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TRILL Tutorial Transparent Interconnection of Lots of Links
Donald E. Eastlake 3rd
Co-Chair, TRILL Working Group Principal Engineer, Huawei
October 2013
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Donald E. Eastlake, 3rd ¢ Principal Engineer at Huawei Technologies
� Previously with Cisco Systems and before that with Motorola Laboratories.
¢ Co-Chair of the IETF TRILL Working Group � Chair of the IETF PPPEXT Working Group � Chair of the IEEE 802.11ak Task Group
¢ Author of 61 IETF RFCs.
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Note: This tutorial represents my personal views, not those of the TRILL WG or Huawei. It is a high level technical overview. It is not practical to include all the details in the specification documents in a presentation of this length.
CONTENTS ¢ What is TRILL? ¢ TRILL Features ¢ TRILL History ¢ Two TRILL Examples ¢ TRILL Packet
Headers ¢ Step-by-Step
Processing Example ¢ Fine Grained Labeling
¢ How TRILL Works ¢ Peering and Layers ¢ TRILL Support of
DCB ¢ TRILL OAM ¢ TRILL Products ¢ Comparisons ¢ Standardization and
References
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WHAT IS TRILL? October 2013
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¢ A Compatible Protocol � Attached end nodes just think it is Ethernet.
¢ The more bridges you convert to TRILL switches, the better your network’s stability and bandwidth utilization.
¢ Terminates Spanning Tree Protocols
What is TRILL? October 2013
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¢ Basically a simple idea: � Encapsulate native frames in a transport header
providing a hop count � Route the encapsulated frames using IS-IS � Decapsulate native frames before delivery
¢ Provides � Least cost paths with zero/minimal configuration � Equal Cost Multi-Pathing of unicast � Multi-paths of multi-destination
What is TRILL? ¢ TRansparent Interconnection of Lots of Links
� TRILL WG Charter ¢ http://www.ietf.org/dyn/wg/charter/trill-charter.html
� Standardized by IETF TRILL Working Group: ¢ Donald E. Eastlake 3rd (Huawei), Co-Chair ¢ Erik Nordmark (Cisco), Co-Chair ¢ Jon Hudson (Brocade), Secretary
¢ TRILL Switch / RBridge (Routing Bridge) � Device that implements TRILL
¢ TRILL/RBridge Campus – � A network of RBridges, links, and any intervening
bridges, that connects end stations and layer 3 routers.
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A TRILL CAMPUS
¢ End stations and Layer 3 routers are connected to TRILL switches by Ethernet.
¢ TRILL switches can be connected to each other with arbitrary technology.
¢ In both cases, the connection can be a bridged LAN.
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= end sta)on = Ethernet
= Any technology
RB1
RB2
L3 Router
RB3
L3 Router
RB4
RB5
Bridge 2
Bridge 3
Bridge 1
RB6
CONTENTS ¢ What is TRILL? ¢ TRILL Features ¢ TRILL History ¢ Two TRILL Examples ¢ TRILL Packet
Headers ¢ Step-by-Step
Processing Example ¢ Fine Grained Labeling
¢ How TRILL Works ¢ Peering and Layers ¢ TRILL Support of
DCB ¢ TRILL OAM ¢ TRILL Products ¢ Comparisons ¢ Standardization and
References
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UNICAST LEAST COST PATHS October 2013
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= end sta)on
B2 B3
B1
A three bridge network
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UNICAST LEAST COST PATHS October 2013
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Spanning tree eliminates loops by disabling ports
= end sta)on
B2 B3
B1
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UNICAST LEAST COST PATHS October 2013
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RB2
= end sta)on
RB3
RB1
A three RBridge network: better performance using all facilities
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UNICAST MULTI-PATHING October 2013
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B2
= end sta)on
B4
B3
B1
Bridges limit traffic to one path
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B5
UNICAST MULTI-PATHING October 2013
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RB2
= end sta)on
RB4
RB3
RB1
RBridges support multi-path for higher throughput
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RB5
Multi-Pathing (Unicast) October 2013
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= end sta)on
B3
Bridges limit traffic to one path
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B2 B4 B1
B5 B6 B7
Multi-Pathing (Unicast) October 2013
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RB3 RB2 RB4 RB1
RB5 RB6 RB7
= end sta)on
Multi-Pathing (Multi-destination) O
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Spanning tree yields a single bi-directional tree for flooding multi-destination frames limiting bandwidth
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B3 B2 B4 B1
B5 B6 B7
= end sta)on
Multi-Pathing (Multi-destination) O
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RBridges support multiple distribution trees. The encapsulating RBridge chooses which to use. RB2 can split multi-destination traffic over three trees.
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RB3 RB2 RB4 RB1
RB5 RB6 RB7
= end sta)on
Routing versus Bridging ¢ Routing only sends data out a port when it
receives control messages on that port indicating this is safe and routing has a TTL for safety. � If control messages are not received or not processed,
it “fails safe” and does not forward data.
¢ Bridging (Spanning Tree Protocol) forwards data out all ports (except the one where the data was received) unless it receives control messages on that port indicate this is unsafe. There is no TTL. � If control messages are not received or not processed,
it “fails unsafe”, forwards data, and can melt down due to data loops.
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TRILL Features October 2013
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Bridges Routers TRILL Switch
¢ Transparency ¢ Plug & Play ¢ Virtual LANs
� Multi-tenant support
¢ Frame Priorities ¢ Data Center Bridging ¢ Virtualization Support
¢ Multi-pathing ¢ Optimal Paths ¢ Rapid Fail Over ¢ The safety of a TTL
� Implemented in data plane
¢ Extensions
MORE TRILL FEATURES ¢ Breaks up and minimizes spanning tree for greater
stability. ¢ Unicast forwarding tables at transit RBridges scale
with the number of RBridges, not the number of end stations.
¢ Transit RBridges do not learn end station addresses.
¢ Compatible with existing IP Routers. TRILL switches are as transparent to IP routers as bridges are.
¢ Support for VLANs, frame priorities, and 24-bit data labels (“16 million VLANs”).
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MORE TRILL FEATURES ¢ MTU feature and jumbo frame support including
jumbo routing frames. ¢ Has a poem.
� The only other bridging or routing protocol with a poem is Spanning Tree (see Algorhyme).
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Algorhyme V2 (TRILL and RBridges)
¢ I hope that we shall one day see ¢ A graph more lovely than a tree. ¢ A graph to boost efficiency ¢ While still configuration-free. ¢ A network where RBridges can ¢ Route packets to their target LAN. ¢ The paths they find, to our elation, ¢ Are least cost paths to destination! ¢ With packet hop counts we now see, ¢ The network need not be loop-free! ¢ RBridges work transparently, ¢ Without a common spanning tree. ¢ - By Ray Perlner
(Radia Perlman’s son)
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CONTENTS ¢ What is TRILL? ¢ TRILL Features ¢ TRILL History ¢ Two TRILL Examples ¢ TRILL Packet
Headers ¢ Step-by-Step
Processing Example ¢ Fine Grained Labeling
¢ How TRILL Works ¢ Peering and Layers ¢ TRILL Support of
DCB ¢ TRILL OAM ¢ TRILL Products ¢ Comparisons ¢ Standardization and
References
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Inspired by a Real Life Incident
¢ In November 2002, Beth Israel Deaconess Hospital in Boston, Massachusetts, had a total network meltdown: � Their network took four days of heroic efforts to be
restored to an operational state! In the mean time the staff was reduced to using paper and pencil.
� Beth Israel Deaconess had grown by acquiring various clinics and just plugged all those bridged networks together.
� The article in Boston’s primary newspaper specifically mentioned “Spanning Tree Protocol” as the problem!
� Radia Perlman, who invented spanning tree over 25 years ago, decided it was time to come up with a better way.
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TRILL HISTORY UP TO 2008 l 1964: Packet switching/routing invented by Paul Baran. l 1973: Ethernet invented by Robert Metcalfe l 1979: Link State Routing invented by John McQuillan. l 1985: Radia Perlman invents the Spanning Tree Protocol. l 1987: DECnet Phase V / IS-IS designed by Radia Perlman. l 2002: Beth Israel Deaconess Hospital network in Boston
melts down due to deficiencies in the Spanning Tree Protocol.
l 2004: TRILL presented by inventor Radia Perlman at Infocom. l 2005: TRILL presented to IEEE 802 by Radia Perlman, rejected. l 2005: TRILL presented to IETF which Charters the TRILL
Working Group. l 2008: MTU problem delays protocol while fix is incorporated.
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TRILL IN 2009/2011 l 2009: RFC 5556 “TRILL: Problem and Applicability
Statement” l 2009: TRILL Protocol passed up to IESG for Approval. l 2010: TRILL approved IETF Standard (2010-03-15)
l Ethertypes, Multicast addresses & NLPID assigned
l 2010: Successful TRILL control plane interop at UNH IOL
l 2011: TRILL Protocol base document set: l RFC 6325: “RBridges: TRILL Base Protocol Specification”
l RFC 6326: “TRILL Use of IS-IS”
l RFC 6327: “RBridges: Adjacency”
l RFC 6361: “TRILL over PPP”
l RFC 6439: “RBridges: Appointed Forwarders”
l 2011: TRILL Working Group Re-Chartered to do further development of the TRILL protocol
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TRILL IN 2012/2013 l 2012: Second Successful TRILL control plane interop at
UNH IOL l 2013: Additional TRILL documents published:
l RFC 6447: FCoE (Fibre Channel over Ethernet) over TRILL
l RFC 6850: RBridge MIB
l RFC 6905: TRILL OAM Requirements
l 2013: Third TRILL interop for control and data plane at UNH IOL week of May 20th
l 2013: TRILL Working Group Re-Chartered to do further development of the TRILL protocol
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CONTENTS ¢ What is TRILL? ¢ TRILL Features ¢ TRILL History ¢ Two TRILL Examples ¢ TRILL Packet
Headers ¢ Step-by-Step
Processing Example ¢ Fine Grained Labeling
¢ How TRILL Works ¢ Peering and Layers ¢ TRILL Support of
DCB ¢ TRILL OAM ¢ TRILL Products ¢ Comparisons ¢ Standardization and
References
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Two TRILL Examples 1. “Acme Power Plant” Process Control
� Large process control commonly uses Ethernet � Some process control protocols interpret network
interruption >1 second as equipment failure � Even Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol can take >3
second to recover from root bridge failure � Core RBridges reduce/eliminate spanning tree
2. “Acme Data Center” � 1:1 to N:1 Backup Improvement
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A
CB CB
A = Access Bridge GB = aGregga)on Bridge CB = Core Bridge
GB GB GB GB
A A A A A A A A A
GB GB
A A A A A
Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol
Domain
1. Acme Power Plant
Bridged Process Control Network
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A
A A
A
CB CB
A = Access Bridge GB = aGregga)on Bridge CB = Core Bridge
GB GB GB GB
A A A A A A A A A
GB GB
A A A A A
Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol
Domain
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A
A A
1. Acme Power Plant
Spanning Tree
Eliminates Loops by
Disabling Ports
A = Access Bridge GB = aGregga)on Bridge CRB = Core RBridge
RSTP Domain
1. Acme Power Plant
Process Control Network
with RBridge Core breaking up spanning tree
RSTP Domain
RSTP Domain
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A
GB GB GB GB
A A A A A A A A A A A
CRB CRB
GB GB
A A A A A A
A = Access Bridge GRB = aGregga)on RBridge
GRB GRB GRB GRB
GRB GRB
1. Acme Power Plant
Process Control Network
with RBridge Mesh eliminating spanning tree
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A A A A A A
A A A A A A A A A A A A
Dist. Bridge
B B B B B
2. Acme Data Center Network
with Bridges
B B B B B B B B B B
Wan Router
Dist. Bridge
Wan Router
B = Head of Rack Bridge
1:1 Backup Distribution Bridges must be able to handle 100% of the load. Only 1 path available between any pair of “B”s.
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Dist. RBridge
H H H H H
2. Acme Data Center Network with RBridges
H H H H H H H H H H
Wan Router
Dist. RBridge
Wan Router
Dist. RBridge
Dist. RBridge
Dist. RBridge
H = Head of Rack RBridge
N:1 Backup Distribution Bridges need to handle only 25% of the load. Multiple available paths between “H”s.
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CONTENTS ¢ What is TRILL? ¢ TRILL Features ¢ TRILL History ¢ Two TRILL Examples ¢ TRILL Packet
Headers ¢ Step-by-Step
Processing Example ¢ Fine Grained Labeling
¢ How TRILL Works ¢ Peering and Layers ¢ TRILL Support of
DCB ¢ TRILL OAM ¢ TRILL Products ¢ Comparisons ¢ Standardization and
References
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TRILL Packet Headers ¢ TRILL Data packets between RBridges have a
local link header and TRILL Header. � The local link header on Ethernet is addressed from
the local source RBridge to the next hop RBridge for known unicast frames or to the All-RBridges multicast address for multi-destination frames.
� The TRILL Header specifies the first/ingress RBridge and either the last/egress RBridge for known unicast frames or the distribution tree for multi-destination frames.
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TRILL Packet Headers ¢ Reasons for TRILL Header:
� Provides a hop count to reduce loop issues � To hide the original source address to avoid confusing
any bridges present as might happen if multi-pathing were in use
� To direct unicast frames toward the egress RBridge so that forwarding tables in transit RBridges need only be sized with the number of RBridges in the campus, not the number of end stations
� To provide a separate outer VLAN tag, when necessary, for forwarding traffic between RBridges, independent of the original VLAN of the frame
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TRILL Packet Headers ¢ TRILL Header
� Nicknames – auto-configured 16-bit campus local names for RBridges
� V = Version (2 bits) � R = Reserved (2 bits) � M = Multi-Destination (1 bit) � ExtLng = Length of TRILL Header Extensions � Hop = Hop Limit (6 bits)
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TRILL Ethertype
Egress RBridge Nickname
Hop ExtLng V M R
Ingress RBridge Nickname
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TRILL Over Ethernet October 2013
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RBridge One
RBridge Two
Ethernet Cloud
DA FCS Payload Frame (DA, SA, VLAN/Tenant, Data) SA TRILL
Header VLAN*
Ethernet Link Transport Header
Original Frame with VLAN/Tenant Label
* Link Transport VLAN only needed for VLAN sensitive link.
TRILL Ethertype
0x22F3
RBridge Three
DA FCS IS-IS PDU SA VLAN* L2-IS-IS Ethertype
0x22F4
Data:
IS-IS:
TRILL Over PPP October 2013
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PPP FCS
Payload Frame (DA, SA, VLAN/Tenant, Data)
Original Frame with VLAN/Tenant Label PPP Link
Transport Header
PPP TRILL Data Protocol
0x005D
RBridge One
RBridge Two
PPP
TRILL Header
PPP FCS IS-IS PDU
PPP TRILL IS-IS Protocol
0x405D
Data:
IS-IS:
CONTENTS ¢ What is TRILL? ¢ TRILL Features ¢ TRILL History ¢ Two TRILL Examples ¢ TRILL Packet
Headers ¢ Step-by-Step
Processing Example ¢ Fine Grained Labeling
¢ How TRILL Works ¢ Peering and Layers ¢ TRILL Support of
DCB ¢ TRILL OAM ¢ TRILL Products ¢ Comparisons ¢ Standardization and
References
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ETHERNET UNICAST PROCESSING EXAMPLE
¢ Step-by-Step on Following Slides:
� Input Port Processing � TRILL Unicast Ingress � TRILL Unicast Transit � TRILL Unicast Egress � Output Port Processing
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INPUT PORT PROCESSING October 2013
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Dest MAC FCS Data Src MAC
VLAN
Input Na)ve Frame on link:
Dest MAC FCS Data Src MAC VLAN
¢ Detailed example of unicast frame TRILL routing on an Ethernet link
� Input port adds VLAN-ID and priority if frame untagged
Input Na)ve Frame aCer input port:
TRILL UNICAST INGRESS October 2013
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Dest MAC FCS Data Src MAC VLAN
Input Na)ve Frame:
1 Outer VLAN tag is a transport artifact and only needed if RBridges are connected by a bridged LAN or carrier Ethernet requiring a VLAN tag or the like.
Payload Frame
Original Frame with VLAN or Tenant ID
TRILL Header Egress Ingress
Ingressing RBridge
Look Up Egress, Next Hop DA & Output Port
TTL=n DA
New FCS SA VLAN1
Link Transport Header
Output TRILL Data Frame:
TRILL UNICAST TRANSIT October 2013
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1 Input and output Outer VLANs can differ. The true VLAN or Tenant ID of the data is inside the payload frame. Outer VLAN is only needed if link is VLAN sensitive.
Payload Frame TRILL Hdr Egress Ingress
TTL=n-1
DA FCS Payload Frame SA TRILL Hdr VLAN1
Incoming Link Transport Header
Egress Ingress
Input TRILL Data Frame: TTL=n
Transit RBridge
DA New FCS SA VLAN1
Outgoing Link Transport Header
Output TRILL Data Frame:
Look Up Next DA & Output Port
TRILL UNICAST EGRESS October 2013
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DA FCS Payload Frame SA TRILL Hdr VLAN1
Link Transport Header
Egress Ingress
Input TRILL Data Frame:
Egressing RBridge
Dest MAC Data Src MAC VLAN2
1 Outer VLAN only needed if RBridges are connected by a bridged LAN or carrier Ethernet requiring a VLAN tag or the like. 2 Final native frame VLAN tag may be omitted depending on RBridge output port configuration.
Output Na)ve Frame:
New FCS
Look Up Output Port
OUTPUT PORT PROCESSING October 2013
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Dest MAC Data Src MAC VLAN
Output Na)ve Frame before output port:
New FCS
¢ Output port may be configured to output untagged and will do so by default for the port VLAN ID
Dest MAC Data Src MAC New FCS
CONTENTS ¢ What is TRILL? ¢ TRILL Features ¢ TRILL History ¢ Two TRILL Examples ¢ TRILL Packet
Headers ¢ Step-by-Step
Processing Example ¢ Fine Grained Labeling
¢ How TRILL Works ¢ Peering and Layers ¢ TRILL Support of
DCB ¢ TRILL OAM ¢ TRILL Products ¢ Comparisons ¢ Standardization and
References
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FINE GRAINED LABELING ¢ Fine Grained Labeling (FGL) provides extended
24-bit label (or tenant ID) as the inner data label. ¢ Ingress/egress TRILL switches that support FGL:
� Map native frame VLAN and input port into a fine grained label on ingress and ¢ do the reverse mapping on egress.
� Remember the priority and DEI of native frames on ingress and restores them on egress.
¢ Fine Grained Label TRILL switches are a superset of a base protocol TRILL switches. They support VLANs as in the base standard on a port if not configured to do Fine Grained Labeling.
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FINE GRAINED LABELING October 2013
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Link Trailer
Payload Frame Data
Link Header
TRILL Header
Base protocol VLAN Labeling:
¢ See: � https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/draft-ietf-trill-fine-labeling/
DA SA 8100
Data Label
Pri, DEI VID
TRILL Header
DA SA
Link Trailer
Payload Frame Data
Link Header
Fine Grained Labeling:
893B Pri, DEI Upper 893B
Pri, DEI Lower
Ingress/Egress Priority
Transit Priority
24-Bit Tenant ID
Payload
FINE GRAINED LABELING MIGRATION ¢ An initial deployment of VLAN labeling TRILL switches
can be smoothly extended to Fine Grained Labeling
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Fine Grained Labeling TRILL Switches FGL TR
4
FGL TR 5
FGL TR 6
FGL Labeled Path
VLAN Labeling TRILL Switches
VL TR 1 VL TR 2
VL TR 3
VLAN Labeled Path
FINE GRAINED LABELING MIGRATION ¢ Some VL TRILL switches are convertible to FGL-safe
RBridges (FGL transit only) with a software upgrade.
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Fine Grained Labeling TRILL Switches
FGL TR 4
FGL TR 5
FGL TR 6
FGL Labeled Path
FGL TR 1 FGL TR
2
FGL TR 3
VLAN Labeled Path
FINE GRAINED LABELING MIGRATION ¢ Some VL TRILL switches are convertible to FGL-safe
RBridges (FGL transit only) with a software upgrade. ¢ Even if not upgradable, they can generally be connected.
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Fine Grained Labeling TRILL Switches FGL TR
4
FGL TR 5
FGL TR 6
FGL Labeled Path
VL TR 1 VL TR 2
VL TR 3
VLAN Labeled Path
VLAN Labeling TRILL Switches
CONTENTS ¢ What is TRILL? ¢ TRILL Features ¢ TRILL History ¢ Two TRILL Examples ¢ TRILL Encapsulation
and Header ¢ Step-by-Step
Processing Example ¢ Fine Grained Labeling
¢ How TRILL Works ¢ Peering and Layers ¢ TRILL Support of
DCB ¢ TRILL OAM ¢ TRILL Products ¢ Comparisons ¢ Standardization and
References
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How TRILL Works ¢ RBridges find each other by exchanging TRILL
IS-IS Hello frames. � Like all TRILL IS-IS frames, TRILL Hellos are sent
on Ethernet to the multicast address All-IS-IS-RBridges. They are transparently forwarded by bridges, dropped by end stations including routers, and are processed (but not forwarded) by RBridges.
� TRILL Hellos are different from Layer 3 IS-IS LAN Hellos because they are small, unpadded, and support fragmentation of some information. ¢ Separate MTU-probe and MTU-ack IS-IS messages are
available for MTU testing and determination. � Using the information exchanged in the Hellos, the
RBridges on each link elect the Designated RBridge for that link (the link could be a bridged LAN).
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How TRILL Works ¢ TRILL Hellos are unpadded and a maximum of
1470 bytes long to be sure RBridges can see each other so you don’t get two Designated RBridges on the same link.
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RBridge One
RBridge Two
Low MTU Dev
TRILL Cloud
How TRILL Works ¢ RBridges use the IS-IS reliable flooding protocol
so that each RBridge has a copy of the global “link state” database. � The RBridge link state includes the campus topology
and link cost but also other information. Information such as VLAN/FGL connectivity, multicast listeners and multicast router attachment, claimed nickname(s), ingress-to-egress options supported, and the like.
� The link state database is sufficient for each RBridge to independently and without further messages calculate optimal point-to-point paths for known unicast frames and the same distribution trees for multi-destination frames.
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How TRILL Works ¢ The Designated RBridge specifies the Appointed
Forwarder for each VLAN on the link (which may be itself) and the Designated VLAN for inter-RBridge communication.
¢ The Appointed Forwarder for VLAN-x on a link handles all native frames to/from that link in that VLAN. It is only significant if there are end station on the link. � It encapsulates frames from the link into a TRILL
Data frame. This is the ingress RBridge function. � It decapsulates native frames destined for the link
from TRILL Data frames. This is the egress RBridge function.
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Why Designated VLAN? ¢ Ethernet links between RBridges have a
Designated VLAN for inter-RBridge traffic. It is dictated by the Designated RBridge on the Link.
¢ For Point-to-Point links, usually no outer VLAN tag is needed on TRILL Data frames. For links configured as P2P, there is no Designated VLAN.
¢ However, there are cases where an outer VLAN tag with the designated VLAN ID is essential: � Carrier Ethernet facilities on the link restrict VLAN. � The link is actually a bridged LAN with VLAN
restrictions. � The RBridge ports are configured to restrict VLANs.
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How TRILL Works ¢ TRILL Data packets that have known unicast
ultimate destinations are forwarded RBridge hop by RBridge hop toward the egress RBridge.
¢ TRILL Data packets that are multi-destination frames (broadcast, multicast, and unknown destination unicast) are forwarded on a distribution tree.
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MULTI-DESTINATION TRAFFIC ¢ Multi-destination data is sent on a bi-directional
distribution tree: � The root of a tree is a TRILL switch or a link (pseudo-
node) determined by a separate election and represented by nickname.
� The ingress RBridge picks the tree, puts the tree root nickname in the “egress nickname” slot, and sets the M bit in the TRILL Header.
¢ All the TRILL switches in a campus calculate the same trees.
¢ All trees reach every TRILL switch in the campus.
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MULTI-DESTINATION TRAFFIC ¢ Multi-destination TRILL Data frames are more
dangerous than unicast because they can multiply at fork points in the distribution tree. � So, in addition to the Hop Count, a Reverse Path
Forwarding Check is performed. This discards the frame if, for the ingress and tree, it seems to be arriving on the wrong port.
� To reduce the RPFC state, ingress RBridges can announce which tree or trees they will use.
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MULTI-DESTINATION TRAFFIC ¢ As a TRILL Data frame is propagated on a
distribution tree, its distribution can be pruned by VLAN and by multicast group since it is not useful to send a frame down a tree branch if � There are no end stations downstream in the VLAN
of the frame, or � The frame is multicast and there is no multicast
listener or multicast router downstream.
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TRILL NICKNAMES ¢ TRILL switches are identified by 6-byte IS-IS
System ID and by 2-bytes nicknames. ¢ Nicknames can be configured but by default are
auto-allocated. In case of collisions, the lower priority RBridge must select a new nickname.
¢ Nicknames: � Saves space in headers. � An RBridge can hold more than one nickname so that
¢ It can be the root of more than one different distribution tree.
¢ May be used to distinguish frames following traffic engineered routes versus least cost routes.
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Why IS-IS For TRILL? ¢ The IS-IS (Intermediate System to Intermediate
System) link state routing protocol was chosen for TRILL over OSPF (Open Shortest Path First), the only other plausible candidate, for the following reasons: � IS-IS runs directly at Layer 2. Thus no IP addresses
are needed, as they are for OSPF, and IS-IS can run with zero configuration.
� IS-IS uses a TLV (type, length, value) encoding which makes it easy to define and carry new types of data.
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RBRIDGES & ACCESS LINKS ¢ You can have multiple TRILL switches on a link
with one or more end stations. ¢ The elected Designated RBridge is in charge of
the link and by default handles end station traffic. But to load split, it can assign end station VLANs to other RBridges on the link.
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RB1 RB2 RB3
B1 B2 B3
TRILL Cloud
MAC ADDRESS LEARNING ¢ By IS-IS all TRILL switches in the campus learn
about and can reach each other but what about reaching end station MAC addresses? � By default, TRILL switches at the edge (directly
connected to end stations) learn attached VLAN/MAC addresses from data as bridges do.
� Optionally, MAC addresses can be passed through the control plane.
� MAC addresses can be statically configured or learned from Layer 2 registration protocols such as Wi-Fi association or 802.1X.
� Transit TRILL switches do not learn end station addresses.
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MAC ADDRESS LEARNING ¢ Data Plane Learning
� From Locally Received Native Frames ¢ { VLAN, Source Address, Port }
� From Encapsulated Native Frames ¢ { Inner VLAN, Inner Source Address,
Ingress RBridge } ¢ The Ingress RBridge learned is used as egress on sending
¢ Via 1. Optional End Station Address Distribution
Information (ESADI) control plane protocol 2. Via Layer-2 Registration protocol(s) 3. By manual configuration
¢ { VLAN, Address, RBridge nickname }
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ESADI ¢ The optional End Station Address Distribution
Information (ESADI) protocol: � Provides a VLAN/tenant scoped way for an RBridge
to distribute control plane information about attached End Stations to other RBridges.
� Highly efficient transmission because information is tunneled through transit RBridges encapsulated as if it was normal data.
� Intended for use for attachment data that is either secure or that changes rapidly. ¢ The source RBridge selects which addresses it wants to
distribute through ESADI. ¢ There is no particular advantage in using ESADI for large
amounts of information learned from the data plane.
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CONTENTS ¢ What is TRILL? ¢ TRILL Features ¢ TRILL History ¢ Two TRILL Examples ¢ TRILL Packet
Headers ¢ Step-by-Step
Processing Example ¢ Fine Grained Labeling
¢ How TRILL Works ¢ Peering and Layers ¢ TRILL Support of
DCB ¢ TRILL OAM ¢ TRILL Products ¢ Comparisons ¢ Standardization and
References
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Peering: Are TRILL Switches Bridges or Routers? ¢ Really, they are a new species, between bridges
and routers:
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Routers (plus servers and other end stations)
TRILL Switches
Bridges
Hubs/Repeaters
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Peering ¢ Former Situation
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Router /End
Station
Router /End
Station
Bridge Bridge(s)
Peers
Non-Peers
Peering ¢ Former Situation
� Or perhaps
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Router /End
Station
Customer Bridge
Customer Bridge
Provider Bridge(s)
Peers
Peers
Non-Peers
Customer Bridge
Provider Bridge(s)
Router /End
Station
Peers
Peers Peers
Peering ¢ With RBridges
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Router /End
Station
Router /End
Station
TRILL Switch
TRILL Switch
Bridge(s)
TRILL Switch
Bridge(s)
Non-Peers
CONTENTS ¢ What is TRILL? ¢ TRILL Features ¢ TRILL History ¢ Two TRILL Examples ¢ TRILL Packet
Headers ¢ Step-by-Step
Processing Example ¢ Fine Grained Labeling
¢ How TRILL Works ¢ Peering and Layers ¢ TRILL Support of
DCB ¢ TRILL OAM ¢ TRILL Products ¢ Comparisons ¢ Standardization and
References
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TRILL Support of DCB ¢ The goal is “loss-less” Ethernet. That is,
no loss due to queue overflow
¢ Basic Ethernet PAUSE “works”, but is a very blunt instrument � Interference with loss dependent flow control
such as TCP � Blocking of high priority control frames � Congestion spreading
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TRILL Support of DCB ¢ “Data Center Ethernet”
1. Priority Based Flow Control ¢ Per Priority PAUSE
2. Enhanced Transmission Selection
3. Congestion Notification
4. TRILL
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Data Center Bridging
TRILL Support of DCB ¢ Answer 1:
� Consider different frame priorities as different pipes ¢ 802.1Qbb: Separate PAUSE per priority ¢ 802.1Qaz: Ability to allocate bandwidth between
these pipes
¢ Answer 2: � Provide back pressure on the origin of congesting
flows ¢ 802.1Qau: Congestion Notification (CN)
¢ 802.1Qbb is more commonly implemented and you would need it for surges in any case.
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TRILL Support of DCB ¢ Answer 1: Consider different frame priorities as
different pipes � 802.1Qbb: Separate PAUSE per priority
¢ Don’t enable for priorities where urgent control frames are sent or where loss dependent flow control is in use
¢ Enable for priorities where loss-less flow is more important.
� 802.1az: Ability to allocate bandwidth between these pipes ¢ Highest priority frames not restricted ¢ Remainder of bandwidth can be carved up and frames can
be selected in preference to “higher priority” frames if they have not used the allocation for their pipe.
� The above are implemented in port queuing. Can be applied to bridges, RBridges, routers, end stations.
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TRILL Support of DCB ¢ For purposes of Data Center Bridging, all nodes
with queues are considered peers:
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Router /End
Station
RBridge
Bridge
RBridge
Bridge
Peers Peers
Peers
Router /End
Station
TRILL Support of DCB ¢ Answer 2: Congestion Notification (CN): Provide
back pressure on the origin of congesting flows � When queue depth exceeds a bound, send a
Congestion Notification Message CNM back to source MAC address in the congesting frame’s VLAN
� Enabled per priority. (CNM itself usually priority 6.) � Frames can be labeled with a CN tag for more fine
grained flows � Mostly implemented in port logic
¢ In TRILL a CN tag, if present, goes inside the encapsulated frame and a CNM is just a native frame, except for one corner case.
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TRILL Support of DCB
¢ However, RBridges have to handle CNMs generated by TRILL ignorant bridges between RBridges. Such a CNM will be initially addressed to the previous hop RBridge, not the original end station.
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FCS Original Payload
TRILL Header
Link Header
Payload
Orig. DA
Orig. SA
VLAN /FGL
CN Tag
TRILL Support of DCB
¢ Previous hop RBridge has to adjust the CNM so that it goes back to the origin end station.
¢ Note: All of the Data Center Bridging facilities depend on appropriate engineering, limited delay bandwidth product, etc., to actually provide “loss-less” service.
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RBridge RBridge Origin Bridge(s)
CNM Adjusted CNM
CONTENTS ¢ What is TRILL? ¢ TRILL Features ¢ TRILL History ¢ Two TRILL Examples ¢ TRILL Packet
Headers ¢ Step-by-Step
Processing Example ¢ Fine Grained Labeling
¢ How TRILL Works ¢ Peering and Layers ¢ TRILL Support of
DCB ¢ TRILL OAM ¢ TRILL Products ¢ Comparisons ¢ Standardization and
References
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TRILL OAM ¢ SNMP
� Used primarily to read the status and configuration of the TRILL switches but can be used to set configuration parameters.
¢ BFD over TRILL � Bound to TRILL port at the transmitting TRILL router.
Primarily used for rapid one-hop failure detection but multi-hop supported.
¢ TRILL OAM � Operates between TRILL switches and is focused on
testing TRILL Data paths (both fault and performance management).
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OAM DOCUMENTS STATUS ¢ SNMP
� RFC 6850, “Definitions of Managed Objects for RBridges” (MIB)
¢ BFD over TRILL (data center) � In RFC Editor’s queue:
¢ draft-ietf-trill-rbridge-bfd-07.txt ¢ draft-ietf-trill-rbridge-channel-08.txt
¢ TRILL OAM (carrier grade) � RFC 6905: TRILL OAM Requirements � draft-ietf-trill-oam-framework-07.txt (Framework) � draft-ietf-trill-oam-fm-00.txt (Fault Management) � draft-ietf-trill-loss-delay-00.txt (Performance)
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TRILL BFD PACKET FORMAT ¢ The BFD standard does not specify an envelope.
One must be specified for each technology using BFD.
¢ The TRILL BFD envelope uses the RBridge Channel facility, a general method for sending typed messages between TRILL routers.
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Link Header
TRILL Header
TRILL Channel Header
BFD Payload
Link Trailer
Specifies BFD
Link Technology Dependent
TRILL OAM PACKET FORMAT ¢ Because TRILL OAM packets must be able to
follow the same paths and get the same processing as TRILL Data packets, their format is very similar.
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Link Header
TRILL Header
Truncated User Data
OAM Ethertype
OAM Channel
Link Trailer
Fixed Size Fixed format prefix + TLVs
Link Technology Dependent
Has OAM Flag On OAM Specific
Same as user TRILL Data except for OAM Flag
CONTENTS ¢ What is TRILL? ¢ TRILL Features ¢ TRILL History ¢ Two TRILL Examples ¢ TRILL Packet
Headers ¢ Step-by-Step
Processing Example ¢ Fine Grained Labeling
¢ How TRILL Works ¢ Peering and Layers ¢ TRILL Support of
DCB ¢ TRILL OAM ¢ TRILL Products ¢ Comparisons ¢ Standardization and
References
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TRILL PRODUCTS ¢ Announced TRILL Standard based
switches: � Broadcom – StrataXGS Trident (BMC5680) � Cisco – Nexus � HP/H3C – S5830V2, S5820V2 � Huawei – Cloud Engine 5800, 6800, 12800 � Mellanox – SwitchX � Ruijie Networks – RG-S12000 � ZTE – Big Matrix 9900 Series
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PRE-STANDARD PRODUCTS ¢ “Pre-standard” products deployed
� Cisco FabricPath ¢ Uses TRILL control plane but different data plane ¢ 2,000+ installations
� Brocade VCS ¢ Uses TRILL data plane but FSPF (Fiber Shortest Path
First) control plane ¢ 1,500+ installations
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TRILL PLUGFESTS ¢ UNH IOL TRILL interoperability event
participants:
� Broadcom � Extreme Networks � HP/H3C Networking � Huawei Technologies � Ixia � JDSU � Oracle � Spirent
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TRILL SILICON • Here are six publicly known independent silicon
implementations of the TRILL Fast Path. In some cases
the vendor has multiple different chips supporting TRILL.
• Broadcom – merchant silicon
• Brocade – products
• Cisco – products
• Fulcrum – merchant silicon
• Marvell – merchant silicon
• Mellanox – merchant silicon
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TRILL OPEN SOURCE October 2013
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Three Open Source Implementations 1. Oracle: TRILL for Solaris
� TRILL ships as part of Solaris 11
2. VirtuOR: www.virtuor.fr � http://sourceforge.net/p/opentrill/wiki/Home/
3. TRILL Port to Linux: National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan
� Muhammad Mohsin Sardar [email protected]
� http://wisnet.seecs.nust.edu.pk/projects/trill/index.html
CONTENTS ¢ What is TRILL? ¢ TRILL Features ¢ TRILL History ¢ Two TRILL Examples ¢ TRILL Packet
Headers ¢ Step-by-Step
Processing Example ¢ Fine Grained Labeling
¢ How TRILL Works ¢ Peering and Layers ¢ TRILL Support of
DCB ¢ TRILL OAM ¢ TRILL Products ¢ Comparisons ¢ Standardization and
References
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Comparison with MPLS ¢ TRILL versus MPLS
� MPLS is an older, more mature technology with better Quality of Service features, etc.
� MPLS is more configuration intensive. TRILL can be auto-configuring.
� TRILL provides easier support of multicast � TRILL can scale better because
¢ MPLS requires a label entry at each LSR (Label Switched Router) for each MPLS path through that LSR
¢ TRILL requires a nickname entry at each RBridge for each TRILL switch in the campus
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Comparison with IP ¢ TRILL versus IP
� IP is an older, more mature technology � TRILL supports VM mobility. Changing
subnets changes IP Address, breaking TCP connections
� TRILL is better at multicast because ¢ IP requires a complex protocols like PIM to do
multicast ¢ TRILL has simple multicast distribution, with
pruning for optimization, designed in from the start
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Comparison with 802.1aq ¢ SPB is IEEE 802.1aq, “Shortest Path Bridging”,
a project of the IEEE 802.1 Working Group, which was approved as an IEEE standard near the end of March 2012.
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Comparison with 801.1aq ¢ Similarities:
� Both provide shortest path forwarding. � Both use IS-IS
¢ TRILL has always used true IS-IS routing. ¢ SPB started using many spanning trees and then
switched to using IS-IS to configure bridge forwarding.
� Both require end station address learning only at the edge. Transit switches do not learn end station addresses.
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Frame Overhead Details ¢ For point-to-point links with multi-pathing:
� TRILL: ¢ 20 bytes for Ethernet (+ 8 TRILL Header (including
Ethertype) + 12 outer MAC addresses) ¢ 8 bytes for PPP
� SPBM: ¢ 22 bytes for Ethernet (+ 18 802.1ah tag – 12 for MAC
addresses inside 802.1ah + 4 B-VLAN + 12 outer MAC addresses)
¢ 24 bytes for Ethernet over PPP, native PPP not supported
¢ For complex multi-access links with multi-pathing: � TRILL: 24 bytes (20 + 4 for outer VLAN tag) � SPBM: multi-access links not supported
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Routing Computation ¢ N = number of switches
k = number of multi-paths ¢ IETF TRILL Standard
� For unicast frames, N×log(N). ¢ Arbitrary multi-pathing available by just keeping track of
equal cost paths.
� For multi-destination frames, k×N×log(N) to have k distribution trees available.
¢ IEEE Std 802.1aq � Unicast and multi-destination unified:
k×N2×log(N) for k-way multi-pathing. � Planned to be improved by 802.1Qbp project.
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Comparison with 801.1aq ¢ OAM
� SPB: Currently supports IEEE 802.1ag (Continuity Fault Management, CFM).
� TRILL: Supports IETF BFD (Bidirectional Forwarding Detection) protocol and carrier-grade OAM similar to CFM being developed
¢ Data Label Granularity � SPB: Supports 4K VLANs or 2**24 Service
Identifiers. � TRILL: Supports 4K VLANs and 2**24 Fine Grained
Labels.
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Comparison with 801.1aq ¢ Peering:
� RBridges peer through intervening bridges. � SPB bridges must be directly connected and only peer
within a contiguous SPB region.
¢ Spanning Tree: � TRILL RBridges block spanning tree and provide a
new level above bridging but below Layer 3 routing. � SPB bridges run at the bridging level. They continue
to maintain a spanning tree (or multiple spanning trees) hooking together any attached bridging to produce one huge spanning tree. Frames are forwarded by spanning tree or by shortest path depending on VLAN.
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COMPARISON WITH 801.1AQ October 2013
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B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
EB EB
EB
EB EB
EB EB
EB
EB EB
EB EB
EB EB
EB
EB
B = core Bridge EB = edge Bridge – where many end stations are connected Yellow = Ordinary Bridging
COMPARISON WITH 801.1AQ October 2013
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B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
EB EB
EB
EB EB
EB EB
EB
EB EB
EB EB
EB EB
EB
EB
One spanning tree (there could be multiple)
COMPARISON WITH 801.1AQ October 2013
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S
B
S
B
S
S
S
S
S
B
B
B
EB EB
EB
EB EB
EB EB
EB
EB EB
EB EB
EB EB
EB
EB
S = Shortest Path Bridge Orange = SPB Region Spanning Tree Penetrates SPB Regions
COMPARISON WITH 801.1AQ October 2013
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R
B
R
B
R
R
R
R
R
B
B
B
EB EB
EB
EB EB
EB EB
EB
EB EB
EB EB
EB EB
EB
EB
R = RBridge (TRILL switch) Spanning Tree terminated by RBridges
CONTENTS ¢ What is TRILL? ¢ TRILL Features ¢ TRILL History ¢ Two TRILL Examples ¢ TRILL Packet
Headers ¢ Step-by-Step
Processing Example ¢ Fine Grained Labeling
¢ How TRILL Works ¢ Peering and Layers ¢ TRILL Support of
DCB ¢ TRILL OAM ¢ TRILL Products ¢ Comparisons ¢ Standardization and
References
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STANDARDIZATION STATUS ¢ The TRILL protocol RFCs (bold = stds track)
� RFC 5556, “TRILL Problem and Applicability”
� RFC 6325, “RBridges: TRILL Base Protocol Specification”
� RFC 6326, “TRILL Use of IS-IS” � RFC 6327, “RBridges: Adjacency” � RFC 6361, “TRILL over PPP” � RFC 6439, “RBridges: Appointed Forwarders” � RFC 6847, “FCoE over TRILL” � RFC 6850, “Definitions of Managed Objects for
RBridges” (MIB) � RFC 6905, “TRILL OAM Requirements”
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STANDARDIZATION STATUS l Document that are fully approved and in the RFC Editor’s
Queue. These are expected to issue as standards track RFCs soon: l “TRILL: Fine Grained Labeling:
l https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/draft-ietf-trill-fine-labeling/
l “TRILL: BFD Support” l https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/draft-ietf-trill-rbridge-bfd/
l “TRILL: RBridge Channel Support” l https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/draft-ietf-trill-rbridge-channel/
l “TRILL: Edge Directory Assistance Framework” l https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/draft-ietf-trill-directory-framework/
l “TRILL: Clarifications, Corrections, and Updates” l https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/draft-ietf-trill-clear-correct/
l “TRILL: Header Extension” l https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/draft-ietf-trill-rbridge-extension/
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Standardization Status ¢ Non-IETF Assignments:
� Ethertypes assigned by IEEE: ¢ TRILL Data: 0x22F3 ¢ TRILL IS-IS: 0x22F4 ¢ TRILL Fine Grained Labeling: 0x893B ¢ RBridge Channel: 0x8946
� Block of multicast addresses assigned to TRILL by IEEE: ¢ 01-80-C2-00-00-40 to 01-80-C2-00-00-4F
� TRILL NLPID (Network Layer Protocol ID) assigned from ISO/IEC: 0xC0
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MORE TRILL REFERENCES
¢ TRILL Introductory Internet Protocol Journal Article: � http://www.cisco.com/web/about/ac123/ac147/
archived_issues/ipj_14-3/143_trill.html
¢ The first paper: Perlman, Radia. “Rbridges:
Transparent Routing”, Proceeding Infocom 2004, March 2004. � http://www.ieee-infocom.org/2004/Papers/26_1.PDF
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SOME TRILL FUTURES l Carrier grade OAM l Directory Assisted Edge:
l In data centers, the location of all MAC and IP address and virtual machines is typically known through orchestration. This information can be provided to edge TRILL switches by a directory.
l Directory information can be Pushed or Pulled and can reduce or eliminate ARP (IPv4), ND (IPv6), and unknown unicast MAC flooding.
l Active-active at the edge l Multi-level and Multi-topology support
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END
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Donald E. Eastlake 3rd
Co-Chair, TRILL Working Group Principal Engineer, Huawei
Backup Slides
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Donald E. Eastlake 3rd
Co-Chair, TRILL Working Group Principal Engineer, Huawei
Algorhyme (Spanning Tree) ¢ I think that I shall never see ¢ A graph more lovely than a tree. ¢ A tree whose crucial property ¢ Is loop-free connectivity. ¢ A tree that must be sure to span ¢ So packets can reach every LAN. ¢ First, the root must be selected. ¢ By ID, it is elected. ¢ Least-cost paths from root are traced. ¢ In the tree, these paths are placed. ¢ A mesh is made by folks like me, ¢ Then bridges find a spanning tree. ¢ - By Radia Perlman
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Structure of an RBridge October 2013
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Central Processing IS-IS, Mgmt., Etc.
Switching fabric
Po
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Po
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Po
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Po
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Links to other devices. Could be 802.3 (Ethernet), 802.11 (Wi-Fi), PPP, …
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Structure of an RBridge Port O
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Assumes an Ethernet (802.3) link. Information Frame & Info
802.3 Physical Interface 802.3 Link
802.1/802.3 Low Level Control Frame Processing, Port/Link Control Logic
802.1Q Port VLAN
Processing
RBridge: High Level Control Frame
Processing (BPDU, VRP)
ISS
RBridge: Higher Level Processing (see next slide) R
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Tu
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Structure of an RBridge Port O
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Information Frame & Info
Lower Level Processing (see previous slide)
RBridge: Inter-port Forwarding, IS-IS, Management, Etc.
Appointed Forwarder and
Inhibition Logic
Native frames
Encapsulation / Decapsulation
Processing
TRILL IS-IS Hellos
TRILL IS-IS Hello
Processing
TRILL Data Other TRILL IS-IS
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TRILL Data
Loop Avoidance ¢ All possible forms of looping behavior within a
TRILL campus can be grouped into one of three classes: � TRILL Data Packet Loops, in which the packet would
remain TRILL encapsulated. � Hybrid TRILL Data / Native Frame Loops, in which
the frame is repeatedly encapsulated and decapsulated.
� Native Frame Loops, in which the frame is never encapsulated. ¢ Since TRILL always encapsulates data, if you have this
problem, no RBridges are involved so it is not TRILL’s fault.
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Loop Avoidance ¢ TRILL Data Packet Loops:
� Known unicast TRILL Data packets have a hop count and are always unicast to the next hop RBridge towards their destination.
� Multi-destination TRILL Data packets must be received on a port which is part of their distribution tree, the ingress RBridge nickname and input port must pass a Reverse Path Forwarding Check, and they have a hop count.
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Loop Avoidance ¢ Hybrid TRILL Data / Native Frame Loops:
� Such a loop would require, at some point around the loop, that a TRILL Data packet be decapsulated onto a link by one RBridge and then picked up and re-encapsulated by another RBridge.
� TRILL takes great care to minimize the probability of there being two uninhibited appointed forwarders on the same link for the same VLAN. ¢ Under certain conditions, an RBridge appointed forwarder
is inhibited from accepting or sending native frames. This only affects native frames. An RBridge port is never inhibited or blocked from sending or receiving TRILL Data or TRILL IS-IS frames except by very low level link flow control mechanisms such as PAUSE or if the port has been manually configured as disabled.
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What About Re-Ordering? ¢ RBridges are required to maintain frame
ordering internally, modulo flow categorization. ¢ When multi-pathing is used, all frames for an
order-dependent flow must be sent on the same path if unicast or the same distribution tree if multi-destination.
¢ Unicast re-ordering can occur briefly when a destination address transitions between being known and unknown, or a topology change occurs. � This can be minimized with keep-alives, ESADI,
distribution tree per RBridge, or configured addresses.
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PDU Types ¢ PDU Type Names Used in TRILL
� TRILL Packets ¢ TRILL IS-IS Packets– Used for routing control
between RBridges. ¢ TRILL Data Packets– Used for encapsulated
native frames. � Layer 2 Control Frames – Bridging control, LLDP,
LACP, etc. Never forwarded by RBridges. � Native Frames – All frames that are not TRILL or
Layer 2 Control Frames.
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PDU Types, More Detail ¢ TRILL Packets– Ethernet local link encoding
� TRILL Data packets – Have the TRILL Ethertype and are sent to a unicast address or, if multi-destination, to the All-RBridges multicast address.
� TRILL IS-IS Packets – Have the L2-IS-IS Ethertype and are sent to the All-IS-IS-RBridges multicast address.
� (TRILL Other packets– sent to a TRILL multicast address but not a TRILL Data or TRILL IS-IS frame. Not currently used.)
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PDU Types, More Detail ¢ Layer 2 Control Frames – Destination Address is
01-80-C2-00-00-00 to 01-80-C2-00-00-0F or 01-80-C2-00-00-21 � High Level – BPDU (01-80-C2-00-00-00) & VLAN
Registration (01-80-C2-00-00-21) ¢ RBridges handle these differently from bridges. The
spanning tree protocol never runs through an RBridge but an RBridge port is not prohibited from participating in spanning tree as a leaf node.
� Low Level – all other control frames ¢ An RBridge port may implement other Layer 2 protocols
such as LLDP (Link Layer Discovery Protocol), 802.1AX (Link Aggregation), 802.1X (Port Based Access Control), 802.1AE (MAC Security), and the like.
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