Transformational Leadership & Job Performance: The Role of

Organizational Commitment in The Public Primary and

Secondary Education Sector in Tanzania

Andrew J. Mahiga (642935)

Dissertation in Public Policy & Management

15PFMC989-A16/17

15TH September, 2017

Word count: 10,381

MSc Public Policy & Management

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DECLARATION Student Name: Andrew J. Mahiga

Student ID: 642935

Name of Programme of Study: MSc Public Policy & Management

Declaration: I have read and understood the School Regulations concerning plagiarism and I

undertake: • That all material presented for examination is my own work and has not been

written for me, in whole or in part by any other person(s). • That any quotation or paraphrase

from the published or unpublished work of another person has been duly acknowledged in the

dissertation • That I have not incorporated in this dissertation without acknowledgement any

work previously submitted by me for any other module forming part of my degree.

Signature: …Andrew J. Mahiga………Date: ………September 15th, 2017…………………

I give permission for a copy of my dissertation to be held for reference, at the School’s

discretion.

Signature: …Andrew J. Mahiga…… Date: ……September 15th, 2017………………………

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ABSTRACT

This study looks into how public primary and secondary education is delivered in Tanzania. It

will look for links – if any - between employees from schools and other public education

institutions, with transformational leadership and organizational commitment, as well as

organizational goals and tasks and how they are perceived and implemented by these

employees when it comes to job performance. Because public education policies, goals and

objectives are often changed or amended in Tanzania depending on the political and economic

environment, this research paper will not focus on whether the policies are good or bad, but

rather how these policies are received and delivered by the organizations and institutions

responsible for implementing them.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thank you to my friend and research assistant in Dar-es-Salaam, Rogers Katuma for his efforts

in assisting with data collection. Thank you to Jacqueline Isaack for her assistance with data

inputting. Thank you to Upendo Mbala in Dodoma, for her efforts data collection. Thank you

to the Tanzania Commission for Science & Technology (COSTECH) for providing the permit

to conduct this research. Thank you to the Tanzanian Ministry of Education, Science &

Technology, The National Examinations Council of Tanzania, Teachers Service Commission,

Tanzania Institute of Education, Msasani Primary Schools, Oysterbay Primary and Secondary

Schools and all the various teachers and staff that took part in this research. Without you all

this would not be possible.

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CONTENTS

List of Charts & Tables…………………………………………………………………6

Abbreviations…………………………………………………………………………...7

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………..…8

Literature Review: 3 Constructs…………………………………………………….…17

-Transformational Leadership…………………………………………………19

-Transformational Leadership in Tanzania…………………………………….29

- Job Performance…………………….………………………………………..29

- Organizational Commitment…………………...…………………………….21

Hypothesis Development………………………………………………………………24

Research Methods & Data Collection……………………………………………..…..28

Measures………………………………………………………………….……………33

Results……………………………….…………………………………….…………33

Discussion……………………………….…………………………………..…………36

- Theoretical Implications……………………………………….…………..37

- Practical Implications……………………………………………….……..38

Challenges & Suggestions For Future Research…………..…………………………..39

Conclusion……………………………………………..………………………………42

References..………………………………………………….……………………..….44

Appendix……………………………………..………………………………………..50

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LIST OF CHARTS & TABLES

Chart 1: Comparison of Total Enrolment of Pupils in Primary School, 1961 – 2016 Chart 2: Secondary Education Comparative Enrolment Trend, 1973-2016 Table 1: No. Of Student Enrollments & Teaching Staff in Tanzanian Public Primary & Secondary Schools, 2016 Table 2: Descriptive statistics, reliability coefficients, and correlation Table 3: Hypothesis 1 Test: Transformational Leadership vs. Job Performance Table 4: Hypothesis 2 Test: Organizational Commitment vs. Job Performance Table 5: Hypothesis 3 Test: Transformational Leaderships vs. Organizational Commitment

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ABBREVIATIONS

AC – Affective Commitment

COSTECH - Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology

IC – Individualized Consideration

II – Idealized Influence

IM – Inspirational Motivation

IS – Intellectual Stimulation

MoEST –Ministry of Education, Science & Technology

MOTCO – Morogoro Teachers College

NACTE – National Examination Council of Tanzania

PER – Job Performance

TIE – Tanzania Institute of Education

TL – Transformational Leadership

TSC – Teachers Service Commission

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INTRODUCTION

History of The Public Education Sector in Tanzania

To understand Tanzania’s current public education system one has to understand Tanzania’s

colonial and post-colonial history. Tanzania was under German colonial rule from 1880 to

1919 and then followed by British colonial rule from 1919 to 1961 (like many other countries

in the region) after Germany lost World War I. I will focus on the British period because it was

the longest period and the British political and education system still has a strong influence in

modern day Tanzania. During this period, the British implemented an education system to

mainly serve two purposes; (a) to create a working class that was just educated and skilled

enough to carry on industrialization policies of the British Empire – specifically in the areas of

agriculture, transportation and construction – and (b) using schools as a means to spread

British ideologies and to justify colonialism and the social classes that it created.

Further to that, the British colonial education system was structured in such a way that the

native Africans were taught and trained to perform manual labor skills to serve industries and

political institutions. This usually meant that the African natives were not taught beyond

primary school level and not in the English language in fear that educating them too much may

lead to social and political consciousness, which would lead to an anti-colonialism uprising.

Asian and other non-African ethnics groups were taught higher levels of education and in the

English language to prepare them for mid-managerial roles in various industries while the

British colonial powers maintained top roles in the political, security and judicial sectors.

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Simply put, “the African system was intended to produce submissiveness, a sense of

inferiority, and an orientation towards extrinsic rewards and punishments.” (Mbilinyi, 1980).

The few native Tanzanians who managed to gain an education higher than the secondary

school level were left with the task of fighting for independence and negotiating terms and

conditions of handing over power with the British, as well as forming a new independent

government.

When Tanzania gained independence from the British in 1961 it inherited major problems in

its education system. Samuel Nguni identifies 6 major problems that the newly independent

Tanzania government faced:

1. The education system was based on racial segregation where each race had its own

education system

2. There were very few native Tanzanians who were educated past primary school during

the colonial period which left a large shortage of mid to highly skilled manpower

3. There was low enrollment in African schools during colonialism which meant that a lot

of Tanzanians did not even have the basic primary level education

4. The colonial system had created urban-rural disparities due to the uneven distribution

of schools

5. There was a large disparity between the enrollment of boys and girls

6. The colonial school curriculum was irrelevant to the needs of the newly formed

independent nation (Nguni, 2005).

Further to these problems, Tanzania was ruled under a socialist one party state through the

leadership of President Julius Nyerere until he left office in 1985. During Nyerere’s rule,

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Tanzania operated under a socio-economic system coined Ujamaa (Kiswahili for

‘brotherhood’ or ‘familyhood’). 1

Under Ujamaa, the government owned and operated all means of production, social and

economic activities. This included the education system where curriculums, teaching standards

and grading criteria were standardized across the country. With the government controlling

the means of production and human capital, the education system focused on producing people

to work within government agencies and their various levels of bureaucracy. Following rules

and instructions to perform certain tasks became a priority over the quality of teaching and/or

the level of learning and performance of students.

Tanzania elected President John Magufuli in 2015, who brought in sweeping reforms and also

announced free public secondary education for all its citizens – which was an addition to the

free public primary education policy, put in place by President Benjamin Mkapa in 2001. This

announcement drastically increased the number of students enrolling into public schools

around the country. A large number of these public schools did not have the capacity to handle

such an influx of new students – both in infrastructure and teaching staff. This has led the

government to embark on a large-scale initiative to build and renovate schools as well as hire

new teaching and non-teaching staff. The downside to such initiatives is that they tend to focus

more on quantity than quality. It is also taking place amidst of a public education system that is

being over-shadowed by reports of unqualified teachers, low teachers salaries and low levels

of teacher attendance.. Below are summaries of historical and current public education

statistics in Tanzania

1Centered on collective agriculture, under a process called villagization, Ujamaa also called for nationalization of banks and industry, and an increased level of self-reliance at both an individual and a national level.

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Chart 1: Comparison of Total Enrolment of Pupils in Primary School, 1961 - 2016

1962 486470 518663

1964 592104 633678

1966 710200 740991

1968 753114 754170

1970 776109 827984

1972 902619 1003596

1974 1106387 1228886

1976 1532953 1874357

1978 2194213 2912984

1980 3197395 3361198

1982 3530622 3503729

1984 3553144 3483944

1986 3160145 3155812

1988 3157200 3165113

1990 3252934 3373362

1992 3507384 3599580

1994 3732943 3793201

1996 3872473 3937204

1998 4051713 4035209

2000 4182677 4370500

2002 4875764 5960368

2004 6531769 7041829

2006 7476650 7959884

2008 8316925 8410094

2010 8441553 8419305

2012 8363386 8292172

2014 8231913 8222667

2016 8245382 8639202

0 1000000 2000000 3000000 4000000 5000000 6000000 7000000 8000000 9000000

Source: United Republic of Tanzania President’s office – Regional Administration & Local Government (TAMISEMI).

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Chart 2: Secondary Education Comparative Enrolment Trend, 1973 - 2016 1973 1977 1979 1981 1983 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016

47127522606117864192683016729667602691447121983098118810132485145242166812175776180899186246196375199093225607226903247579261951289699323318345441

432599524325

67562 0 200000400000600000 800000

10205101222403

14664021638699

17895471884272

1804056194739

17743831806955

1000000 1200000 1400000 1600000 1800000 2000000

NumberofPupils

Source: United Republic of Tanzania President’s office – Regional Administration & Local Government. 2

2TAMISEMI:http://www.tamisemi.go.tz/noticeboard/tangazo-1062-20170113-BEST-Regional-and-Pocket-Data-2016/BEST-2016-Pocket-Size-Final.pdf

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Table 1: No. of Student Enrollments & Teaching Staff in Tanzanian Public Primary & Secondary Schools, 2016 Level of Education

Enrollment

Male Female Total

Teaching Staff

Male Female Total

No. of Schools

Primary 4,115,635 4,225,976 8,341,611 92,096 99,676 191,772 16,087 Secondary (Form 1 – 6) 741,603 727,986 1,469,589 55,446 34,108 89,554 3,601 Secondary (Form 1 – 4) 683,293 693,756 1,377,049

3,566

Secondary (Form 5 – 6) 58,310 34,230 92,540

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TOTAL 5,598,841 5,681,938 11,280,789 147,542 133,784 281,326 23,537 Source: United Republic of Tanzania President’s office – Regional Administration & Local Government (TAMISEMI) The Significance of This Study

The current literature on public education in Tanzania and Africa as a whole mostly looks

at how literacy and numeracy levels can be improved (outputs) and how skills can be

developed, to serve 21st century jobs and build capacity in infrastructure and human

capital (outcomes). There is little academic literature and measurements on motivation

and commitment levels of the individuals and organizations that work within the public

education sector in Tanzania. This include teachers, administrators and policy-makers.

To further emphasize the significance and importance of such a study, a 2013 survey

conducted by UWEZO East Africa to look at the state of primary and secondary

education, found that 18% of Tanzanian teachers were absent from their classes at any

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given time from 2010 – 2012. 3 It is important to understand what caused these absences

and whether levels of transformational leadership (or the lack thereof) or organizational

commitment played any role in that. Another 2013 survey conducted Kari Hartwig

looked at the main challenges facing 105 public schools in Tanzania. A lack of teaching

resources including not receiving or being trained on the latest school curriculum was

identified as one of the biggest challenges facing these schools. Such issues could either

mean a lack of commitment and leadership from various levels of the education system.

Hartwig notes, “Teachers were on the receiving end of policy and not participants”

(Hartiwg, 2013). These challenges will affect the level of motivation and job

performance amongst not only teachers, but may cause a ripple effect onto other

stakeholders in the public education sector.

This study acknowledges the work of Samuel Nguni who makes significant contributions

to this topic in his 2005 Doctoral thesis on the Effects of Transformational Leadership on

Teachers’ Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment and Organizational Citizenship

Behaviour in Tanzanian Primary and Secondary Schools. By not just focusing on the

deliverers of education, this paper looks to make a broader contribution to the literature

by looking at other non-teaching players in the public education sector in Tanzania.

3UWEZO East Africa (2013). Are Our Children Learning? Literacy and Numeracy Across East Africa.

2013 Annual Report: www.uwezo.net

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The Purpose of This Study

The purpose of this study is not to make or suggest any major overhaul to the current

public education sector in Tanzania but rather aims to encourage a more introspective

look by all the various institutions and players that make up this sector. This means

reviewing the way in which staff are hired, trained and incentivized on all levels of an

organization and/or school to ensure that improved levels of accountability and better

teaching standards are reached. Considering that this study looks at various institutions or

organs of the public education sector, I hope that it also encourages these actors to look at

whether their own visions, missions and goals are aligned with the country’s overall

vision for public education.

Research Questions:

In order to guide my research, the following research questions were formulated:

1. What is the influence of transformational leadership on job performance and

organizational commitment in the public education sector in Tanzania?

2. Do the individual dimensions of transformational leadership have different levels

of influence on job performance and organizational commitment in the public

education sector in Tanzania?

3. To what extent does job performance and organizational commitment affect

leadership in the public education sector in Tanzania?

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RESEARCH PHILOSOPHIES AND APPROACH

This study will take on a epistemological perspective using a quantitative interpretivism

approach to look for links – if any – between teaching staff, non-teaching staff and other

employees from educational institutions, with transformational leadership and

organizational commitment and how their organizational goals are implemented when it

comes to their job performance. This approach is best suited for the purpose of this

research as there is no one absolute known truth about the relationship between job

commitment amongst public education sector employees, transformational leadership and

their performance. The way in which the participants in the research relate to and answer

the questionnaires and will determine whether the research hypotheses can be accepted or

rejected.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Transformational Leadership

James Burns (1978) originally conceived the theory or transformational leadership by

studying political leaders and was later put into an organizational context by Bernard

Bass. Transformational leadership has emerged as one of the dominant leadership

concepts of the 21st century (Mhatre & Riggio, 2014; Banks, et. al., 2016;). Bass

extended the work of Burns by distinguishing transactional leadership from

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transformational leadership. Transactional leadership is based more on a rational

exchange model where followers comply with leaders’ requests through the offer of

rewards or punishments due to compliance or incompliance (Bass, 1985; Judge &

Piccolo, 2004). While not ineffective by itself, what the transactional leadership style

fails to do is generate admiration, trust, enthusiasm and respect for the leaders, which are

all features of transformational leadership (Yukl, 2013). Bass writes about the four

components (or the “4 Is”) of Transformational Leadership. These are;

Idealized Influence (II) – The leader serves as an ideal role model for followers and by

demonstrating ethical behavior is admired and respected by them (Wang et. al, 2011).

Inspirational Motivation (IM) – The leader inspires and motivates followers by

developing and articulating a shared vision. A captivating vision is an important part of

transformational leadership, as it idealizes a future state that is more appealing than the

status quo and acts as a unifying component to allow people from different departments

of an organization to contribute to something bigger than them as individuals (Shamir,

House & Arthur, 1993).

Individualized Consideration (IC) – The leader demonstrates a genuine concern for the

feelings and needs of followers and helps them achieve their full potential. Followers are

treated as unique individuals with specific aspiration; abilities and developmental needs

that can all contribute to turning an organization’s vision into a reality (Bass & Stogdill,

1990).

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Intellectual Stimulation (IS) – The leader challenges followers to apply creative and

innovative thinking in solving workplace problems (Bass, 1985). The leader challenges

long-standing norms and assumption, supports a learning orientation and encourages

followers to look at problems from different perspective (Wang et al., 2011). The leader

encourages experimentation so that followers can discover processes and practices that

are more in-line with the organization’s vision.

Podsakoff et. al developed Bass’ four-dimensional framework of transformational

leadership by suggesting that transformational leadership encompasses six behaviors;

“identifying and articulating a vision, fostering the acceptance of group goals, high

performance expectations, providing an appropriate model, providing individualized

support to staff and intellectual stimulation” (Podsakoff et al., 1990). Carless et. al. built

on Podsakoff et. al’s work but distinguished it from providing support to staff, the

behaviors of encouraging individual development and substituting charisma for high

performance expectations. They identified the following seven transformational

leadership behaviors; “communicates a vision, develops staff, provides support,

empowers staff, leads by example, is innovative and is charismatic” (Carless et. al.,

2000).

TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN TANZANIA

Considering that transformational leadership is a relatively new theory with origins from

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the west, there is very little literature on transformational leadership in developing

countries (especially in the public sector), let alone Tanzania. Like many African states,

Tanzania has a traditional and patriarchal history as far as leadership goes. After gaining

independence Tanzania went through a phase of nation building and creating a sense of

national pride and unity. The person tasked with this transition was its founding father

President Julius Nyerere. Nyerere displayed great charismatic and “great-man theory”

leadership traits during his rule – which were further amplified by his socialist policies

that created social and economic equality in the country. He was and is still seen by many

as a visionary leader and some may argue that Tanzania has not seen a visionary leader

like him every since. However whether Nyerere was a transformational leader or whether

he was just a leader who made the necessary decisions considering the political and

economic climate of the time is still a debate depending on what perspective one chooses

to look at it. 4

JOB PERFORMANCE

Job performance can be summarized as how is effectively or ineffectively employees

execute activities to contribute towards an organization’s goals (McCloy, Campbell, &

Cudeck, 1994; Motowidlo, 2003. There is a strong relationship between job satisfaction

and job performance, under the assumption that satisfied employees will perform more at

their jobs. Job satisfaction has been studied in depth but there is still no consensus on its

meaning, definition or measures (Rainey, 2014). What differentiates job satisfaction from

4See‘DeconstructingUjamaa:TheLegacyofJuliusNyerereintheQuestForSocialandEconomicDevelopmentinAfrica’(Ibhawoh&Dibua,2003).

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job performance is the attribute of effort. While many studies treat effort as part of job

performance, Christen et. al, argue that it is important to separate effort from job

performance in that “effort is an input of work while job performance is an output of this

effort” (Christen et. al, 2006). This measurement of effort is what distinguishes job

satisfaction from job performance.

In recent years some scholars have expanded job performance to include multiple groups

of performance behaviors (Rotundo & Sackett, 2002). These are; (a) Core task

performance – this refers to the minimum required duties of a particular job, (b)

Citizenship performance – this refers to the tasks performed that are above and beyond

the job requirement, that promote and strengthen the organization’s effectiveness, (c)

Counterproductive performance – this refers to behaviors that harm the well-being of

the organization (Bennett & Robinson, 2000) and (d) Creativity – this refers to the extent

in which employees generate new and useful ideas to help improve the productivity of the

organization (Anderson et. al, 2004).

Employee job performance has been found to have a positive relationship with The Big

Five Personality Traits of a person – in the case of this study, a leader. These traits are;

extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism and openness (Barricks, Park

& Mount, 2005). Extraversion is characterized by assertiveness, sociability and high

amounts of emotional expressiveness. Extraverted leaders have great and effective

communications skills and tend to develop a higher number of relationships with

employees, which increase employee motivation and job performance (Colquitt & Le-

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Pine, 2009). Agreeableness is characterized by kindness, trust, altruism and affection.

Leaders with high agreeableness traits have positive work relationships, avoid conflicts

and are concerned about employee growth and development which increases job

performance (Judge & Bono, 2004). Conscientiousness is characterized by high levels of

thoughtfulness and goal-oriented behavior and is the most predictive of job performance

(Hurtz & Donovan, 2000). Conscientious leaders instill self-discipline in employees,

make them recognize the importance of reaching goals and give them satisfaction in

performing their duties effectively (Anderson, 2004). Neuroticism is a trait characterized

by sadness, moodiness and emotional instability. Leaders exhibiting high neurotic

characteristics would not be able to effectively measure the quality and quantity of

employee job performance (Niehoff, 2006), which would result in less ambition, focus

and goal-setting for employees and in turn decrease their job performance (Barrick &

Mount, 1991; Malouff et. al, 1990). High levels of insight and imagination characterize

openness. Although leaders exhibiting more openness traits may be able to better diffuse

workplace conflicts - which would decrease the negative factors of job performance

(Mark & John, 2000) -, according to McCrae and Costa (1997), the relationship between

leaders exhibiting high levels of openness and follower job performance remains a

debated issue and requires further research.

ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT

Organizational commitment ties employees and managers to their organizations. It has

several important functions in supporting the health and well being of an organization as

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well as helping organizations adapt to difficult and unforeseen conditions (Perry and

Wise, 1990; Buchanan, 1974). Given the existence of individual differences in

commitment and loyalty towards organizations (Rainey, 2014), an important challenge

for most organizations is not only to attract and motivate talented individuals but also to

retain them and win their loyalty (Buchanan 1974). Mowday et al. define organizational

commitment as “the relative strength of an individual’s identification with and

involvement in a particular organization” (Mowday, 1979). They described three

characteristics of organizational commitment as: (1) “a strong belief in and acceptance of

the organizations’ goals and values; (2) “a willingness to exert considerable effort on

behalf of the organization”; and (3) “a strong desire to maintain membership in the

organization.” While Mowday et al. focus on a single dimension of organizational

commitment, which is based on the affective (i.e. emotional) attachment of an

individual), subsequent work has led to a multi-dimensional construct of organizational

commitment that includes other factors influencing employee behavior and their retention

in the organization (Mowday, 1998). These are; “continuance or calculative

commitment” - which is a commitment to stay due to economic incentives, “attitudinal or

affective commitment” - which represents an individual’s emotional attachment to the

organization and its values; and “normative commitment” - which is based on the feeling

of moral obligation to remain in the organization (Mathieu and Zajac, 1990; Meyer and

Allen, 1991; Stazyk et al., 2011).

It is important to note that the normative and continuance bases of commitment have

been critiqued for their inconsistencies with affective commitment. Scholars have argued

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that attitudes to continue being part of an organization for financial gains or other

unavoidable reasons may not necessarily be related to higher affective commitment or

loyalty towards the organization. It implies that “uncommitted” individuals may continue

to be part of an organization, while individuals who are affectively committed to the

organization may still leave (Solinger et al., 2008; Stazyk et al. 2011).

Existing literature has highlighted that affective organizational commitment has several

practical and theoretical implications. Affective commitment is found to be strongly

related to organizational outcomes such as attendance, performance, and organizational

citizenship behavior, as well as individual outcomes such as improving stress and work–

family conflicts (Meyer et al., 2002; Stazyk et al., 2011). This research will only focus on

the affective dimension of organizational commitment.

HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT

Before developing hypotheses for the three variables of transformational leadership,

organizational commitment and job performance, it is importance to point out the

augmentation hypothesis in this research. The augmentation hypothesis has been an

ongoing theme within transformational leadership research literature. It proposes that

transformational leadership adds to the base of transactional leadership. In other words

transformational leadership theory is built upon the foundation of transactional leadership

(Judge & Piccolo, 2004). To evaluate and differentiate these two diverging leadership

styles, Bass (1985) hypothesized that transformational leadership adds unique variances

24

beyond that of transactional leadership for predicting the outcomes of an organization.

This augmentation effect of transformational leadership was found when predicting

subjective (i.e. follower satisfaction) and objective (i.e. political or economic conditions)

measures of performance (Waldman, Bass, & Yammarino, 1990; Geyer & Steyrer, 1998).

Transformational leaders motivate followers to give more effort on behalf of the

organization by explaining how their respective tasks contribute to making the shared

vision of an organization into a reality (Wang et al., 2011). Hence, followers become

more intrinsically motivated to perform at higher levels as they view the outcome of their

work to be more meaningful and significant (Bono & Judge, 2003). Transformational

leaders set high standards and create in their followers the confidence that they can

achieve their goals (Shamir et al., 1993).

This increased belief in one’s ability to accomplish certain tasks positively affects

performance (Bandura, 1997). More so, through individualized consideration (IC)

behavior, transformational leaders attend to the needs of their followers and provide them

with the coaching and support necessary to accomplish their tasks (Howell & Hall-

Merenda, 1999). Finally, through intellectual stimulation (IS), transformational leaders

evoke higher levels of employee innovation and creativity that may result in higher

performance improvements by followers (Jung et. al, 2003).

Findings from several empirical studies indeed suggest that transformational leadership

enhances employee performance (Kovjanic et. al, 2013;; Bono & Judge, 2003; Koh et. al,

25

1996; Barling et. al, 1995;). Recent work by Wang et al., (2011) found that

transformational leadership had a positive relationship with follower task performance.

Thus with the literary evidence mentioned above:

Hypothesis 1: Transformational leadership is positively related to job performance.

Chester Barnard noted that coalescence between an individual and their organization

increases as the individual devotes more of their time to the organization (Barnard, 1938).

In other words the more time an individual spends in or around the organization, the more

the individual’s personal goals mirror that of the organization’s. This has also been linked

to employee performance in more recent research (Liu, Loi, & Lam, 2011; Walumbwa,

et. al, 2008).

Job performance can be differentiated in two ways; (i) in-role performance which is task

performance that is explicitly stated in one’s job description or contract, and (ii) extra-

role performance which is organizational citizenship behavior5 that is not explicitly

required by one’s job description. Bass’ (1985) “four I’s”, described earlier, are regarded

as transformational in the sense that they turn employees into high performers.

As employees’ beliefs about their organization become self-defining, employees with

strong organizational commitment can be expected to be more willing to serve the

interests of the organization to the best of their ability (Carmeli, Gilat, & Waldman,

5SeeOrganizationalCitizenshipBehaviorbyDennisW.Organ(1988).

26

2007). As personal and organizational values and goals become increasingly intertwined,

employees with higher levels of organizational commitment can be expected to work

harder to continue to partake in organizational successes and avoid organizational

failures. Therefore working on behalf of the organization becomes similar to working on

the individual’s behalf (Ashforth et al., 2008). Organizational commitment can also

create a strong sense of belonging among employees, which possibly motivates

individuals to give their best efforts for the sake of the team. Hence:

Hypothesis 2: Organizational commitment is positively related to job performance

There are theoretical reasons to expect a positive relationship between Transformational

leadership and organizational commitment (Epitropaki & Martin, 2005).

Transformational leadership promotes contribution to the group, organizational justice

and fosters pride in being a member of a group (Shamir et. al, & Popper, 1998; Zhu et al.,

2012 & Yang, 2012). Transformational leaders create a sense of belonging to a larger

group and a feeling of “being part of something greater” (Deaux, et.al, & Cotting, 1999).

Through the process of organizational commitment, members of the organization share

the successes and failures and become psychologically woven with the fate of the

organization (Tolman, 1943; Mael & Ashforth, 1992;). One point that transformational

leadership and organizational commitment have in common is that they both emphasize

emotional aspects. Tajfel (1978) argued that social identity does not only require

cognitive identification but also demands the ‘emotional significance’ of being part of a

group and that the process of belonging and attachment is emotionally weighted

27

(Edwards, 2005). Harquail noted that identification “engages more than our cognitive

self-categorization and our brains, it engages our hearts” (Harquail, 1998). This

reinforces identification and commitment to an organization.

Transformational leaders frequently use emotions to appeal to the hearts of their

followers (Yukl, 2013). They express positive emotions more frequently to enthuse

followers through triggering their emotions, that activates their higher-order needs and

makes them more aware of the importance of their task outcomes (Barsade, 2002). More

so, individuals are likely to feel that their organization can offer greater future

opportunities and development prospects because transformational leaders pay more

attention to developing employees’ potential (Moriano et. al, & Mangin, 2011). Thus:

Hypothesis 3: Transformational leadership is positively related to Organizational

Commitment.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY & DATA COLLECTION

The primary data for the dissertation was collected in the cities of Dar-es-Salaam,

Dodoma and Morogoro in Tanzania through 3 phases of questionnaires with up to 4-

week intervals between each questionnaire. All three sets of questionnaires were handed

out to staff members at the following institutions, organizations and public schools in

Tanzania:

28

• The Ministry of Education, Science & Technology (MoEST), Dodoma – the

institution responsible for all Education Policies, Research, Technology, Science,

Innovation, Library Services, Skills, Training and Development and their

services.

• The National Examination Council of Tanzania (NECTA), Dar-es-Salaam –

the Institution responsible for the administration of all National Examinations in

Tanzania.

• Teacher’s Service Commission (TSC), Dodoma – the organization responsible

for all Recruitment, Development and Disciplinary matters related to teachers in

Tanzania.

• Morogoro Teachers College (MOTCO), Morogoro – the institution responsible

for providing teacher training and giving teaching qualifications (certificates and

degree programs).

• Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE), Dar-es-Salaam – is a parastatal

organization under The Ministry of Education that is responsible for ensuring the

quality of education from pre-school, primary, secondary and teacher training

levels.

• Oysterbay Primary School - Dar-es-Salaam

• Oysterbay Secondary School - Dar-es-Salaam

• Msasani “A” Primary School - Dar-es-Salaam

• Msasani “B” Primary School - Dar-es-Salaam

29

The questions are all in the form of multiple-choice answers written in Kiswahili and a

back translation method was used to translate the questions into Kiswahili and the

answers back into English. In total 202 sets of questionnaires were collected from

individuals from the above-mentioned, institutions, organizations and schools.

MEASURES

Transformational Leadership

Transformational leadership was measured using a seven-item scale created by Carless et

al. (2000). Participants were asked to report the leadership behavior of their direct

supervisor on a 5-point Likert scale. Sample items included ‘My supervisor keeps my

interests in mind when making decisions’ and ‘My supervisor gives encouragement and

recognition to staff.’ The Cronbach’s Alpha for this scale was 0.85.

Organizational Commitment

Organizational commitment (dependent variable) was measured by using the 6-item scale

of affective organizational commitment used by Meyer et al. (1993). This scale contains

one three-item scale to measure “affective commitment.” As with the other measures,

each respondent will be required to rate his or her organizational commitment on a 5-

point Likert scale ranging from 1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree. A sample item

30

is: ‘This organization has a great deal of personal meaning for me.’ The Cronbach’s

Alpha for this scale was 0.67.

Job Performance

A multiple-item measurement of job performance (independent variable) will be used. A

sample survey item is: ‘I get my work done very effectively’ measured on a 5-point

Likert-type scale ranging from 1 for strongly disagrees to 5 for strongly agree. A similar

scale was used by Barrick, Parks & Mount (2005) and other researchers in public and

private sector management. The Cronbach’s Alpha for this scale was 0.65.

Control Variables

Five control variables will be included in the analysis: gender, age, education, tenure in

the organization and tenure in the job. Gender will be coded as a dummy variable where

0=female and 1=male. Education will be coded as a dummy variable where 1 = bellow

high school, 2 = high school, 3 = technical college/diploma, 4 = bachelor degree, 5=

masters degree and 6 = doctoral degree. Tenure will be represented as nominal figures.

RESULTS

The mean, standard deviations, correlation, and reliability coefficients of all study

variables are reported in Table 2 below.

31

Table 2. Descriptive statistics, reliability coefficients, and correlation Variable Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1.Gender 1.4604 0.49967

2.Age 42.4626 7.35 .017

3.Education 3.445 0.951 -.182** -.085

4.Tenure Organization 11.3144 7.500 0.140* 0.650** -0.368** 5.Tenure Job 11.0569 7.207 1.154* 0.600** -0.361** 0.766**

6.Affective Commitment 2.9611 0.205 -0.002 0.031 0.152* 0.073 0.047

7.Transformational Leadership 3.2234 0.219 0.060 -0.032 0.072 -0.017 -0.012 0.313**

8.Job Performance 2.4742 0.172 0.035 -0.074 0.185** -0.015 -0.011 0.117 0.063

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

The above table shows some expected correlations between the control variables and

between the control variables and the measurement variables, and some unexpected

correlations as well. Age, education, job tenure and organization tenure show strong

correlations, as one would expect the older a person is, the higher the probability they

have gone through more years of education and the longer they would have been at an

organization. This is especially relevant to the respondents of this study as they show a

mean of 11 years for both organizational tenure and job tenure. The unexpected

correlation was between the control variables gender and education. This can be

explained by the fact that a smaller percentage (45%) of the total 202 respondents were

women and that women made up larger percentage (66%) of the primary and secondary

schools teachers where higher levels of education are not required.

32

Table 3. Hypothesis 1 Test: Transformational Leadership vs. Job Performance

Dependent Variable: PER

The above table tested for the positive correlation between transformation leadership

(TL) and job performance (PER), where job performance was measured as the

dependent variable and transformational leadership was measured as the independent

variable. Due to the significance value of .226 being lower than a 95% confidence

interval, there is not enough evidence in the data to prove that transformational

leadership has a positive relationship to job performance; therefore null Hypothesis 1

is not supported.

Model

Unstandardized Coefficients

Standardized Coefficients

t Sig. B Std. Error Beta 1 (Constant) 2.316 .179 12.915 .000

TL .049 .055 .063 .884 .378 2 (Constant) 1.334 .031 42.629 .000

TL .011 .009 .014 1.214 .226 Performance 1 .090 .002 .473 37.287 .000 Performance 2 .092 .003 .415 30.246 .000 Performance 3 .093 .003 .387 29.576 .000

33

Table 4: Hypothesis 2 Test: Organizational Commitment vs. Job Performance

Dependent Variable: PER

The above table tested for the positive correlation between organizational

commitment (AC) and job performance (PER), where job performance was measured

as the dependent variable and affective commitment was measured as the independent

variable Due to the significance value of .175 being lower than a 95% confidence

interval, there is not enough evidence in the data to prove that organizational

commitment has a positive relationship to job performance; therefore null Hypothesis

2 is not supported.

Model

Unstandardized Coefficients

Standardized Coefficients

t Sig. B Std. Error Beta 1 (Constant) 2.183 .176 12.416 .000

AC .098 .059 .117 1.660 .098 2 (Constant) 1.405 .030 46.792 .000

AC -.013 .010 -.016 -1.360 .175 Performance 1 .090 .002 .471 37.164 .000 Performance 2 .092 .003 .419 30.440 .000 Performance 3 .094 .003 .388 29.624 .000

34

Table 5: Hypothesis 3 Test: Transformational Leaderships vs. Organizational

Commitment

Model

Unstandardized Coefficients

Standardized Coefficients

t Sig. B Std. Error Beta 1 (Constant) 2.019 .203 9.956 .000

TL .292 .063 .313 4.657 .000 2 (Constant) 1.876 .218 8.612 .000

TL .279 .063 .300 4.457 .000 Performance 1 -.011 .017 -.048 -.651 .516 Performance 2 .032 .021 .120 1.497 .136 Performance 3 .023 .022 .081 1.056 .292

Dependent Variable: AC

The above table tested for the positive correlation between organizational

commitment (AC) and job performance (PER), where affective commitment was

measured as the dependent variable and transformational leadership was measured as

the independent variable. The significance value of this data is .000 which shows a

99% confidence interval, therefore this evidence is sufficient to prove that

transformational leadership is positively related to organizational commitment;

therefore null Hypothesis 3 is supported.

DISCUSSION

The data presented in this study did not support two of the three hypotheses that were

presented. There are three possible reasons why these hypotheses were not supported:

(a) Sample size – the sample size of 202 respondents may have not been large

enough to give concrete evidence of the positive relationships between

35

transformational leadership and job performance and organizational commitment

and job performance. With over 25,000 public primary and secondary schools in

the country and 280,000 teaching staff and more working in other areas of the

education system, the sample size may have not been a fair representation.

(b) Type of respondents – over half the respondents for this study were primary and

secondary school teachers who did not and do not report to or interact with a

supervisor or line manager on a regular basis compared to those who may work in

other institutions such as The Ministry of Education, TSC and TIE. Unlike

employees of these institutions, teachers work in a more autonomous way. If the

sample size included a more diverse group of public education employees, the

data may have produced different results.

(c) Timing of data-collection – related to the above point, the questionnaires for this

study were handed out to respondents between the months of July and September

when some schools were closed for end of term; which would further decrease the

likelihood of teachers and other staff interacting with their supervisors. Other

aspects of the timing of data-collection with the non-school respondents of this

study will be discussed in the ‘Challenges and Suggestions For Future Research’

section below.

The respondents from the non-school organizations may, in a large part have influenced

the supported hypothesis of transformational leadership having a positive relationship to

organizational commitment. With these organizations having more bureaucratic

structures, employees more frequently interact and engage with their supervisors and

managers. However further insights remain to be developed in identifying which of the

36

four (if any) dimensions of transformational leadership caused this strong correlation to

organizational commitment.

Theoretical Implications

Although most empirical evidence and studies on transformational leaderships has come

from organizations in the developed world, this research on the Tanzanian context and

the support of one of its hypotheses has confirmed Bass’ (1985, 1997) claim on the

universality of transformational leadership across different societies and nations. He

argues that despite organizational and cultural difference, the same phenomenon and

relationships can be observed under transformational leadership. However, he does

mention that exceptions to this generalization may occur which could be caused by

oddities within specific organizations or cultures, which could give transformational

leadership a weaker influence (Bass, 1997). The findings from the data in this research

which as refuted two of the three hypotheses is evidence of such oddities. Therefore

further research and case studies from the Tanzanian (by looking at different public

sectors) and African (by looking at different countries) context needs to be conducted in

order to confirm Bass’s assumptions with greater confidence. Furthermore, this research

only looked at the relationships between transformational leaderships, job performance

and organizational commitment. Studying other variables such as organizational climate,

organizational identification, organizational citizenship, trust in the leader and

satisfaction with the leader may have produced different results in the Tanzanian context.

37

Practical Implications

This research has two major practical implications. The first is in introducing leadership

training and development programs in the institutions and organizations where they do

not exist, and the second is revising leadership-training and development programs in the

institutions and organizations where they already exist but may not be effective. Further

to this, two different types of leadership training programs need to be considered (a)

leadership training programs for tenured individuals who have been working in a certain

job position or organization for a long time and (b) training programs for individuals

aspiring to work within certain organizations. With the former type of training, more

emphasis needs to be put on understanding their organizational culture and identifying

the individual personalities within their organization, while the latter type of training

should focus more on learning leaderships theories and styles and identifying where they

would best fit within an organization.

CHALLENGES AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

Quite a number of obstacles were encountered during this research – specifically at the

data-collection stage. The two biggest challenges were dealing with the bureaucratic

nature of public sector bodies in Tanzania. One of these obstacles is the requirement to

apply for and be granted a research permit through the Tanzania Commission for Science

and Technology (COSTECH). The COSTECH Board meets only once a year to review

38

all research applications and makes a decision on whether permits will be given or not.

There permit also comes with different fees depending on the type of research and

whether it is being conducted by a Tanzanian or non-Tanzanian citizen. Fortunately we

were able to get this permit within two weeks.

Aside from COSTECH, the individual agencies that took part in the research also

required for the research request letters and sample questionnaires to pass through various

levels of decision-makers before we were given access to their staff. Although they were

working within the education sector and a lot of the participants were familiar with

surveys and the process of data-collection, they had never had to take part in any research

or workplace surveys themselves, therefore did not know how whether to treat our

research as a workplace or non-workplace task. This discovery was telling of how such

organizations operate as far as gathering (or not gathering) internal information and

insights from staff that could benefit the performance of the organizations.

There was an uncertainty or reluctance to participate encountered amongst various

institutions that took part in the research that may have also affected the way in which

participants answered the survey questions. Being that the surveys had to pass through

various levels of approval and finally participants being given orders from their

supervisors to answer the questions, participants may have treated the surveys like

official work documentation and may have not answered the questions as openly and

honestly as we would have expected, had they not had been given specific directives to

do so from their supervisors.

39

Related to the above point, job security was a strong underlying issue throughout my

data-collection process that I did not give much attention to prior to beginning my

research. There was a strong and sometimes undistinguishable relationship between job

security and organizational commitment. At various points throughout speaking to

individuals at the various agencies, it came to my realization that people may or may not

be committed to their jobs or organizations not because of self-motivation or strong

leadership, but because they were more concerned about losing a stable job. That fear of

losing a job is what motivated them to perform their job, irrespective of other factors or

people – exhibiting traits of more transactional leadership than transformational

leadership.

Another link to job security, which would be a possible link to organizational

commitment and job performance, is salary levels. Although it is widely assumed that

public sector employees have an inherent, non-monetary motivation to work in the public

sector6, it would have been insightful to measure – if to any degree – an increase or

decrease in salaries amounts would affect organizational commitment and job

performance. For this research this would mean changing the data collection

methodology by introducing the salary variable to the questionnaires as well as taking a

more comparative approach by looking at the differences in salaries within and across

different organizations. I believe there would have been significant findings, especially

from the individuals who held more senior positions within organizations, not only by

6SeePublicServiceMotivation(Perry&Wise,1990).

40

looking at their levels of pay, but how their salaries were determined (i.e. by their tenure,

level of education or both). The issues of salaries is especially important amongst

teachers as there have been ongoing debates about the low levels of salaries for public

school teachers in Tanzania compared to other public sector jobs. 7 This is exacerbated by

the fact that teachers – similar to most public servants – are paid a base salary by the

central government irrespective of how well they or their respective schools perform.

Other factors that this research did not look at but perhaps would have enhanced findings

and would be suggestions for future research – especially in determining job performance

and organizational commitment – would be the support or perceptions these

organizations and institutions receive from outside stakeholders. In the case of The

Ministry and other institutions, it would be valuable to measure the level of support or

perceptions they receive from citizens, civil society and other non-education

organizations. In the case of schools, it would be valuable to measure the support and

perceptions teachers and staff receives from parents, local communities and most

importantly, the students themselves (i.e. student performance, engagement and well-

being). One would assume and make the argument that the higher level of support and

encouragement an individual receives, the better their job performance and greater

commitment to their organization.

Although a quantitative approach to this research provided me with measurable variables

7SeeAnalysisofTeacher’sLowPaymentsinTanzania:ACaseStudyofPublicSecondarySchoolsinMoshiRuralDistrict.’http://www.ijern.com/journal/February-2014/39.pdf

41

to make a more accurate and stronger academic argument, I believe a qualitative

approach through informal, one-on-one interviews would have provided me with more

honest and insightful feedback from participants. It would have broken (to a certain

degree) the personal and bureaucratic barriers mentioned above.

Lastly, the timing of the research was not ideal. The Tanzanian government agencies are

currently going through a transition phase of moving all government ministries, offices

and operations from the commercial capital of Dar-es-Salaam to the political capital of

Dodoma (440km away). Therefore a lot of the employees I encountered during my

research were not only dealing with moving to a new office, but moving to a new city

along with other personal challenges that come with moving.

CONCLUSION

This study sought out to answer the three following research questions; what is the

influence of transformational leadership on job performance and organizational

commitment in the public education sector in Tanzania?, do the individual dimensions of

transformational leadership have different levels of influence on job performance and

organizational commitment in the public education sector in Tanzania? and to what

extent does job performance and organizational commitment affect leadership in the

public education sector in Tanzania?

42

Although further research with a larger data sample is required, it can be inferred from

the findings in the 3rd hypothesis test of this research, that transformational leadership

plays a bigger influence on organizational commitment than it does job performance in

the public education sector in Tanzania.

Looking at the cultural and societal norms in Tanzania and other parts of Africa, one

cannot say with certainty if the individual dimensions of transformational leadership have

different levels of influence on job performance and organizational commitment.

However, looking at the computed data from this study and observations made during the

data-collection process, it can be argued that if it aligns with a leader’s best interest,

Individualized Consideration (IC) may play a more influential role than the other

dimensions.

In a patriarchal society like Tanzania, leaderships come with a sense of authority and

being needed or depended on. Affective job performance may have a more negative

effect on transformational leadership than organizational commitment in the sense that it

could render a leader useless by diminishing their authority and reduce their sense of

being needed.

Tanzania has made significant strides in the public education sector in the past 15-20

years – strides that should not go unmentioned. The abolishment of primary school fees

in 2001 coupled with the compulsory requirements for parents and guardians to send

children to school saw an increase to 92% of 7-13 year olds enrolled into school by 2016

compared to only 53% in 2001. Similarly, secondary education (14-17 year olds)

43

enrollment has increased to 43% in 2016 from just 6% in 2001. 8 However these

improvements in enrollment numbers come with their challenges. Challenges such a lack

of classrooms or even schools to absorb such a high number of applicants, the lack of

textbooks for students to use, the lack of qualified and competent teachers to give the

attention and provide the development that students needs.

Looking at the above scenario, coupled with the challenges and limitations mentioned

earlier, one can see how the issue of organizational commitment, job performance (or

lack thereof) begins with the teachers who interact with the students on a regular basis.

This can have a trickle-up effect to school principals, district education officers, and

regional education bodies and up to The Ministry of Education itself.

8TAMISEMI:http://www.tamisemi.go.tz/noticeboard/tangazo-1062-20170113-BEST-Regional-and-Pocket-Data-2016/BEST-2016-Pocket-Size-Final.pdf

44

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APPENDIX

(Sample Questions)

TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP (TL)

Please indicate your choice for each of the following statements by circling a number from 1 to 5.

PERFORMANCE (PER)

Please indicate your choice for each of the following statements by circling a number

from 1 to 5.

1

2

3

4

5

Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree Nor Disagree Agree

Strongly Agree

PER1 I am very competent. 1 2 3 4 5

PER2 I get my work done very effectively. 1 2 3 4 5

PER3 I perform my job well. 1 2 3 4 5

1

2

3

4

5

Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree

Strongly Agree

TL1 My supervisor communicates a clear and positive vision of the future. 1 2 3 4 5

TL2 My supervisor treats staff as individuals, supports and encourages their development. 1 2 3 4 5

TL3 My supervisor gives encouragement and recognition to staff. 1 2 3 4 5

TL4 My supervisor fosters, trust, involvement and cooperation among team members. 1 2 3 4 5

TL5 My supervisor encourages thinking about problems in new ways and questions assumptions. 1 2 3 4 5

TL6 My supervisor is clear about his/her values and practices what he/she preaches. 1 2 3 4 5

TL7 My supervisor instills pride and respect and inspires me by being highly competent. 1 2 3 4 5

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AFFECTIVE COMMITMENT (AC)

Think about your current organization; please indicate your choice for each of the

following statements by circling a number from 1 to 5.

1

2

3

4

5

Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree

Strongly Agree

AC1 I would be very happy to spend the rest of my career with this organization. 1 2 3 4 5

AC2 I really feel as if this organization's problems are my own. 1 2 3 4 5

AC3 I do not feel a strong sense of belonging to my organization (R) 1 2 3 4 5

AC4 I do not feel 'emotionally attached' to this organization. (R) 1 2 3 4 5

AC5 I do not feel like 'part of the family' at my organization. (R) 1 2 3 4 5

AC6 This organization has a great deal of personal meaning for me. 1 2 3 4 5