppm

and the odor is

characteristic and

distinct at

5

ppm.

The

recommended

comfort limit

for

tunnels

should

be

1-3

ppm.

Formaldehyde

is

also

an

odorous

and

irritating

compound.

Most references

quote

an

odor threshold

limit

of

^1

ppm,

although

this

seems

to vary

greatly

among

individuals.

Eye

and

nasal

irritations

have

been reported

at

levels

of

2-3

ppm

HCHO. For

a

comfort

level in

tunnels,

we

recommend

a

level

of

1

ppm.

78



Particulates

in tunnels can

be

odorous

due

to

their

own chemical

composition

or

from

odorous

gases

absorbed on

the

particulate

surface.

Particulates

can

also have

an irri-

tation

effect

particularly

through

deposition

in

the eyes.

However,

the most

significant

effect

on comfort

is

probably

due

to

the

haze effect

of

particulates. Mo

data

was found

on

the correlation

of particulate

concentration

versus

visi-

bility in tunnels.

Spot checks made

by MSAR personnel

at

the

Baltimore Harbor

Tunnel and

the

Fort

Pitt

Tunnel

showed

particulate

concentrations of approximately

0.6

mg/m

3

with

the

particle

size ranging

from

<1

micron

to about

5

microns.

At

this

concentration

level

(0.6

mg/m

3

),

the

haze level

was

low and

the

visibility was

quite

good. However,

we

hesitate

to select

this

concentration

as

a

firm

value

for

tunnel

comfort.

In

the absence of

sufficient

data, we

have

decided

that

a

satisfactory

level

cannot be

chosen

at

this

time.

Summary of

Recommended Levels

Tentative

pollutant concentration

levels have been

chosen for manned

tunnels and for unmanned

tunnels.

In

the

latter

case,

both

safe and

comfortable

levels have been

chosen.

These

levels

are

summarized

in

Table

16.

TABLE

16

-

TENTATIVE

POLLUTION LEVELS

FOR TUNNELS

Pol

1

utant

CO

NO

N0

?

hcro

Parti

cul

ates

(1)

N.R.

Manned

Tunnel

s

75

37

10

6

10

ppm

5

ppm

PPm

PPm

mg/m

J

Unmanned Tunnels

Safety

Level

Comfort

Level

500

ppm

1000

ppm

37.5 ppm 25

ppm

5 ppm 1

ppm

6

ppm

10 mg/m

J

1

N.R. W

No

recommendation

due

i

n

format ion.

to

insufficient

The

levels

which have been set for

manned tunnels

were dic-

tated

by

the Occupational

Safety

and Health Act of

1970;

there

would seem

to

be

little reason

to

question

these values since

they

are

required

standards set

by

the Federal

Government.

The

safety

and comfort

levels

which

were

chosen are,

of

course,

subject

to

some

question

since

little

data

exists on

short

term

exposure

limits.

79





EVALUATION OF

POLLUTANT REMOVAL

METHODS

There are

two

potential

reasons

for

development

of

methods and systems

for purification

of

tunnel

atmospheres.

One

of

these

reasons

is

to

purify the

atmosphere

within

the

tunnel

itself,

while

the

other

reason is

to improve

the

quality

of the

exhaust air from

the tunnel.

In

relation.

to

purity

of

the

air

within

the

tunnels,

one

reference*

39

'

which

was

found involves

recycle

of

tunnel

air.

This

system catalyti-

cally

oxidized

CO

to

CO2 with

Hopcalite followed

by condensation

of CO2

and water

at liquid

nitrogen-liquid

oxygen

temperatures

(Figure

28).

The

boil-off

of the liquid air during

cooling

provided fresh

air

for the

tunnel.

No

claim

was

made for re-

moval of

hydrocarbons

,

particulates

and

so on.

One

other

reference was

found

on recycle of tunnel air.

(4°)

This

system

incorporated wet scrubbing for particulate removal, catalytic

oxidation for CO

removal,

a

deacidi

f

ication

unit

to

remove

CO2

and

a

condenser.

This

article

claimed that Neutrotecni

cia

Italiana S.R.L., Milan

manufactured

these units

commercially.

MSA

Italiana is located

in

Milan

and one

of

the

MSA

repre-

sentatives

in

the

Milan

office

was

requested

to

procure in-

formation

from

the referenced company.

The

MSA

representative

reported

that

the company

stopped its

activity

in

November

1968.

Patent Development

Associates, under

subcontract to

MSAR,

reviewed the state-of-the-art

of applicable control

technology.

PDA

also

made

an

economic evaluation

of selected

control

measures which

might

be

adaptable

to purification

of

tunnel

atmospheres.

The

result

of

this

study

is

presented

as

part

of

this section. It should

be noted

that

the

PDA study

was

made

mid-way

through

the overall

program

and

therefore

some of

the emission

standards

or

criteria

which

are

quoted

may

have

changed

since

that

time. It must

also

be kept

in

mind

that the

economic evaluations

which

are

presented are

for

hypothetical

cases

and do

not

necessarily

apply

to

any

specific

existing

or planned tunnel; these economic

evalu-

ations

are presented merely

to

show the relative cost

of

tunnel

air

purification

or

recycle

versus

direct

ventilation.

As

a

result of

the

survey,

certain control

tech-

niques

were

selected for

evaluation. The test

system

and

the

control techniques

which have been tested

are

also

presented

in

this

section.

State

of

the

Art

-

Applicable Control

Technology

Historically, emission control

technology

was

devel-

oped

as

a

set

of empirical solutions to

specific

industrial

problems

in

diverse

industries

and

areas.

The

acceleration

of

technical

and industrial interest in

pollution

control per

se

81



VENTILATING

DEVICE

AT \i,2m (SOO

It.)

INTERVALS ALONG

TUNNEL

FPESH

DISCHARGE

DUCT

arfe

8

Q

B

P

HOPCALtTE

CATALVST

FOR OXIDISING

CARBON

MONOXIDE

TO CARBON

DIOXIDE

RFLF.ASE FLOAT

VALVE

WATER

LIOUID

CARBON

DIOXIDE

CARBON DIOXIDE

PUMP

FIGURE 28

-

SCHEMATIC

DIAGRAM.

PROPOSED

BY

SIR

BRUCE

WHITE(39)

82



in

the

last

two

decades

has

forced

continuing

collection

and

critical

examination

of the

technology

available

for accom-

plishing such

control,

and

several

comprehensive reviews

have

recently

appeared.

The

Air

Pollution

Engineering

Manual

j

./1s

an

ex-

tensive

compilation

by

the

Air

Pollution

Control

district of

the

County

of Los

Angeles

of

control problem hardware solu-

tions

and

design

approaches

by

type

of

industrial

emission

and industry.

This

reference

includes

in-depth

review of

the supporting

theory for

the

design and selection

of

control

method and

equipment for

particulate removal

(inertial

separ-

ators,

baghouses, electrical

precipitators)

and gaseous

pollutants

(thermal and

catalytic

incineration,

adsorption,

condensation,

scrubbing).

control

Sources

Perhaps

t

technology

of Air Poll

he

best

basic

text

in

field

is

Air

Pollution

ution

and Their

Contro

t

reyi

nuaiv

4

work

con

ment des

art

Ma

same

tec

etc.

g

i

v

design

p

of

curre

made

in

drawing

of the

p

similar

many

are

informat

to equip

enforcem

should

e

At

the

p

and

tech

One resu

design

t

attendan

to

some

problem.

tains

the

m

ign prccedu

ew

is Vol urn

3)

which

co

hnology

cat

en above,

rocedures

i

nt equipmen

this

refere

board

and

t

lant

design

plants

and

as

of

prese

ion

obtaine

ment vendor

ent

efforts

ventually

f

resent

time

no

logy

is

h

It of

this

o compensat

t

cost

and

of

the

appl

ost com

res

and

e

II:

C

vers

in

e

g

o r

i

e s

An abbr

n

d i

c

a t e

t

selec

nee

tha

he

coll

,

the

p

process

nt cont

d by

e

or i n

and

in

orce su

,

much

eld by

s

i

t u a t

i

e

for

p

space e

i

c a

b

1

e

plete

and

c a

p

a

b

i 1 i

t

ontrol

Equ

d

u s

t r

i

a

1

c

of

inerti

eviated

tr

s the

empi

tion

proce

t

when

th

e c t o r

is

t

recou

a r

rol techno

xperience

us trial

fi

dependent

c

h

data

in

of

control

vendors

on

on is

freq

erformance

xcesses

,

a

control

te

d

e

t

a

i

ies

.

i

pmen

rime

es is

ontro

al se

eatme

ricis

dures

e pro

be

rse

i

e

a

1 i s

logy

has

1

es

,

resea

to th

equi

a co

uent

unce

nd

th

chnol

(42)

1

of

Ted

r

Anot

t

of

T

equ

parat

nt of

m

of

.

Th

cess

speci

s to

tic

a

art.

been

but t

rch a

e

ope

pment

nf i de

equi

p

rtain

is si

ogy

f

ew

po

Vol

urn

this

eview

her

s

the

A

i

pmen

ors

,

theo

1

arge

e

sta

is on

fied

exper

pprai

Much

and i

he in

nd

pu

n

lit

desi

n

t i a 1

ment

ty, w

tuati

or

th

lluti

e

III

prima

of

e

tate-

i

r

Po

t in

bagho

ry

an

area

temen

the

as pa

i e n c e

sal

o

of

t

s

con

creas

b

1 i

c

a

eratu

gn ar

basi

over-

i

th

on

ap

e tun

on

ry

quip-

of-

1

1

u

t

i

o n

the

uses

,

d

s

t

rt

,

on

f

he

f

i

ned

e

in

tion

re.

t

s.

plies

nel

Applicable

Tunnel

Pollution

Control

Technology

Control

technology

problem

of

pollutant removal

tunnels must be

evaluated

in

system

constraints. Initial

automotive

exhaust

pollution

possibly

applicable to

the

in

the

ventilation

of

vehicular

the context

of

the

probable

review

of

tunnel

-contained

dilute

indicate

the

following

parameters

83



to

be potentially significant:

1 ow

or

being d

conf

i

gu

one

com

process

dilute

operati

the

gas

likely

adsorpt

particu

precipi

that

a

cover

t

present

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Thu

zero

p

e

s

i

g

n

e

ration

ponent

es cap

pol 1

ut

ons

,

a

eous

c

to sat

ion,

c

lates

,

tation

comb

in

he

spe

in di

Mul

ti

-poll

utant removal

requirements.

Blower

head

loss

limitations,

particularly

in

existing

tunnels.

Large

air

volume

handling requirements.

Relatively low

pollutant concentrations.

Relatively low

pollutant

emission

rates.

s,

app

ol

luta

d into

s

,

and

or

ty

able

o

ant co

s

typi

ompone

isfy

t

atalyt

a

p

p

1 i

,

and

ati on

ctrum

luted

1

i

c

a b

nt th

hi gh

pref

pe of

f

tre

ncent

fied

nts

,

he ab

i

c

ox

cable

inert

of

co

of

po

autom

1

e

co

resho

-thro

erabl

poll

a

t

i n

g

ratio

by

el

the

c

ove-n

i

d

a t

i

proc

i

al

o

ntrol

lluta

oti

ve

ntrol

te

Id

s

e

n s

ughput

,

y

be

fun

utant.

large v

ns are n

ectrosta

ontrol

p

oted gen

on,

and

esses

in

r wet-sc

operati

nts and

exhaust

c

h

n

i

q u

e

tivity,

1 ow-1 os

cti

onal

Unfortu

ol

umetr

ormal

ly

tic

pre

rocesse

eral

cr

absorpt

elude

e

rubbing

ons w i

concent

gas.

s

sho

be

c

s equ

for

natel

ic

fl

sing

c

i

p

i

t

s

tha

i

teri

ion.

lectr

.

It

1

be

ratio

uld

apab

ipme

more

y,

m

ows

1

e-p

atio

t

ap

a

ar

For

osta

i

s

need

n le

have

le

of

nt

than

ost

at

wery

urpose

n.

For

pear

e

the

ti c,

obvious

ed

to

vel s

Table 17 presents

a

summary

of

the

comparative

process capabilities for

the

probably-applicable

control

technology

as

they

apply to the

tunnel

pollution

problem.

An inspection of Table

17

shows that

\/ery

few

of

the

stand-

ard

control

operations appear to

have

unqualified

applica-

bility

to the

tunnel'

pollutants

within

the general

constraints

of the

problem.

The two

operations

that

appear

to be

tech-

nically

applicable without

apparent

limitations

or

additional

research

are electrostatic precipitation

for

the

particulates,

and

adsorption

for the hydrocarbons.

The

state

of

the

art

of

available

control

technology

will

be reviewed

below

with respect to

the

principal classes

of

pollutants,

and

the processes

that would

normally

be used

for

removal

of

each

pollutant. Because

of

the

mul

ti -function-

ality

of

several

of

the operations

considered, process

dis-

cussion emphasis

will be placed on

the primary

pollutant

applicability

as shown in Table 17.

Carbon

Monoxide

and

Hydrocarbons

In

terms of the relative

magnitude

of

pollutant

loadings, CO

and unburned

(including

partially-oxidized)

hydrocarbons are the

major constituents

in auto

exhausts,

as

shown in Table

18,

taken

from

Stern'

42

).

In addition

to

the

emissions

shown

as

contributed

by

blow-by and

exhaust,

the

84



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UJ

CQ

a:

D-

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to

Ul

O

O

o:

Q-

<

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o

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«/>

o

I_

*J

o

Ul

4->

0)

3.

>>

I.

C

X

>e

X

X

X

X

X

(1

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86



evaporative losses

from

the

fuel tank

and

carburetor

add

another

20

to

40

percent

to

the

hydrocarbon content

of the

total

emission. Nevertheless,

Table 18

indicates

the various

pollutant

contributions,

exclusive of

the

particulates,

and

CO and hydrocarbons

are

the most

significant.

These

two

pollutant

components

are

usually

grouped together

by

reason

of

the fact

that

they

are present

because

of

incomplete

oxidation, and

completion

of

oxidation

by

secondary

means

will

eliminate

them from

the

exhaust.

It

should

be

pointed

out,

however,

that

for non-oxidati

ve

techniques

such as

adsorption, these two

components

will not

behave

similarly.

The two

general

methods

of oxidative

disposal of

carbon

monoxide and hydrocarbons

are.

(a) Catalytic

oxidation

(b) Direct

thermal

or

flame incineration

These

two

methods

of

combustion completion

have

been

used

as

source

control

techniques

for

automotive

emissions,

and

sufficient

experience has been

obtained on

their

use

to

provide

a

guide

to

their

possible use

on

tunnel

air.

Catalytic Oxidation

Basic

researc

series of

hydrocarbons

carried

out

by Accomazz

industrial

aspects

of

d

been

reviewed

by

Brewer

the

commercial

catalyti

(a)

active metal /metal

1

carrier, and

(c)

active

loss of

activity is

one

materials

and

both

Brew

the nature

of poisons

f

Miller(47a)

reported

th

the effect

of support

g

a volumetric

space velo

30,000

to 175,000 hr.

1

geometrically

regular

s

volume

costs for this

c

prohibitive.

Further

w

by

Leak(48)

w

ho tested

catalytic

mufflers

on a

of

vanadia

plus

copper

activity

for CO

and

hyd

economic

data

on CAB

in

and Krenz(50)

while des

h

on

nir

c

aft

ic

ca

meta

of

t

er

an

or th

e res

eomet

city

,

con

uppor

ataly

ork

o

alumi

uto e

chrom

rocar

stall

ign

p

the

s

talyt

and

,

eco

and

W

erbur

r

r

i

e

r

1

/

o

x

i

he

ma

d

Wer

e

var

ults

ry on

(gas

c

1

u

d

i

t

was

st

($

n

sup

na-co

xhaus

ite

o

bon

r

a t

i

o

n

roced

uscepti

bi

1

i

ty

of

homolo

ic

oxidation

has

been

Caretto^

45

)

,

while

the

nomics and operation

ha

erner(47).

Werner

clas

ning

(CAB)

catalysts

as

,

(b) active

oxide/oxid

de carrier. Poisoning

jor

problems

with CAB

ner

provide

information

ious

types

of

catalysts

of laboratory

tests of

oxidation performance

volume/bed

volume)

rang

ng that an

open-structu

optimum.

However,

lar

300/cu.ft.)

appear

to

b

port

geometry was repor

ated

steel

wool

filamen

t. A

dual-catalyst

sys

n

the

alumina

had

the h

emoval.

Industrial

and

s

is provided

by

Lauber

ures are

given

by Dey(5

gous

ve

s

i

f

i

e

s

e

or

on

over

e

of

red

ge

e

ted

tary

tern

ighest

(49)

1).

87



vanadium

a

amount

of

contai

ned

This file

the

develo

either

by

or

petrole

of

several

treatment

Research

on a

wide

variety

of

possible

exhaust

has been published including

vanadium-alumina

promoted

uranium

oxides(54) an

d

combinations

of

nd copper

oxides

with noble metals(55)

a

/\

large

relevant background

art on

catalytic

mufflers

is

in the

U.

S.

Patent Office,

Class

23/Subclass 2.

has

been reviewed, and it

was found

that

most

of

pment

effort

in this

area has been

undertaken

chemical

companies

manufacturing

tetraethyl

lead

urn

companies. Table

19

summarizes

the

features

of the

recent

catalytic muffler

patents for

of

auto

exhaust.

in the

techno

a

p

p

1

i c

proces

automo

of 600

cataly

will

i

temper

a

recy

has to

cool ed

circul

parti

c

cataly

Cata

ra

n

g

e o

logy of

a

t

i o n to

s

emissi

t i v

e e

x h

°F. In

tic

o x

i d

ncur

an

ature el

cle

gas

be

heat

to

ambi

a t

i

n

g

a i

ularly

1

St.

lytic

f

400

catal

the

ons

a

aust

tunne

a t i

o

n

econo

evati

opera

ed

to

ent

c

r

vol

ow,

o

o x

i

d

a

°-800°

ytic o

remova

t

thes

cataly

1

gas

proce

m

i

c

b u

on.

T

t

i

o

n i

react

i

rcul

a

umes

,

r

pref

tion

n

F.C5.6).

x

i d

a t

i

1 of o

e

el ev

st

tern

proces

ss

at

rden

p

he the

s

doub

ion

t

e

tion

t

an

opt

erenti

ormal

Muc

on

de

rgani

ated

perat

sing,

tempe

ropor

rmal

led,

mpera

emper

imum

ally

ly

i n

h

of

ri ves

c vap

tempe

ures

the

ratur

t

i

o

n a

penal

becau

ture

ature

syste

ambie

vol ve

the

c

from

ors f

ratur

are

o

opera

es

ab

1

to

ty

in

se th

it

h

.

Th

m

wi

1

nt-te

s tempe

n v e

n

t

i

commer

rom

ind

es(57),

f

the o

tion

of

ove

amb

the deg

the

ca

e gas

n

as to

b

us,

wit

1 requi

mperatu

ratures

onal

cial

ustrial

and

rder

a

ient

ree of

se

of

ot

only

e

re-

h

large

re

a

re

does

b u

s

t

i

the

o

react

eratu

only

o

x i

d

a

suppo

trans

unbur

was

s

range

below

have

one

oxide

a

com

tempe

10,80

Heat

not appea

ble

cone

ther hand

ion at t

re requi r

limited w

nts for

C

rted

nob

i

t

i

o

n

and

Low-

ned

hydro

tudied by

of

metal

350°C.

satisfact

catalyst,

,

had

a

t

plete

oxi

rature le

0. All

o

evolution

in

catalytic oxidation

application

r

to

be

a

potential problem

at

the

low

com-

entration

levels

expected

in

tunnel

gas.

On

,

combustible

levels are too

low

to

support

mperatures

above

ambient. The

ambient-temp-

ement

delineates an

operational

area

in

which

ork

has

been

done. Low-temperature

catalytic

and hydrocarbons consist

of hopcalite,

e-metal catalysts, and

some newly

developed

noble-metal

/activated carbon

combinations.

temperature catalytic

oxidation

of

CO

and

carbons at

simulated

auto

exhaust

conditions

Cannon

and

Welling(58)

for

a

very

wide

and

support

combinations

at

temperatures

While

a large group

of

catalysts

appeared

to

ory

activity

in

this

temperature

range,

only

a

commercial

60%

manganese

oxide/40%

copper

hreshold

oxidation

temperature

of 25°C and

dation

(100%)

efficiency

at an

operating

vel

of 25°C

for

an

hourly

space

velocity

of

ther

catalytic

materials

tested

had

threshold

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oxida

effic

that

use

-

ature

opera

ganes

and

W

the

a

burne

of

wa

objec

tempe

inent

prior

fumes

tion temp

iency

lev

one

of

th

retentio

s

-is

no

tion on

t

e-copper

elling be

bility

of

d

hydroca

ter

vapor

tives of

rature st

Becaus

work

on

has to

b

erat-u

els

o

e

cri

n

of

t

rel

unnel

oxide

cause

thes

rbons

is e

the

t

ructu

e

of

the c

e

re-

res

well

ver

200°C

terion fo

catalytic

evant

to

venti

lat

combi

nat

of

high-

e catalys

at room

xtremely

unnel

ven

ral

and

a

this

chan

atalytic

examined

in

ex

.

It

r

aut

acti

conti

ion

g

ions

tempe

ts to

tempe

s

i

g

n

i

til

at

c

t

i

v

i

ge

in

oxida

or re

cess o

shoul

omoti

vity

a

nuous

as.

T

were

d

rature

o

x i

d

i

rature

f

i cant

ion

pr

ty cha

cri

te

tion

o

peated

f

100°C

a

d

be

note

e

catalyt

t

elevate

ambient-t

h

u

s

,

w

h

i

1

owngraded

loss of

ze

both C

in

the

p

in

terms

ogram, an

nges are

r

i

a

of a

f

automot

nd

100%

d

here

ic muffler

d

temper-

emperature

e

the

man-

by Cannon

acti

vi ty

,

and

un-

resence

of

the

d high-

not

pert-

ceptabi

1

i

ty

,

ive

exhaust

hopcal

It is

activi

of

por

also

b

area

c

lysts

be

res

lysts

oinati

oxidat

metal

synthe

Cu/Pt/

select

to

1.0

of

80%

cated

,

space

Th

ite,

a

bel

iev

ty

may

e

f

1

ow

e expe

atalys

suppor

istant

tested

on on

ion at

oxide

sis

g

a

carbon

ivity

.

Bee

,

exce

al

tho

veloci

e

usual

re

susce

ed that

be

due

•at

lo\,

cted

to

t.

Howe

t

on

act

to

wate

,

a

copp

carbon

w

lower

t

catalyst

s

at

25°

catalys

(in

the

ause

the

llent re

ugh

conf

ties

wou

low-tempe

ptible

to

a part

of

to

c

a

p

i

11

temperatu

be

operat

ver,

Sutt

i

vated-ca

r-vapor

p

er II chl

as

found

emperatur

(150°C).

C

at

a sp

t

gave

10

presence

syngas u

sistance

i rmati

on

Id

be

des

rature

poi

son

this

w

ary

con

res,

wh

iveon

(59)

re

rbon

wh

o i

s o n

i

n

oride/p

to be f

es

(25°

When

ace vel

0% CO

o

of

Ho)

sed

has

to wate

of

this

i rable.

CO ca

ing w

ater-

densa

ich

p

any

f

porte

i

ch

w

g.

latin

u n c t

i

C)

th

teste

o c

i ty

x i

d

a t

v a

ry i

a

re

r

poi

beha

talysts

such

as

ith water

vapor,

caused loss

in

tion

and

blockage

henomenon

would

ine-pore,

high-

d

two

new cata-

ere

claimed

to

f

the two cata-

um

group

com-

onal for CO

an

a

transition-

d

on

ammonia

of

200,

the

ion

at

a

CO

ng

from

0.86

lative

humidity

son ing

is

indi-

vior at

higher

number

meetin

hydroc

mi

les.

the em

manifo

fuel-a

design

ever

u

ceased

muffle

eviden

standa

In

1

of

cata

g

their

arbons

a

Howeve

ission

s

Id

(manu

ir

ratio

As

a

sed, and

in

1964

rs are t

ce

that

rds

proj

964,

lytic

proje

nd

1.

r,

th

tanda

al tr

.

sp

resul

furt

. Th

he su

they

ected

the

sta

muffle

cted 19

5%

carb

e

autom

rds by

a

n

s

m

i

s

s

ark t

i m

t, none

her

res

e

u

1

1

i m

bject

o

can mee

for th

te

of Ca

r

system

66

emiss

on monox

obile

ma

air i

n

j

e

ions) or

ing and

of

the

earch

on

ate

capa

f

some

s

t

the mo

e

mid-

a

1

if

orni

s

as

be

ion sta

i d

e

,

a

v

nuf

actu

c t

i

o n

i

by

mod

other

a

catalyt

these

b

i 1 i

t

i

e

pecul at

re stri

nd late

a

cert

ing

ca

ndards

eraged

rers

c

nto

th

ificat

spects

i

c

d

e

v

reacto

s

of

c

ion,

b

ngent

-1970'

ified

a

pable

o

of 275

over

1

hose

to

e

exhau

ion

of

of eng

ices

we

rs

virt

atalyti

ut

ther

emissio

s.

Imp

f

s

ppm

2,000

meet

st

the

ine

re

ual

ly

c

e

is

n

rove-

91



ments

are required. to

meet the

di

sadvantages

shown in

the

1964

test campaign:

a.

Short

life-time

of

6,000 to 12,000

miles

b.

Susceptibility

to lead

and

particulate

poisoning (a contributing

factor

to

the

short

life).

c.

Susceptibility

to

inactivation

by

temper-

atures

in excess of

1700°F,

a

level

occasionally

reached

in

the

exhaust.

d.

Relatively high

initial

cost

of

$75

to

$100,

with

frequent

maintenance

and

replacement

costs.

in

the

19

surface w

obviously

a

smaller

in

ere

as

in

have been

unleaded

ever, the

still

rem

Ameri

can

the

devel

the 1968

bon

.

monox

162)'

One

64 Ca

ith

1

remo

and

g

sup

cl as

(

p

o

i.

s

othe

ain.

Chemi

opmen

or

19

i de

a

of the

1

i

forn

ead(60

ve thi

less-s

plies

si

f

i ed

o n

i

n

g

r de-a

For

t

cal

So

t

of

a

70 fed

t

reas

prim

i

a

te

).

T

s

cau

luggi

of

un

acco

or no

c

t

i

v

a

hese

ciety

cata

eral

onabl

a

ry

c

a

u

s

sts

was

he

use

o

se

of

fa

sh conve

leaded

g

rding

to

n

-

p

o

i

s o

n

tion mec

reasons

,

that d

lytic co

standard

e cost a

es

of

the

co

f

a

no

i 1 ure

rter.

a

s

o

1 i

n

a

p

p

1 i

ing)

q

h

a n i

s

m

it ha

i

f

f

i

cu

nverte

s

for

nd

wit

short

a

t

i

n

g

n-lea

and

With

es

,

e

c

a

b

i 1

a

s

o

1

i

of o

s

bee

1

1

i e

s

r tha

hydro

h

rea

cataly

of

the

ded

gas

also

wo

the ad

xhaust

»)

ver-hea

n

state

thus

r

t could

carbons

sonable

st

life

catalyst

oline

would

u

1

d

yield

vent

of

catalysts

leaded

or

How-

ting

would

d

by

the

emain in

meet

even

and

ear-

1

i

fetime

o

x i d

a t

i

o

hydrocar

gas

appl

i nstance

at the 1

and

most

volved

i

no known

one of

t

the

new

above

ap

deal

of

for

the

such

tec

informat

p

o

i

s o

n

i

n

present

qui remen

at

ambie

accompl

i

e

rat

ure

The

n

tec

bons

i

c

a

t

i

s

of

arge

impo

n

tun

succ

he th

1

ow-t

pears

a

d

d

i t

full

hnolo

ion o

g,

ca

1 abor

ts

nt tu

shed

condi

outl

h

n

i

q

u

at

th

on

is

i

ndus

gas

f

rtant

nel

a

essfu

ree s

emper

hope

i

o n

a

1

evalu

gy.

n

al

1

talys

atory

Again

nnel

at th

t

i o

n

s

ook

f

es fo

e

con

not

tri

al

1

ow

v

,

at

i r tr

1

i

nd

peci

f

ature

ful

p

deve

ati on

Feasi

owabl

t lif

data

,

the

condi

e

mor

prev

or

the

r

the

d

i

t

i

o

n

encour

a

p

p

1 i

ol

umes

the

re

eatmen

us

tri

a

i

c

par

catal

arti cu

1

opmen

of

th

bili

ty

e

spac

e

,

cos

fall

pract

t

i

o

n

s

e

f

avo

alent

p

o s s

i b

removal

s

speci

aging,

cation

,

1

ow

c

1

ati vel

t.

Mor

1

i

n

s

t

a

ameters

yst

lab

larly

f

t

work

e

large

determ

e veloc

ts

and

short o

ical

i

ty

what ha

rable

c

in

the

le

use

of

CO

fie

to

There

of

cata

ombusti

y

low

t

e to

th

1

1

ati

on

sti

pul

oratory

or

CO

o

is o

b v

-scale

i

n a

t

i

o

n

ity, po

a

v

a

i 1

a

b

f these

of

try

s not

b

oncentr

source

of

ca

and

u

proje

are

n

lytic

ble

c

emper

e poi

s

i nv

a

t

e d

data

x

i

d

a

t

ously

u

t

i

1

i

requ

s s

i

b

1

i

1

i

ty

asse

inq

t

een c

a

t

i

o

n

exhau

talyt

nburn

cted

o

kno

ox id

oncen

ature

nt ,

t

o 1 v i

n

Alt

revi

i

on

requ

z

a

t

i o

i

res

e tra

,

and

ssmen

o

ace

ommer

and

st ,

m

1 c

ed

tunnel

wn

a

t i o

n

tration

,

s

in-

here

are

g

any

hough

ewed

a

great

i

red

n

of

further

ce

metal

the

t

re-

ompl

i

sh

c

i

a

1 1

y

temp-

ust

be

92



seriously

questioned.

Should low-temperature

oxidation

of

the

major

pollutant,

CO, prove

feasible,

then

a secondary

operation,

such

as

adsorption, will

be required

for

removal

of the

hydrocarbon

content. Such dual

processing

is certain

to

be costly, even

if

probably feasible.

catalyti

carbon

o

reviewin

emission

being

is

because

afterbur

quiremen

reports

s t

a

11

a t

i

successf

several

been rep

mineral

vinyl

fl

it

c

oxi

x

i

d

a t

g

the

cont

sued

sour

ners

t

of

in

th

ons o

ul us

diffe

orted

solve

oor c

din

shoul

d a

t

i

o

ion u

use

rol

,

by th

ce te

could

Rule

e

lit

f

cat

e

of

(Mf.

nt

fu

o v e r i

favor

d

be no

n

has

n

se in

t

of

cata

Krenz

s

e

Los A

st

data

not

me

66 .

T

erature

alytic

a

CAB

o

units

a

Conve

me was

ng plan

of

a

c

ted

t

ot

be

he

Lo

lytic

tated

ngele

i

ndi

et

th

here

on

t

oxi

da

n

an

t

Joh

rsely

obtai

t wit

onden

hat i

en

fo

s

Ang

afte

that

s

Cou

cate

e

90

are o

he su

ti

on

a

cry

nson

,

onl

ned

a

h

CAB

s a t

i

o

ndustrial

und

accep

eles

area

rburners

permi

ts

nty

APCD

that thes

percent

e

ther,

and

ccess

of

units.

F

ic

monome

Wax

Compa

y

partial

t

a

GAF C

,

and

th

n-mist

el

appl

(635.

for

s

are n

for

t

e

cat

ffici

conf

comme

or

ex

r

vap

ny

pi

oxid

orpor

s pro

i

m i

n a

icati

for

In

ol ven

o

1

on

hese

alyti

ency

li

cti

r

c

i

a

1

ample

or

in

ants

ation

ation

cess

tor s

on of

hydro'

t

qer

units

c

re-

ng,

in-

,

the

has

of a

was

ys-

Information

privately

available

to

PDA

on

catalytic

oxidation

uses

indicates

that

CAB

is highly

effective

for

situations where

the material

to be

oxidized

is

either a

single component or an homologous group of

compounds.

Fur-

ther,

for an

efficient

design,

the concentrations

and

ex-

haust

conditions must be known

in

detail.

For

most applica-

tions

involving

a

wide range of

combustible

materials

at

variable concentrations,

CAB

will

not

yield

adequate effic-

iency

levels.

Thermal Afterburning

All of the development

work on

thermal

afterburning

of

the residual CO and

hydrocarbons in vehicle exhaust has

been done

as source

control work.

Early

efforts

to

complete

the

combustion

of the

unburned

hydrocarbons

and CO

leaving

the cylinders involved

both

air

injection

into

the exhaust

manifold

and direct

flame

afterburners

(42)

.

Air

injection

and/or engine design

changes

appear

to

be

sufficient

to

meet the

1970

federal

standards

for

CO

and

hydrocarbon

emissions,

but for

the

pro-

jected

lower

emission

levels,

more

advanced

systems

are

required.

One

such system

under active

development

is

the

exhaust manifold

thermal

reactor,

a

unit

which

has

been ex-

tensively

developed by DuPont

(66) (67)

. Exhaust

reactors

93



are

suitable

for

use

with

leaded gasolines,

and

their

use

would

permit

continuation

of present

gasoline

formulations.

The exhaust

manifold

reactors

mount

on

the

engine

in place

of

the conventional

exhaust

manifolds.

Air

is injected

into the

exhaust ports,

using

the

air

injection

system

now

standard on

most

production

autos.

The reactor

consists

essentially

of

an initial mixing chamber,

followed

by

baffled

passageways to

provide

adequate

retention

time

at

high

temperature.

The

DuPont

units

use

concentric annular

baffles

surrounding

the

central

mixing

tube.

Development

efforts

have been directed

at

finding

suitable

low-cost

materials that

will endure

the

1700°F

reaction temperatures

and also

have adequate

erosion

resistance

to the high-

velocity

lead compounds impinging

with the exhaust.

In an initial

100,000

mile test, an

early

Type I

reactor^6)

held average

emissions

to

27 ppm

carbons

and 0.65%

CO,

but suffered

from baffle.

An improved

later

version,

Type V,

was claimed'-

emission

levels

of 0.2 g/mile HC

and

4.5

g/mile

well

below

the 1974 California

standards.

DuPont

hydro-

rosion.

7

'

to

yield

CO, both

Thermal

incineration

of

small quantities of

com-

bustibles in

air

requires

temperatures

of the

order

of

1100

o

-1500°F.

Because

of the

virtually

trace

quantities

of oxidizable

material, none

of the

heat requirements can

be

internally

derived, and

must

therefore

be

completely

supplied externally.

Even where

a

fraction

of the

thermal

energy

was internally derived,

the economic

penalty

attached

to the

higher temperatures of direct

incineration

was

cal-

culated

by

Heinle)

to

be

from

150

to

600%

of

the

cost

of

an

equivalent

catalytic

oxidation

temperatures

of

500°

to

800°F

lower

than

for

thermal

incineration.

The

external

fuel and

cooling costs for thermal

cycles

of the

order of

magnitude required for

direct

incineration

of

the

CO

and

HC

in

the bulk

tunnel air thus

appears to

be insupportable.

Adsorption

stream

Al thou

the

va

surfac

and al

g

a n

i

c

genera

bonsH

h

o

1

d

i

n

the

fi

the la

S

can

gh ac

por-p

e

are

umina

and

i

y

h

bu

g

cap

nal

c

st

tr

11-

elective

removal of

hydrocarbons

from

a

gas

be

effected by

the process

of physical

adsorption,

tivated

carbon

is

the

usual

sorbent

employed

for

hase adsorption

of

organic

molecules,

other

high-

a

media,

such as

synthetic

zeolites,

silica

gel

,

have been

used

for

selective

removal

of

or-

norganic, contaminants.

The

synthetic

zeolites

ave better sorption

efficiencies

than the car-

t

they do

not have as

great

an

equilibrium-

acity.

They

are

therefore

occasionally

used

as

leanup

bed

in

a

two-adsorbent

system to

remove

aces of pollutant.

94



dustrial

Van der

cular we

is

somet

contains

hydrogen

viewed

a

surface,

bon

exis

prior

1

book, wh

practi

ce

Barry(73

that

ade

not

sati

the

Los

Service

and obta

theless

,

for the

seldom

s

Activa

use,

an

Waal's f

ights

gr

h

i

n

g

of

,2

to

25

(69).

A

s a comp

A

fair

ts.

Has

terature

ile

some

is cove

),

after

quate de

sfactory

Angeles

undertoo

ined

and

valid

d

speci

f

i c

a

t i

s

f

i

e

d

ted car

d

this

orces

,

eater

t

a

m

i

s

n

o

%

oxyge

c

t

i

v a t e

lex org

ly

volu

slerwO

,

h i

s t

o

prel

im

red i n

review

sign an

at

tha

County

k

the

e

p

u

b

1 i s

e

s

i

g

n

r

organi

i

n adv

J

bon

i

mater

all c

han

N

mer,

n

and

d

car

anic

i nou

pre

ry,

a

inary

two

s

ing

p

d

pro

t

tim

AFCD

valua

hed

u

equi

r

c

or

ance.

s

the

i

a

1

w i

ompone

2

or

inasmu

c

o

n s

i

bon

ma

polyme

s

lite

sents

nd

cur

engin

tandar

u

b 1

i

s

h

cess s

e.

Co

and

th

t

i

o n o

pdated

es

rel

organi

sorbent

of

11

adsorb,

nts

from

a

2.

The

te

ch

as

acti

derable

qu

y

be

more

r

with

a 1

rature on

a

detailed

rent appli

eering

des

d

referenc

ed

informa

caleup

pro

nfirming t

e

U.

S.

Pu

f

sorption

design da

i

a

b

1

e

1

a

b

o

c

mix, a r

general

i

by

means

ir with

mo

rm

carbon

vated

carb

a

n t

i

t

i

e s o

properly

arge

inter

acti vated

review of

cations in

ign

theory

t

i

o n

,

cone

cedures

we

his

find

in

blic

Healt

design

me

ta(74).

N

ratory

dat

equi

rement

n-

of

le-

ti

»

on

f

nal

car-

the

his

and

1 uded

re

g,

h

thods

ever-

a

a gas-

is

pro

force)

temper

smal

le

costs

normal

mit

re

and

he

energy

therma

and

co

the

no

suff

ic

from

t

be

emp

For ex

stripp

in

the

of

org

level

Va

solid

p

o

r t

i

o

.

The

atures

r

carb

are

in

ly

reg

-use.

at

mus

of

ad

1

ener

ndensa

rmal

t

i

e n 1 1

y

he car

loyed

ample

,

ed

org

sorpt

anic

m

is

red

por-ph

equi

1

nal

to

equi

1

and h

on par

the

r

enerat

Physi

t

be

s

sorpti

gy

and

bility

empera

high

bon

,

a

for ve

Matti

anic

i

ion

cy

ay

be

uced

t

ase

a

brium

the

i

b

r

i

u

igh

p

tide

ange

ed

wi

cal

a

uppl

i

on.

beca

,

it

ture

to

co

nd

st

r

a

s

req

cle

i

requi

o

200

if

56?

dsorption

over

activated

crbon

is

process

where

the

rate

of dsorption

displacement from equilibrium

(driving

m driving force is favored

by

low

ressure,

and

in

many cases,

by

sizes. Because

activated

carbon

of

$0.75/lb, adsorption

beds are

th

steam

or

hot

inert

gas

to

per-

dsorption

is an exothermic

operation

ed

in regeneration

to

overcome

the

Steam is

a

convenient

source

of

use

of its

low

(ambient)

vapor

pressure

is

the

regenerant

of choice.

However,

range of saturated steam is

not

mpletely

strip

an

adsorbed phase

eam-regenerated carbon cannot

normally

w

concentrations

of

organic

pollutants.

states

that

3.5 lbs

of steam/lb

of

uired

when

the

vapor-containing

air

s

0.2%,

while

over

30

lb

of

steam/lb

red when the

pollutant

concentration

ppm.

Adsorption

techniques

have

been

applied to

the

control

of

evaporative

emissions from

automobile

fuel

tanks

and

carburetors. Vapor-capture

systems,

employing

activated

carbon

canisters or

foamed polyurethane,

serve

as

storage

systems

for the

vapors

released during

engine

shutdown.

The

95



stored

vapors

are

purged

from

the

sorbent

on

engine

startup

into the

intake

system

of

the

engine^'5),

jê

main

problem

with

such

adsorption/desorption systems had been

the

up-

setting

of

carburetion

by

over-enrichment of the

engine feed

on

startup,

but automatic

valve

control

appears

to have

solved this

particular

problem.

The

technical

feasibility

of such evaporative control

systems

has

been

demonstrated

v42

and it

is

expected that they will be

incorporated

in

1972

producti

on

model

s.

The

use of

continuous removal

o

to be

technically

fe

ambient temperature

ti

ation probl em

,

ac

only with

respect

to

in

combination

with

cover

N0

X

. It

will

the major

const

ituen

fore

be

considered

a

trol process

for

thi

activated

carbon

tre

the

projected tunnel

Exclusive

of

erectio

carbon

sorption syst

mated

to

be

$32.50/1

Operating

costs

depe

generation

life

of

b

and

necessity for

pr

Given the

wery

dilut

air and

the

nature

o

sorption

may

have

to

ati on

employing

a

di

cost problem.

a c

t

i

v a

t

f

hydroc

a

s

i

b

1

e

,

operatic

ti vated

the

org

other

so

be d e f

i c

t

of

the

s

only

a

s a

p

p

1

i

c

atment

o

a

p

p

1

i

c

a

n

costs,

ems

us

in

b

of

con

nd

on

th

ed,

cont

e-f

i

1 tra

e

org

an

f

the

po

be

supp

fferent

ed carb

arbons

i

nasmuc

n.

In

carbon

a n

i

c co

rbents

,

i

e n t w

i

pol

lut

partia

ation.

f

large

t

i

o n is

total

g

steam

t

ami

nan

e

frequ

ami

n

ant

t i o n

an

c

conta

1

utant

lemente

sorbent

on

adso

from tu

h as th

terms

o

adsorpt

ntent o

i t

may

th

resp

ant

i

n

p

1

or

su

The

ma

f 1 ows

one of

install

regene

t

capac

ency

an

concen

d

secon

m

i n

a

n t

mix,

a

d

with

,

thus

rptio

nnel

is is

f

the

ion

h

f

the

al so

ect t

ut , a

pplem

jor

o

of

ga

capi

ed

co

ratio

ity

p

d

len

trati

d-sor

1 eve

c

t

i

v

a

a

cle

compo

n

for

air

a

p

norma

tunne

as

pot

gas,

parti

o

CO

r

nd can

entary

bjecti

s

typi

tal

co

sts

fo

n

,

are

er eye

gth of

on lev

bent

s

in

tu

ted

ca

anup

o

u

n

d i

n

g

the

pears

1 ly an

1

ven-

e

n t

i a

1

al

though

ally

emoval

,

there-

,

con-

on to

cal

of

st.

r

e

s

t

i

-

le(43).

re-

el

,

ystems

nnel

rbon

per-

the

sorpti

system

cess

,

erati

o

gas

ne

recove

propos

adsorb

An eco

i

n c

i

n

e

had th

credit

sol ven

onomic

eratur

T

on

sy

s

(20

in

wh

n i

s

eded

ry ra

ed

a

ers

i

nomi

c

rati

o

e

low

for

t ere

.

Ho

e

cat

o

meet

stems

ppm)

ich

th

i

n

c

i

n

e

for

re

ther

t

Casca

n para

compa

n

syst

est

an

the re

dit, t

wever

alyti

c

some

as

app

,

Matt

e

stri

rated

genera

h

a n in

de

op

lie

f

r

i

s

o

n

ems in

nual iz

covere

he

Zo

if

a

oxida

of

the

lied

to

ial56)

pped

or

to prov

tion.

ci

nerat

e

r

a

t

i

o

n

eed

a

s

of

vari

d i

c

a t e

ed

cost

d solve

rbci

n

low-con

tion

te

cost o

1

ow

c

propos

ganic

ide

bo

In

the

ion

is

in

wh

ingle

ous mo

that

t

,

i n c

1

nt.

W

arrang

centra

c

h

n

i

q

u

bjections

oncentrat

ed the

Z

obtai ned

th

the

he

event

th

indi

cate

ich

a

p a

i

secondary

des

of

so

he

Casca

u

d

i n

g

an

ithout

th

ement

was

tion

and

e

is avai

to

ca

ion 1

e

orbci n

during

at

and

at org

d

s

Mat

r

of

p

adsor

rption

de

ar

apprec

is rec

the

m

ambien

lable

,

rbon

vel

pro-

regen-

inert

anic

tia

ri

ma ry

ber.

and/or

rangement

i

a b

1

e

overed

ost

ec-

t-temp-

there

96



would

be

no

point

-to

sorbing organic

pollutants

prior to

an

elution

and

burning

sequence.

being

probl

bed

m

unit

aeros

carbo

parti

the

a

occur

recyc

techn

is

us

Th

proces

ems.

I

ay

act

will

in

ols

may

n

,

and

culate

erosol

s,

then

le

syst

ique

su

ed

in

s

e

presen

sed

by

a

f

the

pa

as a

fil

crease

o

also

po

a

sorpti

effects

size

and

aerosol

em,

unle

ch

as

el

e r i

e s

w i

ce

of

cti

va

rticu

ter

a

r

it

ison

on

be

by

su

bed

bui 1

ss

an

ectro

th th

part

ted

c

lates

nd

th

may

p

the

s

d

mus

itabl

depth

dup i

effi

s

t

a

t

i

e

ads

i

c u

1

a

t

arbon

are s

e

flow

lug.

orpti

o

t

usua

e

pre-

is

su

n

the

c

i

e

n t

c

prec

orpti

o

es

in

an air stream

sorption

poses

several

olid,

then the

carbon

resistance of the

Very

fine

solids

or

n

abilities

of the

lly

be

protected

from

filtration

means.

If

ch

that

bed

penetration

gas

will

occur

in

a

particulate

collection

ipitation

or

filtration

n

unit.

Wet Scrubbing

has tw

late

r

of

fun

and

ty

point

types

towers

device

iencie

they,

some d

fer

co

vice v

Wet

s

o

differen

emoval and

cti

on,

dis

pes of equ

is

Table

2

of

equipme

,

are conv

s.

As

is

s for thes

as

well

as

egree of

d

ntactors

,

ersa,

and

theory

desi

ra

and

objec

ble.

crubb

t

mea

gas

t

i

n

c

t

i

pmen

tak

nt

li

entio

o

b

v

i

o

e two

the

ual-f

dust

becau

ti ves

ing

n

i n

g

s

absor

ion

b

t

is

en

f

sted

,

nal m

us fr

type

prima

u

n c t

i

col le

se of

,

sep

in the f

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p

t i

o

n

,

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etween

t

sometime

om a rec

only tw

ass

tran

om

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p

s

of

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r

i

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y

d

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s

onal i

ty.

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o

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is

the ext

a

r a

t

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n

ield

appl

nd

de

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not

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di

ffer

imary

lution

both

p

the

dis

i cation

A

cas

Of th

ed

and

-absorp

removal

ed

in T

units,

for

mas

c i

d

e n t

a

ences

i

functio

control

articu-

parity

areas

e

in

e

eight

spray

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20,

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trans-

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98



The primary

function

of

any

piece

of

absorption

equipment

is to

provide

a

large

active

area

of

contact

between the gas

and

liquid phases.

This is accomplished

by

dispersing

the

liquid

phase

over a

geometric

packing

material or

as

droplets

by

spraying.

Packed

tower

absorbers

may

modes

of

two-phase flow operation:

(a

(b)

cocurrent

and

(c)

crossflow.

The

absorption

efficiency

(most

number of

NTU)

is

obtained

with

countercurrent

difficultly-soluble

gases,

or maximum

this is the

preferred

type

of contact

the completeness

of

solute

removal

fr

a

sensitive

function

of

the time of c

Because

the gas pressure loss

through

directly

proportional to the

height

o

factor

controls

efficiency and

affect

For

this

reason,

a

large variety of 1

packings

have

been

developed

commerci

packing shape represents

a

compromise

ing

requirements

of high fluid

disper

pressure losses, each

tower

packing h

optimum

area

of

application.

be used

in three

)

countercurrent,

maximum

degree

of

transfer

units,

or

contact,

and for

degree of

removal

,

unit.

In

an

absorber,

om

the

gas

stream

is

ontact

or

height,

the

packing

is

f

packing,

this

latter

s

gas

blowing

costs.

ow-loss,

high-efficiency

ally.

Because

any

between the

conflict-

si

on

and low

gas

as

its

particular

and

c

packi

mate

,

of

ei

trans

advan

the b

has

n

even

not i

opera

proce

whose

those

this

The

olumn des

ng

for

a

some

typ

ther

a

vo

fer

unit,

ces

in fu

ody

of

de

ot

reflec

for

a giv

nvari

ant

tive

port

dure

is

t

conditio

of the

a

informati

key en

ign

is

given

e

of

p

lgmetr

(HTU)

ndamen

sign i

ted th

en

sys

prope

ion of

herefo

ns

or

ppl ica

on i

s

gi

neer

asses

amount

acking

ic coe

,

must

tal

tr

nf

orma

ese

ad

tern,

an

r t i e s

,

the

e

re

to

determ

t

i

o

n

.

u

n a

v a

i

i

ng

es

sment

of

tr

perfo

ff

i cie

be

em

ansfer

t i

o n a

vances

d pack

but

d

q

u i 1

i

b

select

i

n

a

t

i

o

For

t

1

abl

e.

timate

of

the

ansfer.

rmance

nt, Kg

a

ployed,

theory

v a

i

1

a

b

1

The

ing, th

epend

o

rium

cu

desi

gn

n

most

race

co

l

n

pa

requi

To

index

,

or

Des

in r

e

to

di

ff

i

e

coe

n

flo

rve.

perf

cl

ose

ntami

eking

red v

make

,

in

heigh

pi

te

ecent

the

e

cul

ty

ffici

w

rat

The

orman

iy ap

nant

sele

ol ume

this

the

f

t

of

the

r

year

ngine

is

t

ents

es an

stand

ce

da

proxi

remov

c

t

i

o

n

of

e

s t

i

-

orm

a

api

d

s,

er

hat

,

are

d

ard

ta

mate

al

99



Spray

chambers

or

towers may

be

used

for

gas

absorption in

cases

where only

a

few

transfer

units

are

required,

i.e., for

soluble

gas

components.

These

units

have the

advantages

of

very

low

gas-phase

pressure

drop

and inexpensive

construction,

but

do

not

offer

counter-

current contact.

Four

types of spray

systems

are

used

commercially:

(a) simple spray

columns,

(b)

cyclonic spray

towers,

(c)

venturi

scrubbers, and (d) jet

scrubbers.

The

spray

chamber

is

a

contacting

device

that

is

frequently

used in

situations

where

a

contaminated

gas

stream contains

both

particulates

and

a

highly

soluble gas component.

Particle collection in

spray

towers

is

discussed

below,

but

the mass

transfer

characteristics of

this equipment

is

pertinent

to

the removal

of

the oxygenated, partially-

oxidized,

hydrocarbons in

the

exhaust.

These

include such

components

as

acrolein and formaldehyde,

which

are

object-

ionable from

the point

of

view of odor and

irritation

effects.

gas

s

vapor

ature

humid

may a

remov

are

a

a

f ul

test

eratu

of tr

was

i

The

r

nozzl

col

le

a

pro

gas

f

of

su

tream

comp

diff

i

f

ied

dsorb

ed

by

v

a

i

1

a

ly

va

data,

re

da

ansfe

ncrea

ate

o

e

,

ow

ction

bl

em

lows

,

i

tab

Spray

by

th

onent

erenti

by

co

on

pa

impi

n

ble

pr

lid d

e

With

ta

for

r

unit

sed

by

f

mass

ing

to

of

sp

with

s

al tho

e

mist

scrubb

ree me

in the

a

1

,

in

Id

wat

rticul

gement

imari 1

sign w

respe

spray

s

was

a

fin

trans

the

f

ray

by

pray

t

ugh

th

el

imi

ers

c

chani

1

iqu

the

er sp

ate

m

on

t

y

for

ould

ct to

towe

propo

er

sp

fer

w

ormat

the

ower

is

pr

nator

technique

air

poses

ployed

as

is employ

the same

that

the

the solve

exists wi

an

aqueou

the air.

humidity

Appl

ica

s to

rem

several

a

solve

e

d

, its

order of

net effe

nt, for

th water

s

phase

C

o

n

t

i

n

u

is

not

d

tion

of we

oval

of

co

probl

ems.

n t

,

even

i

vapor

pres

magnitude

ct

could

b

another, t

as

a

solv

system wil

ous operat

esirable

,

an

remo

sms(79)

id,

(b)

same

ma

rays

,

a

atter

w

he

liqu

the so

undoubt

the

so

rs(80)

rtional

ray

(hi

as

most

ion of

chamber

use,

pa

oblem

m

s

or

cy

t

scrub

ntamina

If

an

f

a

hig

sure

wi

as

som

e

subst

he

solu

ent,

si

1 tend

ion

of

and

app

ve

hyd

:

(a)

conde

nner

t

nd

(c)

h

i

c

h

i

id dro

lubili

edly

r

lubili

showed

to

th

gher

1

rapid

fresh

wal

1 s

rticul

ay

be

clonic

b

i

n

g g

nts f

organ

h-mol

e

1 1

una

e

of t

i t u t

i

o

te.

A

nee

re

to

adi

a

tunn

1 i

c

a

t

i

rocar

d i

s s

o

n

s a t

i

hat a

vapo

s

sub

ps.

ty

me

equi r

ty

me

that

e

1

iq

i

q

u i d

near

1 i

q

u i

.

En

arly

resol

flow

as

ab

om

tu

ic

so

cul

ar

v o

i

d

a

he

po

n

of

s i m i

cycle

a

b

a

t

i

el

at

on

of

bons

f

1

u

t

i

o

n

on

by

i r

is

r

mol e

sequen

Design

c

h

a

n

i

s

e

pre

c

h

a

n i s

the

n

u i

d

r

a

power

the

s

d surf

trai

nm

at

the

ved

by

spray

rom

a

of the

temper-

de-

cules

tly

data

m, and

i

m

i n

a ry

m

,

1 i

t

-

umber

te,

and

input)

.

pray

ace

and

ent

is

higher

the use

towers.

sorption

nnel

ventilation

Ivent is

em-

weight material

bly

be

at

least

llutants, so

one

pollutant,

lar

problem

of gas

through

cally

saturate

100% relative

wet

scrubbing

100



techniques would

require

the use

of

a

downstream

condensing

system

to

remove

solvent

vapors.

If

the

absorber

is

operated

at

ambient temperatures,

then the downstream

solvent-removal

condenser must be

operated at

low,

or refrigerant,

tempera-

tures

in

order

to remove

solvent.

This,

in

turn,

means

that

the bulk

tunnel air

must

be

thermally cycled

between

refrig-

erant

and

ambient

temperatures,

adding

a

thermal

cooling

and

heating

cost to

the base operation of

the

absorption.

proble

absorp

using

While

atmosp

local

contam

locate

have

s

in

the

trol d

While

scrubb

use

of

up and

al

so

p

ready

I

m wi 1

tion

such

the

w

heric

accum

i n

a

n

t

d

nea

pray

even

evice

the d

ing m

wate

blee

ermi

t

acces

t appe

1

prob

proces

a

proc

ashed

condi

u

1

a t

i

o

recyc

r

the

chambe

t

of

t

s

woul

i sposa

ay

be

r

recy

d

1

i

q

u

use

o

s

to

1

ars that the

humidi

f

ication

or saturation

ably prevent in

situ tunnel application of

ses.

However,

the

possibility

remains of

ess on the exhaust

air from

the

tunnel,

air may

generate

a

steam

plume

under

certain

tions,

exhaust

processing

would prevent

ns

of pollutants,

and

the possibility

of

le in situations

where the intake

fan is

exhaust

fan.

A number

of tunnels

already

rs

installed

to

protect the

exhaust

fans

unnel

fires,

and their use

as

exhaust

con-

d

represent

only

an

operating cost

increment.

1

of the polluted water

resulting from

wet

a problem, this can

be minimized by the

cle

operation,

with

a

small amount

of

make-

id. The

recycle

mode

of

operation

would

f

exhaust

wet

scrubbing in

tunnels without

arge amounts of

water.

Nitrogen Oxides

Combustion

of a hydrocarbon

fuel with air normally

results in the combination

of part

of the

nitrogen

and

oxygen

to form nitric oxide

(NO)

at

the

higher

temperatures.

Sub-

sequent

to

its formation, NO

is

oxidized

by

residual or

atmospheric oxygen

to

nitrogen dioxide,

NO2:

2N0

+

Oo

=

2N0,

The

1

iber

ature

trati

is

2%

oxidi

of

ox

Kinet

rate

the

h

al

so

both

x

i

d

a

t

i

ating 2

s.

The

on-depe

by

vol

z

e

, w

h i

i d

a t

i

n

ically,

constan

omogene

explore

a c t

i

v

a

t

n

of ni

4,250

B

x

i

d a

t

ndent.

ume,

it

le

it t

when

t

the

ox

ts

have

ous

gas

d the

c

ed carb

trie

x i

tu/lb mo

ion

reac

When

th

requi

re

akes

nea

he i

n

i

t

idation

been

th

-phase

r

atalyzed

on

and

s

de is

le

, a

tion

e

r

i

s

10

rly 6

al

NO

react

oroug

eacti

ox

id

i

1 i c a

a

si

nd

is

in

a

g

i n

a

1

secon

hou

cone

ion i

hly e

on.

a

t

i

n

gel

ow

exot

favore

r

is

ma

concen

ds

for

rs for

entrati

s

third

xplored

This

la

of nit

as

cata

(13)

dermic

reaction,

d

by

low

temper-

rkedly

concen-

tration of

NO

half

the

NO

to

a

similar

degree

on

is 1

ppm'

-order,

.and

the

by Rao^°

2

)

for

tter

investigation

ric

oxide,

using

lysts

.

101



amount

fix-

tures

engi

ne

ratios

speeds

the

NO

range

Los

An

sented

d

r

i

v

i

n

Th

s

of

o

NO. fo

and ex

s

, the

s

1 i

g

h

and h

x

,

and

betwee

geles

by

Fa

g

vari

e van

ther

n

rmatio

cess

o

h

i

g

h e

tly on

eavy

a

level

n

800

County

1th(83

ations

able

mix

i

trogen

n

is fav

xygen,

s

st emiss

the

lea

ccelerat

s

of

N0

X

and

3000

Air Pol

)

and

g

i

on

NO

ture

oxide

ored

tha

ions

n si

d

ions

emi

s

ppm(

1 u t

i

o

ven

i

emiss

of NO

s

)

is

by

nig

t for

are

as

e

of

s

produc

w

s

n

Cont

n Tabl

ions.

and

NO?

(plus

minor

commonly

designated

as

h

combustion

tempera-

internal combustion

sociated

with air-fuel

toi

chi

ometri

c.

High

e

the

major portion of

in

typical

urban traffic

Data

published

by

the

rol

District,

as

pre-

e 21 show the

effect of

At

\/ery

low

concentrations

of N0

2

,

the reaction

with

water

is:

2 N0

2

+

H

2

=

HN0

2

+

HN0

3

(K

=

10

5

)

(15)

and in

warm

water, the HN0

2

is

unstable:

3

HN0

2

=

HNO3

+

2N0

+

H

2

(16)

The NO

released

in

any

of

the

above

dissolution

reactions must be re-oxidized

to N0

2

.

violet

reacti

chemi

c

mation

role

show

t

ism, w

of

sec

ppm

of

(unsat

but

va

have b

Al

thou

tunnel

dustry

Ni

light

ons

re

al smo

of

ph

f

N0

2

,

he pro

hi

le t

ond

a

ry

N0

X

a

urated

1

ues

a

een

fo

gh ul

t

s

,

F

a

i

shows

troge

and

s

u

1

1

i

g.

A

otoch

is

g

babl

e

he su

i

r r

i

nd

1

e

)

are

s

hi

und

f

ravio

th(33

that

n

d

i

x

is the

ng

in

simp

emical

iven

i

prima

bseque

t

a n t s

ss tha

suf

f

i

h

as

or

amb

let

ra

)

stat

oxide

i

d

e

i

i ni

t

the f

if ied

smog

n

Tab

ry ox

nt

re

and

p

n

1

p

c

i e

n t

.7

pp

lent

d

i

a

t

i

es th

s

of

s

a

s

i

ator

ormat

reac

(62)

Te

22

idant

actio

ol

lut

pm of

to i

m

N0

X

atmos

on is

at ex

ni

tro

trong

comp

ion

ti

on

indie

.

Th

(ozo

ns

in

ants.

reac

n

i

t

i a

and

phere

not

perie

gen

i

abso

ound

f

ozo

schem

a

t

i

n

g

e

fir

ne)

f

d

i

c

a

t

A

f

ti

ve

te

th

3

ppm

on s

avail

nee i

n

ext

rber

for

th

ne

and

e for

the t

st

two

ormati

e

the

ew

ten

hydroc

e

reac

hydro

moggy

able i

n

the

remely

f

ultra-

e

chain

photo-

the

for-

rigger

reactions

on

mechan-

formati on

ths of

a

arbons

tion

chain,

carbons

days

n

vehicular

gas

i

n

smal

1

102



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CO in r— in

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cc

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cc



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cj

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vc

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103



TABLE 22

SIMPLIFIED

REACTION

SCHEME FOR

PHOTOCHEMICAL

SMOG

N0

2

+

Light

—

*~

NO

+0

Nitrogen

Nitric

Atomic

dioxide

oxide

oxygen

+

°2

T

°3

Molecular

Ozone

oxygen

3

+

NO

—

N0

2

+

2

+

He

—

HcO

Hydrocarbon

Radical

HcO

+

2

_^

HcOj

Radical

Hc0

3

+

He

—

Aldehydes,

ketones ,etc.

Hc0

3

+

NO

-

—

—

Hc0

?

Radical

Hc0

3

+

2

m-

3

+

Hc0

2

HcO

x

+

N0

2

—

—

Peroxyacyl

Radical

nitrates

This

reaction scheme is

intended

to

be

illustrative,

not

definitive.

Research is still

in

progress

on

the

detailed

chemistry

of

the

smog-forming

process.

104



quantities

will

react

with

matter,

even

in the

dark.

respect

to

in situ

particulate

matter

has

apparently

not

been

investigated,

present

data on

concentration

levels,

to

tunnel

baust

to the

hydrocarbons

to form

particulate

This

latter

role of N0

X

with

generation

in tunnels

so

that based

on

the

primary

objection

N0

V

concentrations would be

with

respect

to

ex-

ambient

atmosphere.

Source

Control

for the

carbons

b

u

s

t

i

o n

product

oxygen

oxidati

the

deg

the com

able

at

and thi

control

De

purp

and

gene

ion.

atten

on ar

ree

o

b

u

s

t

i

this

s

pro

: exh

sign

ose

o

carbo

rally

The

dant

e

exa

f

nit

on te

temp

vi

des

aust

change

f

redu

n mono

have

higher

on

mor

ctly

t

rogen

mperat

eratur

the

b

gas

re

s made

c i n

g

t h

xide

th

the

opp

combus

e

effic

he

cond

f

i

x a

t

i

o

ure

and

e serve

as is fo

c

i r

c u

1

a

on in

e

emi

rough

o

s

i

t e

tion

ient

i

tion

n.

C

the

s

to

r

the

tion.

ternal-

ssion

o

more

e

effect

tempera

combust

s

servi

onverse

amount

reduce

most

c

combust

f unbur

f

f

i

c

i

e n

on

nit

tures a

ion

or

n

g to i

ly,

red

of

oxyg

the N0

X

ommon

a

ion

engines

ned hydro-

t

com-

rogen

oxide

nd excess

secondary

ncrease

uction

of

en

avail-

level s

,

pproach to

Esso

which

simpl

latio

wide-

Dynam

of

ab

level

per m

requi

decre

be

ac

Resea

recy

e

vac

n

at

open

omete

out

1

s to

ile.

re

30

ase i

cepta

The

exhaus

rch and

En

cles

gas

f

uum-operat

idle

to

g

throttle

t

r

tests

fo

5

percent

the 1974 C

Theoretic

percent

e

n power

ge

ble.

t

gas

gi

nee

ro.m t

ed

on

ve

sm

o

pre

r

50,

showe

al i

fo

ally,

xhaus

nerat

reci

r

ri

ng

C

he

exh

-off

v

ooth e

vent

1

000

mi

d

cons

rnia

s

90

pe

t

gas

ion

at

c u

1

a t

i

ompany

aust

t

alve

s

n

g

i

n e

oss

i

n

les

at

i s t e

n

t

tandar

rcent

recycl

this

on

sys

(85)

u

hrottl

huts

o

operat

vehic

a

rec

reduc

ds

of

NO

e

recycl

'x

re

Teve

tern d

t

i 1

i z

e

pla

ff th

ion

a

1

e

pe

ircul

ti on

1.3

g

e

lev

eveloped

by

es

a

system

te.

A

e

recircu-

nd also

at

rformance.

at ion

rate

of N0

X

rams

of

N0

X

on

will

)

but

the

el

may

not

N0

X

emissions

from

vehicles

can

also

by

catalytic

reduction

in the

exhaust stream.

be

controlled

However, such



a

reduc

gas

sue

i

n

c

o

n

s

i

this re

control

beds,

o

ion,

an

removal

in U. S

and Eng

treatme

f ol

lowe

catalys

CO2

and

produce

tion

op

h as CO

stent

w

ason,

m

of N0

X

ne oper

d the

A

ca

.

Paten

i n

e e

r

i n

n

t

call

d

by a

t

to

re

2

o

, an

e

ratio

or a

i th

1

ost

pr

call

a t

i

n

g

ther

a

se

in

t

No.

g

Comp

s

for

reduci

act CO

d reac

n

requi

hydroca

her exh

oposed

for

two

at

redu

t

oxidi

point

i

3,429.6

any^

8

°)

a

prima

ng

bed

and

th

tion

of

res t

rbon

,

aust

catal

sepa

cing

zing

s

pre

56,

a

.

Ta

ry

ox

conta

e

hyd

the

he

pres

and

th

control

ytic

mu

rate

re

condi

ti

condi

ti

sented

ssigned

ylor

1

s

i

d

a t

i

n

i n i

n

g

a

rocarbo

ence

is is

objec

f

f

ler

actors

ons

ons

by

T

to

two-

bed

fo

fo

ay

Es

st

t

C0

X

a

steam

ns wit

N0

V

with

the

f

a re

b

v i

u

t

i

v

e

s

system

or ca

r NO

r

lor,

1

so

Res

age

ex

remo

-refor

h

H

2

hydrog

d u

c

i n

g

sly

For

s

for

talyst

-

reduct-

nd

HC

969,

earch

haust

ve

02,

ming

to

form

en

thus

d.

(87)

A

recent news

announcement

KO/

3

disclosed

the

development

of a

new ni ckel

-copper

catalyst

claimed to

be

90% effective for

N0

X

reduction

in

automotive

exhaust.

It

was

also

indicated

that

the

new

catalyst

for

would

be

part of

a

dual

-catalyst

system,

with the

catalyst

capable

of

oxidative

removal

of

CO

and

hydrocarbons

However,

the development of exhaust

catalytic

converters

for

N0

X

does not appear to have

progressed

to

the

same

feasibility

point

as

the exhaust

recycle

units.

N0

X

removal

second

elevate

the red

nitric

order

reduc

ti

practi

c

the

nee

ating

t

type

of

for the

tempera

normal

cycle

a

level

,

n

i

q

u e

w

for cat

the

pos

such

as

been

st

1

aborat

Har

d

and

ucti on

acid

p

f

200

on

sys

al

ly

a

essary

empera

reduc

tunne

ture

1

atmosp

i

r

,

an

preclu

hich

c

alytic

s

i

b

i

1

i

CO

in

u

d

i e

d

ory

le

di son

88)

atmospher

of N0

X

i

lants.

W

ppm

Europ

tern.

The

11

of

the

complete

ture

1

i

mi

tion

oper

1 ventila

eve and

heric con

d

the

obv

des

the

u

ould cons

reductio

ty

of

sel

the

pres

by

both B

vel

and

i

c

pr

n

the

hen

t

ean

p

firs

oxyg

redu

ts

ar

a

t

i

n

tion

the

centr

ious

se

of

ume

n app

ecti

v

ence

akerv

Fletc

e s s

u

r

tail

he

em

racti

t sta

en

f

c

t

i

n

e

fro

does

probl

xygen

a

t

i

n

neces

any

xygen

1 i

c a

t

e

rea

of

0?

90)

a

her(89

e

cata

gases

i

s

s

i

n

ce

is

ge

is

om

the

in th

m

900°

not a

em,

be

-remov

of

ox

s

i

ty

reduct

.

Thu

ion to

c

t

i

n

.

Thi

nd

Rya

)

have

lytic

p

from

limit

to

use

used

to

gas st

e

secon

to

1

ppear

t

cause

al feat

ygen

in

f mai

nt

i

v e

cat

s

, the

NO

ha

with a

s

so

1

atte

11*91)

reviewed

rocesses

i n

d

u s t r

i

is

of

t

a

two-st

remove

ream

to

d

stage,

°F,

and

be fea

f

both

t

ure.

Th

tunnel

a

i

n

i n

g

t

alytic

t

only pot

s

to

ste

reduci

ng

r

reacti

,

at

the

both

for

al

e

age

secure

Oper-

this

s i

b

1 e

he

e

re-

his

ech-

e

n

t

i

a 1

m

from

agent

on

has

It

is

anticipated that

removal

of

nitrogen

oxides

from

tunnel

air

by

any

conventional

technique,

including

catalytic reduction

may

be

the

most

difficult

objective

to

achieve. Thermodynami

cal ly

,

the

decomposition

of

NO into

106



2

and

found

rates

lytic

of

2

,

employ

more

d

reacti

p

a

t

i

b

1

cataly

select

Ryason

at

hi

suppor

of

100

reacta

not

ap

N

2

is

q

that

w

i

or

tempe

oxidatio

catalyt

s

reduci

if

ferent

on

condi

e

reacti

st

with

ively,

c

(91)

stu

h

space

ted

cata

0°F

were

nts,

so

parently

uite

fa

1

effec

ratures

n

of

CO

ic remo

ng

cond

cataly

tions

o

ons.

E

the cap

o u

1

d

y

i

died th

veloci t

lysts

t

requi

r

that th

promis

vorab

t thi

(92).

and

val

o

i

t

i

o n

sts w

ften

ven

i

a

b i 1 i

eld a

e

cat

ies

a

o

be

ed,

p

is

ap

ing.

le

,

b

s

dec

Whi

hydro

f N0

X

s.

fi

i

th

d

al

low

n

the

ty

of

n in

alyze

nd

te

effec

lus

s

proac

ut

no

omposi

le

the

carbon

from

owever

i

s s

i m

i

s

the

prese

adsor

ternal

d

reac

mperat

ti

ve.

toichi

h

to t

cataly

tion

a

destr

s

requ

a gas

,

the

lar

se

cataly

nee

of

b

i

n

g

b

redu

tion

o

ures a

Howev

ometri

unnel

st

has b

t

reason

uctive

c

ires

an

stream

n

use

of

t

lecti vi

t

sis

of

i

excess

oth

CO

a

ctive

re

f

N0

X

wi

nd

found

er,

temp

c

quanti

gas

clea

een

able

ata-

excess

ormal

ly

wo

or

ies at

ncom-

°2»

a

nd

N0

X

action.

th

CO

alumina

eratures

ties

of

n

u

p

is

An

extremely comprehensive

and

detailed

body

of

work

on

N0

2

adsorption was

developed

in connection

wi

t

b

the

Wisconsin

process for

the

production

of nitric

add'93j

t

This

process

employed shallow fluidized beds of silica

gel

for

the

adsorption

of

N0

2

,

and

this process was

demonstrated

on an

industrial

scale. Silica

gel

contacting was also

used

in

this

process

for

the

catalytic

oxidation

of

NO

to

N0

2

.

The published data

on

this si

1

ca-gel

-based oxi

dati

on-sorption

operation

show

the

following

specific

points:

a.

Sorber

design

was

based

on

operation

at

10°F

at a

gel:

N0

2

ratio

of

14.

Poor

recovery was

indicated

at

temperatures

above

10°,

regardless

of

gel

flow.

b.

Catalysis

of NO

oxidation

to

N0

2

by

silica gel

required

a

gas

dewpoint

of

-60°F.

It

is obvious

that

both

of

the above specifications

are

outside

the range

of

probable

tunnel application with

respect

to

utilization

of

ambient

temperatures and

in-tunnel

dewpoints. The

sorption

concept is

nevertheless of

con-

tinuing

interest;

Sundaresan(94)

reported

that

a

commercial

zeolite

(molecular

sieve)

was more efficient

than silica

gel

for

removing

very

low

concentrations

of N0

X

from

a

nitric

acid plant tail

gas.

N0

X

selectivity in the presence of

organic contaminants

has

not

been

explored for

zeolite

or

carbon

adsorption, and laboratory

studies

of such

selectivity

at

the low levels of

N0

X

concentration indicated

for

tunnel

air must be made

before

actual application can

be

seriously

considered.

107



sol lit

larly

nor e

gas

c

CO2

a

A

det

sorpt

stack

wi

th

that

the

m

N0

X

f

recyc

ever,

was b

b

t

a i

ion

r

at

1

ff ici

ompon

nd SO

ailed

ion

gase

this

absor

ost

p

rom

p

le

li

the

ased

ned

i

As sh

e

a

c t

i

ow

CO

ent

a

ents

2

,

wi

revi

f low

s

has

1

atte

ption

romi

s

ower

mewat

poten

on tw

n the

own

ab

ons

of

ncentr

bsorpt

likely

11

int

ew of

conce

been

r revi

(wi th

i

n

g

p

pi

ant

er

or

tial

cond

case

ove i

N0

2s

a

t

i

n

ion

s

to

b

erfer

the

d

ntrat

recen

ew, a

chem

tenti

stack

magne

promi

i t i

n

of

tu

n

the

wet

s, is

i

t

u

a

t

e

pre

e

wit

i

ff

ic

i

ons

tly

p

pape

i

cal

al

te

gas,

sium

se

s tha

nnel

bri

e

scrub

nei

t

ion.

sent

h

N0

y

ul tie

of

NO

u

b

1 i

s

r

by

react

c

h

n

i

q

and

hydro

f thi

t

wou

venti

f

rev

bi

ng

her

a

Fort

in

tu

solu

s

ass

x

fco

fiedO

Barto

ion)

ue

f

sugge

xide

s

abs

Id

no

1 a

1

1

i

ew

of

of

M0

X

,

strai

g

her,

ot

nnel

ga

tion

eq

ociated

m

oower

appeare

r

the

r

sted

th

s

1

u

t

i

orption

t neces

n

the

d

part

htf

or

her

s

s ,

su

u i 1

i

b

with

pi

an

conn

ndi

ca

d

to

emova

e

use

n.

H

tech

s a r i

1

i s-

icu-

ward

ol

uble

ch as

ria.

the

t

ection

ted

be

1

of

of

ow-

n i

q

u e

y

be

tents

s t u

d

i e

and ca

alkali

were f

rather

event,

appare

feasib

to

be

a.

Cost-benefit

calculations

on

a complex

magnesium

hydroxide

absorption

flow

sheet showed

absorption to have

the

lowest

annual costs only because

by-

product

credits offset the high

capital

charges

for

installation.

b. It

was

assumed

that equimolar con-

centrations

of NO

and

N0

2

(N2O3)

could be

obtained in the

gas

in

order

to

optimize

absorption.

The

assumption of

equimolar

NO and

NO?

gas

con-

finds

some support

in

the

literature;

Radnakri

shna'96)

d the

removal of N0

X

with

dilute

sodium,

potassium

lcium

hydroxide

solutions, and

found

that when

the

was

in excess,

equal

amounts

of

nitrate

and nitrite

ormed.

However, this may be

a

liquid-phase

reaction,

than

a

catalyzed

gas-phase

displacement.

In

any

N0

X

removal

from

tunnel

air by

wet

scrubbing

means

ntly requires intensive

development effort

prior to

i 1

i

ty

determination,

and

this

operation

does

not appear

susceptible

to

design

or

installation

at

present.

Particulates

The

government

has

estimated

that current

vehicles

emit

approximately

0.3

g/mile

of particulate

matter(67).

Although particulate matter has

not

as

yet

been clearly

de-

fined,

and

neither

measuring techniques nor

test cycle

con-

ditions

have

been

specified,

a

standard

of 0.1

g/mile

has

been

proposed

for

1975,

and

a

1980 level

of 0.03

g/mile.

According

to

Stern(42),

automotive

exhaust

emissions

contain

70%

by

count

of

extremely

fine particles in

the

size range

108



of 0.02

to

0.06y.

However, on a

mass

distribution

basis,

particles less than

1

.

0y

in

size account

for

less

than

5%

of the

total weight

of the particulate

matter

in

the ex-

haust.

Exhaust

particulates

contain

both

inorganic

and

organic compounds of high

molecular

weight,

with

the most

significant

fraction consisting

of

lead

compounds deriving

from the tetraethyl

lead antiknock

compounds.

Approximately

75% of the lead burned

in

the engine

is

exhausted

to

the

atmosphere, with

the

total

amount

of

lead

particulates

dis-

charged

being proportional

to the concentration

of

tetra-

ethyl lead

in the gasoline. It

is worth noting that

the

current

introduction of

low-lead

and

non-leaded

gasolines

at

the

fuel pumps will directly

yield

significant

reduc-

tions

in the total

particulate

emission.

ulates

mists.

derive

operat

contri

engine

and od

the

us

rise

t

Bari urn

enough

pound

salts

certai

In

a

may

als

Furthe

d

from

t

ions) an

b

u

t

o r is

s. The

or

compo

e

of bar

o

a

uniq

sul

fate

sulfur

in

the

e

are

toxi

n.

dditi

o

rep

r , tu

i re

a

d fug

exha

latte

unds

ium-b

ue se

has

in

d

xhaus

c

, an

on

to

resen

nnel

brasi

i

ti ve

ust

,

r exh

(part

ased

t of

low

t

esel

t

ash

d

com

the lead

t

carbon,

air

also

on,

salt

dust. T

both

from

a

u

s

t

is

p

ial

ly-oxi

smoke

sup

particula

oxici

ty

,

fuel

to

y

Howeve

plete

sul

salt

i

ron

conta

(from

he

pr

gaso

artic

di

zed

press

te

em

and

t

ield

r

,

wa

fatio

s

,

the

e

rust,

t

ins

part

winter

imary

pa

line

and

ularly h

hydroca

ant

a

d

d

i

i s s

i

o

n

p

here

is

this

inn

ter-sol

u

n

may no

xhaust partic-

a

r

s

and

oil

iculates

salting

r t

i

c u 1 a t e

d

i

e s e

1

igh

in smoke

rbons),

and

tives

may

give

roblemsW).

usual

ly

ocuous

com-

ble

barium

t

always

be

109



u

l/l

c

CD

4-

0J

©

> o r—

<w

•r-

U

4->

0)

•r t.

CO

ox:

o

p—

c

'4)

o

at «o

>

-o

or.

-> +J

s-

&_

3

a

o

o

o

+j 0-+->

in

E

o

e

UJ

|_H

z

o

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64,000

mile

test

as

against

a

normal

emission

rate of 0.2

to

0.3

g/mile.

In a

26,000

mile test on

an improved

version

of

the trap

system,

lead

salt emissions

were reduced

to

0.03

g/

mile.

Perhaps even

more

significant were the reductions in

the

BaP

emission

rates.

At

3,000

miles, the

trap system

reduced

BaP

emissions

from 66

to

24

mi

crograms/gallon

of

fuel,

while at

18,000

miles

traveled,

the reduction

was

from

228

to

6

micrograms/gallon.

Studies

are

continuing,

but the last

test

data showed that total particulate

emission

could

be

maintained at

the 0.03 to

0.04

g/mile level,

with a

lead

salt

content

running from

50

to

75%

of

the total

partic-

ulates.

utilize

motive

particl

system

the

sam

larger

be easi

it

beco

populat

eff

i

cie

Collect

on

part

particl

the

nat

haust

i

for

pro

and oth

in

the

prel imi

drops

a

at leas

ventila

The

D

d the

fl

exhaust

es

from

of parti

e

flow

e

venti

lat

ly accom

mes

infi

ion

dens

ncy

deer

ion

effi

i

c

1

e

s

i

z

e proper

ure of

p

s still

per sele

er inert

plus-10

nary

imp

re

regui

t of

the

tion sys

uPont exhaus

ow

energy

an

to

agglomera

the

exhaust

culate

remov

nergy

to

the

ion flow. F

plished

at

h

nitely

more

ity. For

cy

eases

with

d

ciency

for

i

e

distributi

ties. As

po

articul

ates

sketchy,

and

ction of

col

ial

devices

micron

size

ortance. Fu

red

for high

same

order

tern itself.

t

trapping system

described

above

d

high

velocity

inherent

in

auto-

te

and

centrifugal

ly

separate

the

gases.

Any

similar external

al must

include

means

for

imparting

total

gas:

exhaust

plus

the

much

urther,

while agglomeration

may

igh

particle

population

density,

difficult with

a

very

disperse

clones,

therefore,

dust

collection

ecreasing dust

loadings

(42)

.

nertial

separators

also

depends

on, particle

density

and

other

inted out

above,

information

on

in

gasoline

and diesel

engine ex-

does

not yet

provide the basis

lector

type.

Inasmuch

as

cyclones

show

high efficiencies

for particles

range, such data are

of extreme

rther,

relatively high pressure

efficiencies,

and

these

will

be

of

magnitude

as

the

initial tunnel

Some

of the

pressure drop characteristics

of wet

collectors,

as

well

as

the

gas

and

liquid

velocity

ranges

were

given in

Table

20. Again

the

humidi

f

ication

problems

existing

with

any type

of

wet

contactor

mitigate against

the

use

of

an

internal wet

scrubber,

but

such

units

may

have

application

to

the exhaust

air.

Most of the wet

collectors

listed also have

a

pressure drop range

that

would

necessitate

a

doubling of

the

fan horsepower

for most existing

tunnels

in order

to

operate

the scrubbing

equipment.

Notably,

the

spray

chamber

is

the

sole

device

with

an

inherent

resistance

less

than

1 inch.

W.G.

Aqueous spray

scrubbing

is

capable of

a

high

degree

of

particulate

removal

in

a

well-designed

unit.

Hangebrauclo

9/

)

111



has

re

(a)pyr

level

s

carbon

polynu

f

racti

exhaus

emi

ssi

scrubb

o r

g

a

n

i

the NO

ported

ene

emi

of

con

emi

ssi

clear

c

on, the

t contr

on. In

i n

g

has

c

s

,

w

h

i

x«

appea

probl

col le

is

ap

preci

only

charg

d

i

s c

h

groun

to

ma

and

v

Becau

press

very

throu

sec)

One

rs to

be

em

is th

ctors

,

s

plied

to

pi

t

a

tor

to

the

p

i

n g

the

arge and

ded

coll

i

n t a

i

n

t

ol tages

se of th

ure

loss

low,

fro

gh the

u

so

that

that

spray

scrubbing

removed

98%

of

the

benzo-

ssion from a municipal

incinerator.

Similar

trol were

achieved

on

the

polynuclear

hydro-

on

from

hot

asphalt blowing

plants.

Because

arcinogens

are associated with

the

particulate

se

data

indicate

excellent

potential

for tunnel

ol

for the

most

dangerous

health

hazards

in

the

addition

to

the

organic

carcinogens,

wet

capability for

the

removal

of

most

oxygenated

ch

are

usually

water-soluble,

and

a

portion

of

of the few

industrial

control units which

readily

applicable

to the

tunnel air

control

e

electrostatic precipitator.

In

mechanical

uch filters

(baghouses)

and

cyclones,

energy

the entire

gas

stream.

In

the

electrostatic

the energy used for

collection is

applied

articles.

The collection

process

consists

of

particulates

by

means

of

a

hioh-voltaqe

corona

then

electrostatically

depositing them

on

a

ecting

electrode. The electric

power

required

he corona

ranae from

50

to

500 watts/1000

CFM(J2)

of

from

50,000

to

100,000 volts are

required^

98

)

e

highly

selective energy

input mechanism,

through

the electrostatic

precipitators is

m 0.1

to

0.5 inches

W.G.

However,

gas

flow

nit

must be

held

tc

low

velocities

(2

to

8

ft/

these

devices are

usually

fairly

large.

d

i

s a

d

v

expl

os

i

e n

c

i

e

99%(99

equal

design

(c)

f

high

e

should

resist

cle re

by

a

t

corona

normal

In

antage

ion

ha

s

of

c

)

and

f

aci

1

i

n

c

1

u

low

di

ff

1

cie

be i

n

i vi ty

s

i

s

t

i v

hick

p

from

perf

o

addi

s inc

zards

ommer

submi

ty

as

de

(a

stri

b

ncy

p

the

range

i

t

i

e s

artic

the

c

rmanc

tion

to

1

u d e hi

in

the

c

i

a

1

u

n

cron

pa

100-rni

)

dust

u t

i

o

n

a

artic e

range

o

s

from

can

le

le

laye

ol ecti

e

of th

the

gh

ca

case

its

n

rti

cl

cron

re

si

s

nd (d

remo

f

10

4

lO

3

ad

to

r

and

ng

el

e

u

n

i

volume

pi to

s of c

ow

bei

es

may

parti

c

ti vi

ty

)

mo is

val

,

t

to

10

to

1

0l

col le

subse

ectrod

t.

trie

costs

umbus

ng

so

be

c

les.

(b)

ture

he

el

10

oh

4

ohm

c t

i o n

q

u

e

n

t

e

,

in

requi

and

tible

1

d

ar

ol lee

Fact

gas t

conte

e

c

t

r

i

m-cm;

-crow

elec

back

terfe

rement

p

o

s s

i

b

dusts

e

i

n

e

ted wi

ors co

empera

nt

of

cal

re

actua

9).

H

trode

d

i

s

c

h

ring w

s,

other

le

dust

.

Effic-

xcess

of

th almost

ntroll

i

ng

tures

gas.

For

si

sti vi

ty

1

particle

i

gh parti

-

insulation

arge

of

a

i

th the

An

excellent

review of

both

design

and-

application

of electrostatic precipitators

is

presented

in

the Air Pollu

-

tion Engineering Manual

(41)

while

Walker(

99

)

$

nas

updated

the

cost

and efficiency data for

this

equipment. A

simpler,

and

potentially cheaper form

of

electrostatic

unit, is

the

112



s

p

a

c

by

Ha

parti

charg

the

f

1 i

q

u

i

col

le

absor

parti

high

unate

and

w

avail

e-charae

precipitator,

described

by

Faith^

^)

and

nsonHOl).

in

the

space-charge

precipitator,

the

culates

are

charged

by

a

conventional

corona,

and then

ed

droplets

of

liquid

are

introduced into

the

gas in

orm of

a

spray

froma

charged nozzle.

Particles and

d

droplets

are

then collected by grounded

wire mesh

ctors. This

unit

combines

the best

features of

spray

ption with

the electrostatic efficiency

levels of

culate removal,

while

avoiding the complexity

and

capital

cost

of conventional

precipitators. Unfort-

ly, this

type

of

equipment

is

in

the devlopment

stage

ill

require extensive work before becoming commercially

able.

Tunnel Pollution

Control

-

Feasibility

and Economic

Evaluation

techn

for

r

The

p

and i

carbo

real

i

contr

of se

The

o

contr

ef

fee

to

a

the i

T

i

c a

1

a

emovi

n

ol

uta

nclude

ns ,

an

zed

th

ol

tec

veral

ther

p

ol

and

tivene

degree

n

situ

he

objective

of

this

study was to

determine the

nd

economic

feasibility of

available

processes

g

pollutants

from vehicular tunnel atmospheres,

nts

are

those

originating

in

automotive

exhausts,

CO, N0

X

,

unburned

and

partially-oxidized

hydro-

d.

particulates.

Early in the program, it was

at adaptation of

existing industrial pollution

hnology

for

processing tunnel

air

was

only

one

possible

control

strategies that might be

employed,

ossible

strategies include

auto exhaust

source

tunnel

ventilation augmentation. The cost

and

ss

of

these

latter control

strategies

were

explored

sufficient

to

establish a

basis for comparison

for

secondary

pollution

control

approach.

The

present

state of

the pollution

control

tech-

nology

art

potentially

applicable

to

the

tunnel problem

has

been

covered. This

section

deals

with

the

preliminary tech-

nical

design and

cost evaluations for selected

systems.

The

base model

used for the

feasibility

studies is

a

1-mile

long,

250,000

CFM

ventilation rate

tunnel.

indust

to

the

In

add

exhaus

in the

emissi

result

d u

c t

i

o

from

p

the

tu

in

s e

it

app

D

rial

remo

i

tion

t

sou

deca

on , c

s of

n

in

resen

nnel

eri

ty

ears

esign

a

pol luti

val

of

,

a

stu

rce

con

de of

1

orrecte

this

la

CO and

tly-man

polluti

unless

that

tu

nd

ec

on co

pol

lu

dy

ha

trol

970-1

d

for

tter

hydro

dated

on

pr

ambi

nnel

onomi

ntrol

tants

s

bee

measu

980,

auto

study

carbo

vehi

oblem

ent

s

venti

c

studi

proces

from

v

n

made

res pro

on

the

mobi le

i

n

d

i

c

a

n

emiss

cle exh

wi 11

c

tandard

1 at

ion

es hav

ses

po

e h

i

c

u

1

of

the

gramme

averag

popula

te

tha

ion 1

e

aust c

orresp

s

are

design

e

been ma

t e n t

i

a

1

1

y

ar

tunnel

effect

o

d

to

go

i

e

CO and

tion age.

t

a

four-

vel

swill

ontrol s

,

ondi

ngly

changed.

must

mak

de of

appl icable

atmospheres

.

f

automotive

nto

effect

hydrocarbon

The

fold

re-

result

and that

diminish

At

minimum,

e

allowance

113



for the transi

ent nature

of the

pollutant

loadings,

and at

maximum,

there

is

a

good

possibility

that

source

control

will

eliminate

the

tunnel atmosphere

problem.

tunnel

poll

uti

revi sio

route

t

at

this

catalyt

tempera

tunnel

data, a

recomme

operabi

carbon

the

pol

well

be

Economi

competi

was

ass

control

t

e

c

h n

i

c

di rect

A

v

e

n

t

i

on co

n

is

all

time

i c

ox

ture

use.

nd

fu

nded.

lity

adsor

1

utan

1

ow

t

cally

ti

ve

essed

of

t

ally

test

compara

1 ati

on

ntrol

p

the mos

e

v i at i

n

.

Of

a

i

d

a

t

i

o

n

catalys

Howeve

rther

d

From

q

u e

s

t

i

o

p

t

i

o

n

a

t or

pa

he

lowe

,

only

with

a u

•

as

a

p

he

gros

feasibl

veri

f

i

tive fe

bl ower

rocesse

t

techn

q

the

t

11

of

t

,

uti 1

t, appe

r,

desi

irect

d

a techn

ns

for

nd

elec

rti cul a

r

limit

catalyt

gmented

o

t

e

n t i

a

s

tunne

e

and e

a t

i o

n

i

a

s

i

b

i

1

augment

s has

s

i

c

a 1

1

y

unnel

a

he

cont

zing

a

ars

mos

gn was

evelopm

i

c

a

1

v

i

catalyt

trostat

te

cone

of

any

i

c o x

i d

bl

ower

1 exhau

1 emiss

conomi

c

s

d

e

s

i r

ty and

a

t

i

o

n

hown

t

and

ec

tmosph

rol

op

60%

Mn

t

prom

extrap

ent

wo

ewpoin

i

c

o x

i

ic

pre

entrat

known

a

t

i

o

n

capac

st tre

ion,

a

ally

p

able.

econ

vs

.

v

hat b

onomi

ere

n

erati

02/40

i

s

i

n

g

ol

ate

rk

is

t, th

d

a

t

i

o

c

i

pit

ion

i

indu

appea

ity.

atmen

nd

wa

romi

s

arious

s

lower

ad

cally

fe

ollution

ons,

tha

%

CuO

am

for in

dy

of

econdary

dition

or

a s

i

b

1

e

burden

t

of

b

i

e

n t

-

si

tu

d

from 1

requi re

ere

are

n

,

a

c t

i

v

a

t i o n

be

n each c

s

t

r

i

a 1

a

rs to

be

Spray

s

t

method

s

found

i

n

g

,

alt

aboratory

d

and

seri ous

ated

cause

a s

e

is

ppl

i

cation

near-

c

rubbing

for

to be

hough

A short

study

of

recycle

air

operations

around

the

tunnel

or

tunnel

section

was

made,

and

it was

found that any

degree

of recycle would

give

rise

to an

increase

in tunnel

pollutant

concentration above the

level

obtained in once-

through

air

operation.

The

detailed

review of

the

state-of-the-art

for

both

source control

and tunnel

ventilation

air treatment

technology

yields a

number of significant

conclusions

which

bear

directly

on

the

technology feasibility

determination.

In

summary:

1.

Control technology

available

for the

removal

of vehicle-derived

pollutants

comprises

two distinct

categories:

(a)

Source

control

technology already

developed

for

removal

of

pollutants

from

automotive

exhaust at

exhaust

conditions.

(b)

Industrial

technology

which

must

be

adapted

or

extrapolated to

tunnel

air

pollutants and

concentration

levels,

as

well as

to

ambient

temp-

erature

operating

conditions.

114



V

e

h f

c u

1

a

al

ready

e

s c a

1

a

t

i

e

f

f

i

c

i

e

n

the

imme

proven

c

posed

fu

exists,

t e

c

h n

i

q

u

able

in

decrease

al

ready

r pol

parti

ng

de

cy. is

di ate

ontro

ture

and

a

es

wi

the

n

s

i

n

occur

lutant so

ally

in

o

gree

of a

now

mand

fi

ve-yea

I

equipme

emi ssion

choice

o

II appare

ear futur

vehicular

red.

urce

controls

are

peration and

an

pplication

and

ated by

law

for

r

period.

Some

nt

meeting

pro-

standards

already

f

competitive

ntly

become avail

e.

Significant

emissions

have

In

most

cases, the

adaptation

of

con-

ventional industrial

control technology

to

the

tunnel

air treatment

will require

experimental

development and field

tests

This required

preliminary work

has not

been

done,

and

no

present

tunnel

treat-

ment

installations exist.

4.

5. It

does not

appear reasonable

to expect

exhaust

control

techniques

developed

to

operate

at

the

high-temperature, high-

pollutant

concentration

exhaust

conditions

to function

at

the

150-

fold dilution,

ambient-temperature

tunnel

air

conditions.

In

pollution

control

design

a

prime

rule

is

to treat

at

the point

of maximum

con-

centration

prior

to dilution

-

a

rule

based

on

both

economic

and

efficiency

considerations,

as

well

as

functional

feasibi

1

i ty.

The

above preliminary conclusions strongly

indicate

that

tunnel

air

treatment

is

not likely

to

prove to

be

a

tenable

control

strategy at

this time,

should

alternate

means

of

control

be

available.

On

the other hand

there

are a

few

standard tech-

nologies

such

as electrostatic

precipitation,

which appears

to

be more

suitable for

tunnel

air

processing

than

for

source

control

115



application.

This section

will be

concerned

with

the

evalu-

ation

of

the

capabilities

of

all potentially

applicable

tech-

nology in the

context

of available

alternates

and

the

changing

nature of

the

source

emissions.

Tunn

el

Pollution

Con

trol

Strategie

s

I ..

..II.

.

, — II.. ..

»— —

I

I

—

»

~ I—I.

~ ~

^t-

—

The application

of pollution

control

equipment for

the

removal

of

pollutants

from

tunnel

air

is

only

one of

several control

approaches open, and

it is

necessary

to con-

sider

these

alternates,

if

only from

the

point

of

technical

and

economic

perspective.

There

are four

apparent tunnel

pollution

control strategies:

A. Control

of

traffic

loadings and

speed

within

tunnel.

B. Increased ventilation

rates.

C.

Exhaust

source controls.

D.

Tunnel

air

treatment.

Pragmatically, the first

two

control

strategies

are standard present

control

modes

for

tunnel

pollution

problems, although

recent studies'^

8

)

indicate

that these

techniques

are

not

yet

fully realized.

the Mon

in

the

1

1

mi

tin

utilize

e

n

t e r i

n

The Gre

ti nuous

enterin

vehi

cle

Lincoln

install

tied in

nal

s.

of vehi

average

from Ot

crease

in ere

as

measure

Se

t

Bla

I960'

g

in-

s

a

s

g

the

at

St

ly

mo

g

tra

s is

Tunn

ing

t

to

a

The o

cles

vehi

t

U

02

in

av

ing a

veral

nc

Tun

s

,

ut1

tunnel

ystem

tunne

.

Bern

ni tor

ffic

i

reache

el und

raff

i

c

comput

bjecti

in the

cul ar

)

show

erage

verage

of

the

nel an

lize

t

emi ss

of

con

1 to

c

hard

T

the nu

s

stop

d.

Wh

er

the

flow

er

whi

ve i s

tunne

speed

s

the

vehi

cl

vehic

newer

E

d

Great

raffic

f

ions

(20)

trol lig

ontrol

s

unnel

us

mber

of

ped

when

lie

t h

e

s

Hudson

control

s

ch will

to

simul

1

at any

in

the t

reductio

e

speed

le speed

uropean tu

St.

Bernha

low contro

The

Mon

hts

for

ve

peed

betwe

es

traffic

vehicles

i

the

maxim

e

are

non-

River, is

utilizing

in turn co

taneously

one

time

unnel.

F

i

n

in CO

em

and

it

is

is

a

dire

nnels

,

rd

Tun

1 as a

t

Blan

hides

en 25

count

n

the

urn

num

urban

report

traff

ntrol

reduce

by

inc

gure 2

is

si

on

appare

ct

CO

such

nel

,

o

means

c

Tunn

in an

and

37

ers to

tunnel

ber

of

tunnel

edU8)

i

c

c

o

u

traffi

the n

reasin

9,

tak

with

nt

tha

contro

as

pened

of

el

d

mph.

con-

,

and

s

,

the

to

be

nters

c

sig-

umber

g

the

en

in-

t

1

Information supplied

by Kyle'

18

)

on

the Sumner

Tunnel

in

Boston

Harbor showed

that

the total

longitudinal

air

speed in the

tunnel

was 14.7

mph,

of

which

the

ventilation

air

speed constituted only 1.3 mph,

while the vehicle

sweep

effect

contributed

13.4 mph.

It

should be

noted that

the

116



UJ

c

x

o

z

o

5

1

i

1

FIGURE

29

EMISSIONS

OF

CARBON

VS.

VEHICLE

SPEED

^*^*.

SOURCE

5

0TT(I9

_

If)

o

to

if)

CM

o

CJ

ID

DC

X

to

UJ

UJ

-J

o

X

UJ

>

u.

o

Q

UJ

UJ

0.

0)

UJ

<

UJ

>

<

lO o

lO

o

to

ro

CM

CM

o

O

o

O

IT)

O

<5

to

o

6

o

6

\W21

l

(3311HN3 3QIX0N01N

N09HV0

117



i a

b

1

y

hand

opera

capac

carri

1

a

t

i

o

tunne

v

e

n

t

i

qui

re

qui

re

f

i

xed

flow

Depen

fan

o r

i

g

i

head

by

fl

the d

syste

bl

owe

ent

f

v

e

n t

i

to

re

p

a t

i

b

of i

n

but

t

c

o

n

s

i

Re

built

e

peak

ting ex

ity. T

ed one

n capac

1

s

are

1

a

t

i

o

n

ments f

ment

is

-size

d

rate

wi

ding

on

it

is

p

nal

fan

flow

ca

ow

augm

egree

,

m

,

and

r. Thi

or

each

1

ati

on

place

t

i 1

i ty

w

termedi

his w

i

d

e r

a t

i

o

serve

into t

traf

fi

pense

heoret

step

f

i

ty

of a

f

blower

or tha

a

fun

uct

,

a

1

1

cau

the

h

robabl

to

de

paci

ty

en tat

i

if

any

the

he

s

comb

tunne

system

he

bl

a

ith

th

ate

ve

1 be

f

n is

b

capaci

unnel

c 1

oad

of

con

i

c

a

1

1

y

urther

Howeve

i

x

e

d

s

s

is

s

t

duct

c t

i

o n

n atte

se

a

f

ead-ca

e

this

vel

op

Thu

on

for

,

of

o

ad-cap

i

n

a

t

i

o

1

,

and

d

e

s

i

g

des

on

e a

d d i

nti

lat

e a s

i

b

1

eyond

ty

and fan

v

e n

t

i

1

a

t

i

o

i

n

g

s

,

with

stantly

ru

,

this des

by

adding

r,

v

e

n

t

i

1

a

ize,

and

t

i

m

i

1

a r

1

y

f

size.

Be

of

(gas ma

mpt

to

dou

our-fold

i

pacity

cha

higher

he

any

more

t

s reductio

an

e x

i

s

t

ver-design

acity

char

n

of

facto

would

req

n.

Altern

the

o r

i

g

i

t

i

o n a 1

h i

g

ion

shafts

e

only for

the

scope

spee

n

sys

out

i

nning

ign

a

fans

ti

on

he

pr

i xed

cause

ss

fl

ble

t

ncrea

racte

ad

wi

han

a

n

of

ng

tu

i

n

t

acter

rs

wi

ui re

ately

nal

f

h-hea

is

a

spec

of

th

d

con

terns

ncurr

at

m

pproa

to

a

ducts

essur

by

th

the

ow

ra

he

pe

se in

r

i

s

t

i

1

1

no

frac

pol

1

u

nnel

he or

i

s t

i

c

11 ob

check

,

it

an

to

d uni

nothe

i

f

1

c

i

s

re

trol

are

in

order

i

n

g

the a

aximum ve

ch

could

ugment pe

in

exist

e

head

of

e

peak

fl

blower

he

te)

2

thro

ak

ventil

the head

cs

of

the

t

permit

t

i

o

n

of

i

tant

cone

will

depe

iginal

ve

s

of

the

viously

b

i

n g

of

t

may

be po

yield

he

t.

The

a

r

possibi

tunnels

,

port.

i

nvar-

to

d d

i t

i

o

n a

n t

i

1

a

t

i

o

be

ak

venti-

ing

the

ow

re-

ad

re-

ugh

the

a t

i

o

n

1

oss

.

original

the

ts

low-

en t

rati

o

nd

on

n

t i 1

a

t

i

o

original

e

differ-

e

initial

s

s

i

b

1

e

ad

com-

d d

i

t

i

o

n

1

ity

and

this

Direct

vehicular

exhaust

control

techniques

have

received

the

major

share

of

attention

and

implementation.

There

appears

to

be no

question

that

every

possible

effort

has

been, and

will be

made,

to

protect

the

present

industrial

118



and

private

investment

in the

internal

combustion

vehicular

engine

by

the further

development

of

source

controls.

Present

differences

between

Federal authorities

and

the

automotive

industry

concern

timetables

for

emission

reduction,

rather

than

the degree.

the

a

claim

carbo

uncon

reduc

cars.

the

c

d

e

s

i

g

signi

intro

age

avera

porti

quant

and

t

utomo

ed th

n

emi

troll

tion

No

laime

n

cha

f

i can

ducti

v

e

h

i

c

ge

as

on

of

i

t

a

t

i

his

w

In

a

re

t i v e

in

at

1971

ssi

ons

ed

mode

in

N0

X

data

we

d emiss

n g

e s

in

t

reduc

on

of

1

le

emis

the ve

these

ve effe

ill

be

cent paper

d

u s

t

ry

in

model

pas

and

65%

le

Is.

Jense

emi

ssi

ons

re introdu

ion

reduct

recent

mo

t

i

o n s in e

ow-emissio

si

ons, and

hide

popu

low-

emi

ssi

ct

of the

done below

(103)

rev

control 1

senqer

ca

ss

CO

emi

n

also in

could

be

ced

to

su

i

ons

,

but

del

years

xhaust

em

n

vehicle

will

con

1

a

t i o n

in

on

v

e

h

i

c

programme

iewi n

ng

em

rs

ha

s

s

i

o

n

d

i

c a t

expec

pport

neve

have

i s

s

i

o

s

i

s

t

i n

u

e

cl ude

es

,

p

d red

g

the pr

i

s s

i

o

n

s

,

d

85%

le

than

ea

ed

that

ted for

the

mag

rtheless

al

ready

n. Whil

now

affe

to

lowe

s

a

grea

redi

ctio

u c t

i

o

n

s

ogress

of

i

t

was

ss hydro-

r

1 i

e

r

similar

1973 model

n i

t

u d

e

of

,

e

n

q

i

n

e

produced

e

previous

cting

aver-

r

this

ter

pro-

n

of

the

is

desirable,

succeed

cri

teri

p

o

s

s

i

b

1

must

ta

which

a

sent

al

recent

Table 2

tration

when

co

In

view

emi

ssi

tain

th

decline

be

made

it

is

a

nology

1

oading

tration

Be

ing,

a

goa

e,

if

ke

in

re

1

i

lowab

i

nfor

4,

an

once

mpare

of

t

n red

at

th

,

and

in

v

lso

v

prove

s,

th

1 i mi

cause

proje

Is th

not

to ac

kely

1

e

po

mati

o

d the

a ye

d

to

he pr

u c t

i

o

e

ave

with

entil

i

rtua

s to

e

all

ts

wi

source

cted em

at

form

probabl

count t

to

be

c

1

1

utant

n

on

pr

propos

ar)

of

present

oposed

n in t

rage CO

respec

a

t

i

o

n

d

lly

cer

be

effe

owable

11

also

contr

i

s s

i

o

n

erly a

e.

Tu

he

new

onsi

de

conce

imary

ed CO

17.2

p

d

e

s

i

g

Federa

e 1971

emi

ss

t to t

e

s

i

g

n

tain

t

cti

ve

i

n

-

1

u n

be

1

o

ol te

stan

ppear

nnel

Fede

rably

ntrat

stand

level

pm is

n

1 im

1

sta

-1980

ion 1

his

p

for

t

hat

,

in

re

nel

a

wered

c

h n

i

q

dards

ed un

v e n t

i

ral a

more

ion 1

ards

(

(max

part

its

o

ndard

peri

evel

ollut

his

d

as

ex

ducti

mbi

en

ues

and

atta

lati

i

r

q

str

i m i

t

104)

imum

i cul

f

10

s

f

o

od

,

wi

11

ant

,

ecre

haus

on o

t

po

appear

air

q

u

i

n a

b

1

e

on

syst

ual i

ty

i

n

g

e n t

s.

The

is

giv

1 -hour

a

r 1

y

i

m

to

20

r

autom

it

appe

c

o n t

i

n

al

1

owa

ase.

H

t contr

f

peak

1

1

u

t

i

o

n

to

be

a

1 i

ty

are

now

em

design

cri

teri

a

,

than

pre-

most

en

in

concen-

portant

ppm

CO.

oti ve

ars

cer-

ue

to

nee

must

owever

,

01

tech-

pol

1

utant

concen-

Exhaust

Emission Projections

The design

basis for

the

ventilation

of

vehicular

tunnels is

the

peak

traffic load (exhaust emission rate)

plus

a

maximum CO

concentration limit.

It should be

noted

that

prevailing

vehicular CO emission

data

obtained

from test

data

at

the time of the ventilation

design are

now used as

the

119



TABLE

24

NATIONAL

AIR

QUALITY

STANDARDS

PROPOSED

BY

EPA

PRIMARY STANDARDS

Air

Pollutants

pg/m

3

ppm

CO

Max.

8-hr. cone,

once a

year

Max.

1-hr.

cone,

once a year

10,

000

15,000

11.4

17.2

HC

Max.

3-hr.

cone,

from

6

am.

to

9 am.

once a year

125

--

NO

x

Annual

arithmetic mean

24-hr.

cone,

once a

year

100

250

0.19

(as

NO2)

0.47

(as

NO2)

SO

x

Annual

arithmetic

mean

24-hr.

cone,

once a year

80

365

0.21

(as

SO2)

0.96(asSO2)

Particulate

matter

annual

geo. mean

Max. 24-hr.

cone,

once

a

year

75

260

--

Photochemical

oxidants

Max.

1-hr. cone, once a year

125

Adapted from Pollution Engineering,

1971

120



basis

for estimating

ventilation

needs.

Straight Creek

Tunnel

ventilation

system

emission

test

data

obtained

in

1964

road

Ventilation needs

for

the

year

1990

were

Thus,

for

the

des1gn(l05)

f

CO

tests

were utilized,

also

calculated

based

on

these 1964

emission

data.

Because 1964

is

a

year

representative of

virtually

uncontrolled exhaust

emissions,

it

may serve

a

conservative

design

base,

but

a 26-year

ex-

trapolation in

the light of the success

of

source control

techniques

represents

an

unknown degree of over-design.

tion

to re

sourc

techn

be in

immed

this

10

ye

As no

d

e

s

i

g

i

n

i

t

i

p

e

r

i

o

this

decre

val

id

contr

of

fu

In

problem

view

and

e

contro

iques

ha

creasing

iate

f

i

control

ars, and

ted

abov

ned

for

at ion,

b

d

of

dec

period

s

a s

i

n

g

v e

predi ct

ol

timet

ture

aut

order

in

a t

quant

Is

on

ve

bee

ly imp

e-year

strate

will

e

,

tun

the

em

ut

are

reasin

hould

n t

i

1 a

t

ive

mo

abl es

,

omoti

to pr

i m

e

-

v

ify

t

f

utur

n ope

lemen

peri

gy

af

furth

nel

v

i

s s

i

o

then

g

emi

be

so

ion 1

dels,

it

i

e

emi

operly

a r i a

n

t

he

effe

e

emiss

r

a

t

i

v

e

ted

at

od.

Th

feet

tu

e r i n

-

e n t

i 1

a

t

n s e x i

s

wri tte

s s

i

o

n

s

.

design

oad. W

togeth

s now

p

ssi

ons.

d

e

f

i

n

frame

cts

ions,

for

s

highe

e

que

nnel

unnel

ion

s

ting

n off

Sys

ed

as

ith t

er wi

o

s

s

i

b

e

the

work

,

f man

Exh

evera

r

eff

s t

i

o

n

envi r

cont

ystem

at

th

over

terns

to t

he

re

th

th

le

to

tunne

it

is

dated

aust

s

1 year

i

c

i

e

n

c

is:

h

onment

rol

be

s

appe

e

time

a

20

amorti

ake ad

cent

d

e

firm

predi

1

air

nece

autom

ource

s ,

an

ies

i

ow

mu

s

i

n

nece

ar

to

of

d

to

30

zed

o

vanta

evelo

ing

o

ct th

pol 1

u-

ssary

otive

control

d

will

n

the

c

h

will

the

next

ssary?

be

esign

year

ver

ge

of

pment

f

a

of

emi ssi

on

course

posed

ni

a.

as

Fe

expec

stand

of

77

exhau

accel

Shoul

25

wi

compl

may b

compo

f

utur

in

de

Table 25

by

both

the

These

standa

deral

standar

ted

to be

ann

ards

prevai

1

,

.3%

in hydroc

st

emissions

sizes the Cal

indicate tha

erate the

Cal

d

this be the

11

prove

to

b

iance

by

the

e

combined

wi

si

tion data

t

e

emissions,,

tail

by

Blum'

lists

Federal

rds mus

ds are

ounced

then

1

arbons

,

compare

iforni

a

t

the

E

i form*

a

case

,

e

conse

automot

th pass

o

gener

a

n

d

t

h i

107)

in

the

e

gove

t

be

prese

some

975

m

47.8

d

to

stan

nvi

ro

time

then

rvati

ive

i

enger

ate a

s

typ

hi

s

xhau

rnme

cons

ntly

time

ode

% in

1971

dard

nmen

tabl

the

ve,

ndus

car

qua

e of

Mode

st

emiss

i

nt

and

th

idered

te

beinq

fo

in

1971.

cars

w

i

CO, and

model

s

.

s

,

recent

tal

Prote

e

in

its

schedule

assuming

try.

The

(and tru

nti tat ive

analysis

1 I prese

on st

e

Sta

n t a t

i

rmul

a

If

1

sho

75%

i

Alth

news

c

t

i

o

n

own

F

indie

of

CO

data

ck)

p

pred

has

n

t

a

t

i

andards

te

of

C

v

e

,

i

n a

ted,

an

Califor

w

a

dec

n

N0

X

i

ough

Ta

announ

Agency

ederal

ated

in

urse,

f

of Tab

opul

ati

i

c t

i

o

n

been

de

on.

pro-

al

ifor-

smuch

d are

nia

rease

n

ble

25

cements

may

schedule.

Table

ull

le

25

on

of

veloped

Previous

estimates of future automotive

exhuast

emi

ssions

(1

°8)

have made

allowance for the

projected

increase

in

the total

automobile population.

This

is

a

necessary

approach

when

computing

the

net

effect of control

technology



TABLE

25

EXHAUST

EMISSION

STANDARDS

AND

GOALS

Emission Levels, Grams per Mile

Year

HC

CO NO

x

Particulate

1970

2.2

23.0

1971*

2.2* 23.0*

4.0*

1972*

1.5*.

23.0*

3.0*

1973

2.2

23.0

3.0

1974*

1.5*

23.0*

1.3*

1975* 0.5* 12.0* 1.0*

1975

0.5

11.0

0.9

0.1

1980

0,25

4.7

0.4 0.03

Evaporation

Losses

-

6.0

grams per test

in

1970 in

California

and

1971 nationwide.

California

only.

122



on

atmospheric

pollution

in urban areas,

and

where

total

emissions are of

prime

interest. However,

vehicular tunnels

have

a

finite length, and

a

design

base

maximum

traffic

capacity

at

a

fixed emission

level. Emissions

in

tunnels

will

thus

be affected

only

by the

age-composition

of the

automobile

and truck

population,

and not

by

the

expansion

or gross numbers of

the car and truck populations.

Age-composition

data have

been

calculated

by

BlumÔ?)

f

r

om

figures

published in

Automobile

Facts and

Figures

('

09)

and these data

on

automobile

longevity

are

presented

in Table 26. In

the absence of information

on

changes in

ownership

patterns

or

automobile

longevity

with

economic conditions,

it

may

be

assumed

that

Table

26

repre-

sents

a

composition

that

will be

relatively

stable with

time, and

that

the age distribution of

1963-1964

will

con-

tinue

to

hold for

the

1970-1980

period. Blum

derived a

statistical

model

relating

the

total rate

of

vehicular

emissions to driving characteristics and vehicle

emission

controls,

and

while

this

model

is

best

projected

by

computer,

Table 26

does allow arithmetic approximation

of Blum's

Model

I

analysis, using

the

emission

control schedules

of Table 25.

the

averag

6

years,

t

Further, w

of

the

tot

cars produ

later.

Be

a

time-

lag

all

emissi

1972 were

(6-year

av

would

make

they

would

they would

placement

7 years,

7

pi acement

any

in

ere

are

thus

c

controls

.

(with

cont

age

and

a

vehicles.

As

Blum

e

age

of

he media

hile

car

al

car

p

ced in

a

cause of

in

the

on level

to

have

erage

ag

up

50%

make

up

have

re

is

even

5% repla

of

18

ye

se

in th

onservat

Any

inc

rols) wi

greater

points

out,

T

the

automobi

n

life

of

an

s

16

years an

opulation

in

model

year

a

this

longevi

effect

of

any

s.

Thus,

eve

little

or no

e) before the

of

the total

75% of

the

p

placed .95%

of

slower''

10

/

w

cement

time

o

ars.

These d

e

rate

of

pro

ive

in

terms

reases in

the

11

be reflect

influence on

able 26 indicates

t

le

population is

ap

individual

vehicle

d

older

constitute

any given year,

10%

re

still in

use

16

ty characteristics,

change

in

emission

n

if

all cars

produ

emissions,

it

would

1972

and

later

mod

car population,

198

opulation, and 1986

the older

cars.

T

i th

a

50%

replaceme

f 1

3

years

,

and

a

9

ata

make

no

allowan

duction of new mode

of the

effects

of

e

rate

of new model

ed

in

a

decrease

in

total

emissions

of

hat, while

proximately

is 11 years

1

to

2%

of the

years

there is

on

over-

c

e d

in

be 1978

el cars

1

before

before

ruck

re-

nt

age

of

5%

re-

ce

for

Is,

and

xhaust

producti

on

average

the

new

Combining

the above

data with

the

projected

control

timetables

enables

a

stepwise

arithmetic

calculation

of

com-

parative

CO and

HC

emissions

for

the

years 1970,

1975

and

1980.

These

calculations

are

presented

in

the

Appendix

II

123



TABLE

26

AUTOMOBILE

LONGEVITY

Fraction of Cars

(A-l) Years Old in Fraction of

Cars

A

Preceding

Year

Originally Produced

Age

of Car

Surviving

to

Become that

had

Survived

(Years) A

Years Old

i

in:

A

Years in:

1963 1964 1963 1964

2

-

3 .999

1

.000+

3

-

4

.999

.991

.999 .991

4

-

5

.990

.990

.990 .981

5

-

6 .974

.975

.964

.956

6

-

7

.957

.952

.922

.910

7

-

8

.936

.916 .863 .834

8

-

9

.906 .909

.781

.758

9

-

10

.856

.859

.669 .651

10

-

11

.813

.822

.544

.535

11

-

12

.780

.770

.424

.412

12

-

13 .764

.753 .324 .310

13

-

14

.769

.752

.249

.234

14

-

15 .752

.757

.187

.177

15

-

16

.773

.731

.145

.129

16+

.797

.825 .116

.107

Median

Automobile Life

=

11

Years

(Approx.)

Average

Age

of

Automobile

Population

=

6

Years

(Approx.)

124



and the results are

plotted

in Figure

30.

It

is

obvious

that, despite the

time-lag

effect,

the degree

of

control

programmed

is so

sharp

that

the

indicated

reductions

in

average

emissions are

considerable. The

average

hydro-

carbon emission

will

be

reduced

from 660

ppm

in

1970

to

156 ppm in

1980,

and

the average

CO

emission

will

decrease

from

25,790

ppm

to

6,120

ppm

over this

same

period.

This

calculation

makes

no

assumptions concerning

the

nature

of

the

exhaust control technology to

be

employed,

but

should

it

be

of

a

non-integral nature, such

as a

catalytic

con-

verter, which

can

be added to older

models,

then

the

decrease

in emissions

would be even

more marked

than

shown

in Figure

30.

hydro

i

m

p

o

s

to

a

origi

emi

ss

p

e r

i

o

not

a

are,

ness

can

b

The i

carbons

in

i

t

i

o n of e

four-fol

d

n

a

1

design

ion levels

d). The

q

u x

i 1 i

a ry

t

o

r

w

i 1

1

be

of the

exh

e ventured

ndicated four-fold

reduction

in

CO

and

the immediate decade resulting from

the

xhaust

controls

is

substantially

equivalent

increase

in

tunnel ventilation

capacity

over

levels

(discounting

the

decreases

in

average

that have

already occurred in

the

1964-1971

uestion

naturally

arises

as to

whether

or

unnel

ventilation or

pollutant

removal

measures

,

required

in view of

the

apparent

effective-

aust

control

approach.

The

only

answers

that

at

this

time

are:

1. If

no changes

are

ambient

tunnel

co

used as the initi

design

basis,

the

will

not

be

requi

trol will

elimina

tunnel

pollutant

2. Tunnel

control

te

only in

the

event

criteria

call for

in

excess

of

thos

via source exhaus

made

in

the allowable

ncentration

levels

al ventilation

system

n

additional

controls

red,

and

source

con-

te any

excessive

loading problems,

chnology will

be needed

that ambient quality

pollutant

reductions

e presently

scheduled

t

controls.

Because

national primary

criteria

are still in

preparation,

review the

control

problems

at the

been

formulated

and accepted.

ambient

air quality

it

will

be

necessary

to

time

these

standards

have

Tunnel Air

Treatment:

Problem

Statement

The design

base used

in assessing

the

feasibility

of

various

tunnel air

treatment techniques was

a

1-mile

long,

single-tube

tunnel

with

a

ventilation air

rate

of 250,000

CFM

Data

on

the

gaseous

pollutant

volumetric

emission

rates

for

this

base tunnel

are

listed in

Table

27.

These

values

are

125



Wdd**NONOO

NOSUVOOUaAH 1S0VHX3 39VU3AV

O

O

O

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

CO

*0

<fr

CM

o

CO

I

o

en

o

o

I—

LU

a.

o

•—

en

re

X

LU

UJ

CD

<c

a:

LU

o

LU

o

a:

o

CO

cr

CD

._0IX

Wdd

VN0N00

00 SnVHX3

39VU3AV

126



TABLE

27

TUNNEL

POLLUTANT LOADINGS

Basis:

1

Mile

Tunnel

Length

Level

Single

Tube,

2,000 Vehicle/Hr.

40

Mile/Hr.

Average

Speed

Component

Ft.

3

/Hr.<

a

)

ppm

Lbs./Hr.

Dioxide

8

0.53

0.95

Oxide 28

1.86

2.17

10 0.67 1.44

22

1.47 1.70

Dioxide

16

1.07

0.26

Dioxide

10,

170

678

1,156

Letter

from

F.

Roehlich,

MSA

Research,

March

19,

1971

to

B.

Lerner, Patent

Development

Associates

Based

on

70°F.

tunnel temperature

Assumed mol.

wt.

=

100

Ventilation Air Rate

=

250,

000

cfm.

127



also

stated

in

terms

of

parts

per

million

(volumetric) and

mass

rates

to

provide comparisons with normal

industrial

pollution

equipment

capabilities. With the

exception

of

CO,

the

ppm

pollutant concentrations

listed

in Table

27 are

representative

of

treated

gaseous

effluent

concentration

levels

for

most

gas

processing

operations,

rather than

concentration inputs

to

such

processes.

of

the

the

lo

rel

ati

equi va

total

necess

to

rem

and

CO

select

to

rem

vol

ves

lbs/hr

capaci

cated

which

n

i

q

u e

s

contro

cessin

extrac

a rare

typi

ca

only

i

i

n d

i

c a

t i

o

n a

are

qu

b

e n

e

f

i

A

pol 1

u

a

d

i

n

g

s

vely 1

lent

t

air t

r

ary

to

ove le

Z'

*

n

i vi ty

ove

th

the r

air

,

Th

ty

wit

in

the

is h

i

,

and

1

oper

g

anal

tive m

metal

lly

0.

s

the

ted

po

i r

,

b

u

i

t

e

d

i

ts are

prel

imi

tion

lo

to the

ow. Th

o

a

wei

eatment

proces

ss

than

the

ca

requi

re

e eye

i

emoval

and

for

nary

me

as

ading

rat

assumed

e

ventila

ght

rate

is

to be

s more th

25 Ibs/h

se of the

ment is m

rri

tants

,

of

3.2

lb

NO

x

e

com

h the

Tabl

hly

u

even

ati

on

og

wi

etal 1

such

5% fo

conce

1

1

uta

t the

f fere

stil

binati

extre

e

27

d

n

i

q

u e

for

mo

s

such

t

h

s

i

m

urgi

ca

as

ur

r

uran

ntrati

nt con

cost-

nt tha

1

not

3.0

on of

mely

ata,

for i

st

sp

as

a

1

lar

1 ope

a

n

i

u m

ium

o

on

50

centr

benef

n

for

fully

ure

of

es

may

v e

n

t

i

1

tion

a

of

1

,1

c o

n

s

i

an

500

r of

p

i

n

d

i

v

uch

mo

acrol

s/hr

Ibs/h

high

low

CO

cal

1

s

ndustr

e

c

i

f

i

c

dsorpt

select

rati

on

from

x

i

d

e

.

to

1

a

t i o

n

it rel

pol lu

d

e f 1 n

the

very

be

obtain

a

t

i

o

n

air

ir rate

of

25,000 lbs

dered, the

tons/hr o

ol lutants

idual

poll

re

extreme

ein

and

fo

from

the

t

r

total

ncent

for

a

i

al

a

ally

ion.

i

vi

ty

s

i

nv

a

low

In

t

000-f

level

a

t

i o

n

tants

ed.

small

mag

ed by

com

rate,

w

h

i

250,000

/hr.

Thu

n

it

will

f

air

in

other

tha

utants, t

For

ex

rmal

dehyd

otal

1

,12

ni

tude

paring

ch

is

CFM

is

s

,

if

be

order

n

CO

he

ample

,

e

, in-

5,000

gas

ratio

remo

1

r

tr

s e

n

s

i

The

requ

o

1

v

i n

-cone

he la

old h

s

i

n

ships

,

whe

proces

n

leve

val

se

eatmen

tive

p

cl oses

iremen.

g

the

entrat

tter

c

1

g

h

e

r

tunnel

for u

re

the

sing

Is

i

n d

i

lecti

vi

ty

t

tech-

ollution

t

pro-

ts

is

removal

of

ion

ore,

ase

?

not

than for

venti

la-

ranium

health

The

tunnel air treatment

problem

becomes

even

more

complex

when

each

pollutant

is

matched

against

the

re-

moval

process judged

to

be

most

applicable

under

normal

cir-

cumstances. This

has been

done

in

Table 28,

which

briefly

summarizes

the

results

of

an evaluation

of

the

current

opti-

mum

control

process

art with

respect

to each

pollutant.

Also given

in

Table

28

are

particulate

data.

The process

selections listed

are

preliminary and

apparent

from an

engineering

point of

view; they

should not

be

considered

feasible

or

recommended

at this

point.

It is

obvious

from

Table

28

that

a

combination

of

processes

will

be required

for

the

removal

of most or all

of

the

pollutants.

Essentially,

the

1,125,000

lbs/hr

of tunnel air

must be

processed several

128



TABLE

28

PRELIMINARY

SINGLE

-POLLUTANT

OPTIMUM PROCESS

INDICATION

Component

Monoxide

Dioxide

Oxide

Oxide

Dioxide

ppm Process

Indication

150

Catalytic

Oxidation

1.86

Catalytic

Oxidation

1,86

Catalytic

Oxidation

4.53

Carbon

Adsorption

0.53

Water

Absorption

1.86

Zeolite

Adsorption

0.67

Water

Absorption

1.47

Water

Absorption

1.07

Water

Absorption

678 Water

Absorption

a

)

(including

benzene

soluble organics)

(150)

/V

nr

500

Electrostatic

Precipitation

Letter of

December

30,

1970

from

F.

Roehlich,

Jr

,

MSA

Research

to

B.

J.

Lerner,

Patent

Development

Associates,

Inc.

129



times

to

yield multi -pol

lutant removal

capability.

One

of

the

hidden

difficulties

in

Table

28

is

the

fact

that

each

process

was

selected

for

the

individual

pollutant,

neglecting

the

interference

and

interaction

effects

known

to

exist.

For

example,

gas

absorption

of

NO2

in water is

a

standard

operation for

this

component,

but

it

is

doubtful

if this soluble acid-gas

can

be absorbed in

the

presence

of

much higher

concentrations

of another

acid-gas:

CO2.

Further,

even when

considered

alone,

the

concentrations

of

NO2

in

tunnel

gas

are

far

below

the concentrations

normally

treated in sorption

operations, and

indeed,

below

usual

effluent

treated

gas

concentrations.

on

con

out

re

this 1

t

i

n

s

,

it

may

cation

some

as

aqu

a tunn

charac

the pa

proble

puri

ty

c

n

s t i

T

s

i

d

e r

feren

atter

whic

be n

of

t

f

the

eous

el wi

teri s

rticu

m;

th

-cont

tutes

he

sele

a t

i

n

ce

to

t

factor

h will

oted he

unnel

a

standa

a.bsorpt

11

not

tic of

larly

u

e

conce

ri

butio

a

seco

c

t i

n

f

the

heir

lead

be

co

re

th

ir

tr

rd

tr

ion.

be pe

such

n

i

q

u

e

ntrat

n or

ndary

s

listed

nature

tunnel

s

s

direct

nsidered

at

the

c

eatment

eatment

Re-use

rmi

ssi bl

treated

aspects

ion

of

p

s

u

b

s

t

i

t u

p

1 1

u

t i

i

n

T

of

th

i te

ly

to

i n

d

losed

in

si

proce

of

we

e bee

air.

of

t

ol

1

ut

tion

on pr

able

28

a

e si ngle

f

generat

f easi

bi

e

t

a

i

1

b

e

1

-system

a

tu

immedi

sses

of

T

t-scrubbe

ause

of

t

This

p

i

he tunnel

ants

is

s

by

a

trea

oblem.

re

bas

pol

lut

ion.

i

ty

de

ow.

H

spect

ately

able

2

d air

he

100

nts

up

venti

low

tment

ed

entirely

ants

with-

Addi

ng

termina-

owever

of

a

p

p 1

i

rules

out

8

,

such

within

%

humidity

one

of

1 a

t

i

n

that

im-

operation

Tunnel

Ventilation Costs

treat

tion

may

i

tunne

case

aside

provi

and

can

b

di

rec

data

Tunne

i

n

a

s

m

provi

pol

1 u

contr

for

prope

pol

1

u

ment

by

m

nvol

1 s

of

p

,

th

des

pera

e me

t,

t

beco

1 ve

uch

ded

tant

ol t

ne

rty

tion

As

i

for

eans

ve po

such

ollut

e ass

a yar

ting

asure

hey

c

me av

n

t

i

1

a

as

a

for

a

s i n

e c

h n i

r two

is

pa

cont

ndi

ca

pol

1

u

of

fa

s

s i

b

1

recon

i

on

c

essme

d

s

t i c

costs

d. W

an se

a

i 1

a

b

ti

on

100%

50%

the

t

ques

spec

rtly

rol

p

ted

a

tant

n

add

e rec

struc

ontro

nt

of

k

aga

of a

hi

le

rve a

1

e

to

base

incre

decre

unnel

c

n

s

i

i

f

i

c

of

f

se

roces

bove

remova

i t

i

n

onstru

tion

i

1

e

q

u

i

i ncre

i

n s

t

w

ny

ind

such

c

s a pr

permi

costs

a

s e

in

a

s e in

air.

dered

c

n

t

a

m

t

by

t

s

, so

an

al

t

1

is i

Al th

ction

s

much

pment

mental

h

i

c

h

t

i

v

i

d

u

a

ost

c

e

1

i

m

i

n

t

v a

1

i

provi

d

venti

conce

On th

be

ow

i

n

a

n

t s

he

h

i

that

d

ernate

t

ncreased

u

g

h

th

problems

more

p

r

i nstal

1

a

tunnel

he compa

1 pollut

ompari

so

ary

guid

d

cost-b

e

a

cons

1

a

t

i

n

f

nt

rati on

e

other

are

gene

T h i

s

her

effi

irect co

tunnel

a

i

tunnel

ven

s

latter me

for

existi

b

a

b

1 e in

t

tion.

This

ventilation

rative capi

ion control

ns

are

by

n

e

,

until

s

u

enefit calc

ervative

me

low theoret

for all ai

hand, ~Tn~e

p

rally

selec

limited s

e

ciency

of

t

st

comparis

r

t

i

1 a

-

thod

ng

he

factor

costs

tal

method

means

ff

i

cien

u

1 a t i

n

asure

ically

r

Dilutio

ti

ve

ecti vi t

he

ons

130



at

this

stage

of

changing ambient standards

becomes

uncertain

fan

a

rate

be

no

neces

ti on

t a

i

n e

Studi

mi le

to se

cost

Table

1

sta

made

Add

it

b

i

n

a

t

di

rec

axi al

a

cos

Table

stati

Tabl

nd motor

of

250,00

ted

that

sarily

ap

systems

.

d

in

Proj

es

of the

Strai ght

a

level h

index

c

h

a

29

was

t

ndby,

eac

to provid

ional ly

,

ions in T

t

q

u

o t

a

t

i

motor-fa

t of

$11

,

29

value

c head.

e

29

pre

combi

nat

CFM

ag

this

is

ply

to

a

These

c

ect No.

Col

orad

Creek

Tu

orsepowe

nges bet

he use

o

h

of

250

e a

maxi

extrapol

able 29

on

from

n

comb

in

250

for

of

$18,

sents

i

ons

a

i

n s t

an

ar

11

ty

al

cul

170-3

o

Dep

nnel

.

r

req

ween

f

thr

,000

mum

(

ated

were

a

man

a t

i

o

n

the

p

500

f

a

tabul

to yield

di

f

fere

bi

tra

ry

pes

of

t

ations

w

(212)

(1

artment

These

ui rement

1964

and

ee fans

CFM

rati

and thus

unit

p

r

i

known

to

ufacture

s

at

1.5

air.

T

h

or the

s

a t

i

o

n

a

ne

nt

he

examp

unnel

ere

b

966)

of

Hi

latte

s

and

1970

1

su

ng,

a

cons

ces

o

be i

r

on

sta

is

co

ame

f

of

ca

ak

ven

ad 1

os

le

and

s

and

ased

o

Report

ghways

r data

corre

.

The

pply

,

c

h

o

i

c

ervati

f the

n t r

i

n

s

two

12

tic

he

mpares

low ca

p

i

t a 1

t

i

1 a t i

ses

.

does

tunnel

n the

on

Ve

for

t

were

cted

f

basi

s

1

exha

e

deli

ve

) co

motor-

ic

a

11

y

5,000

ad

i

n

with

pa

city

costs

of

on

air

It

should

not

v

e

n

t

i

1

a

-

data con-

n t

i 1

a t

i

o

n

he

1

.6

corrected

or the

for

ust

and

berately

st

basis.

fan

corn-

high;

CFM

vane-

i

cated

the

at

1

men

tat

i

static

250,000

venti

1

a

a

total

The

new

origina

for

the

be

$6,6

the

cap

constan

the

use

tunnel

.

in

vol

ve

charge

Ta

on

ro

head

CFM

tion

capi

head

1 hea

adde

80.

ital

t

del

of

a

Tab

a

ca

incre

ble

2

ute o

(or

b

f

1

ow

rate

tal

c

of 4

d

req

d sys

Addit

costs

i

vere

f

i xe

le 29

pita

ment

9

pro

f

pro

oth).

for

a

at

a

harge

.2

W

ui

rem

tern

o

ional

i ncu

d vol

d-bed

show

cost

of

$1

v

i

d

e s a

v

i

d

i

n

g

e

Thus

,

n

i

n

i

t

i

a

2

stati

for

the

.G.

woul

ent, and

n a

30-y

ly,

Tabl

rred

in

ume,

a

s

p

o

1

1

u

t

i

s that a

increme

,700.

base

i

t

h

e r

to pr

1

250

c pre

addi

d

sat

the

ear

a

e

29

incre

i

t

u a

t

on

co

n inc

nt of

cost

i

ncr

ovi

de

,000

ssure

t

i

o

n a

i

s

f

y

annua

morti

may

b

a

s i

n

g

ion t

ntrol

remen

$26,

of the

emental

an

i

n c

CFM

tunn

head,

w

1

blower

the

squa

1

capita

z a

t i

o

n s

e used

t

the sta

hat woul

unit

in

tal

3

W

100,

and

bl

owe

vol

urn

ement

el

pe

oul

d

s

of

rinq

1 cha

chedu

o

est

tic

h

d

res

a

ve

.G. h

an

a

r aug-

e or

al

ak

requi re

$102,600.

of the

rges

le

would

imate

ead

at

ult

from

nti 1

ati

on

ead

would

n n u a

1 i z

e

d

The tunnel

ventilation

fan operating

costs

were

also

adapted

from the

Straight

Creek Tunnel

Design report,

and

the

electrical

energy costs were

assumed

to

be the

same

as

in

the

report.

In

the absence

of

a

specific reference

tunnel

location,

the

electrical

power

cost

data for

any

location

may

be

used

as

a

reference case, provided the

detailed

cost

break-

down

is provided,

as

was

the

case

in

the

Straight

Creek

Tunnel

report.

The

calculated data

are

summarized

in

Table

30,

and

attention

is

called

to

the assumed operating

rate

of

half-peak

load

for

365 days/year

plus peak

load of

44

hours

per

week.



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of

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the

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the

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t

tunn

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the

a

ne

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loss

al

te

will

pol

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rs

a

wi

1

out i

ble

o

cost-

i

f

i

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a t

i

n

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pol 1

u

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he

he

els

ss

th

norma

g

i i

g

i

esses

char

mate

poss

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s

u

t

i

o

n

head

be

r

nstal

f

red

benef

nt

he

cost

ti on

by

t

ad-ca

pragm

e pol

1

hea

ble h

that

acter

to

h

ess

a

hould be

o

control

u

loss

of

1

equi red.

1

a

t

i

o

n of

u c

i

n

g

the

it

p

o

t e

n

t

ad

loss

mu

s

of

the

a

improvemen

he fan

inc

pa

city

cur

a

t

i

c

a

11

y

t

1

u

t

i

o

n

con

d

rating

o

ead

loss.

have

an

i

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but

i

g

h

h

e a

d

-

two-fold

b

v

i

o

u

nit i

or m

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the

p

pol 1 u

al

of

st

ou

dditi

t

ben

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o

h

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s w

trol

f

the

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in

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oss

e

econo

s

at

t

n

the

ore

, t

er ,

th

o

1

1

u

t

i

tant

c

pol lu

twei

gh

onal f

efit

o

t

i t

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e

f

the

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u 1 d i

equipm

o r

i

g

i

e are

ntly 1

iew of

quipme

m

i c

ad

his

p

o

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hen

ad

e use

on

con

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t

i

o

n

c

not

o

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f

the

If.

W

origin

n d

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c

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ent

be

nal

fa

very

f

ow

or

the

i

nt

,

th

vantag

i n t

t

h

v

e

n

t

i

d

i

t

i o

n

of

thi

trol u

ration

ontrol

nly

th

r

requ

v

e

n

t

i 1

hile

t

al fan

e

that

held

n

,

and

ew

pol

n

e

g

1

i

g

ncreme

e

1

ow-

e.

at

if

1 a t

i

o

al fa

s

fan

nit,

1 eve

unit

e

cap

i

r e

d

,

ati on

his

w

s

i

n

the

to

le

pref

1 utio

i

ble

ntal

1

oss

l

nse

n

sys

n cap

al

on

is it

Is.

wi th

ital

but

pote

ill

d

exist

head

ss

th

erabl

n

con

press

v e n t

i

equip

rtio

tern

a-

e,

self

Thus

and

al so

n

t i

epen

ing

1

oss

an

y

to

trol

ure

1

a

t

ment

Process

Feasibility:

CO

and Hydrocarbons

c

1 u

d i

combu

remov

CO

an

pol

1 u

the

p

Table

o x

i

d

a

fact

tunne

known

the

a

advan

remov

suppl

Be

ng oxyg

sti

on

ing

the

d

hydro

tant

lo

referre

27

led

tion

wa

that th

1

air

a

feed

s

mbient

tage fo

al for

i

e d

,

an

cause the

enated

hy

completi

o

se

pollut

carbons

c

ad, and

o

d i

n

d

u s

t r

to

the

p

s not

fea

e

concent

re

severa

tream to

temperatu

r such

a

the

requi

d thermal

pres

droca

n

of

ants

n

s t i

x i

d

a t

ial

t

rel

im

s

i

b 1

e

ratio

1 ord

a

the

re

of

proce

red t

i

n

c

i

ence of

r

b

o

n

s

,

i

combusti

from

tun

tute

the

ive remo

reatment

i

n a

ry

j u

This

n

1

eve

ers

of m

rmal inc

the tun

ss.

All

hernial

c

nerati

on

CO

and

s

the

r

on is

a

n

e

1

air

major

val

of

method

dgement

concl us

of

com

a

g

n

i

t

u

d

i

n

e

r a

t

i

n

e

1

air

of the

ycle

mu

was

no

hydroca

esult

o

n

o

b v i

o

Howe

f

racti

o

these

f

9

i n

s

p

e

that

t

ion

is

b u s

t i

b

1

e lower

on

proc

presen

energy

st

be

e

t

c

o

n

s

i

rbons

f

inc

us

me

ver

ns

of

racti

c

t

i

o

n

herma

based

es in

than

ess

ts no

i

npu

xtern

dered

,

in-

omplete

thod of

al

though

the

o n s

is

of

1

on

the

the

any

and

that

thermal

t

and

ally

fea

si

bl

134



or

treated

in

depth. However,

some

preliminary

calculations

were

carried

out

to

assess

the

magnitude

of

the

economics

of

a

hypothetical

heat/cooling

cycle.

di

rect

combus

to

the

greate

the tu

Assumi

increm

e s t

i

m

a

cycle,

requir

vati

ve

taking

then

t

operat

time

o

this

f

costs.

105

CF

CFH

of

1

o

a

d

i n

a sepa

total

tunnel

t

e c

h

n

i

appear

Ther

flame a

tion

of

tunnel

r

concen

n n

e

1

air

n

g

,

ther

ent of 1

tes have

using

a

ements

o

estimat

these

a

he

minim

ion

w

o u

f

2,288

igure is

Fur the

H

of

nat

combust

g.

Thes

rate

flu

vent

i 1

at

s would

cal and

to

be

n

employs

o

than

thos

neverthel

costs

for

ambient

,

operation

pol

lutant

energy,

trial low

moval

,

tw

the

low-t

commerci

on

automo

ity

tempe

no

furthe

which

app

condition

c a

1

c u

1

a t i

were

made

The

perat

e

use

ess w

tunn

or ne

,

to

prob

While

-temp

o

rec

emper

al 6

ti

ve

ratur

r

i

nf

ears

s rep

ons

o

to

d

e

are

nd

i

n

di

rec

air

p

trati

,

thi

ef

ore

000°F

been

ther

f

5.5

e

of

s

equ

al

an

d

be

hours

far

r,

it

ural

ion

g

e wou

e

,

bu

ion

a

i

n v o

1

econo

e

g

a

t

i

norma

ing

t

d

in

ould

el ai

ar-am

avoid

1

em

o

a

11

eratu

ent

1

ature

0% Mn

exhau

e

of

ormat

to

be

orted

f

the

eterm

two

di

re

t

fl

ollu

on

1

s

me

,

in

,

Pr

mad

mal

6

x

cool

al

t

nual

$99,

. E

i

n e

sho

gas

ases

Id h

t

si

ir r

ve

c

mic

ve.

types

ct

hea

a me

in

tant

c

evel s

thod

w

di

rect

e

1

i

m i n

e.

Fo

e

f

f

i

c

i

10

5

CF

ing

cy

o

the

opera

200,

b

ven wi

xcess

ul d

be

as

f

ue

with

ave

to

nee th

ate

,

p

o

n

s i

d

e

i

n

d

i

c

a

of

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ting,

c

i

n

e r

a

oncent

as

tho

as

jud

heati

ary he

r

the

ency

1

H are

cl

e

op

n

a

t u r a

ting

c

ased

o

thout

of the

noted

1

prod

their

be ve

ey

amo

rovi

si

rabl e

ti

ons

ermal

o

Becaus

tion wo

rations

s

e

o

r

i

g

ged not

ng,

and

a t

i

n

g

a

heating

evel of

indicat

era ting

1

gas c

osts

fo

n a

tot

system

a u

x

i 1

i

that t

uces a

own

sec

nted fr

unt

to

on

for

constru

for the

x i d

a t

i

o

e

the

p

uld

pro

of

the

i

n

a

1

1

y

a

p

p

1 i

c

a

temp

nd

cool

p

o

r t

i o

5

0%,

n

ed.

If

costs

osts

fo

r

the

t

al

annu

capital

ary

ven

he use

total

o

ondary

om the

about

2

this in

c

t

i

o

n

.

rmal

ox

n

pra

roduc

bably

same

prese

able

.

eratu

ing

c

n

of

atura

a

co

is ma

r

hea

herma

al

op

char

ti

lat

of 5.

f

3.7

pol

lu

tunne

5% of

exi

s

Thus

i

da

ti

c t

i c

e

d

;

ts

of

add

or

nt

in

re

ost

the

1

gas

nser-

de,

ting,

1

cycle

erating

ges,

ion

56

x

c

6 x

10

6

tion

1

by

the

ting

,

both

on

1 i n

d

u

empera

therma

consti

r

trea

b

i

e n t

both

f

auxi

teratu

re o x

aborat

requi

02/40%

st

and

25°C.

ion

co

s

i m i 1

for

t

requi

i

n

e

t h

stri

a

tures

1 oxi

tute

tment

tempe

therm

1

i

a

ry

re

se

d

a t

i

o

ory

d

remen

CuO

repo

Desp

uld

b

ar to

his c

red

c

e

fea

1

cataly

several

d

a

t

i

o

n

t

apprecia

.

What

rature

c

al cycl

i

fuel

-bu

arch

fai

n

proces

evelopme

ts.

The

catalyst

rted

to

ite seve

e

elicit

Hopcal

i

a t a

1

y

s

t

atalyst

si

bi

1 i ty

tic ox

hundr

e c

h

n

i

q

ble

th

is

req

atalyt

ng

and

r

n

i

n

g

led

to

ses fo

nts

ap

first

teste

have a

ral

di

ed

on

te.

B

were

v

vol ume

of

la

idati

ed

de

ues

,

ermal

ui

red

ic ox

the

to su

find

r

pol

peare

of

t

d

by

thre

rect

this

ecaus

ery

e

and

rge

s

on

pr

grees

but

t

cycl

i

s

a

idati

secon

pply

any

lutan

d

to

hese

Canno

shold

i

n

q

u

i

mater

e

the

ncour

heat

cale

ocess

lower

hese

ing

n

on

dary

thermal

i

n

d

u

s

-

t

re-

satisfy

is

a

v

n

(58)

acti

v-

ries

,

i al

,

test

aging

,

loss

a

p

p

1 i

-

135



cation to the

250,000

CFM

base tunnel air

case:

Cannon Catalyst

:

60

Mn02/40 CuO

Test

Conditions:

Space

Velocity

=

10,880

hr

Operating

Temperature

=

25°C

Catalyst

Density

=

0.88 g/ml

Volumetric

Air Flow

=

250,000

CFM

a.

Catalyst Volume Required

Volume

=

{250,000)(60)

=

-,

380 CF

10,880

b. Pressure Drop

Without

information

on

the physical

form

of

the

catalyst, it

is necessary to

assume

that it

would

be equiv-

alent

to

4-10

mesh granules

in

fixed-bed

form.

Assuming

further

a

linear velocity of

80 ft/min,

typical

of

granular

fixed-bed

gas

processing:

Case

I

:

Face Velocity

=

80

FPM

Bed

Area

=

(250,000

CFM)

_

„

3>125

ft

2

(80

FPM)

Bed

Thickness

=

.(Volume)

=

P?jj°?

=

0.441

ft

(Area)

(3125)

5.3 inches

Weight

of

Catalyst

=

(1380

CF)

(0.88) (62.4

PCF)

=

7,580

lbs

From

Figure

1,

Appendix II:

Pressure

Drop/inch

depth

at

80

FPM

=

0.725

in.W.G

Pressure

Drop

through

5.3-inch

bed

=

(0.725)

(5.3)

=

3.84 in.

W.G.

The

above

pressure

drop

calculation

was

based

on a

normal linear

gas

flow

velocity

through

a

fixed

granular

bed,

and

the AP of

3.84

in.

W.G.

may

be

excessive

for

ventilation

blowers

with

limited

heads.

It is

therefore

desirable

to

calculate

bed

area

and

thickness for

the

case

of

limited

blower

head,

and this

latter value

can

now be assumed as not

to

exceed

1

inch

W.G.

136



Case

II:

Face Velocity

=

45

FPM

(Trial

&

error

from

Figure

1,

Appendix

II)

Bed

Area

=

(

25

?»??°?

=

5,560

ft

2

(45)

Bed Thickness

=

-(^jj*Jg|

=

0.2485

ft

=

(0.2485)

(12)

=

2.98 inches

From

Figure

1,

Appendix

II,

at

45

FPM

Pressure

drop/

in.

depth

=

0.33

in.

W.G.

Total Pressure Drop

=

(2.98)

(0.33)

=

0.985

in.

is

ac

45 FP

to

3

vel

oc

from

area

,

in te

econo

facto

d

a t

i

o

bed

a

c a

p

i

t

vol

ve

p

a

r i

s

appea

the

t

there

the C

and

t

times

Secon

carbo

may

n

bons

,

which

The

t

manga

t a t

i

v

pol

lu

The

compl

is

he

M,

and

a

inches,

ity value

3,125

ft

2

which

wi

rms of th

mic calcu

r,

to pro

n. The

o

rea

cap

it

al

and

op

d

,

from

t

on

be

req

Whil

rs

to

off

u n n

e

1

air

are two

annon

tes

he

concen

as

great

d, there

n

fractio

ot be

pos

such

as

are

much

e

c h n i

c a

1

nese-copp

ely

promi

tant cone

reduct

d

by

t

simul

t

Howeve

of

10

to

5

,

11

be

e

extr

lation

vide

t

ptimum

al

cos

eratin

he

dat

ui

red.

i

on in

he

red

aneous

r

,

in

,800 h

560

ft

ref

lee

a

bed

s out

he mos

fixed

t rel a

g

cost

a

of

T

press

u

u c

t

i

o

n

decrea

order

t

r-1, th

2

.

Thi

ted

in

constru

ined

be

t o

p

t

i

m

-bed

un

t i

o n

s h i

s

diffe

ables 2

re

dr

in

fa

se

in

con

e

bed

s

i

s

the

c

c t

i

o

n

1

ow

d

i

s

t

i

c

it

in

p

can

rence

9

and

op

f

ce ve

bed

serve

f

1 ow

a

783

a

p

i

t a

requ

e 1

i

b

e

cost

term

be d

for

30,

om

3.8

loci

ty

t

h

i

c

k n

the i

area

incre

1 cost

ired.

rately

e s t

i

m

s

of

t

etermi

the bl

should

to

from

ess

f

n i

t

i a

incre

ase

i

of

t

Howe

negl

ate

f

he

he

ned f

owers

this

1

W.G.

80 to

rom

5.3

1 space

ases

n

bed

he

unit

ver,

the

e

c

t

this

or

oxi-

ad-loss/

rom the

in-

com-

e

the

er

re

prob

a

d d i

t

ts

we

trati

as t

is ev

n

by

s i

b

1

e

acrol

more

feasi

er ox

sing,

entra

ambien

asonabl

lem,

pe

i

o

n a

1

a

re

made

ons

of

hose

to

i

d

e n

c

e

ambient

,

and

c

e

i

n

and

discern

bil

ity

i

d

e

cat

and

fu

t

i

o

n

s

i

t-tem

e

pro

n d

i n

g

spect

di

re

pol

lu

be

e

that

-temp

ertai

form

forti

of

ca

alyst

rther

s

str

perature

spects o

further

s

to

be

ctly on

tants we

ncounter

complete

erature

n

partia

al dehyde

ng

than

t a

1

y

t

i

c

s

may

be

di

rect

ongly re

,

MnOo/Cu

f

appiica

developm

considere

automoti

v

re approx

e

d in

tun

oxidati

o

catalytic

1

ly-oxidi

,

are eye

their

i

n

e

oxidation

consider

testing a

commended

catalyst

bil

ity

to

ent

effort,

d. First,

e

exhaust,

imately

150

n

e 1

air.

n

of

the

hydro

oxidation

zed hydrocar-

irri

tants

rt

precursors.

employing

ed

to

be ten-

t

tunnel

air

One

of the

well-established

feasibility factors

for

catalytic

oxidation

of

automobile-derived

pollutants

is the

susceptibility of

the

catalyst

to

poisoning

by the lead

salts

and

other particulates

present

in

auto

exhaust.

Based

on

exhaust

catalytic

converter

experience continuous

long

term

137



use

of

a

feasible

and a

co

This

con

temperat

consi sts

carbon,

temperat

120°C,

a

the

lowe

catalyst

scale, w

pressure

space

ve

that

ext

because

catalyst

of

its

a

carbon

a

fixed

w

i t

h o

st

eva

sidera

ure

ox

of

a

When

ure

at

1

thoug

st

the

appea

i t

h

s

p

Tes

loci ti

rapol a

of the

,

i

t

i

p

p

1

i

c

a

dsorpt

-bed

ut pr

luati

ti on

i

d

a

t

i

trans

used

whic

h

the

rmal

rs pr

ace v

ts

at

es

of

ti

on

acti

s pro

tion

ion

,

catalytic

o

v

i

s

i

o n

f

on

must

c

also

appl

on

ca'taly

ition

met

on

ammoni

h

plus-90

re

were

i

activity

omi sing

,

e

1

o

c

i

t

i e s

higher

p

4800

hr~

to

tunnel

vated

car

bable tha

will

clos

treated

b

o x

i

d

a

or pre

n

s

i d

e

ies

to

st

dev

al oxi

a synt

%

oxid

n

d

i

c

a

t

level

the

da

of

on

ressur

1

show

d

e

s

i

g

bon ba

t

the

ely

pa

el ow.

tion

p

r

-remova

r

the

c

the

se

eloped

de supp

h

e s

i

s

g

at ion

w

ions

t

h

a

c

h

i

e

v

a

ta

prov

ly

200

es

(400

ed

only

n i s un

se

for

feasibi

rallel

ocess

1

of

ombin

cond

by

Su

orted

as

,

t

as

ob

at

th

ble.

i ded

hr-1

psi)

503

certa

this

lity

that

is

not

parti

cul

ed

syste

on

acti

he

lowes

tained

w

i

s

was

n

While

t

are

labo

at

ambie

and

hi

g

c

o n v e r s

i

in.

How

o

x

i d

a

t

i

o

and

econ

of

a

c

t

i

v

ates

m.

1

ow-

wh\ch

vated

t

as

ot

his

ratory

nt

her

on

,

so

ever

,

n

omics

ated

Price information

on the

Mn02/Cu0

catalyst

tested

by

Cannon

was

not

available directly, and it was

therefore

assumed

that this

was

a

precipitated

material. From

publishe

price

data

on

the component

oxides

so

prepared,

it

was

esti-

mated

that the

cost

of

the mixed oxides

was

approximately

$1.80/1b.

Provided that

bulk

quantities

of this

catalyst

could

be

obtained

at

this

price,

the catalyst cost

for the

required

7,580

lbs

would

be

$13,644.

This

latter

figure

involves

considerable

uncertainty because

of

the

quantity

involved and

the.

present

lack of

available

information

on

commercial

sources.

lyti

i

t

w

unit

corr

adso

CFM

from

of

t

the

trea

deca

f

11

cata

were

e s

t

i

cont

diff

give

c

oxid

as fel

s

coul

e c

t

i

o

n

rbers

have

n

the 1

unnel

extrap

ting

2

nter

er

hou

lytic

equiv

mated

a

i n s

a

erence

s

an

i

Because

a

t

i

o

n

op

t

that

a

d

be

app

for

the

(and

cat

ot

yet

b

0,000

to

air flow

olated

i

50,000

C

blower

a

sing and

oxidatio

alent

to

capital

carbon

between

ncrement

of th

erati

v

a

i

1 a

lied

cost

a

lyti

een

b

50,0

of

t

nstal

FM of

nd

mo

vess

n , it

50%

cost

charg

this

al

co

e sirrn

ons an

ble

ca

to

the

of ca

c

oxid

u

i

1

1

00

CFM

he

pre

1 ed

co

ai

r

tor,

c

el

,

wa

was

a

of the

of

$14

e

of

$

price

st of

larity

b

d

a

c t

i v

a

pital

co

catalyt

talyst

a

a

t

i

o

n u

n

it is n

range t

sent

pro

st of an

i

n

c

1

u

d

i

n

ooling

t

s

est

i

ma

ssumed t

total

i

7,000.

0.45/lb,

and the

$10,233,

etween

f

ted

carb

sts

data

ic

opera

nd

acces

its) 1

a r

cessary

o

the

25

blem.

F

acti

vat

g

superh

ower,

fi

ted

to

b

hat the

nstal

led

However,

and

cor

$1.80/1

for

a

t

ixed-

on ad

for

tion,

sorie

ger

t

to ex

0,000

rom

H

ed

ca

eater

1 ters

e

$29

acces

cost

this

recti

b

cat

otal

bed

c

sorbe

the

1

wi

th

s.

B

han

5

trapo

CFM

EW, A

rbon

,

con

,

car

5,000

sory

s

giv

f

igu

ng

f

alyst

of

$1

ata-

rs

,

atter

due

ecause

0,000

1

ate

1 eve]

P-68U

adsorb

denser

bon

For

charge

i

n

g

an

re

r

the

cost

57,233

138



on catalyst

life

with

and

without

pre-removal

particulates,

a

situation

that

should

be

experimentally

for

the

low

tunnel

air

particulate

loading of

yg/m^, it

probably

would

be cheaper

to

periodically

the

catalyst

rather

than

install

a suitable

partic-

device

such

as

an

electrostatic

precipitator.

of

catalyst

cost and

life data

does

not

allow

a firm

at

this

time,

but

assuming

a

3-year

replacement

at the

above-estimated catalyst

cost, plus 35%

the

labor

involved in

change-over,

the

annualized

catalyst

would

then

be

$4,775.40,

and

the

particulate control

is

eliminated.

The

write-off

period for

pollution

control equip-

will

vary

with

the potential corrosion

severity

of the

and system handled, but in

any

event

will be

faster

for

a

purely

mechanical unit such as a

blower and motor.

the comparatively

mild

conditions expected in

ambient-

catalytic

oxidation,

a

20-year

straight-line

period may be assumed. The capital and operating

for

catalytic

oxidation may

be summarized

as

follows:

TABLE

31

-

SUMMARY OF CATALYTIC OXIDATION

COSTS

60%

Mn0

2

/40%

CuO Ambient-Temperature

Catalyst

nnual Unit

Annualized

Annual

Fan

Total

Annual

Total

Catalyst

Capital Cost

Capital

Operating

Replacement

(Table

29)

Charges

Cost

Cost

(Table

30)

$9,434

$4,775

$4,980 $19,189

$4,095

Including 20%

for

taxes,

insurance

and maintenance.

For the

removal of small

amounts

of hydrocarbons

an air stream,

activated carbon

adsorption

is

the

method

choice,

primarily

because of its

selectivity

and

low-concen

capability.

A

number

of discussions

were

held

with



engineering representatives

of

a

major activated

carbon

supplier with reference

to the practicality of

a

250,000

CFM

scale

of

operation,

which

was

known

to

be

roughly

10

times that of

a

large

industrial

installation.

The

con-

sensus

as

to

economic

feasibility

was

negative,

although

technically,

there

was no indication of

scale

problems

for

adsorbable

hydrocarbons,

although

capacity

was

questionable

On

a

preliminary

basis, removal

of

a

single

component

or

pollutant

group

from

the air

stream with

a

high-head

loss

fixed-bed operation is an

expensive

and less-than-i deal

method

of

partial

control.

carbo

lene

i

s o

t

h

pany,

or

fo

which

on he

w i 1

at

7

limit

to

th

data

deci d

i

s

o t

h

Compa

re

g

i

o

sente

ns

in

and

e

erm

d

ther

rmald

thes

xane

be

ad

ppm

(

ed

ca

e

pre

on th

ed

to

erms

ny,

a

n

of

d i

n

As

shown

tunnel

thylene,

ata

supp

e

will b

ehyde

at

e

compon

adsorpti

sorbed

n

6.86

x

1

paci

ty.

1

i

m

i

n

a

ry

e

hydroc

utilize

were

sup

nd

an

ex

hydrocar

Figure 2

in

T

air

a

i s

a

lied

e

no

the

ents

on

da

er 10

0-5

p

In

o

desi

arbon

n-bu

plied

trapo

bon

c

in A

abl

e

t pea

bout

by

Pi

ads

or

1

or

are

p

ta

,

a

lbs

si

a)

rder

gn,

p

comp

tane

by

P

1 a t i

o

oncen

ppend

27,

t

k

loa

7

ppm

ttsbu

pti on

2

ppm

resen

t

77°

carb

is

pr

to

ta

arti

c

o

s

i

t

i

adsor

i

1

1

s

b

n

of

t

r

a

t

i

ix

II

he

con

ding,

Bas

rgh Ac

of

et

conce

tint

F

and

on , so

obably

ke

a

c

u

1

a r

1

y

on

in

p

t

i

o

n

urgh

A

these

on

in

Fro

centr

excl

u

ed

on

t

i

v

a t

hylen

ntrat

unnel

1

psi

hydr

feas

onser

i

n

t

tunne

data,

c

t

i v

a

i

s

o

t

h

tunne

m

thi

ation

of

hydro-

si ve of

acety-

adsorpti

on

ed

Carbon

Com-

e,

acetylene

ion

levels at

air.

Based

a,

30

lbs

hexane

ocarbon

adsorption

ible,

although

at

vative

approach

he

absence

of

1

air, it

was

The

n-butane

ted

Carbon

erms

to

the

1

air

is

pre-

s

basis:

Activated

Carbon

Adsorber

Design

Part I: Adsorption

Cycle

:

From Figure

2,

Appendix II

at 7

ppm HC:

Capacity to

saturation

=

1.57

lb

n-butane/100

lb

carbon

Working

Charge,

at

50% of

saturation

capacity

=

0.785

lb n-butane/100

lb

carbon

From

Lee

(1970)

and

PACC0

data:

Face

Velocity

=

80

F

Area

of

Bed

Required

=

(250,000j.

=

3

j

2

5

ft

2

Bed

Depth:

In order

to

avoid the

use

of

a

two-

bed

system, and

the

extreme

capital

costs involved,

bed

depth was

selected

by

trial

and

error

to

yield

a

single-

140



bed adsorber

capable

of

operating,

with steam regeneration,

within

a

24-hour cycle.

Design

is such

that

steam

regeneration can

be theoreti-

cally

accomplished

in

off-peak

load

time

period.

Bed

Depth

=

6

inches

Volume

of Bed

=

(3,125)

(1/2)

=

1,562

CF

Weight

of

Carbon

in

Bed

(at

30

Ib/CF bulk

density)

=

(1

,562)

(30)

=

46,860

lbs

Weight

of

Adsorbate

to

Breakthrough

=

(46,860)

(0.00785)

=

368 lbs

Lb/Hr

of

Hydrocarbon

(Table

27)

=

17.6 Ib/hr

Duration of

Adsorption

Cycle

368

)

=

20.8

hours

17.6)

From

Figure

1,

Appendix

II:

Pressure Drop/inch

depth

at

80 FPM

=

0.725

in.W.G.

Pressure

Drop

through 6-inch

bed

=

(0.725)

(6)

=

4.35

in.W.G.

The

pressure

loss through

the

fixed-bed

adsorber

is

virtually the

same

as

the

head

capacity

of

the

4.2

W.G.

blower

listed in Tables 29

and

30,

and

the

operating

costs

of

this

unit

may be added

to

those of

the

adsorption

equip-

ment

(capital cost

estimate

for

the

activated

carbon

adsorber

includes

the blower).

In the

absence of

actual system test

data,

steam

regeneration

cycle requirements

for

a

uniquely

low

concen-

tration

of

7 ppm

hydrocarbon

of varying

composition

can

at

best be

roughly

approximated. Mattia(56) presents

dsta

for

adsorption

of

a

20

ppm

solvent from a

20,000

CFM

stream,

together

with

steam regeneration time

curves

for

various

blowdown

rates. Taking

a

value

of

128

minutes

regeneration

from

the

Mattia

curve at

a

blowdown

rSte

of

2000

CFM, and

estrapol

ating

linearly

to the

tunnel air

adsorption

conditions

141



CFM Blowdown Required

=

(20

ppm)

(20,000

CFM)

(2,000

CFM)

(7

ppm)

(250,000

CFM)

=

8,760

CFM

Lb

Steam/Regeneration, assuming

110%

blowdown for

vessel

heatup

:

=

(8,760)

(492)(128)(18)(1.1)

(359)(7l0)

=

42,900

lbs/cycle

Assuming

50%

operational

time

requirements:

No.

Cycles/Year

=

(

3

^

5

)p2)

=

182

cycles

where

adsorption

time

=

20.8 hours,

regeneration

time

='

2.1 hours

,

and heating-cooling

time

=

1.1 hours

oxidati

on

the high

space req

case

of

t

regenerat

and

cooli

duces

no

condensat

contami

na

stripping

thermal

i

conventi

o

appears t

a

p

p

1

i

c

a

t i

regenerat

of

techni

tions are

While the

and adsor

flow requi

uirement

p

he adsorpt

ion

e

q

u

i p.m

ng water,

secondary

ion

in

an

ted water

is used,

ncineratio

nal steam-

o

offer

th

on to

tunn

ion

data

r

cal

feasib

not avail

s

i

m

i 1

a

p

t

i

o n

b

red

in

roblems

ion

ope

ent

sue

etc. A

p

o 1

1

u t

i

adsorpt

st earn

the

hyd

n

costs

regener

e

fewes

el

air

equi red

i 1 i

ty

i

able.

r

fixe

oth ap

the

co

.

Thi

ration

h as

a

1

s

o

,

w

on pro

ion

cy

to

d i s

rocarb

must

ated

a

t

prob

contro

for

a

n the

d-bed

pear

ntact

s

i

s

whi

c

1

arg

hi

le

blem,

cle

p

pose

on

ca

be

ad

dsorp

1 ems

1

,

bu

more

const

proc

to

be

beds

parti

h

req

e ste

catal

stea

roduc

of.

n

be

ded.

ti

on

in

st

t

the

ri

no

rai nt

esse

tec

may

cul

a

ui re

am

b

yti

c

m re

es

a

If

h

burn

The

syst

rai

g

bas

rous

s

of

s of

ca

h

n

i

c a 1

give

r

rly tru

s

acces

oiler,

o

x

i

d

a

t

generat

hydroc

o t

i

n e r

ed but

sing e

em out

htforwa

i

c

a

d

s

o

determ

tunnel

talyti c

y

feasible

i

s e to

e

in the

sory

condenser

ion pro-

ion/

arbon-

t-gas

then

-bed

,

ined

above

rd

rption/

i

n

a

t

i

o

n

i n

s t

a 1 1 a

As

was noted

in

the

economic workup

on

fixed-bed

catalytic oxidation,

the

capacity

of

the

adsorption

system

required,

250,000

CFM,

far

exceeds

that

of any

unit

yet

built.

Extrapolation

of economic data

to

this range

is

ex-

treme,

and

extremely

uncertain.

Again using

HEW

AP-68C12)

curves

for

installed costs, and

extrapolating:

Installed Cost,

250,000

CFM

Adsorber

=

$295,000

142



Capital

Charges

:

Assuming

15-year

life,

20%

taxes and

insurance

Annualized Capital

Charges

=

$23,600

Operating Charges

:

Steam

Costs:

Cost/cycle,

at

$1.00/M

lb

steam

cost

=

$42.90

Cost/Year,

182

cycles

=

$7,808

Blower Cost

From Table

30,

1

W.G.

=

$4,095

Total Operating

Costs

=

$11,903

Total Annual Capital

+

Operating Charges

=

$35,503

susce

the

e

carbo

the

r

parti

cated

f

orwa

Addit

of

re

pol

lu

ical

forma

this

Ac

pti ble

conomi

c

n

repla

ate

of

cul

ate

are

no

rd

vent

i

on

a

ly

movi

ng

tant

sp

1

ow-wei

ldehyde

time.

t

i

v a

t e d

to

bind

s

of

pa

cement

loss of

loading

t

encou

i 1

a t i

o

n

,

the

c

only th

ectrum,

ght

hyd

.

Thus

carbo

i n

g

an

rti

cul

are

in

adsor

How

raging

in ere

arbon

e

heav

and n

rocarb

,

this

n

adsor

d deact

ate rem

determi

p

t

i

o

n

c

ever, t

,

compa

ases

as

system

ier hyd

o sorpt

ons sue

proces

p

t i

o

n

i

v

a

t

i

oval

nate

a

p

a c

i

he ec

red

w

show

has

t

rocar

ion

c

h

as

s can

systems

are

particularly

on by particulates,

and

equipment

y_s_.

periodic

without information

on

ty at the

500

yg/m

3

onomics already

indi-

i

th the costs

of

straight'

n

in

Table

29 and

30.

he

limited

capability

bon fraction

from

the

apability for

the crit-

acetylene,

ethylene

and

not

be recommended at

Process

Feasibility:

Particulates

c

i

p

i

t

a

air.

sorpti

commer

handle

a

250,

di

rect

ment

r

doubt

gas st

500

ug

T

tors

In

co

on

me

ci al

gas

000 C

inqu

e

1

a t

i

expre

ream

/m

3

.

he

ca

(ESP)

ntras

thods

high-

f 1 ows

FM

ca

i

r

i

e

s

ve to

ssed

c o

n t

a

The

pa

city

an

are enti

t

to

the

for

tunn

voltage

e

in

the 5

pacity is

were

mad

the

tunn

as

to the

i

n

i n

g

the

reason

fo

d eff

rely

propo

el po

1 ectr

00,00

not

e

of

el ai

appl

1 ow

r th

l ci ency

adequat

sed cat

1 1 u

t

i o n

o s t a t

i

c

to

2,

at all

several

r

probl

i

c a

b

i 1 i

parti

cu

s

attit

of

e

e for

alyti

cont

prec

000,0

unusu

vend

em, t

ty

of

late

ude i

1 ectros

treatm

c

o

x

i

d

a

rol

,

1 a

i

pi

tat

00

rang

al.

Ho

ors

of

here wa

their

concent

s

not

d

tatic

pre-

ent of

tunnel

tion

or

a

d

-

rge-scale

on

units

e, so

that

wever,

when

ESP equip-

s

unanimous

units to a

ration

of

ifficult to

143



determ

is

e

q

their

Pollut

commer

t

r a

t

i

o

only

4

stream

of ESP

normal

1 i

m

i n a

tive

e

p

o

1

a

t

i

i

ne.

al to

summa

ants

ci al

n

of

%

tha

. It

appl

ly

en

ry te

n

g

i

n

e

on

to

In

t

a

va

ry on

repor

ESP

u

parti

t

of

ther

i

c

a

t

i

count

sting

e r

i

n

g

the

he stan

1

ue

of

Contro

ted

an

nit

to

cul ates

an

unus

efore

a

on to

p

ered in

would

judgme

highly-

dard un

0.00021

1

Techn

extreme

be

0.00

report

ually

1

ppears

art

cul

tunnel

be

nece

nt

of t

dilute

its

o

9

gr/

i

q

u

e

s

ly

lo

5

gr/

ed

in

ow-co

that

ate

r

ai r

ssary

he fe

regi

o

f grains/CF,

500

ug/m

3

CF. HEW,

AP-51

013)

in

for

Particulate

Air

w

exit

loading

from

a

CF.

Thus,

the

concen-

ambient

tunnel

air

is

ncentration treated

gas

the

technical

feasibility

emoval

at

the

loadings

is

very

doubtful.

Pre-

to

modify present

nega-

asibility

of

ESP

extra-

n

of

particulate

loadings

Assuming a

150

to

200-fold dilution

of automotive

exhaust

in

tunnel

air,

the concentration

of particulates

in

the

exhaust

itself

will

be

of the order of

0.04

gr/CF.

This

latter concentration

is

in the range where

agglomeration and

inertia

removal are effective, and

exhaust source

control

of

particulates

has

already proven

to

be

technically

feasi-

ble, and is most certain

to

be

utilized

when standards

are

formulated. The

impetus

for

external

control

of particulates

therefore

would

not

seem

to exist

atthis

time. Despite the

present

lack

of any

data

on

particulate

collectibility

by

ESP,

or

the

physical nature and

properties of

the

particu-

lates,

an

exploratory economic analysis

of

this operation

was

carried

out.

The economic

workup

of

ESP was

carried

out using

the

procedures

outlined in HEW,

AP-

51

(113)

and the

cost

data

contained

in

this

publication

and

in

Walker(99)

4

Design

Capacity

(S),

ACFM

=

250,000

Assuming

50%

onstream

time

requirement:

Annual

Operating

Time

(H)

=

4,380 Hours

Purchase

Cost

(High

Efficiency

Unit)

=

$180,000

Instal

1 ati

on

:

Installation

Factor,

%

Installation

Cost

Purchase Cost

Total

Capital

Cost

Low

40

$

72,000

$180,000

$252,000

Typical

70

$126,000

$180,000

$306,000

High

100

$180,000

$180,000

$360,000

144



Annual Capital

Charges

(C)

The

simplifying

assumptions used

in

estimating the

annualized capital costs,

in

HEW,

AP-51

were:

(a)

Depreciation

of

purchase and

installation

costs

over 15

years.

(b) Straight-line

depreciation

of

6-2/3%

on

installed

costs,

plus

(c)

Capital

charges

of

taxes, interest and

insurance

of

6-2/3%

of initial capital

costs,

to give

a total annual

charge

of

13-1/3%.

Additionally,

the

1968

equipment

costs

used

in

AP-51

were

uncorrected

to 1971

costs because

of

the

preliminary nature

of the

cost

estimates made.

(C)

=

(0.133)(Cost)

Low

(C

L

)

=

(0.

1

33)

($252,000)

=

$33,516

Medium

(C

M

)

=

(0.

1

33)

($306

,000)

=

$40,698

High

(C

H

)

=

(0.133)

($360

,000)

=

$47,880

Power

& Maintenance Costs

(assuming

no extra fan

power)

Low

Typi

cal

High

Power

Costs

(K),

$/kw-hr

Power Requi

rements

(J)

,

10 3|<w/ACFM

Maintenance

Costs(M),

$/ACFM

G

=

S(JHK

+

M)

where

G

=

annual

operating

&

maintenance

costs

S

=

design

capacity,

ACFM

J

=

power requirements,

kw/ACFM

H

=

annual

operating time, 4,380

hours

K

=

power

cost,

$/kw-hr

M

=

maintenance

costs,

$/ACFM

0.005

0.011

0.06

0.19 0.26 0.40

0.01

0.04 0.06

145



Low(G

L

),

Typical

(G

M

),

and

High(Gu)

annual

operating

and

maintenance

costs

calculated

as above are

as

follows:.

G

L

=

$3,540;

G

M

=

$13,130;

6

H

=

$41,230

and,

Total Mean

Annual Cost

=

C|^

+

G

M

=

$53,828

Using

the

square root

of

the

sum

of

the

squares

of

the differences,

the

high (V^)

and

low(V

L

)

cost

variances

are

as

follows:

V

L

=

(

($7,182)

2

+

($9,590)

2

)

1/2

=

$11 ,940

V

H

=

(

($7,182)

2

+

($28,1

00)

2

)

1/2

=

$28,950

Therefore

:

Lower Cost

Limit

=

$53,828

-

$11,940

=

$41

,888

Higher Cost Limit*

$53,828

+

$28,950

=

$82,778

The

high

cost

variance

amounts

to more than

50%

of

the

mean

cost of

$53,828,

so that

the chances

of

exceeding

the

mean

cost

is

much

better

than

a

cost

under-run.

The

annual

ESP

costs

are a

good

deal

higher than

those

of

the

treatment

techniques

previously estimated,

and it may

be

con-

cluded

that,

in

addition

to

being

technically

doubtful,

ESP

is apparently

prohibitively

expensive

for

the

single-compon-

ent

application.

normal ly

two-stage

aerosol

s

units.

I

more

appl

units

can

Further,

data

are

of

this

u

h i

g

h

-

v o

1

cost

situ

even more

above,

an

It

s

appl

i

,

low

such

t

was

i

c

a

b

1

not

b

the

1

avail

nit

i

age

E

a

t i

o

n

nega

d thi

hould

ed

to

-volt

as oi

real

e

to

e

use

arges

able

s abo

SP

un

for

ti ve

s uni

be

n

high

age

u

1

smo

i zed

the

t

d on

t-cap

is 10

ut

$3

it of

the

t

than

t

was

oted

ly

co

nits

kes

a

that

unnel

solid

aci ty

0,000

30,00

the

wo-

st

for

t

not

that

high

ncentrate

are

used

nd

genera

the low-v

parti

cul

s

,

w i

t

h

o u

two-stag

ACFM,

an

0,

as aga

same

capa

age

low-v

he

ESP un

reviewed

-vol ta

d emis

for di

1

air

ol

tage

ate pr

t

wash

e

unit

d

the

i

n s

t

$

ci

ty

ol

tage

it

c a

1

f urthe

ge

ESP

s

i

o n

s

,

lute li

condi

ti

units

oblem,

i

n

g

a d

a

for wh

i

nstal 1

190,000

Theref

preci

p

cul

ated

r.

units are

whereas

quid

o

n

i

n

g

might

be

but

these

p

t a

t

i

o n .

ich

cost

ed

cost

for

the

ore,

the

i

t a

t

o r

is

in

detail

146



Based

on

data

provided by Western

Precipitation

Division

of

Joy

Manufacturing

Company, a

precipitator

volume

of 16,680

cubic

feet

was

estimated

as

necessary

to handle

the requirement

of

250,000

ACFM

at

a

5 ft/sec

linear

velocity.

can

of n

cham

devi

wet

tunn

the

an

i

atio

caus

drop

phen

be

e

cons

many

in

t

esti

tunn

the

part

W

be

used

ormal

c

ber

to

ce.

Ba

col

1

ect

el

for

tunnel

.

n

i

t

i

a 1

n mecha

e

of

th

s or

su

omenon

mpl oyed

idered

tunnel

he

even

mate

th

el

emis

c o

n

s

i d

e

i

cul

ate

h i

1

e

a

n

for

par

a pa

city

be

the

1

s

i

c

a

1

1

y

,

ion devi

treatmen

All

we

a

d

i

a

b

a t

i

n

i

s

m act

e

diffus

rface (s

associ

at

only

fo

for

cont

s

have

s

t

of

tun

e c a

p

a

b

i

s

i

o n con

ration

o

removal

umber

t

i

c

u

1

a

ranges

owest

becau

ces

of

t

of

a

t scru

c

gas

ual

ly

ion

of

weep d

e

d

wit

r exha

rol

of

pray

c

n e

1

f

i

1 i

t

i

e s

trol.

f

the

only.

avail

ments

have

d e

s

i

g

size

are

g

prese

hoi du

1 i

q

u

i

parti

drops

wi

th

ef

f

i

c

time

i

c

1

e

,

p

o

n d

i

7,300

90%

t

basis

A

able f

for

p

been

s

n prob

esti

ma

i

v e

n

i

n

t e

d

i

p

time

d

drop

cul

ate

,

the

the

in

i

ency

decrea

to 1

.

ng

vol

ft

3

,

o

75%,

chang

lthough t

or calcul

arti cul at

uccessful

lems,

and

te

for

sp

n

detail

n summary

depends

let

size,

removal

requi

red

crease in

1

eve

.

F

ses from

75

second

umetric

c

respecti v

the volu

es

from

7

here

a t

i

o

n

e rem

ly

em

thes

ray c

in

th

form

on

th

aero

e

f f i

c

res

id

aero

or

th

16.1

s

for

hambe

ely.

me re

,300

of

di

te co

and

head-

se

of

any

i

r

w

h

b

b i n

g

s

a

t u

r

h

i

n

d

e

wate

i

f

f

us

h

wet

ust

a

the

hambe

res

,

of

s

This

a

p

p

1 i

are

s

of

c

oval

,

ploye

e wer

hambe

e

App

in T

e

spr

sol

p

iency

ence

sol

p

e

90%

secon

a

5-

r

req

For

quire

ft

3

t

ffere

llect

head

loss

,

the

sort

i

ch w

devi

a

t

i

o n

rs

pa

r vap

ion).

cont

i

r

tr

i

n

-

1 u

rs to

and

i

uch

p

pres

c

a t

i

o

nt ty

ion

,

1 osse

high

humid

canno

ill

b

ces i

zone

rti

cu

or

aw

Bee

actor

e

a

t

i

n

nnel

prot

t

is

resen

ent

s

n of

pes

o

a

pre

s

i nd

est

t

i

f

i

c a

t

be

e re-

nhere

,

and

1

ate

ay

fr

ause

s,

th

g

,

an

atmos

ect t

of di

t

equ

e c t

i

o

spray

f

we

1

imi

icat

hrou

tion

used

i ntr

ntly

thi

coll

om t

of

t

ese

d

ca

pher

he

e

rect

i pme

n

i

s

cha

t col

nary

e the

gh-pu

prob

with

oduce

cont

s eva

e

c

t i

o

he

li

he

sa

units

nnot

e.

H

xhaus

i nte

nt f

1 i m i

mbers

1

ectors

survey

spray

t

1

em,

in

a

d

into

ai

n

por-

n

be-

quid

turation

can

be

owever

,

t

fans

rest to

r

gross

ted

to

to

everal

e

rossf

1

ow

the

met

d previo

e

used

t

r

volume

e

n

d

i

x II

able

32.

ay

rate

article

For

t

contact

article

removal

ds for

a

micron

p

ui

rement

a

decrea

ments

on

o

4,400

s

t

i m

a

spra

hods

usly

o

obt

s.

T

and

The

ratio

size

he

50

time

size,

leve

2

-mi

arti

c

s are

se

in

a

5-

ft

3

.

tion t e

y

chamb

of Ranz

for

i

n

d

a i n a

p

hese

ca

the

res

requi r

of wat

and

the

0-mi

cro

falls

o

at

any

1

,

the

cron

ae

le.

Th

67,000

ef

f

i

ci

micron

c

h n

i

q

er

re

and

ustri

rel

im

1 cul

a

ul

ts

ed

ch

e

r

/

a

i

requ

n

spr

ff

ra

gi

ve

conta

rosol

e cor

ft

3

ency

parti

ues

Wongv'

14

)

al

i

nary

t i

o

n s

are

amber

r

,

the

i

red

ay

p

i

d

1

y

n

ct

part-

res-

and

from

cle

As is

obvious

from Table

32,

the

governing

variable

for

particulate

removal

in

a

spray

system

is the

size

of the

particulate.

As was

indicated

earlier,

more

than

95%

of the

mass

of

automotive

exhaust

fumes

is

in

the

plus-1

micron

size



I

1

>

H

JB

2

«sco

to

o

#

o

o

o

o

o o

\r>

2

»o

o

es

~

$

oo lO

CVJ

JO

W

I

P

a

CO

o

S3

Q

JB

u

2°°

a,

^5

cl

>s

•

> CO

U

£

o

o

1*1

t-<

xi

d

ft

h w

33

Pi

^

ON

o

*W^

www

°

CN

VO

r-4

o o

lO

O

NO

CO

CO t>»

CO

-

S

<=>

vO CO

in

es

—i

O

-r-«

Cd

O

2;

JE5

w

m

r^.

m

«*

•>*

o

CO LO

vO

O

CO

O

»

1-1

CO

£2

8

o

O

<

to *5

—l

CN

CO

*

IT)

148



range.

Further,

a

spray

system

tends

to

increase

particle

size

by

agglomeration, so

that

a

degree

of

particle

growth

can

be

expected. Also,

in

the

normal

spray

system, the

liquid

is colder

than

the

gas,

and a

certain

amount

of condensation

on

the

aerosol particulates

will

occur,

increasing

the

particle

size.

The

chamber

sizes

required

for

the removal

of

plus-3

micron

particulates

from

250,000

CFM

of air

in Table

32

are

reasonable

and, given the expected particle

size

distribution,

the

use

of

spray

chambers

for

removal

of

particulates

from

tunnel

exhaust air

at

good

efficiency

(75-90%) apnears

to

be

technically feasible.

Because

water spray scrubbing was

under

consider-

ation

as

a

tunnel

exhaust

treatment

technique,

a

detailed

estimate

was not

attempted,

and

the preliminary

costs

were

calculated

under

the

assumptions and the

data

of

HEW,

AP-

51,

as outlined

previously. Using

the wet scrubber

cost

data

for

a 250,000

CFM

unit:

Annual Capital

Cost

:

Purchase

Cost

=

$32,000

Installation

Cost(0

100%)

=

$32,000

Total

Installed

Cost

=

$64,000

and

Annual

Capital

Cost

=

(0.

1

33)

($64

,000)

=

$8,512

Annual

Operating and Maintenance

Cost,

(G) :

G

=

S(0.7457HK(Z

+

Qh/1980)

+

WHL

+

M)

where

Val

ue

S

=

Design capacity,

ACFM 250,000

H

=

Annual operating time,

at 50%, hours/year 4,380

K

=

Power costs,

$/kw-hr

(typical)

0.011

Z

=

Contacting power,

HP/ACFM

(low)

0.0013

Q

=

Liquor circulation rate, gal

/ACFM(low) 0.001

h

=

head

required,

ft

of

water

(high)

60

W

=

Make-up

water,

gal/ACFM

0.0005

149



L

=

Water

cost,

$/gal

x 10~3(typi

cal

)

0.50

M

=

Maintenance cost,

$/ACFM(low)

0.02

now

(Z

.+ Qh/1980)

=

0.00133

and

WHL

=

(0.005)

(4,380)

(0. 5

x

10

3

)

=

0.001096

G

•=

(250,

000)(0.7457)(4,380)(0.011)(0.00133)

+

(0.

0211)

=

$17,250

Total

Annual Cost

=

$8,510

+

$17,250

=

$25,760

The annual operating

and maintenance

costs

are on

the

high

side

because

of

the

use of

generalized

wet scrubber

cost

data.

The

spray

chamber is

the

simplest device

of

all

wet

contacting

units, but

the

absence

of specific unit operating

cost information

prevents

a more

rigorous

analysis.

If

more

definitive

costs are

required,

a

reassessment

of operating

costs

is recommended

for

a

specific

tunnel location and

a

localized

cost

structure.

Process

Feasibility:

Water

Solubles

pol

lut

formal

and

ca

hydroc

operat

these

ever,

remova

they h

of

eve

evalua

t

e

c

h n

i

sentat

feasi b

I

ants

dehyd

rbon

arbon

ion

w

compo

prope

1 of

ave

a

n

rat

tion

que

i

i

ve o

i

1 i

ty

nspec

i

n c 1

u

e

and

d

i

o x

i

s

are

ould

nents

rly-d

c a

r

c

i

lso

b

her

i

of we

s

exp

f

dil

may

ti

on

de th

aero

de.

eye

not

a

at

t

e

s

i

g

n

nogen

een

f

nsol

u

t

scr

erime

uted

be

on

of Table

e

oxygen

1

e

i

n

,

n

i

Other

th

irritant

ppear

to

he conce

ed

spray

s

of

the

ound

to

ble

gase

u

b

b

i

n

g

a

ntal

wor

automoti

1

y

indie

27

s

a

ted

troge

an

th

s ,

th

be

w

ntrat

cham

benz

\hU

s an

k

on

ve

ex

ated

hows

that the water-soluble

hydrocarbons,

primarily

n

dioxide, sulfur dioxide

e

fact

that

the

oxygenated

e

use

of

a

wet

scrubbing

arranted for

removal of

ion levels

indicated.

How-

bers have

the

capability

of

o-(a)-pyrene

typevllS)

ancj

irly

effective in the removal

).

The only

valid

basis

for

exhaust pollution

control

the

pollution

system repre-

haust. For

the present,

not

calculated.

The

primary indicators

of the

feasibility

of

wet

scrubber

or

spray

chamber

application

to

tunnel exhaust

cleaning are the size

of the

unit to

be required, and

its

probable

efficiency.

Spray

chamber capacities

and efficiencies

were investigated by

Pigford(80)

}

an d

mass gas

flow

rates of

2000

lbs/hr/ft^

were

reported

as

being

achievable

in cyclonic

150



a

t

i

o

C

ft

v

bu

hea

su

f

i

c

q

u

i

1

cu

b

th

1

d

de

nee

un

nt or

n.

Fo

FH

wou

to ma

al

ent

ly

the

size

a

i 1 1 ex

not

ap

pol 1

u

1

th

an

T

ption

ch

equ

i

ency

i

b

r

i

u

m

1

a t

i

o

n

e

remo

e n

i

t

r

atter

ds

on

egree

fine

t

ion

of

be

reg

its w

cross

r

air

Id

re

tch

t

to a

size

re

no

terna

pear

tant

d

nui

it

h c

curre

,

the

qui re

he

20

vesse

of a

t

unc

1 to

impra

remov

sance

entra

nt co

base

a

cr

00-

lb

1 dia

two-

ommon

the

t

c

t

i

c

a

al

re

basi

1

core

sprays, or

in

counter-

ntactors

with

good

mist

elimi-

tactors

vnth good

mist

enmi-

ventilation

flow

rate

of 15

x

)SS-sectional

flow

area of

562

'hr/ft^ mass

rate.

This

area

i

o_

/hr/ft^ mass

rate.

meter

of

about

27 ft,

1

ane

tunnel

.

However,

in industry, and

since

unnel

proper, the

diameter

needed

1. Again, the benefits

of

ex-

further

definition

both

on

which

is

units of

it

could

qui

re

s

.

he

exten

show

tha

i

pment

,

is

a

d

e

q

r

e

1

a t

i

o

s

i

n

d

i

c

a

ved

by

w

ogen

and

compound

the w

a

t e

of

water

he

s

p

e

c

these

p

arded

as

sive

data

t

from 1

depending

ate

for

s

n

s

h i p s

at

te

that

a

et

scrubb

sul

fur

o

s

,

as

wel

r/gas

rat

recycl

e.

f

i

c

pol

1

arameters

uncertai

of

P

to 3

on t

olubl

the

11 of

ing

,

x

i

d

e

s

1

as

i

o ,

t

Exp

tant

,

and

n.

igford^

80

transfer

he design

e

gases

w

low

conce

the

oxyg

as

can a

The ex

that

of

a

he liquid

eri mental

removal

e

the

pres

'

on

units

.

Th

i

th

f

ntrat

enate

s

i

g

n

i

tent

dditi

temp

data

ffici

ent

f

spray

are

a

is con

avorab

ion 1

e

d

hydr

f

i

c

a

n t

of rem

onal m

eratur

are r

e

n

c

i

e

s

e a s

i

b

i

chamber

v

a

i

1

a

b

1 e

tact

le

vel

s

.

ocarbons

porti

on

oval

of

ateri al

,

e

,

and

equi red

as

a

lity

The

economics

of

spray scrubbing

have

been reviewed

the

previous section.

Feasibility:

Recycle

&

Compartmental

i

zati on

nves

i

o

n

s

wh

a

e

un

t

i

g

a t

i

o

,

in

w

ole

or

1

.

Fun

ccumul

a

theo

i n

s t

r

u

c

,

and

t

ffect

o

on leve

e

of

th

n

of

th

ich

the

part, t

damenta

t

i

o n

an

r e t

i

c a 1

t i v e

to

he

2260

f

diffe

Is,

as

Assuming

now

a

tunnel,

or

tunnel

section,

T,

followed

a treatment

process,

P,

for

the

removal of

CO at

an

effici-

of

E

r

:

151



c

c

TUNNEL,

T

c

c

p

C

c

i

i

as*

__

1

t

1

W

C

E

C

RECYCLE,

R

where

F

=

fresh

air

rate,

CFH

R

=

recycle

air

rate, CFH

Wc

=

rate

of CO

generation in

T,

CFH

C

c

=

concentration

of CO

leaving

process,

P,

ppm

C'

c

=

concentration

of

CO

entering

tunnel,

T, ppm

CJ1

=

concentration

of

CO leaving

tunnel,

T,

ppm

Assuming

there

is

no CO

content

in

fresh

ambient air, and

taking

a

process,

effi ciency

of

90%:

R

+

F

=

15 x 10

b

CFH

Let:

x

=

R/F

=

Recycle ratio

Substituting

in

the

above equation:

F

=

15

x

10

6

(1

+

x)

At

steady-state

conditions,

CO

input

=

CO

output

from

system,

so:

and

FC

C

=

W

c

(1

-

E

c

)

FC

C

=

2260

(1

-

0.9)

C

c

=

226/F

152



from

CO

balance

around the bleed

point:

(R

+

F)

C£

+

W

c

(1

-

E

c

)

=

(R

+

F)

C

c

(C

c

C

c)

=

1

5

2

x

6

l0

'

6

=

15-1

ppm

CO

lea

for

ted

in

CO

lea

simply

n

t

i 1

a

t

i

l val

ue

t u

n n

e

if

t

tunne

150

than

base

I

recy

c

a

p

e

1

i m i n

ex

val

ue

ving

val

ue

Table

ving

the

on

ra

s

of

ai

r

he

pr

1

CO

ppm

v

100%

val

ue

f

the

cle

a

al

,

a

ns

th

i s

t o n

ate

,

p

e

n s

i

s

of

t

the

tu

s of x

33.

the

tu

genera

te

of

recycl

above

ocess

concen

al

ue.

,

the

of 15

re

wer

ir

ope

nd

wou

an

wou

ef

fee

recycl

ve pro

he

re

nnel

from

Wit

ho

nnel

ti

on

15

x

e

ser

the

b

remov

t r a t

i

For

tunne

ppm

e

no

rati

o

1

d

on

Id

be

t

doe

e

cou

cess.

cycle

r

can

now

0.5

to

ut

any

is the

rate

(2

10

6

CFH

ves

to

ase

val

al effi

on then

any

pro

1

conce

CO

wit

piston

n in

tu

ly resu

the

ca

s

exist

Id

prov

atio

,

be

ca

4,

an

recycl

base

v

260 CF

.

It

increa

u e wit

ciency

only

cess

r

ntrati

h

any

effect

nnel

v

It

in

s

e

wit

,

and

e

to

b

x,

the

co

1

culated.

d

the

res

e

air,

t h

alue of 1

H

)

divide

is o

b

v

i o

se the

CO

hout

recy

is incre

becomes

e

emoval

ef

on

must

i

finite

v a

,

it

must

e n t

i

1 a t i

o

higher

p

o

hout recy

is

in

f

a

e

a

feasi

ncentr

This

ul

ts

a

e

cone

50 ppm

d by

t

s

that

conce

cle.

ased

t

qual

t

f

i

ci en

ncreas

1

ue

fo

be

co

n

i

s

c

1

lutan

cle.

t

impo

ble

al

ations

has

been

re

tabu-

entration

,

which

he

tunnel

any

and

ntrati

on

Further

,

o

100%,

o the

cy

of

e

above

r

re-

nd

uded

ompletely

t

con-

However,

s

s i

b

1

e

though

A glance

at

the

model

used for the

above

calculation

show

that

it

applies

equally

well

to

internal

recycle

between

sections of

a tunnel as

well

as

to

a

com-

tunnel

system.

Thus,

no matter where

the recycle is

the

pollutant

concentration

increase

will occur.

An

of

the

assumptions

made in

the

derivation of the

of

Table 33 show

that

these

are

not

limiting, and the

conclusions are

general

for

any

pollutant

generated

at

rate.

In

requeste

i

onal iza

u

n

d e r 1

y

i

idered

i

a (pol

1

use it

w

ted

at

t

late)

o

t

i

o

n wou

d

i

s t a n

c

t,

the b

ion

comp

the

lat

d

that

t

t

i

o

n

of

ng

assum

n

this

r

u t e d

)

a

i

ould

mak

he norma

r at

the

Id

be de

e,

and

t

a

s

i

c

ass

artmenta

ter

p

he

po

tunne

p

t

i

o

n

eport

r

int

e lit

1

poi

i

nle

termi

he

de

umpti

1

i

z

a

t

art of

s s i

b

i

1 i

1

air

t

s

of

th

was th

a

k

e

int

tie sen

nt of

m

t

(too

ned

by

sired

1

on

of

i

ion

of

the fea

ty

of

c

reatmen

e

contr

at

they

ermedia

se for

ax i

mum

soon)

,

pol

1 uta

i

m i

t

i n

g

ntake

1

the

tun

si

bi

1

ompar

t

be

ol pr

woul

te

in

this

pol

1

u

it wa

nt co

val

u

o c a t

i

nel

.

ity

prog

tmental i

exami

ned

ocesses

d

have

t

tunnel

air

i

n t a

tant

con

s

o

b

v

i

o

u

ncentrat

e.

Howe

on

was

o

The

two

ram,

it

z a

t

i

o n

of

One

of

previously

o

operate

location,

ke to

be

centration

s

that

the

ion

gradient

ver,

in any

ne

of a

two-

-section



o

£

bo

a

i

581

in r-'

^

cn

o

i*»

in

o

m

o

in in

\o

oo

ej\

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t—I

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i i—I

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w

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o

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o o

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u

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1—4

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w

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o

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w

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w

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fl

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o

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.—

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o

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c£

ce,

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in

f*

-<

m

o

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m

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o

vO

vO

00

CN

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in

o

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l

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m

m

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in

•>

s

a m

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154



ompartmental

izati on

requires the use

of

one control

process

installation, and

generalizing,

the

breaking of

the

tunnel

into

r^

treating

sections

requires

the use of

(n_-l)

process

nits.

The

estimated

annual costs

for the

various

pollution

processes

evaluated in this

study

are summarized

in

34.

This

tabulation

permits

a cost comparison

of the

control

techniques, and

in purely

economic

terms,

appears that

augmentation of

tunnel

ventilation

is

the

most

control

measure.

This

would be

particularly true

existing low

head-loss tunnel

ventilation

systems,

in

the

of

1

to

2

W.G.

However,

for

the higher

initial

head-

oss

tunnel

systems

above

2

W.G.

the

increase

in

annual

costs required for

significant flow augmentation

would

the

total

cost

of

this

method above

that

of catalytic

or

spray scrubbing.

As

indicated

in

Table

34,

when feasibility

factors

added

to the

economic

considerations,

then

there

appears

be

no

secondary

pollution control technique

with

the cost-

capability

of ventilation

blower

addition or

ubstitution

at the present time. However, the

desirability

additional

development

work

on catalytic

oxidation

and spray

crubbing

is definitely

indicated

by

the

data of

Table

34,

and

t is

recommended

that additional laboratory

and pilot work

155



3

g

«/9-

c

1

co

•a

*->

4->

to

o

o

°

ir,

CO

lO

t<

m

no

o

eo

On

oC

oo* cm*

—

* cm

oo

CM

CO

cm

CO

o

in

in

CO

oo

CM

oo

CO

in

o

\o

in

cs

<**-

Ctf

m CO

in

Tn

Os

o

oo

On

o

1—1 CM

o

t^t

cm

vo

-*

CO

O

ON

o

CO

CO

o

in

CM

Q

3

£

r

<d

•M

i—

OS

«d-

CO

CS

CO

tH

o

en

••-1

<

s

9

<

S

H

Pm

en

u

O

o

u o

to

oto

cT

w

in

u

CM

o

Oh-

Ph

•a

«=5-

«J

u

CO

13

g

o

a

o

CO

o

Oh

o

o o

OO

lO

oo

On

CM

NO

•v

ft

•»

4

1

NO

NO

On

OO

ON

o

•J->

co

T3

CO

00

-a

13

•rH

&

T3

p-i

4->

CO

rt

(D

o

3

-8

a)

3

o

0-.

U

3,

O

o

o

NO

CO

CM

8

Oh

oo

ON

NO

o

§

Q

CM

ID

oo

-a

o

«->

CO

3

Cm

Cm

0-.

Oh

O

•

rH

_

-

-

$

^

CO

-=f

•a

§

i

4

O

§

O

i

•rH

+J

Q.

•9

&

*rt

O

*w

CO

N—J

-a

o

<

•-H

6

13

J8

&

O

u

8

1

O

cu

M

Cm

O

CO

O

Jh

*->

o

l-H

.8

6

X

O

H

Oh

CO

CO

o

o

bo

C

•rH

0)

Oh

O

H

I

O

r—

CQ

rt

156



these

operations

be undertaken. Based

on

the

process

eview

and

analyses

carried

out

in

this

study,

the

following

onclusions may

be

drawn:

1.

Both

exhaust

source control and

tunnel

ventila-

augmentation

appear to be either

more effective

or more

pollutant

control

strategies

than

secondary

pro-

essing

of

vehicular

tunnel

atmospheres. Projections

of

emissions under

presently-mandated

standards

and

controls

and

correcting

for

auto population

age, in-

a

reduction in

average

hydrocarbon

emission

from

660

to

156 ppm

in

the

period

1970-1980,

and

a

corresponding

eduction in average CO

emission

from

25,790 ppm

to 6,120

Thus, the

problem of

tunnel

atmosphere pollution

appears

be one

of

decreasing

severity,

and

secondary

controls

may

be

reguired.

2. Tunnel

ventilation

augmentation

appears to

be

and

technically

more

attractive

than

any

secon-

pollution

control process.

Both

catalytic

oxidation,

carbon

adsorption

control

operations are

fixed-bed

units

supplemental

blower

head additions

to

force

air

the

process.

This

creates the anomaly

that tunnel

augmentation

must

be

used in conjunction

with

fixed-bed

control

process, but

the

potential

direct

increase benefits

are

nullified

by the process

3.

AmbieHfc temperature

catalytic

oxidation appears

be

potentially the

most

attractive secondary control

pro-

Further development

is

reguired

to

assess its

capa-

for CO and

hydrocarbon

removal

at

the low concentrations

in

tunnel

air, and

to

yield

more complete

data

for

gn.

4. Spray

scrubbing

has apparent

application

to

the

of

gross tunnel

exhaust

emissions, and if localized

is

necessary

or desirable,

further study

of

the

full

of this

operation

should

be undertaken.

This

and

wet

scrubbing

methods

are not suitable

for

in-tunnel

because of the

accompanying

gas saturation

and

the

result-

in-tunnel

fog

possibilities.

5.

Investigation

of conventional electrostatic

for the

removal

of

the

particulates

from tunnel

showed this

process

to be of doubtful

feasibility

because

the

extremely

low

particle

concentration.

Further,

cost

showed

it

to

be

the most

expensive control

method

of

reviewed.

157



6. A

study

of

recycle operations

shows

that

any

degree

of

processed

air

recycle

around

the

tunnel

or

any

part

of

the

tunnel

will

yield higher

in-tunnel

pollutant

concen-

tration

levels

than

would be the

case

for

once-through

air

ventilation.

However,

the

injection

of

fresh

air

into

a

tunnel

by the piston

effect

could compensate

for

the

build-

up

of pollutants.

Selection

of

Control

Techniques

to

be

Evaluated

Gen

has

been

and d

e v

i

mobile

e

the

effl

concentr

vehicle

ppm)

and

to

1500°

maximum

with n

e

a

is

o b

v

i o

niques

w

a

p

p

1 i

c

a

b

and

ces

f

xhaus

uent

a

t i

o

n

exhau

0.5%

F.

C

pol

1

u

r

amb

us

f

h i

c

h

'

le

to

era

is be

or

in

t

sys

gas s

of

p

st em

H-C

onver

ti

on

ient

om

th

have

tunn

Discussion

-

i n

g

don

d

u

s

t

r

i

a

terns

tream

i

ol

1

utan

i

s

s

i

o n

(5000

p

sely,

t

concent

tempera

is

comp

been

de

el poll

e on

1

ope

In

th

s at

ts

is

conce

pm)

a

unnel

ratio

tures

ari

so

vel

op

u

t

i

o

n

A

s i

g

pol 1

ut

ration

ese

ty

an

ele

high,

n t

r

a

t

i

nd tern

atmos

ns

of

r

a

n

g

i

n

that

ed rec

contr

n i

f i

c

ion c

s

,

po

p,es

o

vated

As

on ra

perat

phere

250

p

ng

f

many

ently

ol.

ant

amou

ontrol

t

wer

plan

f

pol

1

ut

tempera

an

examp

nges to

ures

ran

s

genera

pm

CO

an

om 20°F

of

the

are not

nt

of

e

c

h n

i

ts an

ant

s

ture

le

, m

3%

CO

ge f

ily

r

d

50

to

90

contr

nece

work

ques

d

auto-

ources

,

and

the

otor

(30,000

om

150°F

ange

to

ppm

H-C,

°F. It

ol

tech-

ssari ly

The

constraints

imposed

by

a

tunnel atmosphere

dictates

and limits

the

types

of

purification

processes

which

can be

used.

These

constraints

include:

1.

Relatively

low

ambient temperature

2.

Relatively low

pollutant

concentration

levels

3.

High

throughput

rates

4. Low

exit

concentrations.

Additonal constraints are

imposed depending upon

whether

the

tunnel atmosphere

is

to

be recycled (either

completely

or

in

a

compartmentalized fashion)

or

merely

exhausted

to

the

atmosphere.

In

recycle,

consideration must

be

given

to

cooling,

CO2

removal,

water

removal

and

perhaps

oxygen

make-up

These

constraints

are not

imposed where

the

air

is to

be puri-

fied

prior

to

exhaust to

the

atmosphere.

On

the

basis

of

recommendations

for

allowable im-

purity

limits

in tunnels

along

with the

current

Environmental

Protection Agency

national

air

quality

standards, removal

systems

for the following pollutants must

be

considered:

1.

CO

2.

H-C

3. N0-N0

2

4.

Particulates

158



EPA

has

also

established

limits

for

SO2

and

photochemical

but

these

do

not

appear

to

be

problems

in

vehicular

based

on

measurements which

have

been

made.

i

tera

,

6

a

i

n

i

n

a

e 1

c

i

h

C5

s

th

Ca

ture r

based

two

ge

ese-co

carbon

0% MnO

g

3%

C

stand

st

res

ty

of

r

'

on

talyst

i

n

g

on

erefor

i venes

rbon Monoxide Remo val

Systems

i

a

1

1

y

p

veal

on

t

neral

pper

.

A

2-40%

0,1%

ard s

u

1

1 e

d

200

h

ly

50

s,

th

the

e

was

s

on

ed two

empera

cl

ass

oxide

revi

ew

CuO

c

H

2

,

pace

v

in

on

r

'

.

% conv

e

Mn02

basis

selec

di

1 ute

potent

ture

re

es

of

c

and

tra

by

Can

omplete

.1%

gas

e

1

c

i

ty

%

x

i d

a

However

ersi

on

-CuO

ca

of

both

ted

for

d

auto

qui

reme

a

t

a

1

y

t

i

n s

i

t

i

n

non and

1

y

x

i

d

1

i

n e

,

of

18,

t i n

of

,

at

s

of

CO

w

talyst

temper

smal

1

exhaust

romi s

nts a

c

oxi

met

a

Well

i

zed

bal

an

800

h

CO

a

ace

v

as at

appea

ature

scale

-

A

r

i no

m

nd

th

d

i

z

e

r

1

oxi

inq

(

a

gas

c e

n

i

r~

'

.

t

120

e

1

c

i

t

a

i

n

e

red

t

and

eval

e

v

l

e

w

eans

rough

s

i

nc

des

58)

1

mixt

troge

The

°C

at

ties

d.

be

throu

u

a

t

i

of

the

of

CO

re-

put

rate.

1

uded

n a c t

i

-

n

d

i

c

a

t

e

d

ure

con-

n

at

25°C

other

a

space

of

f these

more

ghput

rate

n

of

its

Hydrocarbons

x

i

v

r

h

am

2

,

r

ac

N

a u

s t

ng

bo

ds

mu

ally

us

th

on

,

h

to

be

ated

emova

e

a

v

i

e

b

i

e n t

anoth

emova

ti

vat

ly

wi

ment

ok

fo

0.

th

can

be

st be ess

oxidized

an the

in

igh

tempe

an i n

a p

carbon

ap

1

of

hydr

r

and mos

temperat

er

of

the

1

from

tu

ed carbon

th steam,

problems

r a

c

t

i

v a t

t

was

sel

used

e n t

i

a

1

hydroc

i

t

i

a

1

rature

ropri a

peared

ocarbo

t

of

t

ures

.

impur

nnel

a

is

th

and

t

are

mi

ed

car

ected

Catalytic oxidation

or

the

to

oxidize hydrocarbons,

ly

100% efficient

otherwis

arbons

may

be

more toxic

a

hydrocarbon. To

assure 10

s must

be used,

hence

oxid

te

means of

hydrocarbon

re

to

be

the most

promising

ns.

Activated

carbon

will

he

partially oxidized

hydr

Activated

carbon

will

als

i

ties

selected for conside

tmospheres. An

attractive

at

it

can

be

regenerated,

herefore

the

maintenance

nimized. Because of the

p

bon

for removal

of

both

hy

for

study

on

diluted

autom

rmal

after'

These

e the

nd/or

0% con-

ation

was

moval

.

technigue

remove

ocarbons

remove

rati on

feature

pre-

r

re-

romi sing

drocarbon

b

i 1

e

ex-

Oxi

des

of

Nj trogen

-

As

stated

earlier, activated

will

remove

NTTjT However, it is ineffective

for

removal

NO,

which

accounts

for ^80%

of

the

total

oxides of nitrogen

from

auto exhaust. Thermodynami

cally

,

the

conversion

NO

into

O2

and

N2 is favorable,

but

no

catalysts

have

been

which

will

effect

this decomposition at

reasonable

or

temperatures.

Unfortunately,

catalytic

removal

of

X

from

gas

streams

requires

a

reducing

atmosphere,

a

con-

ition which

does not

exist

in

polluted

tunnel air.

Conversely,

information

exists

which

indicates

that M0

can

be

159



cata

repo

on

a

of

-

be o

trat

NO

s

fi

ca

Marb

that

remo

mate

acti

Howe

had

Pura

lytic

rted

c

t

i

v

a

60°F.

f

que

ions

eemed

t i o

n

on

Ch

Pura

ve

NO

rial

on

an

ver

a sup

f

i

1 w

al

ly

ox

that NO

ted

car

The

p

s

t

i

o

n a

b

in t u n

to

be

The

D

emi

cal

fil,

a

x

from

f

unctio

d

would

since o

ply

of

ould

be

i

d i

z

e

d

t

can

be

bon,

but

s s

i

b

i

1 i

1 e

a

p

p

1 i

el atmos

the

majo

OT

Techn

Division

chemi

sor

the

atmo

ns

by

ch

therefo

ther

met

this mat

eval

uat

o

the

o

x i

d

i

the

ty of

c a

b i

1

phere

r pro

i cal

of

B

bent

spher

emi

ca

re

ha

hods

e r

i

a

1

ed on

ni

tr

zed

t

proce

1 iqu

i

ty

i

s.

I

blem

Offic

org-W

imp re

e.

I

1

rea

ve

to

seeme

on h

di

1 u

ate

f

o

N0

2

,

ss

req

id

s c

n

1

i

g

h

n summ

of

tun

er in

arner

gnated

t

shou

c

t

i

o

n

be

re

d

impr

and, i

ted au

rm.

whi c

u

i

r

e

s

u

b

b i n

t

of

ary

nel

p

d

i s

c

u

Corpo

with

Id

be

rathe

pi ace

a c t

i

c

t

was

to ex

It

ha

h

cou

a

ga

q

anp

the

N

the

r

ollut

s s

i

o

n

ratio

KMnO

note

r

tha

d

per

al

an

deci

haust

sals

Id

be

s dew

eared

con

emova

ant

p

with

n

sug

4

mig

d

tha

n cat

iodic

d sin

ded

t

been

sorbed

poi

nt

to

cen-

1

of

uri

-

gested

ht

t

this

a

1

y

t

i c

ally.

ce

MSA

hat

Parti culates

Typical

means

of

removal

of par-

ticulates

from

gas

streams include mechanical

separators

such

as

cyclones,

wet

collectors,

electrostatic precipitation

and

filtration.

The efficiency

of

each

of

these

methods

depends

upon

such

factors as

particle

size, density,

concentration

and

electrical

resistivity

as

well

as

moisture

content

of

the

gas

and

physio-chemical

characteristics

of the gas.

Cyclone

separators

are not particularly

efficient

for the

size

range

(<1

y

to

5

y)

of particles in

tunnels and in

general

require

large energy

inputs

with

attendent

high pressure

drops.

With

the

present state-of-the-art

of

wet

collectors,

efficiencies

at the anticipated particulate

levels and

particle

sizes

in

tunnels

would

likely be quite

low.

Electrostatic

precipi-

tation

and

filtration

may

be

apolicable

to

the

problem.

How-

ever, since manufacturer's data are

available

for

these

types

of

particulate

removal

systems as

well

as

for

wet

scrubbing

systems, it

was

decided that no

laboratory

work

on particulate

removal

would

be performed.

Purification

Test System

3

Figure

31

is a

schematic

diagram of a

4300

ft

chamber

at

MSAR.

The

chamber

is leak-tight and is made

of

carbon

steel with the

inside

walls

coated

with aluminum

paint.

The

chamber is

fitted with

an

air

blower with a capacity

of

80

cfm.

Minor

modification

to

the

chamber included installat

of

an inlet

port

for

injection

of

auto

exhaust.

Major

modifications to

the

chamber

involved in-

stallation

of

monitoring equi

pment,

test

beds

and

a

gas

stream

heater (Fig.

31).

The monitors

which

were used

included:

160



Temperature

Pressure

Relative humidity

Carbon

monoxide

Total hydrocarbons

(§)

Carbon dioxide

(7)

Oxygen

(8)

Particulates

(9)

Nitrogen

oxides

Q)

Air sample

for

GC

®®O®0(5>

Meter

Heater

Bed

I

©-

-Bed

II

^)©0®®©®

©©®®®®®s>-

© © ©

Test

Chamber

-

4300

ft

3

r^—

Exhaust

Inlet

FIGURE

31

-

AUTOMOTIVE EXHAUST

PURIFICATION

TEST

CHAMBER



Impuri

ty

CO

Total

H-C

C0

2

°2

H2.O

Instrument

MSA

Lira

Model

200

(IR)

MSA

Total

H-C

Analyzer

MSA

Lira

Model 200

Biomarine

0M-300

Analyzer

Motometer

RH

Indicator

Range

Particulates

Royco

Model

200

PC

NO-NO,

Wet chemical;

Saltzman

Method

0-300;

0-500

ppm

Ful

1

Seal

e

0-5;

0-15;

0-3D;

0-60

ppm

0-0.5%

0-100°/

0-100%

0-54

u

to

5.0

u;

100

particles/cc

0.01-10

ppm

A

fan was

installed

inside

the chamber

to assure

rapid

mixing

of the contaminated

gas.

In

most runs,

the

auto

exhaust

was

provided

by

a

1963

Chevrolet

Impala

with

103,000

miles on it;

the source

of

auto exhaust

for

the first two runs

was a

1967

Chevelle

with

33,000 miles

on it.

A

typical run was as

follows:

1. Run automobile engine

for

1.5

min; car

in

drive; accelerator

slightly

depressed;

brakes

on.

2. Circulate contaminated

air

for

5

min

to

assure

complete mixing

within

the

chamber.

3.

Turn

on

blower

and set

to

desired flow

rate.

4. Collect monitor

readings

at

various

in-

tervals

depending

upon

the

type of

removal

system

and

rate

of removal.

The

first

run

was

a

blank

run

to

determine

whether

the

test

chamber

and associated

equipment resulted in change

in con-

centration

of

any

of

the contaminants

during

circulation

without

any

purification

system on

line. The

results

in-

dicated

no

change in concentration

with

time

except

for

the

particulates.

Table 35 is

a

summary of the runs

which

were

made.

Results of

each run

are

discussed

in the

following

subsections

Run No. 1

-

Blank

Run No.

1

was

a

blank

run

although

a

fiber glass

mat

was

placed in one of the

purification

canisters

to

provide

a

pressure

drop

across

the system.

The

vehicle used

for

the

pollutant

source

was

a

1967

Chevelle

and

was

run

at

idle

for

5

min.

Small

differences

can

be

seen

in

the

CO

inlet (300

ppm)

versus

the CO outlet (285

ppm)

and

the HC inlet

(78

ppm)

162



TABLE

35

-

SUMMARY

OF

PURIFICATION

SYSTEMS

Type

of

Bed

Wt.

lbs

Bed

Temp.

°F

Space

Velocity

hr-'

Res

1 dence

Time

sec.

Flow

CFM

Pres.s

,

Drop

1n

Water

Vehicle

Run

Time

Mln.

CO

ppm

H-C

ppm

NO

oom

HO

2

oom

CO,

y

-

Purification

lii Out

(n

Out

In Out

In

Out

In

Out

RH

Blank

HA HA HA

NA 82

3.3

5

300 285 78

61

0.051

0.048

0.029

0.011

0.10 0.10

85

Hopcal 1

te

(Cold)

12.0

92

17,100

0.21 84

3.6

2.5 280 215

1

41

0.14 0.006 0.069 0.08 0.12 0.12 52

12.0

92

12,100

0.30

60 2.0

...

205

190

41

41 0.04 0.02 0.10 0.12 0.12 0.12 52

Ac tt vated

Carbon

8.0 92

17,100

0.21

84

3.0

2.5

300

+

300

+

84

22 4.03

4.47

1.38

0.24 0.24

90

8.0 92

4,100 0.88

20

3.0

300

+

300

+

60

20 3.16 3.68

1.05

0.23 0.23 90

8.0 92

8,200

0.44

40

--- ...

300

+

300

+

60

20 0.23 0.23

90

Purafll

12.0 90

17,100

0.21 84

2.0

1.5 357

320

56

47 0.93

0.30

0.44

1.26

0.11

0.11 85

12.0

93

8,500

0.42

42

0.5

...

320 320

48

38 0.26 0.10 0.63 0.57 0.11

0.11 85

20 hr total

12.0

95

17,100 0.21

84

2.0

...

270 270

25

24 0.00

0.00

0.018 0.018 0.10

0.10

85

Hopcal

1

te

(Hot)

1

.0

95

9,500

0.04

38

18.2

1.5

287 230

til

53 1 .55

0.89 0.14 2.49 0.13 0.13

65

1.0

96

4,700 0.08

19

8.8

235

223 59 55 0.13

-.13

64

700

watts

Input

1.0

175

4,700

0.08

19 10.7 220

30

O'l

38 1.43

0.15

0.30

0.66

-.13

0.16 63

1650

watts

Input

1.0 240

4,700 0.08 19

12.0

...

117

3

50 29 1

.48 0.69

0.44

0.22

0.14

0.16

61

Hopca

1 i

te

Silica

gel

2.0

1.0 90

4,700 0.08

19

11.9

1 .5 500 480 61

61 0.56 0.52 0.12

0.23

0.09 0.08

89

Hopcal

i

te

0.25

167

18,800

0.02 20

3.6

1.5

203

147

50 47

0.10

0.10

86

1635

watts 275

18,800

0.02

20

6.0

147

20 43 30

0.91

l.Ot

0.20

0.02

0.11

0.12

life

1635 watts

227

28,200 0.015

30 6.1

141

63

4 2

36

o.ll 0.12 8b

2620

watts

260 28.200

0.015

30

6.4 124 38

31

29

0.99

1

.09 0.15

0.03

0.11 0.12

85

1080

watts

276

9,400

0.04 10

1.8

102

8

38

24 0.89

0.61 0.13

0.02 0.10 0.11

84

Parti cula

te

Filter

65%

effi-

ciency

Resu

ts

void;

face

vel

>dty

too h1g

Particulate

Filter

99.5%

ef

f 1

dency

Res

ilts

void face ve oclt)

too

hi

Jh

60% Mn02

+

40%

CuO

750

watts

1

86 2,350

0.16

10 3.3 1.5 349

346

53

53 0.39

0.51 0.04

0.06

0.11

0.11

201

2.?50

0.16

10 4.0

i2 L

?97

52

5?

0.41 0.89

0.03

0.00

0.12 0.12

1700

watts

247

2,350

0.16

10

4.4

325 297

S3

52

0.47 0.94

0.02

0.00

0.12

0.12

Charcoal

+

1 94 11

,750

0.03

50

5.6 487

474

4 67J

50

23

70

0.36

0.22

0.22

0.14

0.04

0.10

0.10

Hopcal

1

te

0.11

0.10

750

watts

134 11

,750

0.03

50 5.6

4

36 426

4T4

2

18

T7

....

0.10 0.10

0.10

2620 watts 265

11,750 0.03 50 5.9

356

351

T37

23

17

T7

0.10 0.10

0.12

2620 watts

261

4,700

0.08

20

2.0 318

318

-*TJ-

22

17

TE

0.10

0.10

0.12

2700 watts 311

2,350

0.16 10

2.0

293 293

T7

2?

15

TT

0.16 0.10

0.22

0.08 0.00

0.10 0.10

0.02

Charcoal

+

Moisture

Tolerant

Hopcal

1

te

1700 watts

1100

watts

600

watts

1

2

93

4,700

0.08 20 2.6 1.5

445 445

T59

48

23

23

0.52

0.28

o.n

0.09 0.00

0.1 0.1

o 7T

68

0.41

280 4,700 0.08 20 2.9

400 395

4

23

77

0.33

0.21

0,62

0.09

0.00

0.10 0.10

6.61

0.14

240

4,700 0.08 20

3.9 290 290

32

21

70

0.12

0.12

071

185 4,700

0.08 20 3.2

248 248

8

31

21

76

0.20 0.13

0.03

0.04 0.00 0.12

0.12

O.o2

0.14

163



versus

the

HC

outlet (61

ppm).

This could

be

attributed

to

physical sorption on

the

fiber

glass mat.

A

slight

reduction

in

NO

and

a

large

reduction

in

NO?

concentration

was

also

noted, but problems

existed

with the NO-NO2

analyses

at

that

time,

so

these differences may

not

be

real.

The

difference

in the concentration of particulates

greater

than

1 micron,

550/cc

versus

60/cc

was

probably

due to

the

filtration

effect

of

the

fiber

glass mat.

Run

No.

2

-

Cold Hopcalite

CuO

c

for C

could

30% C

run a

idle

(resi

obser

under

outl

e

NO

to

the

(0.06

time

it

ap

I

nit

atalyst

r

at 25°C

be 1 ocat

uO cataly

t

92°

F.

time was

dence tim

ved

for

C

go

x i

d a

t

NO

was

N0

2

.

Fu

utlet N0

2

9

ppm).

of 0.30

s

peared

th

i al ly

eport

(77°

ed

so

st

wa

Again

2.5 m

e

of

or

ion

i

0.006

rther

(0.0

At

a

ec)

at

NO

,

it

was

ed by

Can

F).

No

c

H

p

c

a

1

i

t

s

s

u b

s

t

i

t

,

a

1967

in.

At

a

0.21

sec)

HC.

The

n

that

th

ppm.

Th

veri

f

i

ca

8

ppm)

wa

space

vel

the

CO

an

was

b e

i

n

intend

non

an

ommerc

e

,

a c

u

t

e

d i

Chevel

space

,

no s

oxides

e

i

n

1 e

is

w

u

t

i

n

s

high

oci

ty

d HC w

g

part

ed

to

use

the 60% Mn02-40%

d Welling

to

be

effective

ial

source of

this

catalyst

oprecipitated

70% f1n02~

n

its place.

The

bed

was

le

was

used at

idle, but

velocity

of 17,100

hr

1

ignificant

reduction

was

of nitrogen

did

appear

to

t

NO

was

0.14

ppm

and

the

Id

indicate

oxidation

of

f

this is the fact

that

er

than

the

inlet

NO?

of 12,100

hr '

(residence

ere not

changed,

but

again

ial

1

y

oxidized

to

NO2.

Run

No.

3

-

Activated Carbon

Chevrolet

under load

used

as th

scale,

but

removal

a s

i

g

n

i

f

i

c

NO2

level

22 ppm

(74

from

1

.

38

and downst

was typica

odorless,

downstream

are the

mo

ional

test

4,100

(RT

Again

a

ma

the

NO2

wa

hydrocarbo

the

fact t

In

th

Impal

a

condi

e

puri

it is

At

a

s

ant re

The

% remo

ppm

to

ream

1 of

t

F

i

g

u

r

sampl

re tox

s

at

s

=

0.88

jor

fr

s

remo

ns

at

hat

a

s

run

,

was

us

t i

n s .

f

icati

known

pace

ve

d

u c

t

i n

H-C

con

val

)

an

zero

p

f

the

t

he

odor

e

32 is

e

showi

i

c

and

pace ve

sec)

w

action

ved.

T

these 1

portion

as

in

ed

as

Cocon

n

medi

that

c

1

oci

ty

was

centra

d

the

pm. T

est

be

s

in

t

a chr

ng tha

more

1

c

i

t

i

ere ma

of the

he

app

ower

s

of th

al

1

su

a

pol

1

ut

bas

a.

Th

harcoa

of 17

bserve

tion w

N0

2

co

he

str

d

for

unnel

s

omatoq

t the

dorous

es

of

de

on

hydro

arent

pace v

e

heav

bsequent

runs,

a

1963

utant source

and

was

run

ed

activated

charcoal was

e

CO concentration

was

off

1

is

ineffective

for CO

,100

hr

1

(RT

=

0.21 sec),

d

in

the

H-C

level

and

the

as reduced

from

84

ppm

to

ncentration

was

reduced

earn

was

tested

upstream

odor.

The upstream

odor

while the

downstream

was

ram

of an

upstream

and

heavy

hydrocarbons

(which

)

had

been

removed.

Addit

8,200

(RT

=

0.44 sec)

and

the

same

pollutant

charge,

carbons

,

67%

and 100%

of

reduced

removal rate

of

elocities

is

due

only

to

ier

hydrocarbons

had been

164



Light

Hydrocarbons

Chromatograph

Hewlett

Packard

Model

5750

dual

column.

Columns

-

6*

x

1/0

stainless

steel

10% UC-W98

Carrier gas

-

Helium

40

cc/mln

Temperature

-

30°C

temp, program

to

230*C

at

20°C/min

Sample

-

^230

cc

of air.

Hydrocarbons

trapped

on

12

x

1/0

stainless

steel

pre-column

at

-197°C

packed with

45-60

mesh

Chromosorb

P

Detectors

-

Flame Ionization

Light

Hydrocarbons

Start

temperature

program

(Room

temp,

to

230°C)

IL

-*A-

Start

temperature

program

Upstream

of

Carbon

Bed

FIGURE

32

Sample

Downstream

of

Carbon

Bed

REMOVAL

OF

HYDROCARBONS

BY

ACTIVATED

CARBON



removed during

the

the

ratio

of

light

Run

No.

4

-

Purafil

earlier

part

of

the test

to

heavy

hydrocarbons.

thus

increasing

strat

conce

as

we

sec)

68%.

hydro

The

s

morni

trati

was

d

did

n

that

been

57%.

e

of

ntrat

11

as

hydro

At

a

carbo

ystem

ng

, a

on ha

own

t

ot ap

those

remov

Purafil acts

as

a chemisorbent

using KMn04

on a

-sub

activated

alumina.

Purafil

had

no

effect on

the

CO

ion

but

did

reduce

part

of

the

hydrocarbon

fraction

NO.

At

a

space

velocity

of

17,100

hr

1

(RT

=

0.21

carbons

were

reduced by

18% and NO

was

reduced

by

space velocity

of

8,500 hr

1

(RT

=

0.42

sec)

ns

were

reduced

by

21%

and

MO

was

reduced

by

61%.

was

allowed

to run

overnight

and the

following

fter

a

total run time

of

20

hrs,

the

NO concen-

d

been reduced

to

zero

and

the

NO^ concentration

o

0.018.

After 20

hrs

of

operation,

the

Purafil

pear

to

be

removing

any

hydrocarbons,

indicating

hydrocarbons which

are

reactive

with

Purafil

had

ed. Total reduction

in

hydrocarbon content

was

Run

No.

5

-

Hot

Hopcalite

ef

f

i

c

smal

1

NO

wa

and

t

duced

moved

42%.

ture

to

be

for t

trate

CO

an

Thi

iency me

reducti

s

reduce

he hydro

by

90%.

(97%

re

The

beh

is

diffi

as

e f

f

he first

. It sh

d

HC

res

s

run

asure

on in

d by

carbo

At

moval

a

v i

o r

cult

c

i

e n

t

time

ould

ulted

was

m

d

at

v

CO

(2

43%.

ns

wer

240°F,

)

and

of

th

to

exp

How

indie

be

not

in

an

a

d

e

wit

ari ous

0%)

and

At

175°

e

reduc

the CO

the hyd

e

oxide

lain

si

ever,

t

a

t

i

n

g

p

ed

that

i

ncrea

h

hot Hopcalite

with the

temperatures.

At

95°F,

a

HC

(13%)

was observed, while

F,

the

CO

was

reduced

by 86%

ed

by

30%.

The

NO

was

re-

was

nearly

completely re-

rocarbons were

reduced

by

s

of nitrogen at

this

tempera-

nce

NO

removal

did not

seem

he

removal

of

NO2

was

observed

ossible

oxidation

to

the n

i

the

significant reduction

in

se

of

C0

9

from

0.13%

to

0.16%.

Run

No.

6

-

Silica

Gel

-Hopcal i

te

In

this

run,

a

silica gel

bed was

installed

upstrea

of

the Hopcalite bed

in hopes that

Hopcalite

would

be effec-

tive at

ambient

temperature

if

the

stream

were free

of

moistu

No

significant improvement

was

noted

in

the

removal

of

CO,

HC

or

NO/NO2.

More

effective

drying

agents

might

be

considered,

but

for

a

system

to

be economical, the

dryer

must be regen-

erable.

Those

dryers which

can

be

used

only once

and

then

discarded

would increase

both

the

replacement

and

maintenance

costs.

Of course, these costs have to

be

weighed

against

the

cost

of heating

the

air

stream

to

^225°F,

in the

case

of

Hopcalite.

166



R

un

No.

7

-

Hopcalite

This

run

was

made

with

a

0.25

pound

Hopcalite

bed

as

opposed

to

the

1.0

pound

beds

used

in earlier

runs.

At

identical flow rates,

the

residence

time

was

reduced by

a

factor

of

4

while the

space

velocity

was

increased

by

a

factor

of

4.

At

a

space

velocity

of

4,700

hr

-

1

and

a

residence

time

of 0.08

seconds

used

in

earlier runs,

the

exit

concentration

CO was

<1.5%

(3

ppm) of

the

inlet concentration

(117

ppm);

this was

accomplished

at a

temperature

of

240°F.

In

this

run,

with

a

lower

residence time and

a

hiqher space velocity,

the

CO

was reduced

by

only

86%.

Runs

8 and

9

-

Filter

Media

These

two

runs

were

made

with

particulate filter

media

with efficiencies

of

67%

and

99%

for 0.3 micron particles

The

results

from these

two runs

were

considered unreliable

be-

cause

of

the high

face velocity

at

the filter,

and the face

velocity could

not

be

reduced

due

to

the performance

charac-

teristics of the

air blower. Therefore,

manufacturers

data

will

have

to be used

for

prediction of filter performance.

Inquiries

were sent

to

manufacturers

of

electrostatic pre-

cipitators,

also.

Run

No. 10

-

MnQ

?

-CuQ

This

run was

made using

an

admixture

of

60% MnO

and

40%

CuO

as

described

by

Cannon

and

Welling.

The

two

materials were

mixed,

about 10%

water was

added

and

the

moist

mix

was pressed

into

a

solid

cake.

The

cake

was dried

and

then

sieved to

4-8

mesh

granule

size.

The

test

showed

little

activity of

the

catalyst for

CO.

Run

No.

11

-

Charcoal

Plus

Hopcalite

formanc

The cha

but

in

the

cha

is conv

cool ing

the

opt

system,

and

the

charcoa

chromat

were

re

This

e

of

tw

rcoal

b

actual

rcoal

b

erted

t

was

pr

imum

co

At

31

charco

1 al so

ographi

moved.

run

o se

ed

w

prac

ed

d

o NO

ovi d

nf

i

g

1°F,

al

r

remo

c an

was

1

ecte

as

lo

tice,

ownst

2

in

ed fo

urati

the

emove

ved

a

alyse

made

d

met

cated

i

t

w

ream

the

H

r

the

on co

CO

wa

d

ess

frac

s

ind

to de

hods

upst

ould

of th

opcal

Hope

uld

n

s

red

entia

ti on

icate

t

e

rm i

n

e

of

tunne

ream

of

be

more

e

Hopcal

ite bed.

a

1

i

t

e

be

ot

be

us

uced

by

lly 100%

of

the

h

d

that

t

the

overall per-

1

air

purification,

the

Hopcalite

bed,

sensible

to

locate

ite

bed since

NO

However, since no

d

outlet

stream,

ed

in the

test

greater

than

90%

of the

NO2. The

ydrocarbons

;

gas

he

heavy

hydrocarbons

167



Run

No.

12

-

Charcoal

Plus

Moisture

Tolerant

Hopcalite

This

run

was

made

with

moisture tolerant

Hopcalite

since

it

is less

susceptible

to

powdering than

standard

Hopcalite, thus

providing

a

lower

pressure drop

across

the

system.

Information was

acquired

during this

run

on

the

effect

of

temperature on

CO removal

and

the

results

are

shown

in

Figure

33.

These results indicate

that

at

a

space

velocity

of

9400

hr l,

a residence time

of 0.04

sec

and

a temperature

of

225°F,

complete

removal

of

CO

can be expected.

Purification Systems

for Tunnels

demo

tunn

meth

cant

uati

tunn

eval

shou

stud

of

t

Th

nstrated

el

atmos

ods to

t

degree

on of

sy

el

air.

uation

o

Id

be ke

ies were

his

fact

e 1

ab

that

phere

unnel

of

sy

stems

An

e

f

the

pt

in

made

,

som

orato

the

s.

A

atmo

stem

requ

a r

1

i

e

cost

mind

prio

e

add

ry

wo

techn

p

p

1

i

c

spher

scale

i red

r

sec

requ

that

r

to

i t i

o

n

rk

perfo

ology ex

a

t

i

o

n

of

e

p

u r

i f i

-up

as

w

for

hand

tion

of

i

rements

the fea

the

labo

al comme

rmed

under

this

program

ists for

purification

of

these principals

and

cation

requires

a

signifi

ell

as

an

economic

eval-

ling large

volumes

of

this

report includes

an

for

such

systems,

but it

sibility

and

economic

ratory

studies. Because

nts are

warranted.

First, ambient

temperature

catalytic

oxidation

proved to

be

an

unattainable

goal.

The laboratory

studies

indicated

that

a

temperature of

^225°F would be

required

for

oxidation

of CO

using the best

commercially

available

catalyst.

As

a result of

this temperature

requirement, an

engineering

design estimate

of

size

and

heat

requirements

for a

200,000

cfm

unit with

a

regenerative heat

exchanger

was

made. The results

were

as follows:

Heat

requirements

-

1.63x10^

Btu/hr

No. of

plates

in heat exchanger

-

200

Size of plates

-

80

ft

x

20

ft

Spacing between

plates

-

1/8

in.

Velocity through

plates

-

22 ft/sec

AP

across

heat

exchanger

-

4.7 in. H2O

The

second

comment

concerns

the use

of

electrostatic

precipitators

to

remove

particulates. Inquiries

were

sent

to

a

number

of manufacturers of

electrostatic

precipitation

units

requesting performance

characteristics

and

price.

In

regard

to performance

characteristics,

the

answers

varied from

-

it

cannot

be

done

by electrostatic

precipitation to

our

units

will

reduce the

particulate loading from

5 mg/m

3

down

to

0.1

mg/m

3

. Prices

ranged

from

^$81,000

for

a

50,000

cfm unit

and

$164,000

for

a 250,000

cfm

unit to $1,000,000

plus

for

a

250,000

cfm unit.

168



O)

1

u

+* J-

Q)

1-

J= t/>

i—

<o O

*3-

u

o

o

Q-

<- •

o

E

E

o

a: «f

O-

o

a.

II II

4->

coo

>> a>

to

«a-

r--

+J

E

i~

r—

•f— •r—

o>

Ol—

^

II

II

o

o

r—

<D

r-

Q)

O

0)

a

+J

<_>

> c

V

10

a>

t-

$~

4->

0)

-o

3

5

0)

u

f—

M C

r—

<o

i/>

in

i

C O-

a>

•i—

u_

—

co a:

I I I I I

I I

I I I I

I I I

I

I

00

r-

Oi

r-

2:

o

10

LU

O

r

mm

z

o

<->

^-^

E

o

O

a.

o

«tf-

a.

?—

^-^

z

o

c

o

UJ

•f—

or

O

-M

=>

CM

«J

1-

r-

J-

«c

4-»

C£

C

LU

at

O-

u

s:

o c

LU

o

o

h-

f—

o

1—

0J

CO

O

>-

•r-

—I

X

«c

o'

o

1—

CO

c

<C

o

o

s:

u_

c

o

o

C

-O

H-

ID

l-

o

O

LU

o

U_

Ll_

LU

o

•3-

1

CO

CO

LU

o

OH

CO

=>

o

o

o

CM

r—

CM

CM

O

O

CM

O

<7»

O

CO

CD

o

to

o

If)

o

«3-

o

CO

o

CM

o c

r—

O

O

en

o

CO

o

c

o

(Jo)

9Jn^PU3dmox

oîicodOH

169



M0

X

and hydrocarbons

-

activated

carbon

The

electrostatic

precipitator

would be

periodically cleaned

by

back

washing; this could be

done during

an

off-peak

time.

Activated carbon would require periodic

regeneration

with

steam. The catalyst

should

have

a

lifetime

of several

years

i

properly protected

from

particulate contaminant, particularly

lead. The

electrostatic precipitator

upstream

of the

catalyst

bed

should provide

this protection.

The question

arises as to the anticipated

lifetimes

of

all

the

purification

system

components,

as

well

as

the

re-

generation frequency and

maintenance

requirements.

These

questions

cannot be

answered

at this

time. It is

recommended

that a

small

scale (perhaps

5000

cfm) system

be fabricated

and

tested under

actual

tunnel

conditions.

The information

acquired

from

such

tests

would reveal

not

only

the removal

efficiency of

the

system

but

also

the

lifetime

of the

com-

ponents and the required maintenance

and regeneration

fre-

quency.

ini

t

syst

powe

quir

tain

sign

vent

must

sour

be

r

esta

ial

c

em

wi

r

req

ement

ing t

i

f

i c a

i 1

a

t

i

comp

ces

,

equi

r

blish

It

i

a

p

i

t a

11

be

ui

rem

s

and

he qu

ntly

ng

ai

ly wi

then

ed

an

ed

as

s

appa

1

cost

high,

ents w

press

a

1

i

ty

1

ess

e

r syst

th

EPA

p

u

r

i

f

i

d syst

a

res

rent

of

a

In

ill

a

ure

d

of

ai

xpens

em.

stan

c

a

t

i

o

ems

t

ul

t o

as

a

vehi

addit

1

so

b

rop a

r

wit

i ve

t

Howev

dards

n sys

o

per

f

thi

result o

cular

tu

ion

to

t

e

high

d

cross th

h i

n the

o

increa

e

r

,

if

i

for

emi

terns

on

form

thi

s

study.

f this

nnel

a

he

cap

ue

to

e

syst

tunnel

se

the

n

the

s s

i

o

n

the

ex

s

trea

study

i

r

p

u

r

i

ital co

the

hea

em.

Fo

,

i

t

wo

size

o

future

,

from

st

haust s

tment

h

that

the

f

i

c a

t

i

o

n

st,

the

ting re-

r

main-

uld

be

f

the

tunnel s

ationary

tack

will

ave

been

170



TUNNEL

INSTRUMENTATION

of

atmosp

i

nstrumen

impuri

tie

combined

used in

t

instrumen

mentati

on

spectrome

appl

icabi

quality

o

f

ol lowing

The

heric

t a t

i

o

s

in

class

he 1

a

tati

o

runs

ters

lity

f

veh

cons

1.

present

emphasis

on air quality

and

monitoring

pollutants

has

accelerated the development of

n

capable

of

continuous

monitoring

of low

level

the atmosphere.

Many

of

these

instruments

have

ical,

chemical and physical

analytical techniques

boratories

with automated industrial process

n.

The resulting

array

of available instru-

the

gamut of

sophisticated

computerized

mass

to simple

rugged

temperature

indicators.

The

of these

instruments

in

monitoring

the

air

icular

tunnels must be

considered

within the

traints

:

adequate sensitivity

and specific

response

to

the pollutants

of

interest,

2.

operation

and

maintenance requirements,

3.

capabilities of

operating

and

maintenance

personnel

,

4.

real-time

data

output,

5.

reliable and

reproducible operation.

Table 36

summarizes

the types of

instrumentation

which

are currently

available

for monitoring vehicular

ex-

haust

impurities. This

table

shows the

principle

of operation

along with

approximate

cost ranges

for

each

type

of

monitoring

system.

Carbon

Monoxide

Two

general

types

of instruments

are

available

for

continuous

monitoring

of CO.

These are the

Hopcalite type

and

the

non-dispersive

infrared

type

of instrument.

In

general,

the Hopcalite

type

has been used

almost

exclusively

in

tunnel

monitoring

applications.

This

instrument

is

rugged,

inexpensive,

simple and

requires

very

little

maintenance.

The

non-dispersive

infrared type of

instrument is

more

expensive

171



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172



and

does

require

a

more

sophisticated type

of

maintenance

program.

However, the

NDIR instrument has faster

rise and

response time characteristics:

Initial

Rise

Response

Time

(sec)

Time

(sec)

Hopcalite

100

20

NDIR

10

3

Furthermore,

the

NDIR

instrument

has

lower

sensitivity

(2

ppm

±

2

ppm)

compared to the

Hopcalite instrument

(10

ppm

±

5 ppm).

Either

instrument

can be

used

to

automatically

control

venti-

lation

rates

by feeding

the signal

output

to

an

automatic

fan

control

system.

For

general monitoring

of

tunnel

atmospheres,

adopt-

ing

a

manned

tunnel limit of

75

ppm and an unmanned

tunnel

limit

of

500

ppm,

the

Hopcalite

system

should

continue

to

satisfy

the

monitoring

requirements.

If

in-tunnel

purification

is

required,

where

the

CO

outlet

from the purification

system

must be

at

or

near

zero,

then

the

NDIR

system

should

be used

due

to its lower

limit of detection.

The

same

reasoning

holds

true for the

case

of

purifying

the

tunnel

exhaust

air

where

the

outlet

concentration

set

by

EPA

is less than

10

ppm

CO.

Smoke

or

Haze

Smoke

or

haze

in

tunnels

is

a

nuisance factor and

with

the

increased

use

of

diesel

powered

trucks

and

buses

smoke

has

become

a

problem

in

tunnels.

Because

the CO/smoke

ratio

is

different

in

gasoline

powered

vehicles

versus

diesel

powered

vehicles,

no correlation can

be made between the two

contaminants.

In

conversations

with

control room

operators

at

the tunnels

which

were visited, these personnel have

learned

to anticipate

the increase in

diesel

traffic and the

concommi

ttant increase

in

smoke

level and

therefore

increase

the ventilation

rate

regardless

of

the

CO

monitor

readings.

An

outstanding

example of

this

1s

the

evening rush hour

diesel

bus traffic from

New

York

City.

No

tunnels

in

the U.S. have installed

smoke

meters,

but

a

few

in

Europe have(^)

installed such

Instruments.

Since

there

is essentially no information

available

on

the

performance

of

smoke

meters

1n

tunnels, no

recommendations

can

be

made

on

an

acceptable

smoke monitoring

system.

It

is

recommended

that typical instruments be

evaluated

in

a

tunnel

environment to determine the

applicability of

these

instruments

for

monitoring

smoke

in

tunnels

and

to

determine

the effects

of

the

tunnel

environment

(fog,

oil mist, par-

ticulates) on

the

performance

characteristics and

maintenance



requirements for

such

instruments.

Other

Monitors

Nitrogen

Oxides

-

Simple,

reliable

monitors for

oxides

of

nitrogen

at

the

levels

anticipated have been de-

veloped recently.

Most

of the

monitors currently

on the

mar-

ket

use

a

gas

phase

chemiluminescent

reaction

principle.

Typical ranges for these

instruments

are

0-0.

02

ppm,

0-0,2

ppm

and

0-2

ppm.

These

are

ranges

which would

be

applicable

for

monitoring N0

X

in vehicular tunnels,

Some

models can

differentiate

between

the NO

and

NO2

content

of

the atmos-

phere.

Total Al

dehydes

-

Aldehyde

monitors

currently

on

the

market

are based

on wet

chemical

techniques

requiring

chemical

reactants to

be

used

in

the

instrument. Although

the

instruments

are

automated

frequent replacement

of

the

reactants is required. Furthermore,

current

models

are

not

specific for formaldehyde

which accounts

for

the

major

fraction of aldehyde

emissions

from

auto

exhaust.

The

EPA

is funding

work on

a

formaldehyde monitor and an

acceptable

instrument

may be

available in

the

future.

Carbon

Dioxide

and

Oxygen

-

Monitors for

these

constituents need only be considered

if

recycling

of

the

tunnel

atmosphere

is

used

instead of

ventilation.

Carbon

dioxide

can be

reliably

measured

using

NDIR

which

is specific

for

CO2.

Oxygen monitors

generally are

based on the para-

magnetic

characteristics

of

O2. Instruments are

commercially

available which

are

specific

for

03,

rugged and require

littl

maintenance.

Recommendations

for Tunnel Instrumentation

It is recommended that

measurement

of

CO

in

tunnels

be

continued

on a

routine

basis. For

both

manned

and unmanne

tunnels, the Hopcal

i

te-type

device

should serve as

a

reliable

means

of

monitoring

CO

concentration.

In

the case

of

auto-

matic control

of

tunnel

ventilation

equipment,

the

NDIR

or

Hopcalite

instrument can

be

used

to

control

ventilation

rates.

174



If the

tunnel

air

is to

be

recycled,

the NDIR

type

of

instrument

should

be used

since

a

lower

level of

detection

can

be attained

and the

response time

is

better.

Monitors

for smoke or

haze

should

be

installed

in

tunnels,

particularly

those subjected

to

heavy

diesel

traffic.

At the

present

time

no recommendations

can

be

made

on

the

specific

type

of

instrument

which

should

be

used.

Specific

types

of

instruments

should be

tested under actual

tunnel

conditions

with the

objective

being

to

select

an

optimum

type

of instrument.

175





CONCLUSIONS

As

a

result

of

this

study on

vehicular tunnel

ventilation

and

air

pollution

treatment,

the

following

conclusions

have

been

made:

1.

The

major

impurities

in

tunnels

with

respect

to

safety

and

comfort

level

are

CO, N0

X

,

HC

and

particulates.

CO

levels may run

as

high

as

350

ppm

during

rush hour

traffic.

N0

X

and HC,

particularly

partially

oxidized

HC,

are

generally in the

few ppm range,

a

level

high

enough

to

cause eye irritation

and

odor.

Particulates have

been

found at

the

2-5

mg/m^ level

which

causes

a

re-

duction in visibility.

Other

impurities

are

present

in

tunnels

but

these

are

present

at levels

which

are

not

harmful

or

irritating

to the

tunnel worker or

transient.

Lead

and

cadmium,

two

air

contaminants

which

are

of current

con-

cern

with

respect to

public

health

and

welfare, are

orders of magnitude

below

the standard Threshold Limit

Values.

2.

Concentrations of various impurities

as

a

function

of

vehicle

velocity,

type

of

vehicle,

road

gradient, ventilation

rate

and so

on can

be predicted

by

a

computer

model

developed

under this

program.

A

copy of

the

program

on

punched

paper tape

has

been

delivered

to

DOT.

The

information derived from

the model

can

be

used

to

estimate

ventilation

requirements

and

to

indi-

cate

optimized

locations

for

tunnel

impurity

monitors.

3.

Recommended

limits

for

comfort

and

safety levels

for

CO, N0

X

,

HC and

particulates

have

been

set as a

result

of

this

study.

These limits

have

been

catagorized

according to

safety

levels

for

manned

and unmanned

tunnels as

well

as

comfort levels for

unmanned tunnels.



Manned Unmanned

Tunnel

s

Pollutant

Tunnel

s

Safety Level

Comfort

Level

CO 75 ppm 500

ppm

1000

ppm

NO

37.5

ppm

37.5

ppm

25

ppm

N0

2

HCRO

10

ppm

5 ppm

1 ppm

6

ppm

6

ppm

N.R.

U)

articulates

10 rag/m*

5

1

mg/m~

(1)

N.R.

-

No

recommendation

due

to

insufficient

information.

The levels which

quite

frequently

tunnels.

have been

selected

are

exceeded

in manned

A review

of

the

literature indicates

that

the

technology

exists to

purify

tunnel air

either

on

a

recycle

basis

or on

a

ventilation exhaust stack

gas

basis.

Recommended methods include:

CO

-

Catalytic

combustion

with

Hopcalite

at

250°F.

Conversion

of NO

to

NO?

oxidation.

Sorption of

activated

charcoal.

Activated carbon.

Particulates

-

Electrostatic precipi-

tation.

N0

X

-

HC

-

by

catalytic

N0

2

on

Altho

rathe

eval

u

vol urn

on a

that

opera

and

latio

route

ugh

t

r tha

ation

e of

hypot

both

ting

that

n

rat

to

b

his was

n

a

desi

of

the

gases

to

hetical

capital

costs

wo

when

pos

es

are

t

etter

tu

a

feas

gn stu

proces

be ha

tunnel

equipm

uld be

sible

9

he

les

nnel

a

ibility

dy

,

econ

ses

for

ndled,

b

,

indica

ent

cost

quite h

higher

s

expens

ir

qua

study

omi

c

the

ased

tes

s

and

igh

venti-

ive

ty.

As

has been done

in the past,

CO

should

be continuously monitored

and

used

as

an

indicator

for ventilation rates.

Con-

sideration should be

given

to

the

use

of

non-dispersive infrared

CO

monitors

rather than

the

Hopcal

i

te-type

monitors

because

of

the

faster

response

and

rise

time of

this

type

of

instrument.

In

178



addition

to CO, smoke or

haze should

be

monitored,

also,

particularly

in

those

tunnels

which have a

heavy

con-

centration

of

diesel traffic. Instru-

mentation

would

also

be

required

if

purification systems

are

used to

assure

that the

various

components

of the

system

are functioning

properly.

We

believe there are three areas which

require

additional

study:

1.

Various smoke meters

should be tested

under actual

tunnel conditions

to

establish the

reliability

of such

instrumental

on.

2.

A

prototype

purification system

should

be

tested

under actual tunnel

conditions

to

establish

lifetime

of the

components

and

maintenance

and

replacement

frequency.

3.

Study of

air

recirculation

at

portals

should be

done

to

determine

the

extent

of

and

means

for

minimizing

or

preventinq

reci rculati

on.

179





REFERENCES

1.

Larsen,

Ralph I.

and Knoopinski,

V.J., Sumner

Tunnel

Air Quality , Reprint

from Archives of

Environmental

Health,

Vol.

5, #6,

pp

597-608, 1962.

2.

Conlee,

C.J.,

et

al ,

Motor

Vehicle

Exhaust

at

Three

Selected Sites:, Arch.

Environ. Health,

Vol.

14,

p

429-

446,

March 1967.

3.

Ai

r

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1969,

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1R-

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,

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1970,

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c

Determination

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,

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1971.

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et

al.,

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the

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stituents

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1968.

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1117-1120.

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K.

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1970,

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M.

,

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8.

E

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1971.

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in

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H.

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cont.

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H.W.,

et al.,

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of

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?

,

N0

X

,

CH* ,

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H.W., et

al.,

Continuous

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Instr. &

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1970,

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2,

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3, 1970,

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Schipma,

P.,

Air Pollution

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-

A

Survey , NASA SP-5072,

1969,

74

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et

al.,

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the

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the

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1017-

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,

Continuous

Automatic Determination of

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in the Presence

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J.,

Jan-Feb

1967,

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76-82.

Mick,

S.H.,

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al.,

Use of

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Appliances Co.,

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Reagents

and Accessories

for

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Unive Testing Kits

--

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Sheet , Jan.

1969.

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Monitoring

cont.

Safety

Maintenance,

CO Control

Now

a

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Battle ,

July 1967,

p

42-43.

Shaffer,

R.F.,

Mine

Safety

Appliances

Co.,

List (partial) of tunnels

equipped

with

MSA

CO recorders.

Singh,

T.,

et

al.,

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Continuous

Determination

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J. Air Poll.

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1968,

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H.

,

The Measurement of Nitrogen

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Landesanstal t

fur Immissions

und

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zungsshutz,

Essen, W. Germany.

No date

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5,

1970,

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Report,

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Sampling,

Analyzing

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Recording System ,

Dec.

1966.

Tippetts, et

al.,

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Recorder/Control Systems

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Airport Tunnel.

Wolf,

P.C.,

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Monitoring

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Urban Air ,

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Sci

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& Tech., Vol.

5,

No.

3,

March 1971,

pp

212-218.

207





APPENDIX

I

FINAL

REPORT

-

INDUSTRIAL

HEALTH

FOUNDATION

209



FINAL REPORT

Subcontract

No.

D-24437

under

Contract

No. FH

11-7597

TUNNEL VENTILATION

AND

AIR

POLLUTION

TREATMENT

Prepared

for

MSA

Research

Corporation

Evans City, Pennsylvania

March

31

,

1971

H.

M.

R.

T.

D.

C.

J.

A.

M.

C.

Bowman, Project

Director

P.

deTreville,

M.D.

,

Sc.D

Braun,

M.D.

Jurgiel

Carey

210



APPENDIX

I

TABLE

OF CONTENTS

I. Introduction

II.

Work

Statement

III.

Tunnel

Pollutants

A.

Measured

Concentrations in

Tunnels

B. Health

Effects

C.

Other

Physiological

Effects

D.

Synergism

E.

Criteria

for

Recommending

Limits

F.

Time-Concentration

Effects

IV.

Conclusions

and

Recommendations

V. References Cited

List

of Tables

Table

1

-

Emission

Factors

Table

2

-

Automobile

Exhaust

Products

Table 3

-

Exhaust

Gas

Analysis

Table

4

-

Exhaust

Constituents

Table

5

-

Measured

Tunnel

Contaminants

Table

6

-

CO in Air

and Toxic

Symptoms

Table

7

-

COHb and

Symptoms

Table

8

-

CO

Time-Concentration-Effect

Table

9

-

Effects

of NO2

on

Man

Table

10-

SO?

Concentration

and

Response

Table

11-

Aldehyde

Toxicity

Table

12-

Tunnel

Contaminants

vs

Existing

Limits

List of Illustrations

Figure 1

-

Figure

2

-

CO

Exposures

Percent

COHb

Effect)

and

Effects

(CO

Time-Exposure

Page

212

212

213

215

216

226

228

228

230

231

237

213

214

214

215

215

217

218

218

220

222

223

232

235

236

211



I.

INTRODUCTION

This

report

represents

a

culmination

of the

efforts expended by

Industrial Health

Foundation's (IHF)

staff

personnel

and

science advisors

in

eliciting

the

physiological

effects

of atmospheric

contaminants

generated

by

vehicular traffic

whether

alone

or

in synergism

and the

relation

of those effects with

time-concentration

exposures.

Wherever

possible,

criteria are

developed

for

recommending

desirable

time-concentration

limits along

with

the

reasoning

behind

such criteria.

The

bases

limited to, effects

tunnel

employees.

are

directed

toward,

but not

necessarily

on

vehicular

tunnel

transient

users and

II.

WORK

STATEMENT

The

work statement

as

described in the subject

subcontract is quoted

below:

A.

Using

its best

efforts

within

the time

and

funds

allotted,

based

on

information

provided

by

the

Con-

tractor,

the

Subcontractor will classify

each impurity gen-

erated

by

vehicular

traffic

into

a

category

which will

identify

the

effect of

each impurity

upon the various

tunnel

users, i.e.,

transients

as

well

as

maintenance

personnel.

For each,

the

degree

of toxicity, irritation

and

visibility

reduction shall

be established with

consideration

of concen-

tration

levels

and

exposure

times.

An

attempt

will

be

made

to rate

odors in

a

relative basis.

Typical

impurities

will

include

but

not

be

limited

to:

1. CO

2.

C0

2

3.

NO?

4.

Other

oxides

5.

Sulfates

6. Nitrates

7.

S0

2

of

nitrogen

8. Aliphatic

aldehydes

9.

Polycyclic

hydrocarbons

10. Particulates

11.

Benzene

soluble

organics

12.

Lead and other

metals

13. Gasoline additives

14. Asbestos

B. The

Subcontractor shall

develop criteria for

recommending desirable

and

allowable time concentration

limits

of

the pertinent

impurities

for

the maintenance

of a

safe

and

comfortable tunnel

atmosphere for

various

conditions

with due

consideration

to

operating

personnel as

well

as

the

traveling

public.

Reasoning

behind the

criteria

shall be

formulated.

212



C. Consideration

should

be

given

to

the

possible

synergistic

effects

of one

impurity in

the

presence

of

another

impurity.

The effect

of

pressure (sea level,

5,000

ft and

10,000

ft) shall be

considered

for

those

contaminants

whose

pulmonary behavior is

dictated

by

pressure.

III.

TUNNEL

POLLUTANTS

The

primary

emphasis

in

determining

the

materials

to

be studied

in

this

program

is

on those

vehicular

exhaust,

blow-by and evaporative

products

emanating

from

both

gasoline

and

diesel

powered vehicles reported

to be identified

and

measured in vehicular

tunnels.

The secondary

but also important consideration is

the full

spectrum

of exhaust

blow-by

and evaporative products

from

gasoline and

diesel motors whether

in

or

out of vehicular

tunnels.

(Y

There are

several

references

bution

to atmospheric

pollution. Rossano

factors for

gasoline

and

diesel

engines (in

gal Ions) (Table

1

)

to

,yehicul

ar

contri

-

listed

the emission

pounds per

thousand

Pol

lutant

Aldehydes

Benzo(a)pyrene

Carbon monoxide

Hydrocarbons

Oxides of nitrogen

Oxides

of

sulfur

Ammoni

a

Organic

acids

Particulates

TABLE 1

Emission

Factors

Gasoline

Engines

Diesel

Engines

4

0.3

gm

2910

524 (b)

113

9

2

4

11

10

0.4

gm

60

(a)

180

222

40

N.A.

(c)

31

110

(a)

Includes

blow-by emissions, but

not

evaporative

losses

(b)

Includes

128.

lb/1000

gal. blow-by

emissions

(c) Not available

Rossano's

tabulation

does

not

mention

carbon

dioxide,

nitrogen,

water

vapor,

oxygen

or lead compounds as

have

been

listed

by

Goldsmith

and Rogers(2)

who

presented

the

automobile

exhaust

products

(Table

2)

as

a

per

cent

of

concentration

with

minimum

and maximum

values.

213



TABLE

2

Automobile

Exhaust

Products

Per

Cent

of

Concentration

(Vol.

/Vol.)

Constituent

Minimum

Maximum

Aldehydes

0.0 0.3

Carbon

monoxide 0.2

12.0

Hydrocarbons

0.01

2.0

Oxides of nitrogen

0.0

0.4

Sulfur dioxide

See note

1

See

note

1

Carbon dioxide

5.0

15.0

Hydrogen

0.0

4.0

Lead

compounds

See

note

2

See

note 2

Nitrogen

78.0

85.0

Oxygen

0.0

4.0

Water

vapor

5.0

15.0

1.

Depends

on

sulfur content

of

fuel

2.

Depends

on

lead additives

Atkinson

et al'^)

presented

a

tabulation (Table

3)

showing

exhaust

gas

analyses

from

gasoline

and

diesel engines,

quoting

from

a Swiss

report

by Stahel et

al , in

undiluted

exhaust.

TABLE

3

Exhaust Gas

Analysis

Gasoline

Diesel

Formaldehyde

Aldehydes

Carbon monoxide

Oxides of

nitrogen

Sulfur

dioxide

Carbon

dioxide

Caplan'

'

presented

a

gas

chromatographic

analysis

of

exhaust

gas

hydrocarbons

for

a

specific engine

operating

condition

and fuel,

primarily to

exhibit

the

complexity

of

identification

and

potential effects.

About sixty

components

are listed with

approximate concentrations. Elliott

et

an

5

)

showed

a

list

of

constituents (Table

4)

of

internal

combustion

engine exhaust

gases,

divided

into

major (greater

than

1%)

and minor (less than

1%)

constituents.

7

ppm

1 1 ppm

40

20

30,000

200-1000

600 400

60 200

132,000

90,000

214



TABLE 4

Exhaust

Constituents

Major

Minor

Water

•

Oxides of

sulfur

CO2

Oxides of nitrogen

N2

Aldehydes

O2

Organic acids

H?

Alcohols

CO

(a)

Smoke

CO

(b)

H

2

(b)

(a)

Spark

ignition engine

(b) Diesel engine

A. Measured

Concentrations

in

Tunnels

A

compilation

of

contaminants measured

in

five

tunnels

was

presented in

the

first

quarterly progress

report

of this

program

(p.

11)

by MSA

Research

Corporation.^)

The list

is

not complete and

any

attempt

to

compare

the

tunnels

is

inappro-

priate

since the

conditions

under

which

the

values were

obtained

were not comparable.

The

ranges of

values measured

for

the

contaminants

are

given

in

Table 5.

TABLE

5

Measured

Tunnel

Contaminants

Contaminant

CO 54-170

ppm

N0

2

0.05-0.43

ppm

NOv

0.2-1.63

ppm

Aldehydes

0.05-0.12

ppm

SO?

0.04-<0.05

ppm

Total

Particulates

0.424-2.350 mg/m

3

Polycyclic hydrocarbons

Pyrene

0.04-1

.20 yg/m

3

Benzo(a)pyrene

0.03-0.69

yg/m

3

Coronene

0.03-0.53

yg/m

3

Benzperylene

0.09-0.99

yq/m

3

Metals

Lead

9.5-44.5

yg/m

3

Iron

9.5-23.4

yg/m

3

Zinc

2.2

yg/m

3

Cadmium

0.04-0.6

yg/m

3

215



Additional

identified vehicular tunnel

pollutants

include

carbon

dioxide;

anthanthrene

;

f

uoranthene

;

several

metals

such

as

titanium,

and

salts.

Although not

tants,

mention

should

be

pollution whether or

not

mented.

chromium, vanadium,

nickel;

asbestos

in the inventory

of

chemical

pollu-

made

here

of

noise and

thermal

measurements

of

them

have

been

docu-

B.

Health Effects

The

primary

concern

of the

work

scope

of

this

effort

is stated

as

the

classification

of each

impurity

generated

by

vehicular

traffic

to

identify

the

effect

of

each

impurity on

the

various tunnel

users (transient

and

employed).

There is

a

wide

variety

of source

material

and

information

regarding

health

effects

of

many of the

contami-

nants reported

to

be found in

vehicular

tunnels

and

those

emanating

from

vehicles, resulting

in

a

variety

of versions.

Unfortunately there

are

many voids

in

dose-response

data.

Hence,

not

all

of

the

tunnel

contaminants

can

be

discussed

with the same

degree

of

confidence

regarding their

health

effects.

Later

in this

report

we

will attempt to

develop

time-concentration

effects

for

as

many

of the

contaminants

as

available

information

will allow.

1.

Carbon Monoxide

There

are many

treatises on

the subject

of carbon

monoxide,

its

health

effects and

its

control

in the literature.

Sievers

et

al

(7a,

8) stated

that examination of

a

group

of one-

hundred

fifty-six

Holland

Tunnel

traffic officers exposed

throughout

a

period

of

thirteen

years

to

an occupational

CO

exposure

averaging

70

ppm did not

reveal

any

evidence

of

in-

jury

to health attributable

to

carbon monoxide. Their eight-

hour

day was

divided

into alternating two-hour

periods of

service at tunnel exits

or

plazas

and

in

the

tunnel.

For

those who

were

non-smokers,

data

indicated

that

on the average

1.71

per cent of

their

hemoglobin

was

combined with carbon

monoxide. For those

who

smoked

more than one

pack of

cigarettes

a

day

data

indicated

5.35%

of

their

hemoglobin

combined with

carbon monoxide.

These

were

values

for men who

had

not

been

on duty in

the

tunnel

recently.

According to von Oettingen

,

'

9a

)

Henderson et al

gave

a

relationship

between CO

in

the

air

and toxic

symptoms

(Table

6).

216



TABLE 6

CO

in

Air

and

Toxic

Symptoms

CO (ppm)

TOO

400-500

600-700

1000-1200

1500-2000

4000 and

above

Concentration

allowable

for

an exposure

of several hours

Concentration which

can

be inhaled for

1 hour without

appreciable effect

Concentration causing

just appreciable

effects

after

1 hour

of

exposure

Concentration causing

unpleasant but

not dangerous

symptoms

after 1

hour

of

exposure

Concentration dangerous

with exposure

for

1 hour

Concentrations

which

are

fatal

in exposures

for

less

than 1 hour

One

of

the

initial

symptoms

of CO

poisoning

is

headache

which

is associated

sooner

or

later

with irritability,

fatigue and

progressive

weakness.

One

of

the

most

characteristic findings in acute

CO poisoning

resulting

in

unconsciousness is a

complete

amnesia

for

the

time of

the

accident.

observ

recove

contro

comb

in

any

co

cause

any st

functi

concen

or

obj

has

al

any si

9b,9c)

Psychoses

as

sequelae of CO poisoning

have

been

ed

repeatedly. Usually they develop

after apparent

ry

from the

acute

exposure.

Despite

some

degree of

versy, evidence is lacking

1)

that

CO

as

such

or

in

ation

with

other compounds

remains

in

the

tissue

for

nsiderable

time,

and

2)

that

concentrations

of

CO

which

no acute subjective

or

objective symptoms

will

affect

ructure of the organism

in

such

a way

as

may lead to

onal

or

permanent

injury.

It

is

generally

believed

that

trations

of up

to

100

ppm of CO in air cause

no

subjective

ective

toxic effects

even

with

continued

exposure.

It

so

been

demonstrated

that such exposure

will

not

cause

gns

or

symptoms

of

chronic

CO

poi

soning.

(7a

,7b

,7c

,8

,9a

,

Carbon

monoxide

exerts

its

effects

on

man

by

com-

bining

with

the

hemoglobin

of the

blood

and

interrupting

the

normal

oxygen

supply

to the body

tissues.

Although

this

resultant

deficiency is

a

reversible

chemical

asphyxia,

never-

theless,

damage

done

by

severe

anoxia

from

any

cause

may not

be

reversible.

(10)

217



Table 7

reflects

the

symptoms caused

by

various

amounts of

carbon

monoxide

hemoglobin in the

blood.

HO]

TABLE

7

COHb and

Symptoms

Blood

Saturation

%

CO

Hemoglobin

0-10

10-20

20-30

30-40

40-50

50-60

60-70

70-80

Symptoms

No

symptom

Tightness

slight

he

blood ves

Headache a

Severe

hea

dimness

o

and colla

Same

as

ab

bill ty

,

i

pul

se

Above

plus

convulsi

o

Above

plus

and

res

pi

Weak

pulse

respirato

s

aero

adac

sel

s

nd

t

dach

f vi

pse

ove,

ncre

ss

forehead,

possible

he, dilation

of cutaneous

hrobbing

in temples

e,

weakness, dizziness,

si

on, nausea,

vomiting

more collapse possi-

ased

respiration

and

coma

with intermittent

ns

depressed

heart action

ration and

possibly

death

and

slow

respiration,

ry

failure and death

The degree

of

harm

from

carbon monoxide is

a

product

of

concentration

times

the

length

of

exposure.

Henderson and

Haggard(H)

proposed

the

following

equation

(Table

8)

as a

rough

guide

in

estimating

probable effects

-

it

does

not

apply

to

exposures

longer

than

a

few

hours.

TABLE

8

CO

Time-Concentration-Effect

Hours

X

PPM

Effect

300

600

900

1500

No perceptible

effect

Just

perceptible

effect

Headache and

nausea

Dangerous to

life

Satisfactory evidence has

not been

presented

to

indicate that any

permanent ill

effects

in

men

or

animals

are

to

be

expected

from

a

single

acute

exposure to

carbon

monoxide

where

the

exposed

person

or

animal

remains

conscious through-

out

.

(9a

,9b

,9c)

218



data

in

Table

exposure

level.

Figure

1

presents

a series

8,

which

relate

effects

of

curves

,

based

on

of CO

with

time and

The

signs

and

symptoms of acute

CO

intoxication

, .

only appear

with

carboxyhemogl

obin (COHb)

levels above

101.

^'^

These

levels

are

apparently hardly ever

found

in

subjects

ex-

posed to

traffic

exhaust.

Fisher and

Hasse(13a)

reported

that

in

moderate

CO

poisoning produced

by

inhalation

of

CO

in

con-

centrations

of

200

to

540

ppm

over

a

period of 40

to

60

minutes,

the

labyrinth

in most

instances

showed

an

increased

excitability,

as

indicated

by

the lowering of the threshold

for electric

stimuli.

poi som

loss in

and

inc

where C

COHb

wa

vision

than 30

worl

d'

not

imp

of

carb

bon

mon

hemoglo

will

ac

be

no u

quite

s

Ze

ng

i

n

the

Zo

rease

exp

s

mea

above

%.

P

lite

air

h

on

mo

oxide

bin

i

tuall

ptake

low.

nk03b)

twel ve

higher

rn<14)

d

psych

osure

w

sured.

1000

etryH

rature

eal

th.

noxide

are

no

n his b

y

excre

,

and i

I?

reported

that

chronic

carbon

monoxide

cases

showed

a

slowly

increasing

hearing

frequency areas .

reported increased sensitivity

to

noise

ic

irritability

in

blast

furnace workshops

as

experienced.

Ten to

twenty

per

cent

C.K.

Drinker(lS)

reported

dimness

of

m for

one

hour

associated with COHb

greater

concludes from an extensive

review of

the

that

carbon

monoxide

doses below 50 ppm

do

Miranda

et

alH7a)

state

that the

effects

from

smoking and exposure

to

ambient

car-

t

additive.

If

a

person

has

7%

carboxy-

lood and

is exposed to

25 ppm of CO, he

te CO.

If

exposed

to

50

ppm, there

will

f

exposed

to

100

ppm, the uptake will

be

The

Aero

Medical

Association^^)

states

that

the

tolerance for

COHb

in the

blood is less

at

high

altitude

than

at

sea

level;

for

example,

3%

COHb

at

15,000 feet

produces

effects

equal to that

caused

by

20%

COHb

at

sea

level.

A

tabulation

relating

CO

exposure

concentration

and time

to

reach

7%

COHb

at sea

level

when light work

is

being done

showed

100

ppm

requiring 88

minutes,

300

ppm

requiring

29

minutes,

and

500

ppm

requiring

18 minutes to

reach 7%

COHb.

According

to

the

Documentation

for

Short

Term

Exposure Limits,

08)

a concentration

of

1000 ppm CO

could

exist without creating physiologically

unacceptable

conditions

when

exposed

to

such

a level for as

long as

ten

minutes.

This

is roughly

comparable to Henderson's

equation.

1

)

Data

in

Reference

18

relate carboxyhemogl

obi

n

levels

with

CO

concen-

trations and

exposure

time. They

are

consistent

with

data

shown

in

Reference

17a

in which

equations

are

postulated

for

COHb

determination

and suggest

that if

the

COHb level

in

the

219



person

who

is

normally

healthy

is

maintained

below

14%,

this

is

a

physiologically

acceptable

level.

2.

Nitrogen

Dioxide

reported

Disease

does

no

ppm

have been

Industrial

ited

States

Men observed

working

6

to

8 hours daily

in

nitric

acid recovery

and

fortification

plants, where

exposures

ranged

from

5

to

30

ppm

and

averaged 10

to

20

ppm, for

periods

up

to

18 months,

evidenced

no

significant ill

health

nor

were

any

characteristic

adverse

effects detected

by periodic medical

examinations.

U0)

The

Association of Casualty

and Surety Companies

(Chemical

Hazard

Bulletin)

states

that

10

to

20

ppm can

be

endured

with no

discomfort.

The

Los

Angeles County Air Pollution

Control

District

established

a

concentration

of

3

ppm

for

the

first alert.

5

ppm

for

the

second

alert,

and

10

ppm for

the

third

alert.

(19)

Cooper

et

al,(20)

i

n

reviewing literature

on the

effects of NO2

on man, developed

a

tabulation

which

is abstract'

ed

in Table 9.

They

also

state

that there

is

no

evidence for

any

carcinogenic effects

of

NO2

in

man and

that

there is

too

little evidence on

which

to

base

any

conclusions

regarding

NO2

adsorbed on

particulates.

They

conclude that

this

is an

area

requiring

long-term

research

experiments

before

any

definitive

data

will

be available.

PPM

0.2

0.5

1-3

TABLE 9

Effects of

NO2 on

Man

Effect

or

Comment

Calculated

limit for

space

travel

Submarine

maximum

for

90

day dive

Odor

threshold

220



PPM

5

5

10

10

10

13

20

TABLE 9

cont.

Effects

of NO2

on

Man

Effect

or

Comment

20

25

30-

35

35

50

80

100

300

-400

Thresho

day,

5

Exposur

volunt

60 Minu

exposu

Maximum

Normal

showi

n

8

Volun

i

rri

ta

c

g

n i

t

Workers

to

lev

months

Emergen

Emergen

Workers

severa

Emergen

7 Human

pulmon

In

3

to

the ch

Produce

in

vol

Few min

and

de

Id

1

i mi

day

wk

e

of

on

eer

for

te

emer

re

permi

t

vol unte

g

pulmo

teers

t

i n

;

4

ion;

al

in HN0

els

ave

showed

cy

expo

cy

expo

expose

1

years

cy

expo

volunt

ary

dis

5 minu

est

d marke

unteers

utes

ex

ath

t for

occupational

exposure

(8

hr

)

e

asthmatic

and

one

pilocarpinized

five

minutes;

no effects

noted

gency exposure

level

for occupational

ted in submarine for one hour

ers exposed for

60 minutes

-

not

nary

function

impairment

3

had

eye

irritation;

7,

nasal

,

pulmonary

discomfort;

6

olfactory

1

predominantly

slight

3

recovery

plants

reportedly

exposed

raging up

to

20 ppm for up

to 18

no

ill

effects

sure

limit

for 30 minute

exposure

sure limit for

15

minute

exposure

d in

30-35

ppm

of

nitrous

gases

over

had no

ill

effects

sure level for

5 minutes

eers

exposed

for one minute;

3

had

comfort

and nasal

irritation

tes volunteers

got

tightness

of

d

irritation

of

larynx and cough

posure will cause

bronchopneumonia

In

animal

research

Gross

et

al'^1)

concluded that

long-term

exposure of

hamsters

to NO2 did

not

cause

emphysema

at an

average

concentration

of 22

ppm

(ranging

from 10

to

34

ppm)

exposed

for

two

hours

per

day, five days per

week for

three

consecutive

weeks.

3.

Sulfur

Dioxide

Sulfur dioxide

is

an

irritant

gas;

6

to

12

ppm

causes

immediate

irritation

to nose

and

throat.

About 20

ppm

is the

least amount irritating

to

the

eyes.

(10)

its

inhalation

affects

chiefly the upper respiratory

tract,

trachea

and

bronchi

The

strong

sensory

stimulation

often causes

spasm

of the

glottis

which

protects the deeper

passages.

Recovery

from

the

effects

of

short

exposure is

rapid.

(22)

221



Association

of

Casualty

and

Surety

Companies

. .

(Chemical

Hazards

Bulletin

1952)

show the

data

in Table

10.

t'

8

'

TABLE 10

so

2

-

PPM

3-5

8-12

10

20

50-100

400- 500

SO2 Concentration

and

Response

Response

Least

Least

i

rri

Maxim

long

Least

eye

Maxim

1

ho

Dange

dete

amou

t a

t

i

urn

co

ed

ex

amou

1

r

r i

t

urn

co

ur ex

rous

Sim and Pattle^

23

equivalent

to

30

ppm for 10

either

clinically

or

by

me

air

flow.

With

dosages

of

resistance

increased

sign

if

the

people

exposed.

ctable odor

nt causing

immediate

throat

n

ncentration

allowable

for

pro-

posure

nt

causing

coughing and

immediate

ation

ncentration

allowable for

1/2

to

posure

for

even

short exposures

)

reported that with

dosages

minutes

little

change

was

noted

surement of

lung

resistance to

50

ppm

for

10

minutes

the lung

icantly

above

normal

in

50%

of

SO2

at

higher,

b

i

1 i

ty

S0

2

.

I

reply,

able

ev

levels,

thus

fa

on the

to have

menon

d

Batti

signific

do

not

to

respi

n

d

u

s

t

r

i

a

The

sea

idence d

as

thes

r

failed

health

a

,

on the

oes

not

gel

1

i

ant le

presen

ratory

1

expe

rch

fo

ocumen

e

are

.

If

n d

d

i

s

basis

appear

21)

st

vel

s

t

dire

inf

ec

rience

r

an

a

ting

a

encoun

urban

ease

of

av

to

in

ates

rangi

ct

ev

tion

prov

ccept

toxi

tered

pol

lu

f

exp

a

i

1

a

b

vol ve

that

ng

f

idenc

deri

v

i

des

able

colog

in

u

tion

osed

le in

S0

2

populati

om

0.5

to

e

of

i

n c

ing from

a

definit

rationale

ical

rele

rban air

has

a

mea

p

p

u

1

a

t

i

formation

in

its me

ons

exposed

to

2

ppm and even

eased

suscepti-

the

effects of

e

negative

,

or

for

reason-

vance of SO?

pollution,

has

surable effect

ns,

as it

appears

,

this

pheno-

c

h

a

n i

s

m

S0

2

,

in

its

various

forms

and

metabolic products,

does

not

accumulate

in the

human system

and

does

not accumulate

in

the

atmosphere.

(25)

There is

a

threshold

level

below

which

no

detectable

response to

S0

2

that

might conceivably

be

health-

related

occurs.

This

threshold

response is 1 to

2 ppm in

the

most

sensitive

individuals.

4.

Aliphatic

Aldehydes

and

Formaldehyde

Formaldehyde and

acrolein have

been

identified

as

222



components

of

automobile

exhaust

fumes.

Others may be

present

such as

crotonaldehyde

and

saturated

aldehydes.

In

general,

the

toxicity

of the saturated

aldehydes

decreases

with

increasing

molecular

weight.

The

unsaturated

aldehydes

are

extremely

irritating.

The

irritant

nature

of

aldehydes,

from

human experience, provides

sufficient

warning

to

prevent

serious health effects.

This

may

explain

the

paucity

of

information

regarding

the experimental toxicology of chronic

aldehyde exposure.

(26)

The systemic

toxicity of

formaldehyde

is relatively

low.

It

irritates the mucous

membranes via hardening the

tissues on local

contact.

All

organic

aldehydes

are

reported

to be irritant.

The

toxic

effects of

acrolein consist

chiefly

in strong irritation

of the

skin

and exposed mucosae. No

other chronic

ill effects

have

been

reported.

(22)

The

relative

acute

toxicity

of

aliphatic aldehydes

tabulated by

Skog,

reported

in reference

26, is

shown in

Table

11.

TABLE

11

Aldehyde

Acrolein

Formaldehyde

Crotonaldehyde

Acetaldehyde

Propi

onaldehyde

Butyraldehyde

Aldehyde

Toxicity

Rat

Inhalation LC

gn

(ppm)

(30

min)

131

815

1,396

20,572

26,164

59,160

In

posure

to

20

to

30

seconds,

of

30

seconds,

the

ppm

experience of Barnes

and

of

formaldehyde produced

irritation of the nose and

and sneezing

in 1 or 2

minutes

Speicher(

'

ex-

lacrimation

in 15

throat

at

the end

Sim

and Pattle(^3)

exposed

human

volunteers

to

vapors

of

several aldehydes

for

from 5

to

30 minutes.

For-

maldehyde

caused irritation of

mucous

membranes

and

lacrima-

tion

at

13.8

ppm; acrolein

was

violently irritating

and

lacrimatory

at

.8 and

1.2

ppm,

crotonaldehyde was

irritant

and

lacrimatory

at

4.1

ppm;

acetaldehyde

produced slight

irritation

to

the

upper

respiratory tract

at

134

ppm; pro-

pronaldehyde, butyraldehyde and

i

sobutyraldehyde

were non-

irritating at

concentrations

of

134 ppm,

230

ppm and 207

ppm,

respectively.

223



Henderso-n

and

Haggard^' '

state that

1

ppm

acrolein

in air

is

immediately

detectable,

that 5.5 ppm

causes

intense

irritation

and

that

10

ppm

is

lethal

in

a

short

time.

Elkinsv

28

)

reports

that

5-6

ppm

causes

eye

irritation

in

persons

acclimatized

to

formaldehyde

and

at lower

concentra-

tions

in those not

acclimatized.

Five

ppm

prevents

respiratory

injury,

but

not

irritation. Cases

of

itching

eyes have

been

noted

at

concentrations

of

1 to

2

ppm.

5.

Hydrocarbons

Although

polycyclic

hydrocarbons

produce tumors

when painted

on the

skin

of susceptible animals,

their

inhala

tion has

resulted

in

no

experimental

lung

cancer

6.

MetalsO°)

MV

A variety

of

metals

have been

reported

as

having

been

found

in

vehicular

tunnel

atmospheres,

all

in

ug/m^

quantities.

Their

physical

nature

has not

been elicited,

but

none

of

those reported

even approaches the

TLV

(time-

weighted

average

for

eight

hours per day,

five

days

per week,

exposure)

.

224



b.

Chromium

-

Chromium

salts, including

Cr203,

are

ascribed

a

low

order

of toxicity and

have

caused

no

significant

industrial illness.

On the

other

hand,

chromates

are

reported

to

be

systemically

toxic

and

carcinogenic.

c.

Copper

-

Repeated

exposure

to

Cu fume

levels up

to

400

yg/m3

caused no

complaints and

brief

exposures to

con-

centrations of 1 to

3

mg/nw resulted

in

no other discomfort

than

a

sweet

taste.

d.

Iron

.

iron

-

Siderosis, or iron pigmentation,

is

reported

to

occur at

exposure

levels

above 10

mg/m

3

of Fe

oxide fume, which

is

a

relatively

low order

of toxicity.

Physical examinations and tests

of work

capacity

of welder

with Fe pigmentation

show that it causes little

or no

disa

ity.

s

bil

e.

Nickel

-

Apart

from the

possible malignant

effects of

nickel carbonyl

,

dermatitis

constitutes the only

other

serious

nickel

exposure

hazard.

f.

Titanium

-

The

physiological history

of

Ti02

is one

of

inertness. No significant

pulmonary alterations

were

observed among workmen

employed

in enclosed

workshops

with

Ti

O2

dust.

g.

Vanadium

-

In

a

study

to

test

experimentally

in animals

the suitability of

a

threshold

limit for V0O5 of

500 yg/m

3

recommended

by

the

Russians,

it

was

found

that

dogs,

rats, guinea pigs,

and

rabbits

tolerated

V2O5

dust

exposure

at

this

level

for

6

months

of daily 6-hour

exposures

without evidence

of

histological

change

referable

to

inhalation

of the dust.

No effects

except

lowered serum

cholesterol

levels

were

seen among vanadium

processing

workers

in

Colorado

who

were

exposed to vanadium

levels of from

100

to

300 yg/m

3

.

h.

Lead

-

Inorganic lead has not

been

reported

as

a cause of

acute

reactions

even

at

the

highest

airborne

con-

centrations.

No harmful

effects to

humans have

been

reported

at the highest ambient

concentrations. Measured

concentrations

of organic

lead are very

low,

so

low in

fact

that

it

is

not

necessary

to

consider organic

lead

as

a

practical

constituent

of

the atmosphere.

(30)

7.

Particulates

Hoffman

et

al^

29

)

discussed

the

analysis

of

the

exhaust

tar

from gasoline

engines.

Among

about

30

isolated

and

identified polynuclear

aromatic

hydrocarbons

(PAH) were

225



10 components

which

are carcinogenic

to the

experimental

animal.

It must,

however,

be

here

reiterated,

as stated

by

Goldsmith and Rogers,

(2)

that carcinogenic activity

has

only

been

detected

with

dermal application.

No

experimental lung

cancer

has resulted

from

inhalation

of these

compounds.

Lyons(31)

reported

PAH

compounds

in

diesel

exhausts

of

which

several

are

reportedly

carcinogenic to

experimental

animals

via dermal

application.

Waller et

al

(

32

)

ma

de

observations on the

size

and

shape

of

particles in the atmosphere

of London

and

a

number

of

samples

were

collected in

the

Blackwall

Tunnel. Nearly

all the

particles

were small

smoke aggregates, with

a

mass

median

diameter

of 1

micron.

The

forms

were typical of

those

produced

by

the

incomplete

combustion

of hydrocarbon

fuels.

All

were

small enough to stay in

suspension

indefinitely

and

they were well

within the

respirable

size

range.

The

maximum

concentration of

smoke

occurs

when the number

of

diesel

vehicles

is

highest.

C.

Other

Physiological

Effects

1.

Irritation

Eye

irritation

is by

far

the most noticeable

and

obnoxious symptom

of smog

as

far

as

the

public is

concerned.

The identity

of the

exact

compounds

produced in smog reactions,

which

are responsible

for eye irritation,

have

not

been

established.

Formaldehyde,

acrolein,

and peroxyacyl

nitrate

(PAN)

have

been

variously

reported as

being involved, but

there

is

no

general

acceptance

of

this. Actual

measurements

in

the

Los

Angeles

atmosphere

have

failed

to

demonstrate

that

such compounds

are

present

in sufficient

amounts,

alone

or

together,

to

cause eye

i rri

tation.

(33)

Oxides of

nitrogen

are

suspected

of

contributing

to

eye

irritation

caused

by

vehicular

exhaust

but

insufficient

specific

information

has been

developed to

formally

indict

them.

The

low molecular weight aldehydes,

formaldehyde

and acrolein, cause eye reaction at as

low

as

0.01 ppm

ex-

posure

level,

which

is

below

the

odor

threshold

for

both.

However,

acrolein produces

only

mild sensory

irritation at

0.25

ppm

while formaldehyde

produces

mild

irritation

of

the

eyes and nose at

2 to

3

ppm. The

higher

aliphatic

aldehydes

have much

higher

irritation

thresholds.

Aromatic hydrocarbons

(benzene,

toluene,

xylene,

etc.) can

cause

irritability but

not

without

chronic

exposure

or

relatively

high acute

exposure.

226



Exposure-

to

the

levels of

paraffin

hydrocarbons

found

in

automotive

exhausts,

particularly in vehicular

tunnel

atmospheres,

are

likely

to

be

entirely free

from

any

irritant

effect.

The

oxides of sulfur

may

cause

throat

irritation,

but such

is

not likely

to

be

encountered

in

tunnel

atmospheres

unless

there is

a

significant

build-up

of

oxides

of

sulfur.

The same

may

be said

for

oxides of

nitrogen.

Carbon monoxide,

while

not an

irritant

in

the

true

sense

can

cause

headache and

irritability.

Carbon

dioxide,

which

has

not

heretofore been

mentioned

in

this

report, is a product

of

automotive

exhaust.

Its

only

significant effect,

if

in large enough

concentration,

is

as

a

toxicant contributor

to

respiration difficulty and

as

such

could

add to the

respiratory

burden

of

ill persons.

Such levels are

virtually

impossible to

attain

in

tunnel at-

mospheres.

Information

on

irritant

effects,

other

than

logic, of

polycycllc hydrocarbons

is inconclusive and

ient

on which to base any comment.

2.

Odor

dermato-

i nsuf

f

i

c

There

have been

many

conflicting

reports

related

to

the specific

sources and

causes

of odors

which

have been

purported

to result from

vehicular

exhaust, to

the

point

that

there

appear

to

be more

areas

of lack

of

agreement

than

of

agreement. For example,

acrolein

and

formaldehyde,

which do

have

low

odor

thresholds,

have been cited

as

contributors

to

automotive

exhaust

odors.

The

is

reported

to be from 0.05

to

is reported

to

be from

0.21

to

source.

(34)

odor threshold

for

formaldehyde

1.0

ppm

while

for acrolein

it

1.8 ppm,

depending on

the

The present

state

of

knowledge

is too

scanty

and

contradictory to

utilize the

available

data

on

odor

thresholds

with any

degree

of

confidence.

The odor

of NO2

is

characteristic

and

distinct

in

concentrations

as

low

as

5

ppm.

SO2

has

an

easily noticeable

odor at 3 ppm, while

some

can

detect

at

concentrations

as

low

as

0.3

ppm

(probably more

by

taste

than

by

odor).

CO,

of

course, is odorless.

Because

of the

chemical

complexity

of

the

particu-

lates,

odor is

not a

likely

means

of

identification

nor

would

it be

one of

the

attributes

to

consider

controlling.

227



3.

Visibility

Addressing

these

remarks to vehicular

tunnel

atmospheres,

we

can

for the

most

part

ignore

photochemical

smog because

of the

minimum amount

of

radiant

energy

avail-

able.

The

visibility

problem(s) then

relate

to clarity

of

the atmosphere,

i.e.,

suspended

particulates (smoke)

and those

tunnel

contaminants

which

affect

visual

acuity,

whether

through

lachrimatory

or

other

processes.

Concerning

particulates, not only do

they

alone

contribute

to

visibility reduction, but

the

added

effect

of

droplets

(vapors) of

the

oxides of

nitrogen, the

oxides

of

sulfur and the

unburned

hydrocarbons

from

blow-by,

evaporation

and incomplete

combustion

contribute

to

a

haze effect.

Reduction

of

particulates,

which

in themselves

may

not be significant

health hazards,

would

reduce the plating

out effect of

vapors on

them.

D.

Synergism

The

first thought might

well

be

photochemical

reactivity, but

in

tunnel atmospheres

this

is

minimized.

There

are,

however,

interacting

forces,

as

for

example

the

effect of carbon monoxide on

normally healthy

tunnel

users

or

employees

vs. the

effect

of CO on heavy

smokers

and/or

on those

who have

cardiopulmonary

deficiencies.

Addition

ally,

there

can

be

the

effect

of

humidity

on

the

exhaust

products

and

their relative

toxic,

irritant

or

nuisance

value,

and

the

difference

in

effects

of

exhaust emissions

at or

near

sea

level

vs.

those

at higher elevations.

Although

not

chemical pollutants,

both noise and temperature

can

have

effects

on tunnel users and employees.

It has

been reliably reported that

carbon.

monoxide

is

not

oxidized by

ozone

at

ordinary temperatures

on mpi

.(35)

E.

Criteria for Recommending Limits

There

are several bases

for

concern

and

consideration

of

desirable improvements

in

the

ambient

atmosphere

in

operative

vehicular tunnels: health, safety,

comfort,

traffic

flow,

maintenance, disaster control,

ease

of

facility

design

and

construction,

effect

on

the outside

atmosphere,

aesthetics

and economics,

and

perhaps

others.

There are

probably

as

many

defensible

ways

to

rank

these

bases

as

there are people

of

differing

backgrounds and

interests

who

set

themselves to

the

task

of such

ranking.

228



The rationale

used in

our

deliberations

is

that

the

health of the

transient users

and

of

the tunnel work

force are

necessary

prerequisites

to virtually all

the

others.

If

these

are

considered

as

the

top

priority and are

adequately

effected,

then safety

and

disaster

control will

be more

readily

effected

as

second

priority

subjects.

If the second

priority

items

are

well

under control,

then maintenance

of

the

tunnels

and

traffic flow

will

be made

easier

as

third priority con-

siderations. It

is

difficult

to

divorce

economics

from

any

of

the

bases because

of

the

obvious

and necessary

intermeshing.

Consequently,

economics, although

here

relegated

to a

relatively

low

order

of

priority,

must be

considered along with

each

of

the concerns

here

listed.

Closely

related to

economics

is the ease of

facility

design

and

construction,

whether it

is

to improve

existing

tunnels

or

to

construct new

tunnels.

While

comfort and aesthetics

are quite desirable,

they

are assigned the lowest

priority

of

those

elements

of

concern

in

this

listing since

their

consideration

and

imple-

mentation will

require the

utilization

of

funds which must

first

be earmarked

for

concerns

of

higher

priority.

Based

on

an

extensive review

of

literature

and

data,

both

published

and

unpublished,

there

are several gaps

in

information

and

data which preclude

any

possibility

of recom-

mending

unequivocal

criteria for

setting

limits

or

establishing

standards

for vehicular

tunnel atmospheres.

Throughout this

report,

reference has been

made

frequently

to

threshold limit

values,

short term

limits,

contaminant concentrations in

parts

per

million, milligrams

per

cubic

meter

or

micrograms

per cubic meter.

There

have

been references to

measured

as

well as

to

estimated values.

Not

all

the

values are

readily

comparable

one with

the

other

since the bases for

establishing limits, for example, are

quite different

even

within the

same

set

of

limits such as

TLV's.

Consequently,

any attempt to

develop

time-dose

relationships

for tunnel contaminants will of

necessity

be

empirical

at

best

and of

extremely limited

use.

A

representative example

will show

this

problem

quite clearly.

There

have been proposed

for

carbon

monoxide

a threshold

limit value,

short

term limit

and

emergency

exposure limits

by

the

Pennsylvania

Department

of

Public

Health.

229



CO:

TLV

STL

EEL

50 ppm

(8

hr

day

-

5

400

ppm (15 minutes)

400 ppm

(60

minutes)

800 ppm

(30

minutes)

1500

ppm

(10

minutes)

day

week)

The

TLV and

STL

are purportedly

safe

limits which

will result in no

deleterious

health effects

to the

normal

person.

They

do

not

take into

account

those people

who

have

health

deficiencies.

The EEL

values were

established

for

military and

space

short

term inhalation

standards

at

which

some

degree

of

intoxication,

though

temporary,

may

result.

F.

Time Concentration Effects

A

reasonably valid assumption is that,

for

transient

tunnel users

and for tunnel

employees

who

alternate

periods of

work in

the

tunnel

with

periods of

work

outside

the

tunnel,

if

the pollutant

concentration

in the tunnel does

not

exceed the

TLV

for

that

pollutant,

the

probability

of

n_o adverse

health

effect

from

that

pollutant

is

very

high.

We

may

go

further

and

assume

that

normally the short

term

limits

can apply as

far

as

transient

users

of

the tunnels

are concerned.

However,

here we may

be assuming

too

much

if

there

are

long traffic

delays which would exceed the short

term limit

peri

od.

The Community Air Quality

Guides for

Al

dehydes

(34)

presents

a

series

of

concentrations

for

formaldehyde

and the

effects

experienced.

Comparing

them with TLV and STL,

we

find

the

following:

HCH0:

TLV

STL

AQG

5

5

2-3

4-5

10

ppm

ppm

ppm

ppm

ppm

(5

minutes)

-

repeated 8 hour

exposures;

mild

irritation;

discomfort

-

tolerate

up

to

30 minutes;

lachrymation

-

borne

with

difficulty; pro-

fuse

lachrymation

Here

again,

any

attempt

to

develop meaningful

time-

concentration

relationships

is

fraught

with

hazard

and

uncer-

tainty.

Figures

1

and

2

are

graphic

representations

of

data

concerning

time-concentration

relationships

for

carbon

monoxide

Even here

the

data

in the

literature are

not

fully

consistent.

230



In summarizing

important engineering

developments

from

1965-68,

(in

Volume

1

of

Industrial

Hygiene

Highlights

)

Bloomfield quotes

and

endorses Miranda

as

follows:

High

altitude, coupled

with the presence

of

carbon monoxide,

serves

to

deprive the

blood

of its

oxygen

carrying

capacity.

An

evaluation

of the physiologic

and ventilation

control

problems

associated

with

a

1.6

mile tunnel at

an

elevation of

11,000 feet

was

made

in

order

to

develop

recommendations

concerning

tunnel

ventilation

and tunnel use.

It

was

recommended

that:

1.

The CO

concentration

in

the

tunnel

be

maintained below 25

ppm

with one

hour

averages no

higher

than

50 ppm,

and short

term

peaks no

higher

than

75

ppm.

231



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>)

f—

c

r-

01

t— r— ex

a>

c

>>

E

>>

E-M

0)

<o

a>

ai

ro

-C

t- O)

c

•«-^

c

ex

M

.»—

%«—

o>

o

u OI

N

o N

T3

C

CM o

•o

u.

<c

CM

I.

C

i-

C

(D

o

o O

CMO

I—

O

>>

a>

o a>



ro

3

a

ro

a.

ro

o

o

•a

0)

to

•r—

>

<L>

a>

t-

r—

XI -o

<D

a>

i

D

•e

C

ro

<l>

>

E

ro

E

o

4->

o

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a>

z oc

ii

n

<c

*

232



2.

Signs

be

placed

on

the

route

to warn

sensitive

individuals

of the

dangers

of

high

elevations

and

smoking

and

to

suggest

possible

alternate

lower

routes

.

3.

Oxygen

masks be

provided

at

the tunnel

for emergency

use.

4.

Construction workers involved

in

building

the tunnel

be

screened

for

cardiopulmonary

abnormalities,

as

well

as

blood

dyscrasias (sickle

cell

anemia).

They

should

also

be

acclimatized to the

high

altitude

through

progressively

increased

exercises.

(38)

An

additional

practical

and

easy

to adopt

measure

would be

installation

of

an

audio-visual

warning

(based on

either

CO quantitation

or

SOP

or

both) which

would

require

turning

off auto

ignition

in

case

of

traffic

stoppage.

There

in

tunnels

also

tunnel

s

are

certain

other

to

be considered,

methods for

improvement

either for existing or new

1. Pre-employment physical

examinations

for tunnel

employees

and

frequent

periodic

physical

examinations

to

document

any

or no

changes.

2.

Develop

traffic

control

systems

which

will

activate during serious traffic tie-ups

or

tunnel

area

dis-

asters.

3.

Develop driver

education

programs

for sound

guidance

specifically for tunnel

traffic

driving.

4. Develop improved methods for

detecting pollutants

identifying

and quantifying

them.

5.

Develop

appropriate

research

programs to

fill

the

gaps and to

determine

the effects

of

several

levels

of

pollutant

concentrations for several time

periods.

6.

Develop

appropriate

research

programs to

deter-

mine

the

nature

and

extent

of synergistic

effects.

7.

Develop

suitable

methods for

reducing

suspended

particulates

in

tunnels.

233



8.

Determine

the

true

priorities for

tunnel

atmos-

phere

improvement

considering

health,

safety,

engineering

design

and

maintainability.

9.

Initiate

a

program to

determine

the

accident

rates

in

tunnels

over

an

extended

period

of

time

with partic-

ular emphasis

on

the causes of the accidents.

10.

Initiate

a

program

to

determine

the

contribution

of tunnel

equipment, materials

and

road bed

erosion

to the

pollutant

inventory.

11. Study

the tunnel

lighting

to

consider

the

optimum

lighting

for

users

and employees.

Undoubtedly,

the

1971 Automotive

Air

Pollution Research

Symposium sponsored

by

the Coordinating

Research

Council,

Inc.,

on

May

3-5,

1971,

at

the

Ambassador

West Hotel, Chicago,

Illinois

will

present additional

data

and

concepts which should

be

taken

into

consideration

when they become

available

along with the

contents

of

this

report.

234



FIGURE

1

-

CO

EXPOSURES

AND

EFFECTS

lOOOr

Hours

235



FIGURE 2

-

PERCENT

COHb

(CO

TIME-EXPOSURE

EFFECT)

100Q

90C

80C

700

600

-

500

400

300

200

100

236



V.

REFERENCES

CITED

1.

Rossano,

Jr.,

A.T.

Air

Pollution

Control:

Guidebook

for Management.

Environmental

Sciences

Service

Division,

E.R.

A.

,

Inc.

,

1969,

p

16.

2.

Goldsmith,

J.R. and Rogers, L.H. Health

Hazards

of

Automobile

Exhaust.

Public

Health

Report,

June, 1959,

p

552.

3.

Atkinson,

F.S.;

Pursall

,

B.R.;

Statham,

C.F.

The

Venti-

lation

of Vehicular Road

Tunnels.

J.I.H.V.E.,

September,

1962,

p

197.

4. Caplan,

J.D.

Causes and Control

of Automotive Emissions.

Proc. Instr.

Mech.

Engrs., No.

7,

1962-63,

p

246.

5.

Elliott,

M.A.;

Nebel

,

G.J.;

Rounds,

E.G.

The

Composition

of

Exhaust

Gases from Diesel,

Gasoline and Propane

Powered

Motor Coaches.

J.A.P.C.A.,

August,

1955,

p

103.

6. First

Quarterly Progress

Report

(Contract

FH

11-7597-DOT).

MSAR,

October,

1970.

7a.

Sievers,

R.F.;

Edwards,

T.I.; Murray,

A.L.;

and

Schrenk,

H.H.

Effect of

Exposure

to Known Concentrations

of

Carbon

Monoxide. J. A.M. A., Feb.

21,

1942,

p

585 ff.

7b.

Johnstone,

R.T.

and

Miller, S.E. Occupational

Diseases

and Industrial

Medicine

.

W.B.

Saunders

Co.,

Philadelphia,

1960,

p

110.

7c.

Ross,

W.D.

Practical Psychiatry for Industrial

Physicians

.

C.C.

Thomas,

Springfield,

111., 1956,

p

249.

8.

Sievers,

R.F.;

Edwards,

T.I.; and Murray,

A.L. A

Medical

Study of

Men Exposed

to

Measured

Amounts

of Carbon

Monoxide

in the

Holland

Tunnel

for

13 Years. Public

Health

Bulletin

No.

278,

U.S.P.H.S.

,

1942.

9a. von Oettingen,

W.F.

Carbon

Monoxide: Its

Hazards and

the

Mechanism

of Its Action. Public Health Bulletin

No. 290,

U.S.P.H.S.

,

1944,

p

50.

9b.

Grut,

A. Chronic CO Poisoning .

Enjer

Munksgard,

Copen-

hagen,

1949

(quoted

in Patty,

Vol.

II,

2nd

ed.,

p

931).

9c.

Lewey,

F.H.

and

Drabkin, D.C.

Am.

J.

Med.

Sci

.

208:502,

1944. (Quoted

in

Patty, Vol.

II,

2nd

ed.,

p

93277

237



10. Patty,

F.A.

Industrial

Hygiene

and

Toxicology,

Volume

II

.

Interscience

Publishers, New

York,

1962.

11. Henderson,

Y. and

Haggard,

H.W.

Noxious

Gases

.

2nd

Edition.

Reinhold, New

York,

1943.

12.

deBruin,

A. Carboxyhemoglobin Levels

Due

to

Traffic

Exhaust.

Arch. Environ.

Health,

Sept.

1967,

p

384

ff.

13a.

Fisher,

I.

and

Hasse, A. The

Danger

of

CO

Poisoning

in

Motor

Vehicles.

Arbeits physiol.,

p

249,

1932-33.

13b.

Zenk,

H.

Carbon Monoxide

Poisoning

in

Otological

Industrial

and

Medical

Expert Testimony

Practice.

Int.

Arch, fur

Gewerbepathol ogie und

Gerverbehygiene

,

p

432

ff.

, May,

1964.

14.

Zorn,

H.

The Diagnosis

of Carbon Monoxide

Poisoning.

Russ. Med.

Ind.,

p

325 ff

.

,

May-Aug.,

1964.

15.

Drinker,

C.K.

Carbon Monoxide

Asphyxia

.

Oxford

Univer-

sity

Press, New

York,

1938.

16. Petry,

H. Chronic

Carbon

Monoxide

Poisoning.

Arbeitso-

nedizin

,

p

1

ff

.

, 1953.

17a. Miranda,

J.M.;

Konopinski, V.J.;

and Larsen,

R.I.

Carbon

Monoxide

Control

in

a

High Highway

Tunnel.

Arch.

Environ.

Health,

July,

1967,

p

16

ff.

17b.

Aero Medical

Association. Aviation

Toxicology

.

The

Blakiston

Co.,

1953,

pp 12-13.

18. Short

Term

Limits

for Exposure

to

Airborne

Contaminants:

A

Documentation.

Penna. Dept. of Health,

Division of

Occupational

Health.

19. Thienes,

C.H. and Haley,

T.J.

Clinical

Toxicology

.

Philadelphia,

1964,

p

259.

20. Cooper,

W.C.

and

Tabershaw,

I.R.

Biologic

Effects

of

NO?

in

Relation

to

Air

Quality

Standards. Arch.

Environ.

Health,

April,

1966,

p

522

ff.

21.

Gross,

P.;

deTreville,

R.T.P.;

Babyak,

M.A.;

Kaschak,

M.

and Tolker,

E.

Experimental

Emphysema.

Arch.

Environ.

Health,

Jan.

,

1968,

p

51

ff.

22. Sollmann,

T.

A Manual

of Pharmacology

.

Philadelphia,

1942,

p

145.

238



23.

Sim,

V.M. and

Pattle,

R.E.

Effect

of

Possible

Smoq

Irritants

on

Human

Subjects.

J.

A.M.

A.,

Dec.

14,

1957,

pp

1908-13.

24.

Battigelli,

M.C. Sulfur

Dioxide and Acute

Effects of

Air

Pollution.

J.O.M.,

Sept.,

1968,

pp

500

ff.

25.

Robinson

and

Moser. Global Gaseous

Pollutant

Emissions

and

Removal

Mechanisms. Presented at 2nd

Clean Air

Congress,

Washington,

D.C.,

Dec,

1970.

26.

Motor

Vehicles,

Air

Pollution, and Health. A

Report

of

the Surgeon

General

to the

U.S.

Congress. June,

1962.

27.

Barnes,

E.C.

and Speicher, H.W. The

Determination

of

Formaldehyde

in Air.

J.

Ind. Hyg.

Toxicol.

24:10,

1942.

28. El kins.

The Chemistry

of Industrial

Toxicology .

New

York,

1959.

29.

Hoffmann,

D.

;

Theisz,

E.

and

Wynder,

E.L.

Studies

on

the Carcinogenicity

of

Gasoline Exhaust.

J.A.P.C.A.,

April

,

1965,

p

162 ff.

30.

Community Air Quality Guides

-

Lead.

A.I.H.A.

Journal,

1969,

p

95

ff.

31.

Lyons,

M.J.

Vehicular

Exhausts:

Identification of

Fur-

ther

Carcinogens of

the

PAH

Class. Brit.

J.

Cancer,

1959,

p

126

ff.

32.

Waller,

R.E.;

Commins,

R.T.;

and

Lawther,

P.J.

Air

Pollution

in

Road

Tunnels.

Brit.

J. Industr.

Med.,

1961

,

p

250 ff.

33.

Hamming,

W.J.

and MacPhee,

R.D.

Relationship of

Nitro-

gen

Oxides

in Auto Exhaust

to

Eye

Irritation

-

Further

Results of Chamber

Studies.

Atmospheric

Environment,

1967,

p

577

ff.

34.

35.

36.

Community

Air

Quality Guides

Journal

,

1968,

p

505

ff

Aldehydes.

A.I.H.A.

CO:

Its

Hazards

and

the

Mechanism

of

Its

Action. Public

Health Bulletin

No.

290,

1944,

p

166.

Dinman,

B.D.

Pathophysiologic

Determinants

of

Community

Air

Quality

Standards

for

Carbon

Monoxide.

J.O.M.,

Sept.,

1968,

p

446

ff.

239



37.

Middleton,

J.

T.

Air

Quality

Criteria.

Scientific

Cornerstones

of

the

1967 Air

Quality Act. J.O.M.,

Sept.

,

1968,

p

535

ff.

38.

Bloomfield,

B.D.

1.

Industrial

Health

p

112-113.

Industrial

Hygiene

Highlights,

Volume

Foundation,

Pittsburgh,

1968,

240



APPENDIX

II

Pollutant Removal Process

Calculations

from Final

Report

-

Patent

Development

Associates, Inc.

(See

page

8l)

241



APPENDIX

II

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS

I.

Calculations

of

Average Emissions

of

CO

and

Hydrocarbons

from

Automobiles

in

1970,

1975,

and 1980

II. Thermal Incineration

III. Spray

Chamber

Calculations:

Particulate

Removal

List

of Illustrations

Figure 1

-

Pressure Drop

Through

Carbon

Beds

Figure

2

-

n-Butane

Adsorption

Isotherm

on

BPL

Carbon

Page

243

246

247

250

251

242



CALCULATIONS

OF

AVERAGE

EMISSIONS

OF

CO

AND

HYDROCARBONS

FROM AUTOMOBILES

IN

1970,

1975

AND

1980.

A. Automotive age

percentiles

calculated

from

Blum

(1967).

B.

Emission

data taken

from Ai r

Pol

1

ution

,

Vol

.

Ill

,

A.C. Stern (ed.)

p 76,

(1968).

YEAR

1970

1970

AUTOMOBILE

POPULATION:

Vehicles 1954

to

1964

-

63.40%

with

emission

standards

of:

HC

=

900 ppm

CO

=

32,000

ppm

Vehicles 1964

to

1969

-

36.60% with

emission

standards

of:

. HC

=

275

ppm

CO

=

15,000

ppm

therefore,

average

automobile

exhaust

during

1970

will

have:

HC

=

900

x

0.634

+

275

x

0.366

=

560

+

100

=

660

ppm

CO

=

32,000 x

0.634

+

15,000

x

0.366

=

20,300

+

5,466

=

25,790 ppm

YEAR

1975

1975

AUTOMOBILE POPULATION:

Vehicles

1959

to 1964

-

17.08%

with

emission

standards

of:

HC

=

900 ppm CO

=

32,000

ppm

Vehicles

1965

to

1969

-

46.32%

with

emission

standards of:

HC

=

275 ppm

CO

=

15,000

ppm

243



Vehicles

-1970

to

1974

-

36.60%

with

emission

standards

of:

HC

-

180

ppm CO

=

10,000

ppm

therefore,

average

automobile

exhaust

during

1975

will

have:

HC

=

900

x 0.1708

+

275 x

0.4632

+

180

x

0.366

=

153

+

127

+

68

=

348

ppm

CO

=

32,000 x 0.1708

+

15,000

x

0.4632

+

10,000

x

0.366

=

5,460

+

6,950

+

3,660

=

16,070

ppm

YEAR

1980

1980 AUTOMOBILE POPULATION:

Vehicles

to

1964

-

1.34% with emission

standards of:

HC

=

900

ppm CO

-

32,000 ppm

Vehicles

1965

to

1969

-

15.74%

with

emission

standards of:

HC

=

275

ppm

CO

=

15,000

ppm

Vehicles 1970

to

1974

-

46.32%

with

emission

standards

of:

HC

=

180

ppm CO

=

10,000

ppm

Vehicles 1975 to

1979

-

36.60% with

emission

standards

of:

HC

=

50 ppm CO

=

5,000

ppm

therefore, average automobile

exhaust

during

1980 will have:

HC

=

900

x

0.0134

+

275

x

0.1574

+

180

x

0.4632

+

50 x

0.3660

244



=

12

+

43

+

83

+

18

=

156 ppm

CO

=

32,000 x

0.0134

+

15,000

x

0.1574

+

10,000 x

0.4632

+

5,000

x

0.3660

=

430

+

230

+

4,630

+

1

,830

=

6,120

ppm

245



II.

THERMAL

INCINERATION

Based on HEW,

AP-51

Assume Direct

Flame, with Heat

Exchange

Annual Capital

Charge

Installed

Cost (with Exchanger)

=

$220,000

Annual Capital Charges

=

(0.

1

33)

($220

,000)

=

$29,260

Annual

Operating

& Maintenance

Charges

(G)

G

=

S[l95.5

x

10-6

phk

+

M

+

HFl

Val ue

S

=

Design Capacity,

CFM

250,000

P =

Gas

pressure

drop,

inches

1

of

H

2

H

=

Annual

operating

hours

4,380

K

=

Power

costs,

$/kw-hr

0.011

M

=

Maintenance

cost,

$/ACFM

0.06

F

=

Fuel

Cost,

$/Hr/ACFM

0.23/1000

G

=

250,000

[(195.5

x

1

0

6

)

(

1 )

(4

,

380)

(0.

01

1

)

+

0.06

+

(4,

380)(0.

23/1000)]

=

250,000

LI. 0768]

=

$269,200

Total

Annual Cost

=

$29,620

+

$269,200

=

$298,460

Major part

of operating

cost

is in fuel cost.

246



III.

SPRAY

CHAMBER CALCULATIONS: PARTICULATE

REMOVAL

Spray

density

Water droplet

size

Particulate

size

Removal

efficiency

Nomencl

ature

-

20 lb

water/100

cu

ft

air

-

500

microns

-

1 to

5

microns

-

(a)

90%

(b)

75%

Pa

=

density of

air

at

70°F

Pw

=

density of

water

at

70°F

pp

=

density

of

particulate

V

=

viscosity

of

air

Dp

=

diameter

of

particulate,

cm

D c

=

diameter

of

collector

drop,

cm

C

=

drag

coeff

i

cient

v

=

terminal

velocity

of

spherical

particle

settling in

air

at

70°F,

cm/sec

¥

=

inertia

parameter

t

=

holdup

time,

sec

N

=

concentration

of

spray

droplets

per

unit

volume

of

air

n

=

efficiency

of

impaction

fraction of

particles

remaining

N

=

concentration of

spray

droplet/unit

volume

of

air

20

lb

water

1000

cu

ft

air

20

lb

x

454.5

gm/lb

1000

cu

ft

x

28317

cc/cu

ft

=

3.14

x

10

4

gm/cc

Volume

of

one

drop

of water (500

microns

in diameter)

=

1/6

tt

D

c

3

n

no

247



CASE I

=

6.55

x

10

5

cc

Weight

of one

drop

of

water

=

6.55

x

10

5

cc

x

0.981 gm/cc

=

6.41

x

10

5

gm

therefore

N

-

4.90

drops

of

water/cc

of

air

.:

Dust

Removal

Efficiency

=

90%

1°

-

0.1

IrTT

X

ln

-5

drops

°f

water/cc of

air

n

no 100

For

a

unit

volume

of

dusty

air,

the

time rate

of

change of

particle

concentration in

the

spray

region is:

dn

It

nvNnirD

c

V4

Integrating

,

Jl =

exp(-tvNnirD

2/4)

no

u

In

0.1

or

-2.05

tn

In 0.1

,

-2.05n

2.3026

2.05n

1.125

Terminal

velocity,

v,

of

spherical particle

of

unit

density settling in air

at

70°F

=

213.4

cm/sec

For spherical

particle

when

terminal

velocity

is

known

_C

Re

^

gy(fiP-pa

)

3p*a v

J

=

0.0170

From

Perry,

(1963)

C

=

1.24

and

Re 74.45

248



Now,

the

inertial

parameter,

V,

vu

=

Cpp v

D

p

2

18y

D

C

H

<F

=

1.63

x

TO

6

Dp

2

MV*

=

[1.63

x 10

6

D

p

2

]V2

=

1.275

x

10

3

D

n

Dp

Microns

n»

efficiency

of

impaction

R

=

D

p

/D

c

0.1275

0.2550

0.3825

0.5100

0.6375

0.07

0.355

0.54

0.64

0.002

0.004

0.006

0.008

0.01

CASE

II : Dust Removal

Efficiency

=

75%

n

no

0.25

or In 0.25

or t

25

=0.25

100

exp(-2

tn)

-2.05

tn

In 0.25 _

-2.05n

2.3026

x

0.6020

2.05n

0.68

249



X

o.

UJ

o

Q

UJ

03

7

6

5

4

3

~

2

—

u.

o

1.0

0.9

u.

0.3

0.7

O.S

n

o

O.b

c:

o

0.4UJ

tn

z>

(/>

0,3

<r>

UJ

cc

a.

0.2

0.U

FIGURE I

PRESSURE

DROP

THROUGH

CARBON

BEDS

SOURCE

-Y0C0M

*

(1970)

3

4 5 6

8

10 20 30 40 50 60

80 100

LINEAR

VELOCITY,

FT./MIN.

*

Yocum,

J.

E. and

Duffee,

R. A., Chem. Eng.

77,

No.

13,

160-168,

June

15,

1970.

250



FIGURE

2

n-BUTANE

ADSORPTION

ISOTHERM

ON BPL

CARBON

79°F.

0.2

2x10 4

8

IxlO

4

6

8

Ix

BUTANE PRESSURE,

PSIA

GPO 9

29-931

251







DOT

LIBRARY

00362944

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