Thumbnailjpg

A Companion to Heritage Studies

The Blackwell Companions to Anthropology offer a series of comprehensive syntheses of the traditional subdisciplines primary subjects and geographic areas of inquiry for the field Taken together the series represents both a contemporary survey of anthropology and a cutting edge guide to the emerging research and intellectual trends in the field as a whole

1 A Companion to Linguistic Anthropology edited by Alessandro Duranti2 A Companion to the Anthropology of Politics edited by David Nugent and Joan

Vincent3 A Companion to the Anthropology of American Indians edited by Thomas Biolsi4 A Companion to Psychological Anthropology edited by Conerly Casey and Robert

B Edgerton5 A Companion to the Anthropology of Japan edited by Jennifer Robertson6 A Companion to Latin American Anthropology edited by Deborah Poole7 A Companion to Biological Anthropology edited by Clark Larsen8 A Companion to the Anthropology of India edited by Isabelle Clark‐Decegraves9 A Companion to Medical Anthropology edited by Merrill Singer and Pamela

I Erickson10 A Companion to Cognitive Anthropology edited by David B Kronenfeld Giovanni

Bennardo Victor de Munck and Michael D Fischer11 A Companion to Cultural Resource Management edited by Thomas King12 A Companion to the Anthropology of Education edited by Bradley AU Levinson

and Mica Pollack13 A Companion to the Anthropology of the Body and Embodiment edited by Frances

E Mascia‐Lees14 A Companion to Paleopathology edited by Anne L Grauer15 A Companion to Folklore edited by Regina F Bendix and Galit Hasan‐Rokem16 A Companion to Forensic Anthropology edited by Dennis Dirkmaat17 A Companion to the Anthropology of Europe edited by Ullrich Kockel Maacuteireacutead

Nic Craith and Jonas Frykman18 A Companion to Border Studies edited by Thomas M Wilson and Hastings Donnan19 A Companion to Rock Art edited by Jo McDonald and Peter Veth20 A Companion to Moral Anthropology edited by Didier Fassin21 A Companion to Gender Prehistory edited by Diane Bolger22 A Companion to Organizational Anthropology edited by D Douglas Caulkins

and Ann T Jordan23 A Companion to Paleoanthropology edited by David R Begun24 A Companion to Chinese Archeology edited by Anne P Underhill25 A Companion to the Anthropology of Religion edited by Janice Boddy and Michael

Lambek26 A Companion to Urban Anthropology edited by Donald M Nonini27 A Companion to the Anthropology of the Middle East edited by Soraya Altorki28 A Companion to Heritage Studies edited by William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith

and Ullrich Kockel

Forthcoming

A Companion to Oral History edited by Mark TebeauA Companion to Dental Anthropology edited by Joel D Irish and G Richard ScottA Companion to South Asia in the Past edited by Gwen Robbins Schug and SR Walimbe

A Companion to Heritage StudiesEdited byWilliam Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel

This edition first published 2016copy 2016 John Wiley amp Sons Inc

Registered OfficeJohn Wiley amp Sons Ltd The Atrium Southern Gate Chichester West Sussex PO19 8SQ UK

Editorial Offices350 Main Street Malden MA 02148‐5020 USA9600 Garsington Road Oxford OX4 2DQ UKThe Atrium Southern Gate Chichester West Sussex PO19 8SQ UK

For details of our global editorial offices for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at wwwwileycomwiley‐blackwell

The right of William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988

All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic mechanical photocopying recording or otherwise except as permitted by the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 without the prior permission of the publisher

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names service marks trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book

Limit of LiabilityDisclaimer of Warranty While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this book they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom If professional advice or other expert assistance is required the services of a competent professional should be sought

Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

A companion to heritage studies edited by William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel pages cm mdash (Wiley Blackwell companions to anthropology) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-118-48666-5 (hardback)1 Cultural property 2 Historic sites 3 National characteristics 4 Ethnicity I Logan William 1948ndash editor of compilation II Nic Craith Maacuteireacutead editor of compilation III Kockel Ullrich editor of compilation CC135C535 2015 3636prime9ndashdc23 2015003598

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Cover image Bamiyan Afghanistan copy Jon Arnold Images Ltd Alamy Tourists on the new bridge over the river Neretva Mostar Bosnia and Herzogovina copy age fotostock Spain SL Alamy Traditional drum-making in Nam Kham northern Shan State Myanmar 2014 photo copy W Logan

Set in 1012pt Galliard by SPi Global Pondicherry India

1 2016

A Companion to Heritage Studies

The Blackwell Companions to Anthropology offer a series of comprehensive syntheses of the traditional subdisciplines primary subjects and geographic areas of inquiry for the field Taken together the series represents both a contemporary survey of anthropology and a cutting edge guide to the emerging research and intellectual trends in the field as a whole

1 A Companion to Linguistic Anthropology edited by Alessandro Duranti2 A Companion to the Anthropology of Politics edited by David Nugent and Joan

Vincent3 A Companion to the Anthropology of American Indians edited by Thomas Biolsi4 A Companion to Psychological Anthropology edited by Conerly Casey and Robert

B Edgerton5 A Companion to the Anthropology of Japan edited by Jennifer Robertson6 A Companion to Latin American Anthropology edited by Deborah Poole7 A Companion to Biological Anthropology edited by Clark Larsen8 A Companion to the Anthropology of India edited by Isabelle Clark‐Decegraves9 A Companion to Medical Anthropology edited by Merrill Singer and Pamela

I Erickson10 A Companion to Cognitive Anthropology edited by David B Kronenfeld Giovanni

Bennardo Victor de Munck and Michael D Fischer11 A Companion to Cultural Resource Management edited by Thomas King12 A Companion to the Anthropology of Education edited by Bradley AU Levinson

and Mica Pollack13 A Companion to the Anthropology of the Body and Embodiment edited by Frances

E Mascia‐Lees14 A Companion to Paleopathology edited by Anne L Grauer15 A Companion to Folklore edited by Regina F Bendix and Galit Hasan‐Rokem16 A Companion to Forensic Anthropology edited by Dennis Dirkmaat17 A Companion to the Anthropology of Europe edited by Ullrich Kockel Maacuteireacutead

Nic Craith and Jonas Frykman18 A Companion to Border Studies edited by Thomas M Wilson and Hastings Donnan19 A Companion to Rock Art edited by Jo McDonald and Peter Veth20 A Companion to Moral Anthropology edited by Didier Fassin21 A Companion to Gender Prehistory edited by Diane Bolger22 A Companion to Organizational Anthropology edited by D Douglas Caulkins

and Ann T Jordan23 A Companion to Paleoanthropology edited by David R Begun24 A Companion to Chinese Archeology edited by Anne P Underhill25 A Companion to the Anthropology of Religion edited by Janice Boddy and Michael

Lambek26 A Companion to Urban Anthropology edited by Donald M Nonini27 A Companion to the Anthropology of the Middle East edited by Soraya Altorki28 A Companion to Heritage Studies edited by William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith

and Ullrich Kockel

Forthcoming

A Companion to Oral History edited by Mark TebeauA Companion to Dental Anthropology edited by Joel D Irish and G Richard ScottA Companion to South Asia in the Past edited by Gwen Robbins Schug and SR Walimbe

A Companion to Heritage StudiesEdited byWilliam Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel

This edition first published 2016copy 2016 John Wiley amp Sons Inc

Registered OfficeJohn Wiley amp Sons Ltd The Atrium Southern Gate Chichester West Sussex PO19 8SQ UK

Editorial Offices350 Main Street Malden MA 02148‐5020 USA9600 Garsington Road Oxford OX4 2DQ UKThe Atrium Southern Gate Chichester West Sussex PO19 8SQ UK

For details of our global editorial offices for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at wwwwileycomwiley‐blackwell

The right of William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988

All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic mechanical photocopying recording or otherwise except as permitted by the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 without the prior permission of the publisher

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names service marks trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book

Limit of LiabilityDisclaimer of Warranty While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this book they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom If professional advice or other expert assistance is required the services of a competent professional should be sought

Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

A companion to heritage studies edited by William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel pages cm mdash (Wiley Blackwell companions to anthropology) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-118-48666-5 (hardback)1 Cultural property 2 Historic sites 3 National characteristics 4 Ethnicity I Logan William 1948ndash editor of compilation II Nic Craith Maacuteireacutead editor of compilation III Kockel Ullrich editor of compilation CC135C535 2015 3636prime9ndashdc23 2015003598

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Cover image Bamiyan Afghanistan copy Jon Arnold Images Ltd Alamy Tourists on the new bridge over the river Neretva Mostar Bosnia and Herzogovina copy age fotostock Spain SL Alamy Traditional drum-making in Nam Kham northern Shan State Myanmar 2014 photo copy W Logan

Set in 1012pt Galliard by SPi Global Pondicherry India

1 2016

The Blackwell Companions to Anthropology offer a series of comprehensive syntheses of the traditional subdisciplines primary subjects and geographic areas of inquiry for the field Taken together the series represents both a contemporary survey of anthropology and a cutting edge guide to the emerging research and intellectual trends in the field as a whole

1 A Companion to Linguistic Anthropology edited by Alessandro Duranti2 A Companion to the Anthropology of Politics edited by David Nugent and Joan

Vincent3 A Companion to the Anthropology of American Indians edited by Thomas Biolsi4 A Companion to Psychological Anthropology edited by Conerly Casey and Robert

B Edgerton5 A Companion to the Anthropology of Japan edited by Jennifer Robertson6 A Companion to Latin American Anthropology edited by Deborah Poole7 A Companion to Biological Anthropology edited by Clark Larsen8 A Companion to the Anthropology of India edited by Isabelle Clark‐Decegraves9 A Companion to Medical Anthropology edited by Merrill Singer and Pamela

I Erickson10 A Companion to Cognitive Anthropology edited by David B Kronenfeld Giovanni

Bennardo Victor de Munck and Michael D Fischer11 A Companion to Cultural Resource Management edited by Thomas King12 A Companion to the Anthropology of Education edited by Bradley AU Levinson

and Mica Pollack13 A Companion to the Anthropology of the Body and Embodiment edited by Frances

E Mascia‐Lees14 A Companion to Paleopathology edited by Anne L Grauer15 A Companion to Folklore edited by Regina F Bendix and Galit Hasan‐Rokem16 A Companion to Forensic Anthropology edited by Dennis Dirkmaat17 A Companion to the Anthropology of Europe edited by Ullrich Kockel Maacuteireacutead

Nic Craith and Jonas Frykman18 A Companion to Border Studies edited by Thomas M Wilson and Hastings Donnan19 A Companion to Rock Art edited by Jo McDonald and Peter Veth20 A Companion to Moral Anthropology edited by Didier Fassin21 A Companion to Gender Prehistory edited by Diane Bolger22 A Companion to Organizational Anthropology edited by D Douglas Caulkins

and Ann T Jordan23 A Companion to Paleoanthropology edited by David R Begun24 A Companion to Chinese Archeology edited by Anne P Underhill25 A Companion to the Anthropology of Religion edited by Janice Boddy and Michael

Lambek26 A Companion to Urban Anthropology edited by Donald M Nonini27 A Companion to the Anthropology of the Middle East edited by Soraya Altorki28 A Companion to Heritage Studies edited by William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith

and Ullrich Kockel

Forthcoming

A Companion to Oral History edited by Mark TebeauA Companion to Dental Anthropology edited by Joel D Irish and G Richard ScottA Companion to South Asia in the Past edited by Gwen Robbins Schug and SR Walimbe

A Companion to Heritage StudiesEdited byWilliam Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel

This edition first published 2016copy 2016 John Wiley amp Sons Inc

Registered OfficeJohn Wiley amp Sons Ltd The Atrium Southern Gate Chichester West Sussex PO19 8SQ UK

Editorial Offices350 Main Street Malden MA 02148‐5020 USA9600 Garsington Road Oxford OX4 2DQ UKThe Atrium Southern Gate Chichester West Sussex PO19 8SQ UK

For details of our global editorial offices for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at wwwwileycomwiley‐blackwell

The right of William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988

All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic mechanical photocopying recording or otherwise except as permitted by the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 without the prior permission of the publisher

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names service marks trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book

Limit of LiabilityDisclaimer of Warranty While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this book they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom If professional advice or other expert assistance is required the services of a competent professional should be sought

Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

A companion to heritage studies edited by William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel pages cm mdash (Wiley Blackwell companions to anthropology) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-118-48666-5 (hardback)1 Cultural property 2 Historic sites 3 National characteristics 4 Ethnicity I Logan William 1948ndash editor of compilation II Nic Craith Maacuteireacutead editor of compilation III Kockel Ullrich editor of compilation CC135C535 2015 3636prime9ndashdc23 2015003598

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Cover image Bamiyan Afghanistan copy Jon Arnold Images Ltd Alamy Tourists on the new bridge over the river Neretva Mostar Bosnia and Herzogovina copy age fotostock Spain SL Alamy Traditional drum-making in Nam Kham northern Shan State Myanmar 2014 photo copy W Logan

Set in 1012pt Galliard by SPi Global Pondicherry India

1 2016

A Companion to Heritage StudiesEdited byWilliam Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel

This edition first published 2016copy 2016 John Wiley amp Sons Inc

Registered OfficeJohn Wiley amp Sons Ltd The Atrium Southern Gate Chichester West Sussex PO19 8SQ UK

Editorial Offices350 Main Street Malden MA 02148‐5020 USA9600 Garsington Road Oxford OX4 2DQ UKThe Atrium Southern Gate Chichester West Sussex PO19 8SQ UK

For details of our global editorial offices for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at wwwwileycomwiley‐blackwell

The right of William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988

All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic mechanical photocopying recording or otherwise except as permitted by the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 without the prior permission of the publisher

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names service marks trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book

Limit of LiabilityDisclaimer of Warranty While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this book they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom If professional advice or other expert assistance is required the services of a competent professional should be sought

Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

A companion to heritage studies edited by William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel pages cm mdash (Wiley Blackwell companions to anthropology) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-118-48666-5 (hardback)1 Cultural property 2 Historic sites 3 National characteristics 4 Ethnicity I Logan William 1948ndash editor of compilation II Nic Craith Maacuteireacutead editor of compilation III Kockel Ullrich editor of compilation CC135C535 2015 3636prime9ndashdc23 2015003598

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Cover image Bamiyan Afghanistan copy Jon Arnold Images Ltd Alamy Tourists on the new bridge over the river Neretva Mostar Bosnia and Herzogovina copy age fotostock Spain SL Alamy Traditional drum-making in Nam Kham northern Shan State Myanmar 2014 photo copy W Logan

Set in 1012pt Galliard by SPi Global Pondicherry India

1 2016

This edition first published 2016copy 2016 John Wiley amp Sons Inc

Registered OfficeJohn Wiley amp Sons Ltd The Atrium Southern Gate Chichester West Sussex PO19 8SQ UK

Editorial Offices350 Main Street Malden MA 02148‐5020 USA9600 Garsington Road Oxford OX4 2DQ UKThe Atrium Southern Gate Chichester West Sussex PO19 8SQ UK

For details of our global editorial offices for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at wwwwileycomwiley‐blackwell

The right of William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988

All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic mechanical photocopying recording or otherwise except as permitted by the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 without the prior permission of the publisher

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names service marks trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book

Limit of LiabilityDisclaimer of Warranty While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this book they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom If professional advice or other expert assistance is required the services of a competent professional should be sought

Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

A companion to heritage studies edited by William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel pages cm mdash (Wiley Blackwell companions to anthropology) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-118-48666-5 (hardback)1 Cultural property 2 Historic sites 3 National characteristics 4 Ethnicity I Logan William 1948ndash editor of compilation II Nic Craith Maacuteireacutead editor of compilation III Kockel Ullrich editor of compilation CC135C535 2015 3636prime9ndashdc23 2015003598

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Cover image Bamiyan Afghanistan copy Jon Arnold Images Ltd Alamy Tourists on the new bridge over the river Neretva Mostar Bosnia and Herzogovina copy age fotostock Spain SL Alamy Traditional drum-making in Nam Kham northern Shan State Myanmar 2014 photo copy W Logan

Set in 1012pt Galliard by SPi Global Pondicherry India

1 2016

We would like to dedicate this book to Tom McGrath Maacuteireacuteadrsquos brother who died unexpectedly while

this book was in production

Contents

List of Figures and Tables x

Notes on Contributors xiii

Acknowledgements xix

List of Abbreviations xx

Framework

1 The New Heritage Studies Origins and Evolution Problems and Prospects 1William Logan Ullrich Kockel and Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith

Part I Expanding Heritage 27

2 Heritage Places Evolving Conceptions and Changing Forms 29Neil A Silberman

3 From Folklore to Intangible Heritage 41Kristin Kuutma

4 Cultural Heritage and Intellectual Property Convergence Divergence and Interface 55Folarin Shyllon

5 Intangible Heritage and Embodiment Japanrsquos Influence on Global Heritage Discourse 69Natsuko Akagawa

6 The Politics of Heritage in the Land of Food and Wine 87Marion Demossier

viii contents

7 (Re)visioning the Marsquoohi Landscape of Marae Taputapuatea French Polynesia World Heritage and Indigenous Knowledge Systems in the Pacific Islands 101

Anita Smith

8 The Kingdom of Death as a Heritage Site Making Sense of Auschwitz 115 Jonathan Webber

9 The Memory of the World and its Hidden Facets 133 Anca Claudia Prodan

10 African Indigenous Heritage in Colonial and Postcolonial Museums The Case of the Batwa of Africarsquos Great Lakes Region 146

Maurice Mugabowagahunde

Part II Using and Abusing Heritage 161

11 Valuing the Past or Untangling the Social Political and Economic Importance of Cultural Heritage Sites 163

Brenda Trofanenko

12 Cultural Heritage under the Gaze of International Tourism Marketing Campaigns 176

Helaine Silverman and Richard W Hallett

13 Heritagescaping and the Aesthetics of Refuge Challenges to Urban Sustainability 189

Tim Winter

14 Cultural Heritage as a Strategy for Social Needs and Community Identity 203 Keir Reeves and Gertjan Plets

15 Heritage in the Digital Age 215 Maria Economou

16 World Heritage and National Hegemony The Discursive Formation of Chinese Political Authority 229

Haiming Yan

17 War Museums and Memory Wars in Contemporary Poland 243 Julie Fedor

18 Heritage in an Expanded Field Reconstructing Bridge‐ness in Mostar 254 Andrea Connor

19 Heritage Under Fire Lessons from Iraq for Cultural Property Protection 268 Benjamin Isakhan

20 The Intentional Destruction of Heritage Bamiyan and Timbuktu 280 Christian Manhart

21 Heritage and the Politics of Cultural Obliteration The Case of the Andes 295 O Hugo Benavides

Part III Recasting Heritage 307

22 The Economic Feasibility of Heritage Preservation 309 Ron van Oers

contents ix

23 UNESCO and Cultural Heritage Unexpected Consequences 322 Christina Cameron

24 The Limits of Heritage Corporate Interests and Cultural Rights on Resource Frontiers 337

Rosemary J Coombe and Melissa F Baird

25 Indigenous Peoplesrsquo Rights and the World Heritage Convention 355 Stefan Disko

26 UNESCO the World Heritage Convention and Africa The Practice and the Practitioners 373

George Okello Abungu

27 World Heritage Sites in Africa What Are the Benefits of Nomination and Inscription 392

Webber Ndoro

28 Heritage in the ldquoAsian Centuryrdquo Responding to Geopolitical Change 410 Zeynep Aygen and William Logan

29 (Re‐)Building Heritage Integrating Tangible and Intangible 426 Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel

30 The Elephant in the Room Heritage Affect and Emotion 443 Laurajane Smith and Gary Campbell

31 Cross‐Cultural Encounters and ldquoDifficult Heritagerdquo on the ThaindashBurma Railway An Ethics of Cosmopolitanism rather than Practices of Exclusion 461

Andrea Witcomb

32 Heritage and Cosmopolitanism 479 Lynn Meskell

33 ldquoPutting Broken Pieces Back Togetherrdquo Reconciliation Justice and Heritage in Post‐Conflict Situations 491

Patrick Daly and Benjamin Chan

34 Achieving Dialogue through Transnational World Heritage Nomination The Case of the Silk Roads 507

Ona Vileikis

35 World Heritage Alternative Futures 522 Britta Rudolff and Kristal Buckley

36 Challenges for International Cultural Heritage Law 541 Ana Filipa Vrdoljak

37 The New Heritage Studies and Education Training and Capacity‐Building 557 William Logan and Gamini Wijesuriya

Index 574

List of Figures and Tables

Figures

71 Marae Taputapuatea Rarsquoiatea Island French Polynesia Source photograph by Anita Smith 107

72 Romy Tavaearirsquoi ldquoPapa Maraehaurdquo at Marae Taputapuatea November 2007 Source photograph by Anita Smith 109

101 Today in Rwanda the majority of Batwa are still potters Source photo by Maurice Mugabowagahunde 149

111 View of Grand‐Preacute and the Grand‐Preacute National Historic Site Source photo by Brenda Trofanenko 165

112 Evangeline statue and memorial church Source photo by Brenda Trofanenko 167

131 Industrial warehouses transformed into heritageart precinct District 798 Beijing Source photo by Tim Winter 194

132 Restoration of housing in Galle Fort Source photo by Tim Winter 196133 Restoration of housing in Galle Fort Source photo by Tim Winter 198134 Reconstruction of public infrastructure inside Galle Fort

Source photo by Tim Winter 199141 Maslowrsquos hierarchy of social needs Source adapted from

Huitt (2007) and Maslow (1943) 205142 Altaian girl dressed up as the Altai Princess during the

biennial El‐Oiuyn national festival Source copy httpwwwcheineshru 210

list of figures and tables xi

181 The Stari Most (Old Bridge) Mostar Source photo by Andrea Connor 256201 Large Buddha niche Bamiyan Source UNESCOGraciela

Gonzalez Brigas 282202 Results of the consolidation of the Small Buddha niche

Bamiyan 2005 Source UNESCO 286203 Conservation of fragments of the Large Buddha

Bamiyan 2006 Source UNESCO 287204 Ceremony for the start of the restoration of a mausoleum

Timbuktu 2014 Source UNESCOMINUSMAMarco Domino 290271 World Heritage sites contributing to economic growth 397272 A Tsodilo homestead in 1998 Source photo by Phenyo Thebe 399273 The results of World Heritage tourism a homestead near

Tsodilo in 2011 Source photo by Phenyo Thebe 399274 Lodges at Twyfelfontein Source photo by Webber Ndoro 405275 The World Heritage site of Kilwa Kisiwani Source photo by

Webber Ndoro 405291 The ldquodual trajectoriesrdquo of heritage 429292 A symbiotic concept of heritage 430293 The environmental heritage spectrum Source image courtesy of

Robin Turner copy Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland Used by permission 431

294 National Museum of the American Indian Washington Source Raul654 via Wikimedia Commons Attribution‐ShareAlike 30 Unported (CC BY‐SA 30) 432

295 Scottish Parliament Edinburgh Source copy Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland (Aerial Photography Collection) Licensor wwwrcahmsgovuk 433

311 The JEATH Museum with its transnational image clearly represented in the range of flags on display Source photo by Mike Knopp 462

312 The ldquoBridge on the River Kwairdquo Kanchanaburi Source photo by Andrea Witcomb 468

313 View of the text explaining the Weary Dunlop Peace Park Source photo by Andrea Witcomb 470

314 Australian school choir singing as part of the memorial service for Kanitrsquos wife Source photo by Andrea Witcomb 471

315 The interactive nature of the ceremony to assuage the spirits of the dead three of surviving POWs thank Buddhist monks for their prayers with offerings of rice Source photo by Andrea Witcomb 472

316 Wreaths from the ANZAC Day ceremony 2012 at the Kanchanaburi Commonwealth War Graves Cemetery Source photo by Andrea Witcomb 475

331 Display board in the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum showing the organizational structure of the Khmer Rouge leadership Source photo by Patrick Daly 497

xii list of figures and tables

332 Photos of Khmer Rouge soldiers killed by the regime on display amongst photos of civilian victims of the Khmer Rouge in the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum Source photo by Patrick Daly 498

333 Photos of victims of the Khmer Rouge on display in the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum Source photo by Patrick Daly 499

341 Training in the use of the Silk Roads Cultural Heritage Resource Information System and architectural heritage recording Chor Bakr Uzbekistan Source photo by Ona Vileikis 516

342 The Silk Roads management system Source figure by Ona Vileikis 517

Tables

121 Comparison of the key narrative elements in the scripts of Incredible India 2009ndash2011 and Peruacute 2012 179

271 The contribution of various industries to European GDP Source Greffe (2002 7) 398

272 Tourism‐related employment at the Cradle of Humankind Source GPG (2010) 403

281 States Parties to the Intangible Heritage Convention (2003) having the most elements inscribed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity February 2014 Source compiled by W Logan from UNESCO (nd) 415

282 States Parties to the World Heritage Convention (1972) having the most inscriptions on the World Heritage List July 2014 Source compiled by W Logan from UNESCO (2015a 2015b) 416

371 Different audiences and learning areas in the heritage sector Source Wijesuriya Thompson and Young (2013 51) copy UNESCO ICCROM ICOMOS IUCN 566

George Okello Abungu is Associate Professor of Heritage Studies at the University of Mauritius fellow of the Stellenbosch Institute for Advanced Studies at the University of Stellenbosch South Africa and Visiting Professor of Applied Anthropology University of Florida A former director‐general of the National Museums of Kenya he is currently vice‐president of ICOM and member of the international jury of the UNESCO Melina Mercouri International Prize for the Safeguard and Management of Cultural Landscapes He has published widely in the areas of archaeology heritage and museology

Natsuko Akagawa is Lecturer at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology University Australia She has undertaken heritage projects in Thailand Vietnam Japan China Macau SAR and the Netherlands and was a research fellow at East‐West Centre Hawaii She is currently vice‐president of the ICOMOS International Scientific Committee on Intangible Cultural Heritage Among her publications is Heritage Conservation and Japanrsquos Cultural Diplomacy Heritage National Identity and National Interest (2014)

Zeynep Aygen is Professor and chair at the Environmental Studies and Control Discipline Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University Istanbul Turkey She is a fellow of the Higher Education Academy and member of the Institute of Historic Building Conservation both in the United Kingdom Her research explores opportunities for physical and social sustainability in a cross‐cultural context through conservation pol-icies and their application

Melissa F Baird is Assistant Professor of Anthropology in the Social Sciences Department Michigan Technological University Her research seeks to broaden our

Notes on Contributors

xiv notes on contributors

understanding of global heritage and environmental politics especially how heritage intersects with indigenous rights and environmental protection

O Hugo Benavides is Professor of Anthropology Latin American and Latino studies and International Political Economy and Development Fordham University New York He is the editor and author of numerous articles and books on Latin American culture politics and history including Making Ecuadorian Histories Four Centuries of Defining Power (2004)

Kristal Buckley is Lecturer in Cultural Heritage at Deakin Universityrsquos Cultural Heritage Centre for Asia and the Pacific Melbourne Australia Her interests include evolving forms of global cultural heritage practice and heritage institutions and knowledge practices She has been a vice‐president of ICOMOS and a member of the ICOMOS delegation to the World Heritage Committee since 2007

Christina Cameron holds the Canada Research Chair on Built Heritage at the University of Montreal Canada She previously served as an executive with Parks Canada for thirty‐five years Involved with World Heritage since 1987 she carries out research on the history of the World Heritage Convention and directs the World Heritage Oral Archives program

Gary Campbell is an independent scholar based in Canberra Australia He has a background in sociology political studies and industrial relations He is co‐editor of the book Heritage Labour and the Working Classes and has co‐authored work with Laurajane Smith on issues of representation and recognition of working‐class heritage and de‐industrialization

Benjamin Chan is a member of the Political Science Department at the National University of Singapore His research interests include humanitarianism post‐conflict reconciliation and post‐disaster relief and reconstruction He has conducted fieldwork in mainland Southeast Asia and in Central America

Andrea Connor is a research associate with the Transforming Cultures Research Center at the University of Technology Sydney She is a sociocultural researcher working across the fields of heritage studies cultural geography museum studies and cultural studies She is currently working on a research monograph on the afterlife of monumental things

Rosemary J Coombe is the Tier One Canada Research Chair in Law Communication and Culture at York University Toronto Canada Her work explores the intersection of intellectual property cultural property and human rights with an emphasis on her-itage politics indigenous peoples governmentalities and neoliberalism

Patrick Daly is a senior fellow at the National University of Singapore and a principal investigator at the Earth Observatory of Singapore His research focuses upon the intersec-tion of heritage and post‐disasterpost‐conflict recovery and reconstruction He has con-ducted fieldwork in the Middle East the Philippines Cambodia and post‐tsunami Aceh Indonesia He is the co‐editor of the Routledge Handbook of Heritage in Asia (2011)

notes on contributors xv

Marion Demossier is Professor of French and European studies in the Department of Modern Languages University of Southampton England She is the author of various works on wine producers wine drinking culture and wine consumption She is cur-rently finalising a book on a critical analysis of terroir in Burgundy

Stefan Disko is an ethnologist focusing on human rights and the protection of cultural and natural heritage He is currently co‐editing a book on World Heritage sites and indigenous peoplesrsquo rights to be published jointly by the International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA) Forest Peoples Programme and the Gundjeihmi Aboriginal Corporation

Maria Economou is Lecturer in Museum Studies at the University of Glasgow Scotland and based at the Hunterian Museum and the Humanities Advanced Technology and Information Institute She has worked at the universities of the Aegean Manchester and Oxford (at the Pitt Rivers Museum) and collaborated with cultural heritage institutions around the world particularly on the use of new technologies for public engagement She specializes in digital cultural heritage

Julie Fedor is Lecturer in Modern European History at the University of Melbourne Australia She is the author of Russia and the Cult of State Security (2011) co‐author of Remembering Katyn (2012) and co‐editor of Memory and Theory in Eastern Europe (2013) and Memory Conflict and New Media (2013)

Richard W Hallett is Professor in the Department of Linguistics Northeastern Illinois University He is interested in the discourse(s) of tourism especially in the social construction of national identity through government‐sponsored tourism websites His research agenda also includes issues in the areas of world Englishes sociolinguistics and second‐language acquisition

Benjamin Isakhan is Senior Lecturer in Politics and Policy Studies and Convenor of the Middle East Studies Forum at Deakin University Australia Ben is also Adjunct Senior Research Associate in the Department of Politics at the University of Johannesburg South Africa

Ullrich Kockel is Professor of Culture and Economy at Heriot‐Watt University Edinburgh Scotland Visiting Professor of Social Anthropology at Vytautas Magnus University Kaunas Lithuania and Emeritus Professor of Ethnology at the University of Ulster He is currently editor‐in‐chief of the Anthropological Journal of European Cultures a fellow of the UKrsquos Academy of Social Sciences and a member of the Royal Irish Academy

Kristin Kuutma is Professor of Cultural Research at the University of Tartu Estonia Her research in cultural history and anthropology focuses on disciplinary knowledge production representation and critical heritage studies She has conducted fieldwork and published on policy‐making and implementation at the international and local level of UNESCOrsquos Intangible Heritage Convention

William Logan is Professor Emeritus at Deakin University Melbourne Australia where he was founding director of the Cultural Heritage Center for Asia and the Pacific

xvi notes on contributors

He is a fellow of the Academy of Social Sciences in Australia and has been president of Australia ICOMOS and a member of the Heritage Council of Victoria His research focuses on World Heritage heritage and human rights and Asian heritage

Christian Manhart is an art historian and archeologist Since joining UNESCO in 1987 he has worked on the conservation of heritage sites in Africa and Asia particu-larly Afghanistan He was responsible in the World Heritage Centre for partnerships communication and more recently matters arising in relation to the international con-ventions of 1954 1970 and 2001 and the Committee for Restitution of Cultural Property Museums and Creativity

Lynn Meskell is Professor of Anthropology and director of the Archaeology Center at Stanford University Her recent books include The Nature of Culture The New South Africa (2012) and the edited volume Cosmopolitan Archaeologies (2009) Her current research focuses on the role of UNESCO in terms of heritage rights sovereignty and international politics

Maurice Mugabowagahunde is a doctoral candidate in African archaeology at University of Bergen Norway His research interests include Rwandan prehistory and ethnography He has previously conducted archeological and ethnographic research in Rwanda for the Institute of National Museums of Rwanda

Webber Ndoro is a research associate with the Department of Archaeology University of Cape Town South Africa and director of the African World Heritage Fund based in Johannesburg

Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith is Professor of European Culture and Heritage at Heriot‐Watt University Edinburgh Scotland having previously held a chair in the School of Social Sciences and Applied Social Studies at the University of Ulster A Member of the Royal Irish Academy she has also been an honorary professor at the University of Exeter and a DAAD guest professor at the University of Goumlttingen Germany

Gertjan Plets was a researcher on the Altai Project at Ghent University Belgium from which he received his doctorate He joined Stanford University initially as a Belgian American Education Fund (BAEF) fellow and now holds a three‐year research‐intensive post‐doctoral fellowship at the Stanford Archaeology Center

Anca Claudia Prodan holds a PhD in Heritage Studies and works as scientific assistant at the UNESCO Chair in Heritage Studies BTU Cottbus-Senftenberg Prior to this she studied in Romania and Germany obtaining degrees in Anthropology Philosophy and World Heritage Studies Her research interests center on theories and concepts of culture and heritage

Keir Reeves holds a chair in Australian history at Federation University Australia Victoria Australia He has held teaching and research posts at Monash University and the University of Melbourne In 2013 he was a visiting fellow at Clare Hall University of Cambridge England His research concentrates on regional development as well as Australian Asian and Pacific cultural heritage

notes on contributors xvii

Britta Rudolff holds an interim chair in heritage management at Brandenburg Technical University Cottbus Germany where she is also the managing director of the Institute for Heritage Management A cultural heritage conservator with postgraduate qualifications in heritage studies and a doctorate in cultural geography her focus has been on UNESCO heritage conventions

Folarin Shyllon read law at Kingrsquos College London and taught at the University of Ibadan Nigeria from 1975 to 2005 His teaching and research interests are in cultural property and intellectual property law He is on the editorial board of the International Journal of Cultural Property and Art Antiquity and Law and is chairperson of the Nigeria chapter of UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Committee

Neil A Silberman is an author historian and managing partner of Coherit Associates an international heritage consulting firm He is an adjunct lecturer in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Massachusetts and serves as president of the ICOMOS International Committee on Interpretation and Presentation (ICIP) His research interests include interpretation theory the history of heritage practice and the politics of commemoration

Helaine Silverman is Professor in the Department of Anthropology University of Illinois Urbana‐Champaign and director of CHAMP (Collaborative for Cultural Heritage Management and Policy) She is especially interested in the cultural politics of heritage production and management tourism and economic development and iden-tity and memory She has conducted research in Peru Thailand and England

Anita Smith is Senior Lecturer responsible for course enhancement in the Faculty of Arts and Education Deakin University Melbourne Australia As an archeologist she has been engaged in the UNESCO Pacific World Heritage Programme since 2004 She was a member of Australiarsquos delegation to the World Heritage Committee between 2008 and 2012 and is editor of World Heritage in a Sea of Islands (2012)

Laurajane Smith is Professor of Heritage and Museum Studies and head of the Centre for Heritage and Museum Studies School of Archaeology and Anthropology Australian National University Canberra Australia She is editor of the International Journal of Heritage Studies co‐editor (with William Logan) of Routledgersquos Key Issues in Cultural Heritage Series and author of Uses of Heritage (2006)

Brenda Trofanenko holds the Canada Research Chair in Education Culture and Community at Acadia University in Wolfville Nova Scotia Canada Her research focuses on how public cultural institutions define identity and knowledge through social processes She is currently conducting research on how youth respond to the collective memories of distressing events

Ron van Oers held a doctorate from Delft University of Technology the Netherlands and had worked at UNESCOrsquos World Heritage Centre in Paris coordinating various programs including the development of the Recommendation on the Historic Urban Landscape (2011) He was vice‐director of the World Heritage Institute of Training and Research for Asia and the Pacific (WHITRAP) in Shanghai China

xviii notes on contributors

Editorrsquos note Dr van Oers passed away unexpectedly on 28 April 2015 while on a UNESCO mission to Lhasa Tibet He made a major contribution to the cultural her-itage field and will be greatly missed

Ona Vileikis is an architect with international experience in World Heritage‐related issues such as risk management monitoring geographic information systems heritage documentation and conservation She is currently a doctoral researcher at the Raymond Lemaire International Centre for Conservation University of Leuven Belgium working on the monitoring of serial transnational World Heritage issues and the use of geospatial content management systems focused on the Central Asia Silk Roads

Ana Filipa Vrdoljak is Professor of Law in the Faculty of Law University of Technology Sydney Australia She is the author of International Law Museums and the Return of Cultural Objects (2006) editor of The Cultural Dimension of Human Rights Law (2013) and joint general editor (with Franceso Francioni) of the Oxford University Press series Cultural Heritage Law and Policy

Jonathan Webber is Professor at the Institute of European Studies Jagiellonian University Krakoacutew Poland He specializes in Jewish studies and Holocaust studies and was a founding member of the International Auschwitz Council serving on it between 1990 and 2012

Gamini Wijesuriya has qualifications in architecture history and historic preservation and archaeology and heritage management He was director of conservation in the Sri Lankan Department of Archaeology between 1982 and 1999 and principal regional scientist in the New Zealand Department of Conservation from 2001 to 2004 Moving to ICCROM in Rome in 2004 he played a key role in developing the 2011 World Heritage Capacity Building Strategy

Tim Winter is Research Professor at the Alfred Deakin Institute for Citizenship and Globalisation Deakin University Melbourne Australia He has published widely on heritage development modernity urban conservation and tourism in Asia He is co‐editor of The Routledge Handbook of Heritage in Asia (2011) and editor of Shanghai Expo An International Forum on the Future of Cities (2013)

Andrea Witcomb is Professor of Cultural Heritage and Museum Studies and deputy director of the Alfred Deakin Institute for Citizenship and Globalisation at Deakin University Melbourne Australia Her work analyzes how museums and heritage sites create spaces for cross‐cultural encounters Her books include Reimagining the Museum Beyond the Mausoleum (2003) and (with Kylie Message) Museum Theory (2015)

Haiming Yan is a sociologist at the Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage Beijing and received his doctorate from the University of Virginia His research interests include cultural sociology memory and heritage and globalization

This volume originated in our desire to address the emergence and nature of the ldquonew heritage studiesrdquo which we see as the exploration of cultural heritage as a construct resulting from processes that give present‐day significance to elements from the past Our conception of the volume was rigorously reviewed by Wiley‐Blackwell For their time and patience we wish especially to thank Rosalie Robertson the initial commis-sioning editor and Ben Thatcher the project editor at Blackwell

We wish to say a special thank you to the contributors to this volume Coming from five continents these scholars were identified on the basis of their innovative ideas practical expertise and international reputation and invited to contribute to this collaborative multidisciplinary project in the cultural heritage field They were a pleasure to work with As the volume has been peer reviewed at every stage from the original proposal to its final production we would also wish to thank everybody who participated in that review process

While this project was in progress Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel moved from the University of Ulster in Northern Ireland to Heriot‐Watt University in Edinburgh and William Logan officially retired but was reappointed as emeritus pro-fessor attached to the Cultural Heritage Centre for Asia and the Pacific and the Alfred Deakin Research Institute at Deakin University in Melbourne We would like to thank our colleagues in all three institutions ndash Deakin University Heriot‐Watt University and the University of Ulster ndash for their continued support

Finally we would like to make a very special mention of Cristina Clopot and Philip Thomas Cristina is currently undertaking her PhD at Heriot‐Watt University but devoted much time and effort in administering the project Philip performed the criti-cal copy editing role with an eagle eye for detail We are very grateful to them both for their enthusiasm and professionalism in the preparation of the materials

William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel

Acknowledgements

ACCU Asia‐Pacific Cultural Centre of UNESCOACHPR African Commission on Human and Peoplesrsquo RightsACHS Association of Critical Heritage Studiesart articleEU European UnionFPIC free prior and informed consentGDP gross domestic productGIS geographic information systemGeoCMS geospatial content management systemsICCROM International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration

of Cultural PropertyICOM International Council of MuseumsICOMOS International Council on Monuments and SitesIUCN International Union for the Conservation of NatureIWGIA International Work Group for Indigenous AffairsMoW Memory of the World ProgrammeMDGs Millennium Development GoalsNGO non‐governmental organizationOHCR Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rightspara paragraphPOW prisoner of warsec sectionUN United NationsUNCERD United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial DiscriminationUNCESCR United Nations Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights

List of Abbreviations

list of abbreviations xxi

UNCEHR United Nations Commission on Human RightsUNDESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social AffairsUNDG United Nations Development GroupUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural OrganizationUNGA United Nations General AssemblyUN‐Habitat United Nations Human Settlements ProgrammeUNHRC United Nations Human Rights CouncilUNPFII United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous IssuesUNSC United Nations Security CouncilWHIPCOE World Heritage Indigenous Peoples Council of ExpertsWIPO World Intellectual Property OrganizationWTO World Trade Organization

Chapter 1

A Companion to Heritage Studies First Edition Edited by William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel copy 2016 John Wiley amp Sons Inc Published 2016 by John Wiley amp Sons Inc

The New Heritage Studies Origins and Evolution Problems and Prospects

William Logan Ullrich Kockel and Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith

Heritage and heritage studies have evolved in quite astounding ways over the last sixty years Nobody could have imagined when the Venice Charter (ICASHB 1964) jump‐started the heritage profession in the aftermath of World War II that there would be a veritable heritage boom in the 1990s and continuing into the twenty‐first century Who would have predicted that so much attention would now be paid to protecting environmental features material culture and living traditions from the past or the vast numbers of community members policy‐makers practitioners and scholars engaged in caring for managing and studying heritage Who would have foreseen the explosion of heritage‐based cultural tourism the reconfiguration of heritage as an economic asset and a World Heritage List comprising of more than a thousand properties spread around the globe

This volume seeks to investigate the story of expansion in heritage and heritage studies Containing 37 chapters commissioned from 44 scholars and practitioners from 5 continents it is designed to provide an up‐to‐date international analysis of the field the steady broadening of the concept of heritage and its social economic and political uses the difficulties that often arise from such uses and current trends in heritage scholarship Starting from a position of seeing ldquoheritagerdquo as a mental construct that attributes ldquosignificancerdquo to certain places artifacts and forms of behavior from the past through processes that are essentially political we see heritage conservation not merely as a technical or managerial matter but as cultural practice a form of cultural politics

CHaPTEr 1

2 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

We are interested in the different extent to which various groups within global national and local communities are able to participate in heritage identification interpretation and management Moreover we want to address the extent to which communities have access to and enjoy heritage once it has been officially recognized conserved or safeguarded This interest inevitably leads to human rights consider-ations to developing closer intellectual links with international lawyers and others in the human rights field and to strengthening both the multidisciplinary nature of heri-tage studies and what we sees as the critical relationship between theory and practice

Whether this new vision of heritage studies represents a ldquoparadigm shiftrdquo or only the culmination of changes already occurring in the heritage studies field since the late 1980s is an issue we will discuss later For now let us go back to the fieldrsquos origins and interpret its evolution

Expanding HEritagE

When ideas of ldquoheritagerdquo were initially formalized their focus was on monuments and sites This was especially the case in Europe from where these ideas spread across the British French and other European empires and the anglophone United States (Nic Craith 2007) Writer‐practitioners such as John Ruskin and Nikolaus Pevsner in England and Eugegravene Viollet‐le‐Duc in France were enormously influential in the early days of heritage identification and protection From these beginnings heritage planners around the world have sought to protect broad areas of historic aesthetic architectural or scientific interest Although there is considerable variation across the world most countries now attempt to protect as official policy and through professional practice a much wider range of features than they did 60 years ago

It was gradually realized for instance that the protection of a monument or building was not in itself enough and that good conservation work was often being rendered ineffective by unsympathetic developments allowed to occur in front of beside behind or even over heritage buildings Attention therefore extended to the precincts around major monuments and buildings A further extension of interest took place in 1962 when Andreacute Malraux then the French minister for culture first established planning regulations (known as the loi Malraux) designed to protect and enhance the historic features of the Marais district of Paris The English were also expanding their focus at about this time to take in conservation areas the first of which were designated in 1967 England now has over 8000 protected areas including the centers of historic towns and cities fishing and mining villages eighteenth‐ and nineteenth‐century suburbs model housing estates and historic transport links and their environs such as stretches of canal (English Heritage nd)

At the international level the World Heritage List established under UNESCOrsquos Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972) or as it is commonly known the World Heritage Convention now contains a large number of cities inscribed for what the convention calls their Outstanding Universal Value An Organization of World Heritage Cities founded in 1993 with headquarters in Quebec City today brings together 250 cities that are either inscribed or have inscribed sites within them (OWHC 2014) In 1992 the World Heritage Committee added the new category of ldquocultural landscapesrdquo to the World Heritage system to allow recognition of places presenting a blend of cultural and natural elements Twenty years

the new heritage studies 3

later the landscape concept was translated into urban areas as the ldquohistoric urban landscaperdquo blending modern and historic architectural and urban design forms rather than natural and cultural elements but nevertheless emphasizing like cultural landscapes the need for a holistic view of the environment and a sensitive balanced approach to new human interventions

Vernacular structures are now seen as being of cultural heritage interest that is structures that are not architect‐designed but owner‐ or community‐built using avail-able resources and traditional techniques So too are industrial structures Publications by Miles Lewis (1977) Paul Oliver (1997) and William Siew Wai Lim and Tan Hock Beng (1998) began to fill in major gaps in the tangible heritage literature More recently there has been considerable heritage interest internationally in ldquocultural routesrdquo The Council of Europe in 1987 established a program of European cultural routes that is managed from a specialized institute located in Luxembourg The pro-gramrsquos first initiative is the Santiago de Compostela Route the famous Christian pilgrimage route of the Middle Ages In the United States and Canada efforts have been made to commemorate the Underground Railroad ndash the route taken by slaves trying to reach freedom before the Civil War ndash by protecting a series of key sites along its length In Asia UNESCO is supporting the Silk Road Project for developing cultural heritage and cultural tourism along the traditional routes of the silk trade between south‐eastern Europe and China

In the international development field there was a marked shift in the 1990s in the attitude of key agencies such as the World Bank towards cultural heritage Rather than seeing cultural heritage protection as an obstacle to development it is now recognized that the two can go hand in hand to bring about more effective programs to raise standards of living in developing countries and elsewhere (Logan 2003 xxi)

Neil Silberman (Chapter 2) explores the evolving heritage conception and the changing forms and functions of heritage places from their initial validation as national institutions in the early nineteenth century to their multicultural context in the early twenty‐first century He shows that the meanings and values of heritage places are neither static nor inherent but ascribed by particular social groups choosing to empha-size or ignore particular items or aspects for social and political purposes Romantic nationalism led to a first ldquoheritage boomrdquo during the emergence of nation‐states in nineteenth‐century Europe as commemorative sites and structures were created to serve as tangible evidence of a nationrsquos pedigree harmonizing the diverse populations of nations into singularly national peoples or sometimes re‐fragmenting them laying the foundations for new identity claims in the future Already by the late nineteenth century accelerating domestic and international tourism engendered a second ldquoheritage boomrdquo albeit differently motivated the new ldquoheritage touristsrdquo on their quest for his-torical authenticity and exotic landscapes as means of (however temporary) escape from modern industrial life dominated by economic calculus contradictorily created the demand that allowed for the commoditization of built heritage as a ldquocultural resourcerdquo

A focus on the built environment is arguably based on a European concept of cultural heritage which is entirely appropriate for an environment dealing largely with the conservation of buildings made of stone brick and other durable materials (Logan 2006) This view of heritage has been frequently criticized Walled cities cathedrals and eye‐catching landscape formations like the Giantrsquos Causeway in Northern Ireland heavily dominate the list of European World Heritage sites This contrasts starkly with the concept of permanency found on other continents An example of this is the

4 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

imperial shrine at Ise Japan From a Western perspective this shrine hardly qualifies as ldquooldrdquo since it is rebuilt every twenty years However from a Japanese perspective it is old because it is rebuilt ldquoin exactly the same way ndash using the same ancient instru-ments materials ndash with each step of the process marked by appropriate ancient ritualsrdquo (Sahlins 2002 9)

Although heritage has for a long time been defined primarily in terms of material objects as ldquotangible heritagerdquo there has been a parallel interest in what is nowadays called ldquointangible heritagerdquo which for most of the past two centuries however remained in the shadow of the more prominent heritage of material objects and the built environment To some extent and in some parts of the world particularly Europe North America and Australia this reflects the different social and political status of the signified whereas monuments works of fine art castles and cathedrals materially and visually project and transmit the heritage of the hegemony folk songs and wisdom as with many other traditional skills tend to project and transmit heritage of the lower classes non‐materially and orally

Kristin Kuutma (Chapter 3) traces the emergence of folklore as an academic discipline and its subsequent involvement in cultural policy‐making including the contemporary transition from ldquofolklorerdquo to ldquointangible cultural heritagerdquo and the disciplinersquos contri-bution to the international management of heritage regimes Originating during the period of nation‐building when they formed part of the creation of national cultural heritages collections of folklore represent past repertoires and practices of mostly pre‐industrial (peasant) lifestyles that nowadays often feed various linguistic ethnic or other local revival movements As global power relationships at the turn of the twenty‐first century are creating ever‐shifting discourses of inclusion and exclusion rooted-ness and rights for possession a need to identify and safeguard intangible cultural heritage was postulated leading to the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage adopted in 2003 and commonly known as the Intangible Heritage Convention Although intangible elements had always been included in understanding the significance of heritage places under the World Heritage Convention (1972) this new convention focused on and led to a system for evaluating and safeguarding intangible heritage in its own right

Heritage in the post‐war years was conceived as and called ldquocultural propertyrdquo an understanding and terminology that is still found today in relation to some disciplines (eg anthropology) and some forms of heritage (eg intellectual property) Pertti Anttonen has observed that ldquothe cultural representations that are selected for making heritage‐political claims are commonly called traditions with a special emphasis on their character as cultural properties that is representations with an ownership labelrdquo (Anttonen 2005 39) Ownership lying at the heart of the notion of cultural property has become a major and growing concern since the second half of the twentieth century Folarin Shyllon (Chapter 4) considers these concerns especially in the context of human rights Access to and enjoyment of cultural heritage is considered to be a fundamental cultural right a sub‐category of human rights (Shaheed 2011) It might be argued that a similar right to intellectual property also exists but some intellectual property rights do not fit human rights easily because they are economic and commercial rather than social or cultural Considering cultural heritage as a fundamental human right can raise difficult ethical issues as different cultures tend to regard their own values as universal and those of others where they conflict as culturally contingent The debate on intellectual and by extension cultural property is rather more focused

the new heritage studies 5

on economic value As Shyllon points out some cultural heritage such as the sites inscribed on UNESCOrsquos World Heritage List may be regarded as universal property in the wider sense while intellectual property rights tend to be held as monopolies

Except from a natural law perspective values can be seen as being in the mind this goes even for economic monetary values which are the result of negotiations between actors In contrast artistic linguistic and technical skills can be seen as embodied As an example of a non‐Western approach to intangible heritage Natsuko Akagawa (Chapter 5) examines the philosophy behind Japanese legislation for safeguarding cultural property Her analysis highlights the significance of embodiment as a concept for understanding and dealing with heritage

Landscapes of MemoryRecent decades have seen a growing interest across different contexts in how heritage has been embodied in the land (see Gilbert 2010) Perspectives on this vary from geographical analyses of how hegemonic powers have shaped symbolic landscapes (eg Cosgrove 1984) to accounts of indigenous relationships with the land as an ani-mate being and keeper of memory (eg Blue Spruce and Thrasher 2008) Associative landscapes now serve as the foundation for official designations of heritage origins such as the French terroir discussed by Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) Involving com-munities in identifying and managing heritage landscapes and individual sites has become a key concern moving traditional knowledge systems their contribution to heritage management and the need to support them into the spotlight

However this concern has not necessarily been recognized in the practice of inter-national heritage programs With reference to the Pacific islands Anita Smith (Chapter 7) explores differences in the recognition of traditional knowledge systems in two UNESCO conventions ndash the World Heritage Convention (1972) and the Intangible Heritage Convention (2003) ndash and underlines long‐standing critiques of the World Heritage system as Eurocentric in its determination of Outstanding Universal Value In the late 1990s there was an attempt to establish an indigenous body to advise the World Heritage Committee in accordance with the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (United Nations 2007) While this initiative failed (see Logan 2013 Meskell 2013a) the call has been renewed in recent years (see Disko this volume)

Although in public perception issues of land and landscape are particularly associated with indigenous peoples they also play a major role in other contexts The application by parts of Burgundy in eastern France for World Heritage status is a case in point Using an ldquoethnographic gazerdquo Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) examines different con-ceptions of Burgundy as a re‐territorialized site and the construction of its micro‐regional climats with their historical depth of place as ldquoGod‐givenrdquo naturalized artifacts in the context of global competition where UNESCO designation is prized for con-veying an elite status

The embodiment of heritage in landscapes of memory also raises issues of the rela-tionships between natural and cultural heritage and their frequent separation in the practice of heritage management where different government and non‐government bodies are in charge of different types of heritage and conflicts of interest arise not least from budget constraints and varying lines of responsibility This can be exacerbated where a designated site stretches across one or more political or administrative boundary

6 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

The Curonian Spit shared by Lithuania and Russia is one of only 31 such transnational World Heritage sites where different approaches by the two administrations to environ-mental issues have been problematic (Armaitiene et al 2007) Moreover multiple layers of cultural memory affect the site and its contemporary meaning as heritage for different constituencies (Kockel 2012a) Appropriately contextualizing cultural heri-tages in relation to place and memory has been made difficult by a widespread tendency to treat cultural differences as mere constructs (Kockel and Nic Craith 2015) This is particularly apparent where we are dealing with places of pain and shame

Not all heritage serves as a reminder of a glorious past (Logan and Reeves 2009) In the Lithuanian national open air museum at Rumšiškes near Kaunas the extensive display of farm buildings and machinery as well as the central small town invoke nineteenth‐ and early twentieth‐century Lithuania but close to the center there is a clearing in the woods where the time frame is different Several items including an earthen yurt and a cattle wagon commemorate the deportations of thousands of Lithuanians between 1941 and 1953 when they were sent to the Soviet Gulags (Kockel 2015) Jonathan Webber (Chapter 8) seeks to make sense of Auschwitz designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1979 as a heritage site and landscape of memory Auschwitz means different things to different victim groups in terms of their own histories but also to other visitors Emblematic of ldquoundesirable heri-tagerdquo it is at the same time a powerful symbol a theatre where multiple memorial events are performed and a destination for ldquodarkrdquo tourism attracting large numbers of spectators

Collecting HeritageEver since interest in heritage began to develop the collection of material items and oral testimony has been a central activity aimed at facilitating their preservation This remains so despite a growing critique of museum and archiving practices UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Programme (MoW) is a major initiative for the protection of documentary heritage However with the exception of Charlesworth (2010) it has been largely overlooked in academic research even within the field of heritage studies Against this background Anca Claudia Prodan (Chapter 9) attempts to clarify the main features of the program and to identify points for research MoW is part of UNESCOrsquos policies aimed at building inclusive knowledge societies While acknowledging the contribution of MoW in that regard Prodan argues that in the process of this the program is reduced to being merely a source of information and that it needs to be strengthened by being recontextualized within UNESCOrsquos international system of heritage protection

Artifact collections and the practices employed in accumulating them have come under scrutiny in the context of postcolonial critiques of intercultural relations In 2002 the British Museum and the Louvre together with an international group of major museums issued the Declaration on the Importance and Value of Universal Museums (ICOM 2004) Most of these museums date back to the late eighteenth century before the period of European imperial expansion and the declaration has been widely interpreted as an attempt to guard against claims for the repatriation of much of their collections to the countries of origin Such claims are made not only with regard to indigenous peoples but extend to Western countries such as Greece as the case of the Elgin Marbles illustrates Maurice Mugabowagahunde (Chapter 10)

Contents

List of Figures and Tables x

Notes on Contributors xiii

Acknowledgements xix

List of Abbreviations xx

Framework

1 The New Heritage Studies Origins and Evolution Problems and Prospects 1William Logan Ullrich Kockel and Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith

Part I Expanding Heritage 27

2 Heritage Places Evolving Conceptions and Changing Forms 29Neil A Silberman

3 From Folklore to Intangible Heritage 41Kristin Kuutma

4 Cultural Heritage and Intellectual Property Convergence Divergence and Interface 55Folarin Shyllon

5 Intangible Heritage and Embodiment Japanrsquos Influence on Global Heritage Discourse 69Natsuko Akagawa

6 The Politics of Heritage in the Land of Food and Wine 87Marion Demossier

viii contents

7 (Re)visioning the Marsquoohi Landscape of Marae Taputapuatea French Polynesia World Heritage and Indigenous Knowledge Systems in the Pacific Islands 101

Anita Smith

8 The Kingdom of Death as a Heritage Site Making Sense of Auschwitz 115 Jonathan Webber

9 The Memory of the World and its Hidden Facets 133 Anca Claudia Prodan

10 African Indigenous Heritage in Colonial and Postcolonial Museums The Case of the Batwa of Africarsquos Great Lakes Region 146

Maurice Mugabowagahunde

Part II Using and Abusing Heritage 161

11 Valuing the Past or Untangling the Social Political and Economic Importance of Cultural Heritage Sites 163

Brenda Trofanenko

12 Cultural Heritage under the Gaze of International Tourism Marketing Campaigns 176

Helaine Silverman and Richard W Hallett

13 Heritagescaping and the Aesthetics of Refuge Challenges to Urban Sustainability 189

Tim Winter

14 Cultural Heritage as a Strategy for Social Needs and Community Identity 203 Keir Reeves and Gertjan Plets

15 Heritage in the Digital Age 215 Maria Economou

16 World Heritage and National Hegemony The Discursive Formation of Chinese Political Authority 229

Haiming Yan

17 War Museums and Memory Wars in Contemporary Poland 243 Julie Fedor

18 Heritage in an Expanded Field Reconstructing Bridge‐ness in Mostar 254 Andrea Connor

19 Heritage Under Fire Lessons from Iraq for Cultural Property Protection 268 Benjamin Isakhan

20 The Intentional Destruction of Heritage Bamiyan and Timbuktu 280 Christian Manhart

21 Heritage and the Politics of Cultural Obliteration The Case of the Andes 295 O Hugo Benavides

Part III Recasting Heritage 307

22 The Economic Feasibility of Heritage Preservation 309 Ron van Oers

contents ix

23 UNESCO and Cultural Heritage Unexpected Consequences 322 Christina Cameron

24 The Limits of Heritage Corporate Interests and Cultural Rights on Resource Frontiers 337

Rosemary J Coombe and Melissa F Baird

25 Indigenous Peoplesrsquo Rights and the World Heritage Convention 355 Stefan Disko

26 UNESCO the World Heritage Convention and Africa The Practice and the Practitioners 373

George Okello Abungu

27 World Heritage Sites in Africa What Are the Benefits of Nomination and Inscription 392

Webber Ndoro

28 Heritage in the ldquoAsian Centuryrdquo Responding to Geopolitical Change 410 Zeynep Aygen and William Logan

29 (Re‐)Building Heritage Integrating Tangible and Intangible 426 Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel

30 The Elephant in the Room Heritage Affect and Emotion 443 Laurajane Smith and Gary Campbell

31 Cross‐Cultural Encounters and ldquoDifficult Heritagerdquo on the ThaindashBurma Railway An Ethics of Cosmopolitanism rather than Practices of Exclusion 461

Andrea Witcomb

32 Heritage and Cosmopolitanism 479 Lynn Meskell

33 ldquoPutting Broken Pieces Back Togetherrdquo Reconciliation Justice and Heritage in Post‐Conflict Situations 491

Patrick Daly and Benjamin Chan

34 Achieving Dialogue through Transnational World Heritage Nomination The Case of the Silk Roads 507

Ona Vileikis

35 World Heritage Alternative Futures 522 Britta Rudolff and Kristal Buckley

36 Challenges for International Cultural Heritage Law 541 Ana Filipa Vrdoljak

37 The New Heritage Studies and Education Training and Capacity‐Building 557 William Logan and Gamini Wijesuriya

Index 574

List of Figures and Tables

Figures

71 Marae Taputapuatea Rarsquoiatea Island French Polynesia Source photograph by Anita Smith 107

72 Romy Tavaearirsquoi ldquoPapa Maraehaurdquo at Marae Taputapuatea November 2007 Source photograph by Anita Smith 109

101 Today in Rwanda the majority of Batwa are still potters Source photo by Maurice Mugabowagahunde 149

111 View of Grand‐Preacute and the Grand‐Preacute National Historic Site Source photo by Brenda Trofanenko 165

112 Evangeline statue and memorial church Source photo by Brenda Trofanenko 167

131 Industrial warehouses transformed into heritageart precinct District 798 Beijing Source photo by Tim Winter 194

132 Restoration of housing in Galle Fort Source photo by Tim Winter 196133 Restoration of housing in Galle Fort Source photo by Tim Winter 198134 Reconstruction of public infrastructure inside Galle Fort

Source photo by Tim Winter 199141 Maslowrsquos hierarchy of social needs Source adapted from

Huitt (2007) and Maslow (1943) 205142 Altaian girl dressed up as the Altai Princess during the

biennial El‐Oiuyn national festival Source copy httpwwwcheineshru 210

list of figures and tables xi

181 The Stari Most (Old Bridge) Mostar Source photo by Andrea Connor 256201 Large Buddha niche Bamiyan Source UNESCOGraciela

Gonzalez Brigas 282202 Results of the consolidation of the Small Buddha niche

Bamiyan 2005 Source UNESCO 286203 Conservation of fragments of the Large Buddha

Bamiyan 2006 Source UNESCO 287204 Ceremony for the start of the restoration of a mausoleum

Timbuktu 2014 Source UNESCOMINUSMAMarco Domino 290271 World Heritage sites contributing to economic growth 397272 A Tsodilo homestead in 1998 Source photo by Phenyo Thebe 399273 The results of World Heritage tourism a homestead near

Tsodilo in 2011 Source photo by Phenyo Thebe 399274 Lodges at Twyfelfontein Source photo by Webber Ndoro 405275 The World Heritage site of Kilwa Kisiwani Source photo by

Webber Ndoro 405291 The ldquodual trajectoriesrdquo of heritage 429292 A symbiotic concept of heritage 430293 The environmental heritage spectrum Source image courtesy of

Robin Turner copy Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland Used by permission 431

294 National Museum of the American Indian Washington Source Raul654 via Wikimedia Commons Attribution‐ShareAlike 30 Unported (CC BY‐SA 30) 432

295 Scottish Parliament Edinburgh Source copy Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland (Aerial Photography Collection) Licensor wwwrcahmsgovuk 433

311 The JEATH Museum with its transnational image clearly represented in the range of flags on display Source photo by Mike Knopp 462

312 The ldquoBridge on the River Kwairdquo Kanchanaburi Source photo by Andrea Witcomb 468

313 View of the text explaining the Weary Dunlop Peace Park Source photo by Andrea Witcomb 470

314 Australian school choir singing as part of the memorial service for Kanitrsquos wife Source photo by Andrea Witcomb 471

315 The interactive nature of the ceremony to assuage the spirits of the dead three of surviving POWs thank Buddhist monks for their prayers with offerings of rice Source photo by Andrea Witcomb 472

316 Wreaths from the ANZAC Day ceremony 2012 at the Kanchanaburi Commonwealth War Graves Cemetery Source photo by Andrea Witcomb 475

331 Display board in the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum showing the organizational structure of the Khmer Rouge leadership Source photo by Patrick Daly 497

xii list of figures and tables

332 Photos of Khmer Rouge soldiers killed by the regime on display amongst photos of civilian victims of the Khmer Rouge in the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum Source photo by Patrick Daly 498

333 Photos of victims of the Khmer Rouge on display in the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum Source photo by Patrick Daly 499

341 Training in the use of the Silk Roads Cultural Heritage Resource Information System and architectural heritage recording Chor Bakr Uzbekistan Source photo by Ona Vileikis 516

342 The Silk Roads management system Source figure by Ona Vileikis 517

Tables

121 Comparison of the key narrative elements in the scripts of Incredible India 2009ndash2011 and Peruacute 2012 179

271 The contribution of various industries to European GDP Source Greffe (2002 7) 398

272 Tourism‐related employment at the Cradle of Humankind Source GPG (2010) 403

281 States Parties to the Intangible Heritage Convention (2003) having the most elements inscribed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity February 2014 Source compiled by W Logan from UNESCO (nd) 415

282 States Parties to the World Heritage Convention (1972) having the most inscriptions on the World Heritage List July 2014 Source compiled by W Logan from UNESCO (2015a 2015b) 416

371 Different audiences and learning areas in the heritage sector Source Wijesuriya Thompson and Young (2013 51) copy UNESCO ICCROM ICOMOS IUCN 566

George Okello Abungu is Associate Professor of Heritage Studies at the University of Mauritius fellow of the Stellenbosch Institute for Advanced Studies at the University of Stellenbosch South Africa and Visiting Professor of Applied Anthropology University of Florida A former director‐general of the National Museums of Kenya he is currently vice‐president of ICOM and member of the international jury of the UNESCO Melina Mercouri International Prize for the Safeguard and Management of Cultural Landscapes He has published widely in the areas of archaeology heritage and museology

Natsuko Akagawa is Lecturer at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology University Australia She has undertaken heritage projects in Thailand Vietnam Japan China Macau SAR and the Netherlands and was a research fellow at East‐West Centre Hawaii She is currently vice‐president of the ICOMOS International Scientific Committee on Intangible Cultural Heritage Among her publications is Heritage Conservation and Japanrsquos Cultural Diplomacy Heritage National Identity and National Interest (2014)

Zeynep Aygen is Professor and chair at the Environmental Studies and Control Discipline Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University Istanbul Turkey She is a fellow of the Higher Education Academy and member of the Institute of Historic Building Conservation both in the United Kingdom Her research explores opportunities for physical and social sustainability in a cross‐cultural context through conservation pol-icies and their application

Melissa F Baird is Assistant Professor of Anthropology in the Social Sciences Department Michigan Technological University Her research seeks to broaden our

Notes on Contributors

xiv notes on contributors

understanding of global heritage and environmental politics especially how heritage intersects with indigenous rights and environmental protection

O Hugo Benavides is Professor of Anthropology Latin American and Latino studies and International Political Economy and Development Fordham University New York He is the editor and author of numerous articles and books on Latin American culture politics and history including Making Ecuadorian Histories Four Centuries of Defining Power (2004)

Kristal Buckley is Lecturer in Cultural Heritage at Deakin Universityrsquos Cultural Heritage Centre for Asia and the Pacific Melbourne Australia Her interests include evolving forms of global cultural heritage practice and heritage institutions and knowledge practices She has been a vice‐president of ICOMOS and a member of the ICOMOS delegation to the World Heritage Committee since 2007

Christina Cameron holds the Canada Research Chair on Built Heritage at the University of Montreal Canada She previously served as an executive with Parks Canada for thirty‐five years Involved with World Heritage since 1987 she carries out research on the history of the World Heritage Convention and directs the World Heritage Oral Archives program

Gary Campbell is an independent scholar based in Canberra Australia He has a background in sociology political studies and industrial relations He is co‐editor of the book Heritage Labour and the Working Classes and has co‐authored work with Laurajane Smith on issues of representation and recognition of working‐class heritage and de‐industrialization

Benjamin Chan is a member of the Political Science Department at the National University of Singapore His research interests include humanitarianism post‐conflict reconciliation and post‐disaster relief and reconstruction He has conducted fieldwork in mainland Southeast Asia and in Central America

Andrea Connor is a research associate with the Transforming Cultures Research Center at the University of Technology Sydney She is a sociocultural researcher working across the fields of heritage studies cultural geography museum studies and cultural studies She is currently working on a research monograph on the afterlife of monumental things

Rosemary J Coombe is the Tier One Canada Research Chair in Law Communication and Culture at York University Toronto Canada Her work explores the intersection of intellectual property cultural property and human rights with an emphasis on her-itage politics indigenous peoples governmentalities and neoliberalism

Patrick Daly is a senior fellow at the National University of Singapore and a principal investigator at the Earth Observatory of Singapore His research focuses upon the intersec-tion of heritage and post‐disasterpost‐conflict recovery and reconstruction He has con-ducted fieldwork in the Middle East the Philippines Cambodia and post‐tsunami Aceh Indonesia He is the co‐editor of the Routledge Handbook of Heritage in Asia (2011)

notes on contributors xv

Marion Demossier is Professor of French and European studies in the Department of Modern Languages University of Southampton England She is the author of various works on wine producers wine drinking culture and wine consumption She is cur-rently finalising a book on a critical analysis of terroir in Burgundy

Stefan Disko is an ethnologist focusing on human rights and the protection of cultural and natural heritage He is currently co‐editing a book on World Heritage sites and indigenous peoplesrsquo rights to be published jointly by the International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA) Forest Peoples Programme and the Gundjeihmi Aboriginal Corporation

Maria Economou is Lecturer in Museum Studies at the University of Glasgow Scotland and based at the Hunterian Museum and the Humanities Advanced Technology and Information Institute She has worked at the universities of the Aegean Manchester and Oxford (at the Pitt Rivers Museum) and collaborated with cultural heritage institutions around the world particularly on the use of new technologies for public engagement She specializes in digital cultural heritage

Julie Fedor is Lecturer in Modern European History at the University of Melbourne Australia She is the author of Russia and the Cult of State Security (2011) co‐author of Remembering Katyn (2012) and co‐editor of Memory and Theory in Eastern Europe (2013) and Memory Conflict and New Media (2013)

Richard W Hallett is Professor in the Department of Linguistics Northeastern Illinois University He is interested in the discourse(s) of tourism especially in the social construction of national identity through government‐sponsored tourism websites His research agenda also includes issues in the areas of world Englishes sociolinguistics and second‐language acquisition

Benjamin Isakhan is Senior Lecturer in Politics and Policy Studies and Convenor of the Middle East Studies Forum at Deakin University Australia Ben is also Adjunct Senior Research Associate in the Department of Politics at the University of Johannesburg South Africa

Ullrich Kockel is Professor of Culture and Economy at Heriot‐Watt University Edinburgh Scotland Visiting Professor of Social Anthropology at Vytautas Magnus University Kaunas Lithuania and Emeritus Professor of Ethnology at the University of Ulster He is currently editor‐in‐chief of the Anthropological Journal of European Cultures a fellow of the UKrsquos Academy of Social Sciences and a member of the Royal Irish Academy

Kristin Kuutma is Professor of Cultural Research at the University of Tartu Estonia Her research in cultural history and anthropology focuses on disciplinary knowledge production representation and critical heritage studies She has conducted fieldwork and published on policy‐making and implementation at the international and local level of UNESCOrsquos Intangible Heritage Convention

William Logan is Professor Emeritus at Deakin University Melbourne Australia where he was founding director of the Cultural Heritage Center for Asia and the Pacific

xvi notes on contributors

He is a fellow of the Academy of Social Sciences in Australia and has been president of Australia ICOMOS and a member of the Heritage Council of Victoria His research focuses on World Heritage heritage and human rights and Asian heritage

Christian Manhart is an art historian and archeologist Since joining UNESCO in 1987 he has worked on the conservation of heritage sites in Africa and Asia particu-larly Afghanistan He was responsible in the World Heritage Centre for partnerships communication and more recently matters arising in relation to the international con-ventions of 1954 1970 and 2001 and the Committee for Restitution of Cultural Property Museums and Creativity

Lynn Meskell is Professor of Anthropology and director of the Archaeology Center at Stanford University Her recent books include The Nature of Culture The New South Africa (2012) and the edited volume Cosmopolitan Archaeologies (2009) Her current research focuses on the role of UNESCO in terms of heritage rights sovereignty and international politics

Maurice Mugabowagahunde is a doctoral candidate in African archaeology at University of Bergen Norway His research interests include Rwandan prehistory and ethnography He has previously conducted archeological and ethnographic research in Rwanda for the Institute of National Museums of Rwanda

Webber Ndoro is a research associate with the Department of Archaeology University of Cape Town South Africa and director of the African World Heritage Fund based in Johannesburg

Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith is Professor of European Culture and Heritage at Heriot‐Watt University Edinburgh Scotland having previously held a chair in the School of Social Sciences and Applied Social Studies at the University of Ulster A Member of the Royal Irish Academy she has also been an honorary professor at the University of Exeter and a DAAD guest professor at the University of Goumlttingen Germany

Gertjan Plets was a researcher on the Altai Project at Ghent University Belgium from which he received his doctorate He joined Stanford University initially as a Belgian American Education Fund (BAEF) fellow and now holds a three‐year research‐intensive post‐doctoral fellowship at the Stanford Archaeology Center

Anca Claudia Prodan holds a PhD in Heritage Studies and works as scientific assistant at the UNESCO Chair in Heritage Studies BTU Cottbus-Senftenberg Prior to this she studied in Romania and Germany obtaining degrees in Anthropology Philosophy and World Heritage Studies Her research interests center on theories and concepts of culture and heritage

Keir Reeves holds a chair in Australian history at Federation University Australia Victoria Australia He has held teaching and research posts at Monash University and the University of Melbourne In 2013 he was a visiting fellow at Clare Hall University of Cambridge England His research concentrates on regional development as well as Australian Asian and Pacific cultural heritage

notes on contributors xvii

Britta Rudolff holds an interim chair in heritage management at Brandenburg Technical University Cottbus Germany where she is also the managing director of the Institute for Heritage Management A cultural heritage conservator with postgraduate qualifications in heritage studies and a doctorate in cultural geography her focus has been on UNESCO heritage conventions

Folarin Shyllon read law at Kingrsquos College London and taught at the University of Ibadan Nigeria from 1975 to 2005 His teaching and research interests are in cultural property and intellectual property law He is on the editorial board of the International Journal of Cultural Property and Art Antiquity and Law and is chairperson of the Nigeria chapter of UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Committee

Neil A Silberman is an author historian and managing partner of Coherit Associates an international heritage consulting firm He is an adjunct lecturer in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Massachusetts and serves as president of the ICOMOS International Committee on Interpretation and Presentation (ICIP) His research interests include interpretation theory the history of heritage practice and the politics of commemoration

Helaine Silverman is Professor in the Department of Anthropology University of Illinois Urbana‐Champaign and director of CHAMP (Collaborative for Cultural Heritage Management and Policy) She is especially interested in the cultural politics of heritage production and management tourism and economic development and iden-tity and memory She has conducted research in Peru Thailand and England

Anita Smith is Senior Lecturer responsible for course enhancement in the Faculty of Arts and Education Deakin University Melbourne Australia As an archeologist she has been engaged in the UNESCO Pacific World Heritage Programme since 2004 She was a member of Australiarsquos delegation to the World Heritage Committee between 2008 and 2012 and is editor of World Heritage in a Sea of Islands (2012)

Laurajane Smith is Professor of Heritage and Museum Studies and head of the Centre for Heritage and Museum Studies School of Archaeology and Anthropology Australian National University Canberra Australia She is editor of the International Journal of Heritage Studies co‐editor (with William Logan) of Routledgersquos Key Issues in Cultural Heritage Series and author of Uses of Heritage (2006)

Brenda Trofanenko holds the Canada Research Chair in Education Culture and Community at Acadia University in Wolfville Nova Scotia Canada Her research focuses on how public cultural institutions define identity and knowledge through social processes She is currently conducting research on how youth respond to the collective memories of distressing events

Ron van Oers held a doctorate from Delft University of Technology the Netherlands and had worked at UNESCOrsquos World Heritage Centre in Paris coordinating various programs including the development of the Recommendation on the Historic Urban Landscape (2011) He was vice‐director of the World Heritage Institute of Training and Research for Asia and the Pacific (WHITRAP) in Shanghai China

xviii notes on contributors

Editorrsquos note Dr van Oers passed away unexpectedly on 28 April 2015 while on a UNESCO mission to Lhasa Tibet He made a major contribution to the cultural her-itage field and will be greatly missed

Ona Vileikis is an architect with international experience in World Heritage‐related issues such as risk management monitoring geographic information systems heritage documentation and conservation She is currently a doctoral researcher at the Raymond Lemaire International Centre for Conservation University of Leuven Belgium working on the monitoring of serial transnational World Heritage issues and the use of geospatial content management systems focused on the Central Asia Silk Roads

Ana Filipa Vrdoljak is Professor of Law in the Faculty of Law University of Technology Sydney Australia She is the author of International Law Museums and the Return of Cultural Objects (2006) editor of The Cultural Dimension of Human Rights Law (2013) and joint general editor (with Franceso Francioni) of the Oxford University Press series Cultural Heritage Law and Policy

Jonathan Webber is Professor at the Institute of European Studies Jagiellonian University Krakoacutew Poland He specializes in Jewish studies and Holocaust studies and was a founding member of the International Auschwitz Council serving on it between 1990 and 2012

Gamini Wijesuriya has qualifications in architecture history and historic preservation and archaeology and heritage management He was director of conservation in the Sri Lankan Department of Archaeology between 1982 and 1999 and principal regional scientist in the New Zealand Department of Conservation from 2001 to 2004 Moving to ICCROM in Rome in 2004 he played a key role in developing the 2011 World Heritage Capacity Building Strategy

Tim Winter is Research Professor at the Alfred Deakin Institute for Citizenship and Globalisation Deakin University Melbourne Australia He has published widely on heritage development modernity urban conservation and tourism in Asia He is co‐editor of The Routledge Handbook of Heritage in Asia (2011) and editor of Shanghai Expo An International Forum on the Future of Cities (2013)

Andrea Witcomb is Professor of Cultural Heritage and Museum Studies and deputy director of the Alfred Deakin Institute for Citizenship and Globalisation at Deakin University Melbourne Australia Her work analyzes how museums and heritage sites create spaces for cross‐cultural encounters Her books include Reimagining the Museum Beyond the Mausoleum (2003) and (with Kylie Message) Museum Theory (2015)

Haiming Yan is a sociologist at the Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage Beijing and received his doctorate from the University of Virginia His research interests include cultural sociology memory and heritage and globalization

This volume originated in our desire to address the emergence and nature of the ldquonew heritage studiesrdquo which we see as the exploration of cultural heritage as a construct resulting from processes that give present‐day significance to elements from the past Our conception of the volume was rigorously reviewed by Wiley‐Blackwell For their time and patience we wish especially to thank Rosalie Robertson the initial commis-sioning editor and Ben Thatcher the project editor at Blackwell

We wish to say a special thank you to the contributors to this volume Coming from five continents these scholars were identified on the basis of their innovative ideas practical expertise and international reputation and invited to contribute to this collaborative multidisciplinary project in the cultural heritage field They were a pleasure to work with As the volume has been peer reviewed at every stage from the original proposal to its final production we would also wish to thank everybody who participated in that review process

While this project was in progress Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel moved from the University of Ulster in Northern Ireland to Heriot‐Watt University in Edinburgh and William Logan officially retired but was reappointed as emeritus pro-fessor attached to the Cultural Heritage Centre for Asia and the Pacific and the Alfred Deakin Research Institute at Deakin University in Melbourne We would like to thank our colleagues in all three institutions ndash Deakin University Heriot‐Watt University and the University of Ulster ndash for their continued support

Finally we would like to make a very special mention of Cristina Clopot and Philip Thomas Cristina is currently undertaking her PhD at Heriot‐Watt University but devoted much time and effort in administering the project Philip performed the criti-cal copy editing role with an eagle eye for detail We are very grateful to them both for their enthusiasm and professionalism in the preparation of the materials

William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel

Acknowledgements

ACCU Asia‐Pacific Cultural Centre of UNESCOACHPR African Commission on Human and Peoplesrsquo RightsACHS Association of Critical Heritage Studiesart articleEU European UnionFPIC free prior and informed consentGDP gross domestic productGIS geographic information systemGeoCMS geospatial content management systemsICCROM International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration

of Cultural PropertyICOM International Council of MuseumsICOMOS International Council on Monuments and SitesIUCN International Union for the Conservation of NatureIWGIA International Work Group for Indigenous AffairsMoW Memory of the World ProgrammeMDGs Millennium Development GoalsNGO non‐governmental organizationOHCR Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rightspara paragraphPOW prisoner of warsec sectionUN United NationsUNCERD United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial DiscriminationUNCESCR United Nations Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights

List of Abbreviations

list of abbreviations xxi

UNCEHR United Nations Commission on Human RightsUNDESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social AffairsUNDG United Nations Development GroupUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural OrganizationUNGA United Nations General AssemblyUN‐Habitat United Nations Human Settlements ProgrammeUNHRC United Nations Human Rights CouncilUNPFII United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous IssuesUNSC United Nations Security CouncilWHIPCOE World Heritage Indigenous Peoples Council of ExpertsWIPO World Intellectual Property OrganizationWTO World Trade Organization

Chapter 1

A Companion to Heritage Studies First Edition Edited by William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel copy 2016 John Wiley amp Sons Inc Published 2016 by John Wiley amp Sons Inc

The New Heritage Studies Origins and Evolution Problems and Prospects

William Logan Ullrich Kockel and Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith

Heritage and heritage studies have evolved in quite astounding ways over the last sixty years Nobody could have imagined when the Venice Charter (ICASHB 1964) jump‐started the heritage profession in the aftermath of World War II that there would be a veritable heritage boom in the 1990s and continuing into the twenty‐first century Who would have predicted that so much attention would now be paid to protecting environmental features material culture and living traditions from the past or the vast numbers of community members policy‐makers practitioners and scholars engaged in caring for managing and studying heritage Who would have foreseen the explosion of heritage‐based cultural tourism the reconfiguration of heritage as an economic asset and a World Heritage List comprising of more than a thousand properties spread around the globe

This volume seeks to investigate the story of expansion in heritage and heritage studies Containing 37 chapters commissioned from 44 scholars and practitioners from 5 continents it is designed to provide an up‐to‐date international analysis of the field the steady broadening of the concept of heritage and its social economic and political uses the difficulties that often arise from such uses and current trends in heritage scholarship Starting from a position of seeing ldquoheritagerdquo as a mental construct that attributes ldquosignificancerdquo to certain places artifacts and forms of behavior from the past through processes that are essentially political we see heritage conservation not merely as a technical or managerial matter but as cultural practice a form of cultural politics

CHaPTEr 1

2 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

We are interested in the different extent to which various groups within global national and local communities are able to participate in heritage identification interpretation and management Moreover we want to address the extent to which communities have access to and enjoy heritage once it has been officially recognized conserved or safeguarded This interest inevitably leads to human rights consider-ations to developing closer intellectual links with international lawyers and others in the human rights field and to strengthening both the multidisciplinary nature of heri-tage studies and what we sees as the critical relationship between theory and practice

Whether this new vision of heritage studies represents a ldquoparadigm shiftrdquo or only the culmination of changes already occurring in the heritage studies field since the late 1980s is an issue we will discuss later For now let us go back to the fieldrsquos origins and interpret its evolution

Expanding HEritagE

When ideas of ldquoheritagerdquo were initially formalized their focus was on monuments and sites This was especially the case in Europe from where these ideas spread across the British French and other European empires and the anglophone United States (Nic Craith 2007) Writer‐practitioners such as John Ruskin and Nikolaus Pevsner in England and Eugegravene Viollet‐le‐Duc in France were enormously influential in the early days of heritage identification and protection From these beginnings heritage planners around the world have sought to protect broad areas of historic aesthetic architectural or scientific interest Although there is considerable variation across the world most countries now attempt to protect as official policy and through professional practice a much wider range of features than they did 60 years ago

It was gradually realized for instance that the protection of a monument or building was not in itself enough and that good conservation work was often being rendered ineffective by unsympathetic developments allowed to occur in front of beside behind or even over heritage buildings Attention therefore extended to the precincts around major monuments and buildings A further extension of interest took place in 1962 when Andreacute Malraux then the French minister for culture first established planning regulations (known as the loi Malraux) designed to protect and enhance the historic features of the Marais district of Paris The English were also expanding their focus at about this time to take in conservation areas the first of which were designated in 1967 England now has over 8000 protected areas including the centers of historic towns and cities fishing and mining villages eighteenth‐ and nineteenth‐century suburbs model housing estates and historic transport links and their environs such as stretches of canal (English Heritage nd)

At the international level the World Heritage List established under UNESCOrsquos Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972) or as it is commonly known the World Heritage Convention now contains a large number of cities inscribed for what the convention calls their Outstanding Universal Value An Organization of World Heritage Cities founded in 1993 with headquarters in Quebec City today brings together 250 cities that are either inscribed or have inscribed sites within them (OWHC 2014) In 1992 the World Heritage Committee added the new category of ldquocultural landscapesrdquo to the World Heritage system to allow recognition of places presenting a blend of cultural and natural elements Twenty years

the new heritage studies 3

later the landscape concept was translated into urban areas as the ldquohistoric urban landscaperdquo blending modern and historic architectural and urban design forms rather than natural and cultural elements but nevertheless emphasizing like cultural landscapes the need for a holistic view of the environment and a sensitive balanced approach to new human interventions

Vernacular structures are now seen as being of cultural heritage interest that is structures that are not architect‐designed but owner‐ or community‐built using avail-able resources and traditional techniques So too are industrial structures Publications by Miles Lewis (1977) Paul Oliver (1997) and William Siew Wai Lim and Tan Hock Beng (1998) began to fill in major gaps in the tangible heritage literature More recently there has been considerable heritage interest internationally in ldquocultural routesrdquo The Council of Europe in 1987 established a program of European cultural routes that is managed from a specialized institute located in Luxembourg The pro-gramrsquos first initiative is the Santiago de Compostela Route the famous Christian pilgrimage route of the Middle Ages In the United States and Canada efforts have been made to commemorate the Underground Railroad ndash the route taken by slaves trying to reach freedom before the Civil War ndash by protecting a series of key sites along its length In Asia UNESCO is supporting the Silk Road Project for developing cultural heritage and cultural tourism along the traditional routes of the silk trade between south‐eastern Europe and China

In the international development field there was a marked shift in the 1990s in the attitude of key agencies such as the World Bank towards cultural heritage Rather than seeing cultural heritage protection as an obstacle to development it is now recognized that the two can go hand in hand to bring about more effective programs to raise standards of living in developing countries and elsewhere (Logan 2003 xxi)

Neil Silberman (Chapter 2) explores the evolving heritage conception and the changing forms and functions of heritage places from their initial validation as national institutions in the early nineteenth century to their multicultural context in the early twenty‐first century He shows that the meanings and values of heritage places are neither static nor inherent but ascribed by particular social groups choosing to empha-size or ignore particular items or aspects for social and political purposes Romantic nationalism led to a first ldquoheritage boomrdquo during the emergence of nation‐states in nineteenth‐century Europe as commemorative sites and structures were created to serve as tangible evidence of a nationrsquos pedigree harmonizing the diverse populations of nations into singularly national peoples or sometimes re‐fragmenting them laying the foundations for new identity claims in the future Already by the late nineteenth century accelerating domestic and international tourism engendered a second ldquoheritage boomrdquo albeit differently motivated the new ldquoheritage touristsrdquo on their quest for his-torical authenticity and exotic landscapes as means of (however temporary) escape from modern industrial life dominated by economic calculus contradictorily created the demand that allowed for the commoditization of built heritage as a ldquocultural resourcerdquo

A focus on the built environment is arguably based on a European concept of cultural heritage which is entirely appropriate for an environment dealing largely with the conservation of buildings made of stone brick and other durable materials (Logan 2006) This view of heritage has been frequently criticized Walled cities cathedrals and eye‐catching landscape formations like the Giantrsquos Causeway in Northern Ireland heavily dominate the list of European World Heritage sites This contrasts starkly with the concept of permanency found on other continents An example of this is the

4 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

imperial shrine at Ise Japan From a Western perspective this shrine hardly qualifies as ldquooldrdquo since it is rebuilt every twenty years However from a Japanese perspective it is old because it is rebuilt ldquoin exactly the same way ndash using the same ancient instru-ments materials ndash with each step of the process marked by appropriate ancient ritualsrdquo (Sahlins 2002 9)

Although heritage has for a long time been defined primarily in terms of material objects as ldquotangible heritagerdquo there has been a parallel interest in what is nowadays called ldquointangible heritagerdquo which for most of the past two centuries however remained in the shadow of the more prominent heritage of material objects and the built environment To some extent and in some parts of the world particularly Europe North America and Australia this reflects the different social and political status of the signified whereas monuments works of fine art castles and cathedrals materially and visually project and transmit the heritage of the hegemony folk songs and wisdom as with many other traditional skills tend to project and transmit heritage of the lower classes non‐materially and orally

Kristin Kuutma (Chapter 3) traces the emergence of folklore as an academic discipline and its subsequent involvement in cultural policy‐making including the contemporary transition from ldquofolklorerdquo to ldquointangible cultural heritagerdquo and the disciplinersquos contri-bution to the international management of heritage regimes Originating during the period of nation‐building when they formed part of the creation of national cultural heritages collections of folklore represent past repertoires and practices of mostly pre‐industrial (peasant) lifestyles that nowadays often feed various linguistic ethnic or other local revival movements As global power relationships at the turn of the twenty‐first century are creating ever‐shifting discourses of inclusion and exclusion rooted-ness and rights for possession a need to identify and safeguard intangible cultural heritage was postulated leading to the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage adopted in 2003 and commonly known as the Intangible Heritage Convention Although intangible elements had always been included in understanding the significance of heritage places under the World Heritage Convention (1972) this new convention focused on and led to a system for evaluating and safeguarding intangible heritage in its own right

Heritage in the post‐war years was conceived as and called ldquocultural propertyrdquo an understanding and terminology that is still found today in relation to some disciplines (eg anthropology) and some forms of heritage (eg intellectual property) Pertti Anttonen has observed that ldquothe cultural representations that are selected for making heritage‐political claims are commonly called traditions with a special emphasis on their character as cultural properties that is representations with an ownership labelrdquo (Anttonen 2005 39) Ownership lying at the heart of the notion of cultural property has become a major and growing concern since the second half of the twentieth century Folarin Shyllon (Chapter 4) considers these concerns especially in the context of human rights Access to and enjoyment of cultural heritage is considered to be a fundamental cultural right a sub‐category of human rights (Shaheed 2011) It might be argued that a similar right to intellectual property also exists but some intellectual property rights do not fit human rights easily because they are economic and commercial rather than social or cultural Considering cultural heritage as a fundamental human right can raise difficult ethical issues as different cultures tend to regard their own values as universal and those of others where they conflict as culturally contingent The debate on intellectual and by extension cultural property is rather more focused

the new heritage studies 5

on economic value As Shyllon points out some cultural heritage such as the sites inscribed on UNESCOrsquos World Heritage List may be regarded as universal property in the wider sense while intellectual property rights tend to be held as monopolies

Except from a natural law perspective values can be seen as being in the mind this goes even for economic monetary values which are the result of negotiations between actors In contrast artistic linguistic and technical skills can be seen as embodied As an example of a non‐Western approach to intangible heritage Natsuko Akagawa (Chapter 5) examines the philosophy behind Japanese legislation for safeguarding cultural property Her analysis highlights the significance of embodiment as a concept for understanding and dealing with heritage

Landscapes of MemoryRecent decades have seen a growing interest across different contexts in how heritage has been embodied in the land (see Gilbert 2010) Perspectives on this vary from geographical analyses of how hegemonic powers have shaped symbolic landscapes (eg Cosgrove 1984) to accounts of indigenous relationships with the land as an ani-mate being and keeper of memory (eg Blue Spruce and Thrasher 2008) Associative landscapes now serve as the foundation for official designations of heritage origins such as the French terroir discussed by Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) Involving com-munities in identifying and managing heritage landscapes and individual sites has become a key concern moving traditional knowledge systems their contribution to heritage management and the need to support them into the spotlight

However this concern has not necessarily been recognized in the practice of inter-national heritage programs With reference to the Pacific islands Anita Smith (Chapter 7) explores differences in the recognition of traditional knowledge systems in two UNESCO conventions ndash the World Heritage Convention (1972) and the Intangible Heritage Convention (2003) ndash and underlines long‐standing critiques of the World Heritage system as Eurocentric in its determination of Outstanding Universal Value In the late 1990s there was an attempt to establish an indigenous body to advise the World Heritage Committee in accordance with the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (United Nations 2007) While this initiative failed (see Logan 2013 Meskell 2013a) the call has been renewed in recent years (see Disko this volume)

Although in public perception issues of land and landscape are particularly associated with indigenous peoples they also play a major role in other contexts The application by parts of Burgundy in eastern France for World Heritage status is a case in point Using an ldquoethnographic gazerdquo Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) examines different con-ceptions of Burgundy as a re‐territorialized site and the construction of its micro‐regional climats with their historical depth of place as ldquoGod‐givenrdquo naturalized artifacts in the context of global competition where UNESCO designation is prized for con-veying an elite status

The embodiment of heritage in landscapes of memory also raises issues of the rela-tionships between natural and cultural heritage and their frequent separation in the practice of heritage management where different government and non‐government bodies are in charge of different types of heritage and conflicts of interest arise not least from budget constraints and varying lines of responsibility This can be exacerbated where a designated site stretches across one or more political or administrative boundary

6 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

The Curonian Spit shared by Lithuania and Russia is one of only 31 such transnational World Heritage sites where different approaches by the two administrations to environ-mental issues have been problematic (Armaitiene et al 2007) Moreover multiple layers of cultural memory affect the site and its contemporary meaning as heritage for different constituencies (Kockel 2012a) Appropriately contextualizing cultural heri-tages in relation to place and memory has been made difficult by a widespread tendency to treat cultural differences as mere constructs (Kockel and Nic Craith 2015) This is particularly apparent where we are dealing with places of pain and shame

Not all heritage serves as a reminder of a glorious past (Logan and Reeves 2009) In the Lithuanian national open air museum at Rumšiškes near Kaunas the extensive display of farm buildings and machinery as well as the central small town invoke nineteenth‐ and early twentieth‐century Lithuania but close to the center there is a clearing in the woods where the time frame is different Several items including an earthen yurt and a cattle wagon commemorate the deportations of thousands of Lithuanians between 1941 and 1953 when they were sent to the Soviet Gulags (Kockel 2015) Jonathan Webber (Chapter 8) seeks to make sense of Auschwitz designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1979 as a heritage site and landscape of memory Auschwitz means different things to different victim groups in terms of their own histories but also to other visitors Emblematic of ldquoundesirable heri-tagerdquo it is at the same time a powerful symbol a theatre where multiple memorial events are performed and a destination for ldquodarkrdquo tourism attracting large numbers of spectators

Collecting HeritageEver since interest in heritage began to develop the collection of material items and oral testimony has been a central activity aimed at facilitating their preservation This remains so despite a growing critique of museum and archiving practices UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Programme (MoW) is a major initiative for the protection of documentary heritage However with the exception of Charlesworth (2010) it has been largely overlooked in academic research even within the field of heritage studies Against this background Anca Claudia Prodan (Chapter 9) attempts to clarify the main features of the program and to identify points for research MoW is part of UNESCOrsquos policies aimed at building inclusive knowledge societies While acknowledging the contribution of MoW in that regard Prodan argues that in the process of this the program is reduced to being merely a source of information and that it needs to be strengthened by being recontextualized within UNESCOrsquos international system of heritage protection

Artifact collections and the practices employed in accumulating them have come under scrutiny in the context of postcolonial critiques of intercultural relations In 2002 the British Museum and the Louvre together with an international group of major museums issued the Declaration on the Importance and Value of Universal Museums (ICOM 2004) Most of these museums date back to the late eighteenth century before the period of European imperial expansion and the declaration has been widely interpreted as an attempt to guard against claims for the repatriation of much of their collections to the countries of origin Such claims are made not only with regard to indigenous peoples but extend to Western countries such as Greece as the case of the Elgin Marbles illustrates Maurice Mugabowagahunde (Chapter 10)

viii contents

7 (Re)visioning the Marsquoohi Landscape of Marae Taputapuatea French Polynesia World Heritage and Indigenous Knowledge Systems in the Pacific Islands 101

Anita Smith

8 The Kingdom of Death as a Heritage Site Making Sense of Auschwitz 115 Jonathan Webber

9 The Memory of the World and its Hidden Facets 133 Anca Claudia Prodan

10 African Indigenous Heritage in Colonial and Postcolonial Museums The Case of the Batwa of Africarsquos Great Lakes Region 146

Maurice Mugabowagahunde

Part II Using and Abusing Heritage 161

11 Valuing the Past or Untangling the Social Political and Economic Importance of Cultural Heritage Sites 163

Brenda Trofanenko

12 Cultural Heritage under the Gaze of International Tourism Marketing Campaigns 176

Helaine Silverman and Richard W Hallett

13 Heritagescaping and the Aesthetics of Refuge Challenges to Urban Sustainability 189

Tim Winter

14 Cultural Heritage as a Strategy for Social Needs and Community Identity 203 Keir Reeves and Gertjan Plets

15 Heritage in the Digital Age 215 Maria Economou

16 World Heritage and National Hegemony The Discursive Formation of Chinese Political Authority 229

Haiming Yan

17 War Museums and Memory Wars in Contemporary Poland 243 Julie Fedor

18 Heritage in an Expanded Field Reconstructing Bridge‐ness in Mostar 254 Andrea Connor

19 Heritage Under Fire Lessons from Iraq for Cultural Property Protection 268 Benjamin Isakhan

20 The Intentional Destruction of Heritage Bamiyan and Timbuktu 280 Christian Manhart

21 Heritage and the Politics of Cultural Obliteration The Case of the Andes 295 O Hugo Benavides

Part III Recasting Heritage 307

22 The Economic Feasibility of Heritage Preservation 309 Ron van Oers

contents ix

23 UNESCO and Cultural Heritage Unexpected Consequences 322 Christina Cameron

24 The Limits of Heritage Corporate Interests and Cultural Rights on Resource Frontiers 337

Rosemary J Coombe and Melissa F Baird

25 Indigenous Peoplesrsquo Rights and the World Heritage Convention 355 Stefan Disko

26 UNESCO the World Heritage Convention and Africa The Practice and the Practitioners 373

George Okello Abungu

27 World Heritage Sites in Africa What Are the Benefits of Nomination and Inscription 392

Webber Ndoro

28 Heritage in the ldquoAsian Centuryrdquo Responding to Geopolitical Change 410 Zeynep Aygen and William Logan

29 (Re‐)Building Heritage Integrating Tangible and Intangible 426 Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel

30 The Elephant in the Room Heritage Affect and Emotion 443 Laurajane Smith and Gary Campbell

31 Cross‐Cultural Encounters and ldquoDifficult Heritagerdquo on the ThaindashBurma Railway An Ethics of Cosmopolitanism rather than Practices of Exclusion 461

Andrea Witcomb

32 Heritage and Cosmopolitanism 479 Lynn Meskell

33 ldquoPutting Broken Pieces Back Togetherrdquo Reconciliation Justice and Heritage in Post‐Conflict Situations 491

Patrick Daly and Benjamin Chan

34 Achieving Dialogue through Transnational World Heritage Nomination The Case of the Silk Roads 507

Ona Vileikis

35 World Heritage Alternative Futures 522 Britta Rudolff and Kristal Buckley

36 Challenges for International Cultural Heritage Law 541 Ana Filipa Vrdoljak

37 The New Heritage Studies and Education Training and Capacity‐Building 557 William Logan and Gamini Wijesuriya

Index 574

List of Figures and Tables

Figures

71 Marae Taputapuatea Rarsquoiatea Island French Polynesia Source photograph by Anita Smith 107

72 Romy Tavaearirsquoi ldquoPapa Maraehaurdquo at Marae Taputapuatea November 2007 Source photograph by Anita Smith 109

101 Today in Rwanda the majority of Batwa are still potters Source photo by Maurice Mugabowagahunde 149

111 View of Grand‐Preacute and the Grand‐Preacute National Historic Site Source photo by Brenda Trofanenko 165

112 Evangeline statue and memorial church Source photo by Brenda Trofanenko 167

131 Industrial warehouses transformed into heritageart precinct District 798 Beijing Source photo by Tim Winter 194

132 Restoration of housing in Galle Fort Source photo by Tim Winter 196133 Restoration of housing in Galle Fort Source photo by Tim Winter 198134 Reconstruction of public infrastructure inside Galle Fort

Source photo by Tim Winter 199141 Maslowrsquos hierarchy of social needs Source adapted from

Huitt (2007) and Maslow (1943) 205142 Altaian girl dressed up as the Altai Princess during the

biennial El‐Oiuyn national festival Source copy httpwwwcheineshru 210

list of figures and tables xi

181 The Stari Most (Old Bridge) Mostar Source photo by Andrea Connor 256201 Large Buddha niche Bamiyan Source UNESCOGraciela

Gonzalez Brigas 282202 Results of the consolidation of the Small Buddha niche

Bamiyan 2005 Source UNESCO 286203 Conservation of fragments of the Large Buddha

Bamiyan 2006 Source UNESCO 287204 Ceremony for the start of the restoration of a mausoleum

Timbuktu 2014 Source UNESCOMINUSMAMarco Domino 290271 World Heritage sites contributing to economic growth 397272 A Tsodilo homestead in 1998 Source photo by Phenyo Thebe 399273 The results of World Heritage tourism a homestead near

Tsodilo in 2011 Source photo by Phenyo Thebe 399274 Lodges at Twyfelfontein Source photo by Webber Ndoro 405275 The World Heritage site of Kilwa Kisiwani Source photo by

Webber Ndoro 405291 The ldquodual trajectoriesrdquo of heritage 429292 A symbiotic concept of heritage 430293 The environmental heritage spectrum Source image courtesy of

Robin Turner copy Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland Used by permission 431

294 National Museum of the American Indian Washington Source Raul654 via Wikimedia Commons Attribution‐ShareAlike 30 Unported (CC BY‐SA 30) 432

295 Scottish Parliament Edinburgh Source copy Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland (Aerial Photography Collection) Licensor wwwrcahmsgovuk 433

311 The JEATH Museum with its transnational image clearly represented in the range of flags on display Source photo by Mike Knopp 462

312 The ldquoBridge on the River Kwairdquo Kanchanaburi Source photo by Andrea Witcomb 468

313 View of the text explaining the Weary Dunlop Peace Park Source photo by Andrea Witcomb 470

314 Australian school choir singing as part of the memorial service for Kanitrsquos wife Source photo by Andrea Witcomb 471

315 The interactive nature of the ceremony to assuage the spirits of the dead three of surviving POWs thank Buddhist monks for their prayers with offerings of rice Source photo by Andrea Witcomb 472

316 Wreaths from the ANZAC Day ceremony 2012 at the Kanchanaburi Commonwealth War Graves Cemetery Source photo by Andrea Witcomb 475

331 Display board in the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum showing the organizational structure of the Khmer Rouge leadership Source photo by Patrick Daly 497

xii list of figures and tables

332 Photos of Khmer Rouge soldiers killed by the regime on display amongst photos of civilian victims of the Khmer Rouge in the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum Source photo by Patrick Daly 498

333 Photos of victims of the Khmer Rouge on display in the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum Source photo by Patrick Daly 499

341 Training in the use of the Silk Roads Cultural Heritage Resource Information System and architectural heritage recording Chor Bakr Uzbekistan Source photo by Ona Vileikis 516

342 The Silk Roads management system Source figure by Ona Vileikis 517

Tables

121 Comparison of the key narrative elements in the scripts of Incredible India 2009ndash2011 and Peruacute 2012 179

271 The contribution of various industries to European GDP Source Greffe (2002 7) 398

272 Tourism‐related employment at the Cradle of Humankind Source GPG (2010) 403

281 States Parties to the Intangible Heritage Convention (2003) having the most elements inscribed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity February 2014 Source compiled by W Logan from UNESCO (nd) 415

282 States Parties to the World Heritage Convention (1972) having the most inscriptions on the World Heritage List July 2014 Source compiled by W Logan from UNESCO (2015a 2015b) 416

371 Different audiences and learning areas in the heritage sector Source Wijesuriya Thompson and Young (2013 51) copy UNESCO ICCROM ICOMOS IUCN 566

George Okello Abungu is Associate Professor of Heritage Studies at the University of Mauritius fellow of the Stellenbosch Institute for Advanced Studies at the University of Stellenbosch South Africa and Visiting Professor of Applied Anthropology University of Florida A former director‐general of the National Museums of Kenya he is currently vice‐president of ICOM and member of the international jury of the UNESCO Melina Mercouri International Prize for the Safeguard and Management of Cultural Landscapes He has published widely in the areas of archaeology heritage and museology

Natsuko Akagawa is Lecturer at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology University Australia She has undertaken heritage projects in Thailand Vietnam Japan China Macau SAR and the Netherlands and was a research fellow at East‐West Centre Hawaii She is currently vice‐president of the ICOMOS International Scientific Committee on Intangible Cultural Heritage Among her publications is Heritage Conservation and Japanrsquos Cultural Diplomacy Heritage National Identity and National Interest (2014)

Zeynep Aygen is Professor and chair at the Environmental Studies and Control Discipline Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University Istanbul Turkey She is a fellow of the Higher Education Academy and member of the Institute of Historic Building Conservation both in the United Kingdom Her research explores opportunities for physical and social sustainability in a cross‐cultural context through conservation pol-icies and their application

Melissa F Baird is Assistant Professor of Anthropology in the Social Sciences Department Michigan Technological University Her research seeks to broaden our

Notes on Contributors

xiv notes on contributors

understanding of global heritage and environmental politics especially how heritage intersects with indigenous rights and environmental protection

O Hugo Benavides is Professor of Anthropology Latin American and Latino studies and International Political Economy and Development Fordham University New York He is the editor and author of numerous articles and books on Latin American culture politics and history including Making Ecuadorian Histories Four Centuries of Defining Power (2004)

Kristal Buckley is Lecturer in Cultural Heritage at Deakin Universityrsquos Cultural Heritage Centre for Asia and the Pacific Melbourne Australia Her interests include evolving forms of global cultural heritage practice and heritage institutions and knowledge practices She has been a vice‐president of ICOMOS and a member of the ICOMOS delegation to the World Heritage Committee since 2007

Christina Cameron holds the Canada Research Chair on Built Heritage at the University of Montreal Canada She previously served as an executive with Parks Canada for thirty‐five years Involved with World Heritage since 1987 she carries out research on the history of the World Heritage Convention and directs the World Heritage Oral Archives program

Gary Campbell is an independent scholar based in Canberra Australia He has a background in sociology political studies and industrial relations He is co‐editor of the book Heritage Labour and the Working Classes and has co‐authored work with Laurajane Smith on issues of representation and recognition of working‐class heritage and de‐industrialization

Benjamin Chan is a member of the Political Science Department at the National University of Singapore His research interests include humanitarianism post‐conflict reconciliation and post‐disaster relief and reconstruction He has conducted fieldwork in mainland Southeast Asia and in Central America

Andrea Connor is a research associate with the Transforming Cultures Research Center at the University of Technology Sydney She is a sociocultural researcher working across the fields of heritage studies cultural geography museum studies and cultural studies She is currently working on a research monograph on the afterlife of monumental things

Rosemary J Coombe is the Tier One Canada Research Chair in Law Communication and Culture at York University Toronto Canada Her work explores the intersection of intellectual property cultural property and human rights with an emphasis on her-itage politics indigenous peoples governmentalities and neoliberalism

Patrick Daly is a senior fellow at the National University of Singapore and a principal investigator at the Earth Observatory of Singapore His research focuses upon the intersec-tion of heritage and post‐disasterpost‐conflict recovery and reconstruction He has con-ducted fieldwork in the Middle East the Philippines Cambodia and post‐tsunami Aceh Indonesia He is the co‐editor of the Routledge Handbook of Heritage in Asia (2011)

notes on contributors xv

Marion Demossier is Professor of French and European studies in the Department of Modern Languages University of Southampton England She is the author of various works on wine producers wine drinking culture and wine consumption She is cur-rently finalising a book on a critical analysis of terroir in Burgundy

Stefan Disko is an ethnologist focusing on human rights and the protection of cultural and natural heritage He is currently co‐editing a book on World Heritage sites and indigenous peoplesrsquo rights to be published jointly by the International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA) Forest Peoples Programme and the Gundjeihmi Aboriginal Corporation

Maria Economou is Lecturer in Museum Studies at the University of Glasgow Scotland and based at the Hunterian Museum and the Humanities Advanced Technology and Information Institute She has worked at the universities of the Aegean Manchester and Oxford (at the Pitt Rivers Museum) and collaborated with cultural heritage institutions around the world particularly on the use of new technologies for public engagement She specializes in digital cultural heritage

Julie Fedor is Lecturer in Modern European History at the University of Melbourne Australia She is the author of Russia and the Cult of State Security (2011) co‐author of Remembering Katyn (2012) and co‐editor of Memory and Theory in Eastern Europe (2013) and Memory Conflict and New Media (2013)

Richard W Hallett is Professor in the Department of Linguistics Northeastern Illinois University He is interested in the discourse(s) of tourism especially in the social construction of national identity through government‐sponsored tourism websites His research agenda also includes issues in the areas of world Englishes sociolinguistics and second‐language acquisition

Benjamin Isakhan is Senior Lecturer in Politics and Policy Studies and Convenor of the Middle East Studies Forum at Deakin University Australia Ben is also Adjunct Senior Research Associate in the Department of Politics at the University of Johannesburg South Africa

Ullrich Kockel is Professor of Culture and Economy at Heriot‐Watt University Edinburgh Scotland Visiting Professor of Social Anthropology at Vytautas Magnus University Kaunas Lithuania and Emeritus Professor of Ethnology at the University of Ulster He is currently editor‐in‐chief of the Anthropological Journal of European Cultures a fellow of the UKrsquos Academy of Social Sciences and a member of the Royal Irish Academy

Kristin Kuutma is Professor of Cultural Research at the University of Tartu Estonia Her research in cultural history and anthropology focuses on disciplinary knowledge production representation and critical heritage studies She has conducted fieldwork and published on policy‐making and implementation at the international and local level of UNESCOrsquos Intangible Heritage Convention

William Logan is Professor Emeritus at Deakin University Melbourne Australia where he was founding director of the Cultural Heritage Center for Asia and the Pacific

xvi notes on contributors

He is a fellow of the Academy of Social Sciences in Australia and has been president of Australia ICOMOS and a member of the Heritage Council of Victoria His research focuses on World Heritage heritage and human rights and Asian heritage

Christian Manhart is an art historian and archeologist Since joining UNESCO in 1987 he has worked on the conservation of heritage sites in Africa and Asia particu-larly Afghanistan He was responsible in the World Heritage Centre for partnerships communication and more recently matters arising in relation to the international con-ventions of 1954 1970 and 2001 and the Committee for Restitution of Cultural Property Museums and Creativity

Lynn Meskell is Professor of Anthropology and director of the Archaeology Center at Stanford University Her recent books include The Nature of Culture The New South Africa (2012) and the edited volume Cosmopolitan Archaeologies (2009) Her current research focuses on the role of UNESCO in terms of heritage rights sovereignty and international politics

Maurice Mugabowagahunde is a doctoral candidate in African archaeology at University of Bergen Norway His research interests include Rwandan prehistory and ethnography He has previously conducted archeological and ethnographic research in Rwanda for the Institute of National Museums of Rwanda

Webber Ndoro is a research associate with the Department of Archaeology University of Cape Town South Africa and director of the African World Heritage Fund based in Johannesburg

Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith is Professor of European Culture and Heritage at Heriot‐Watt University Edinburgh Scotland having previously held a chair in the School of Social Sciences and Applied Social Studies at the University of Ulster A Member of the Royal Irish Academy she has also been an honorary professor at the University of Exeter and a DAAD guest professor at the University of Goumlttingen Germany

Gertjan Plets was a researcher on the Altai Project at Ghent University Belgium from which he received his doctorate He joined Stanford University initially as a Belgian American Education Fund (BAEF) fellow and now holds a three‐year research‐intensive post‐doctoral fellowship at the Stanford Archaeology Center

Anca Claudia Prodan holds a PhD in Heritage Studies and works as scientific assistant at the UNESCO Chair in Heritage Studies BTU Cottbus-Senftenberg Prior to this she studied in Romania and Germany obtaining degrees in Anthropology Philosophy and World Heritage Studies Her research interests center on theories and concepts of culture and heritage

Keir Reeves holds a chair in Australian history at Federation University Australia Victoria Australia He has held teaching and research posts at Monash University and the University of Melbourne In 2013 he was a visiting fellow at Clare Hall University of Cambridge England His research concentrates on regional development as well as Australian Asian and Pacific cultural heritage

notes on contributors xvii

Britta Rudolff holds an interim chair in heritage management at Brandenburg Technical University Cottbus Germany where she is also the managing director of the Institute for Heritage Management A cultural heritage conservator with postgraduate qualifications in heritage studies and a doctorate in cultural geography her focus has been on UNESCO heritage conventions

Folarin Shyllon read law at Kingrsquos College London and taught at the University of Ibadan Nigeria from 1975 to 2005 His teaching and research interests are in cultural property and intellectual property law He is on the editorial board of the International Journal of Cultural Property and Art Antiquity and Law and is chairperson of the Nigeria chapter of UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Committee

Neil A Silberman is an author historian and managing partner of Coherit Associates an international heritage consulting firm He is an adjunct lecturer in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Massachusetts and serves as president of the ICOMOS International Committee on Interpretation and Presentation (ICIP) His research interests include interpretation theory the history of heritage practice and the politics of commemoration

Helaine Silverman is Professor in the Department of Anthropology University of Illinois Urbana‐Champaign and director of CHAMP (Collaborative for Cultural Heritage Management and Policy) She is especially interested in the cultural politics of heritage production and management tourism and economic development and iden-tity and memory She has conducted research in Peru Thailand and England

Anita Smith is Senior Lecturer responsible for course enhancement in the Faculty of Arts and Education Deakin University Melbourne Australia As an archeologist she has been engaged in the UNESCO Pacific World Heritage Programme since 2004 She was a member of Australiarsquos delegation to the World Heritage Committee between 2008 and 2012 and is editor of World Heritage in a Sea of Islands (2012)

Laurajane Smith is Professor of Heritage and Museum Studies and head of the Centre for Heritage and Museum Studies School of Archaeology and Anthropology Australian National University Canberra Australia She is editor of the International Journal of Heritage Studies co‐editor (with William Logan) of Routledgersquos Key Issues in Cultural Heritage Series and author of Uses of Heritage (2006)

Brenda Trofanenko holds the Canada Research Chair in Education Culture and Community at Acadia University in Wolfville Nova Scotia Canada Her research focuses on how public cultural institutions define identity and knowledge through social processes She is currently conducting research on how youth respond to the collective memories of distressing events

Ron van Oers held a doctorate from Delft University of Technology the Netherlands and had worked at UNESCOrsquos World Heritage Centre in Paris coordinating various programs including the development of the Recommendation on the Historic Urban Landscape (2011) He was vice‐director of the World Heritage Institute of Training and Research for Asia and the Pacific (WHITRAP) in Shanghai China

xviii notes on contributors

Editorrsquos note Dr van Oers passed away unexpectedly on 28 April 2015 while on a UNESCO mission to Lhasa Tibet He made a major contribution to the cultural her-itage field and will be greatly missed

Ona Vileikis is an architect with international experience in World Heritage‐related issues such as risk management monitoring geographic information systems heritage documentation and conservation She is currently a doctoral researcher at the Raymond Lemaire International Centre for Conservation University of Leuven Belgium working on the monitoring of serial transnational World Heritage issues and the use of geospatial content management systems focused on the Central Asia Silk Roads

Ana Filipa Vrdoljak is Professor of Law in the Faculty of Law University of Technology Sydney Australia She is the author of International Law Museums and the Return of Cultural Objects (2006) editor of The Cultural Dimension of Human Rights Law (2013) and joint general editor (with Franceso Francioni) of the Oxford University Press series Cultural Heritage Law and Policy

Jonathan Webber is Professor at the Institute of European Studies Jagiellonian University Krakoacutew Poland He specializes in Jewish studies and Holocaust studies and was a founding member of the International Auschwitz Council serving on it between 1990 and 2012

Gamini Wijesuriya has qualifications in architecture history and historic preservation and archaeology and heritage management He was director of conservation in the Sri Lankan Department of Archaeology between 1982 and 1999 and principal regional scientist in the New Zealand Department of Conservation from 2001 to 2004 Moving to ICCROM in Rome in 2004 he played a key role in developing the 2011 World Heritage Capacity Building Strategy

Tim Winter is Research Professor at the Alfred Deakin Institute for Citizenship and Globalisation Deakin University Melbourne Australia He has published widely on heritage development modernity urban conservation and tourism in Asia He is co‐editor of The Routledge Handbook of Heritage in Asia (2011) and editor of Shanghai Expo An International Forum on the Future of Cities (2013)

Andrea Witcomb is Professor of Cultural Heritage and Museum Studies and deputy director of the Alfred Deakin Institute for Citizenship and Globalisation at Deakin University Melbourne Australia Her work analyzes how museums and heritage sites create spaces for cross‐cultural encounters Her books include Reimagining the Museum Beyond the Mausoleum (2003) and (with Kylie Message) Museum Theory (2015)

Haiming Yan is a sociologist at the Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage Beijing and received his doctorate from the University of Virginia His research interests include cultural sociology memory and heritage and globalization

This volume originated in our desire to address the emergence and nature of the ldquonew heritage studiesrdquo which we see as the exploration of cultural heritage as a construct resulting from processes that give present‐day significance to elements from the past Our conception of the volume was rigorously reviewed by Wiley‐Blackwell For their time and patience we wish especially to thank Rosalie Robertson the initial commis-sioning editor and Ben Thatcher the project editor at Blackwell

We wish to say a special thank you to the contributors to this volume Coming from five continents these scholars were identified on the basis of their innovative ideas practical expertise and international reputation and invited to contribute to this collaborative multidisciplinary project in the cultural heritage field They were a pleasure to work with As the volume has been peer reviewed at every stage from the original proposal to its final production we would also wish to thank everybody who participated in that review process

While this project was in progress Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel moved from the University of Ulster in Northern Ireland to Heriot‐Watt University in Edinburgh and William Logan officially retired but was reappointed as emeritus pro-fessor attached to the Cultural Heritage Centre for Asia and the Pacific and the Alfred Deakin Research Institute at Deakin University in Melbourne We would like to thank our colleagues in all three institutions ndash Deakin University Heriot‐Watt University and the University of Ulster ndash for their continued support

Finally we would like to make a very special mention of Cristina Clopot and Philip Thomas Cristina is currently undertaking her PhD at Heriot‐Watt University but devoted much time and effort in administering the project Philip performed the criti-cal copy editing role with an eagle eye for detail We are very grateful to them both for their enthusiasm and professionalism in the preparation of the materials

William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel

Acknowledgements

ACCU Asia‐Pacific Cultural Centre of UNESCOACHPR African Commission on Human and Peoplesrsquo RightsACHS Association of Critical Heritage Studiesart articleEU European UnionFPIC free prior and informed consentGDP gross domestic productGIS geographic information systemGeoCMS geospatial content management systemsICCROM International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration

of Cultural PropertyICOM International Council of MuseumsICOMOS International Council on Monuments and SitesIUCN International Union for the Conservation of NatureIWGIA International Work Group for Indigenous AffairsMoW Memory of the World ProgrammeMDGs Millennium Development GoalsNGO non‐governmental organizationOHCR Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rightspara paragraphPOW prisoner of warsec sectionUN United NationsUNCERD United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial DiscriminationUNCESCR United Nations Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights

List of Abbreviations

list of abbreviations xxi

UNCEHR United Nations Commission on Human RightsUNDESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social AffairsUNDG United Nations Development GroupUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural OrganizationUNGA United Nations General AssemblyUN‐Habitat United Nations Human Settlements ProgrammeUNHRC United Nations Human Rights CouncilUNPFII United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous IssuesUNSC United Nations Security CouncilWHIPCOE World Heritage Indigenous Peoples Council of ExpertsWIPO World Intellectual Property OrganizationWTO World Trade Organization

Chapter 1

A Companion to Heritage Studies First Edition Edited by William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel copy 2016 John Wiley amp Sons Inc Published 2016 by John Wiley amp Sons Inc

The New Heritage Studies Origins and Evolution Problems and Prospects

William Logan Ullrich Kockel and Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith

Heritage and heritage studies have evolved in quite astounding ways over the last sixty years Nobody could have imagined when the Venice Charter (ICASHB 1964) jump‐started the heritage profession in the aftermath of World War II that there would be a veritable heritage boom in the 1990s and continuing into the twenty‐first century Who would have predicted that so much attention would now be paid to protecting environmental features material culture and living traditions from the past or the vast numbers of community members policy‐makers practitioners and scholars engaged in caring for managing and studying heritage Who would have foreseen the explosion of heritage‐based cultural tourism the reconfiguration of heritage as an economic asset and a World Heritage List comprising of more than a thousand properties spread around the globe

This volume seeks to investigate the story of expansion in heritage and heritage studies Containing 37 chapters commissioned from 44 scholars and practitioners from 5 continents it is designed to provide an up‐to‐date international analysis of the field the steady broadening of the concept of heritage and its social economic and political uses the difficulties that often arise from such uses and current trends in heritage scholarship Starting from a position of seeing ldquoheritagerdquo as a mental construct that attributes ldquosignificancerdquo to certain places artifacts and forms of behavior from the past through processes that are essentially political we see heritage conservation not merely as a technical or managerial matter but as cultural practice a form of cultural politics

CHaPTEr 1

2 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

We are interested in the different extent to which various groups within global national and local communities are able to participate in heritage identification interpretation and management Moreover we want to address the extent to which communities have access to and enjoy heritage once it has been officially recognized conserved or safeguarded This interest inevitably leads to human rights consider-ations to developing closer intellectual links with international lawyers and others in the human rights field and to strengthening both the multidisciplinary nature of heri-tage studies and what we sees as the critical relationship between theory and practice

Whether this new vision of heritage studies represents a ldquoparadigm shiftrdquo or only the culmination of changes already occurring in the heritage studies field since the late 1980s is an issue we will discuss later For now let us go back to the fieldrsquos origins and interpret its evolution

Expanding HEritagE

When ideas of ldquoheritagerdquo were initially formalized their focus was on monuments and sites This was especially the case in Europe from where these ideas spread across the British French and other European empires and the anglophone United States (Nic Craith 2007) Writer‐practitioners such as John Ruskin and Nikolaus Pevsner in England and Eugegravene Viollet‐le‐Duc in France were enormously influential in the early days of heritage identification and protection From these beginnings heritage planners around the world have sought to protect broad areas of historic aesthetic architectural or scientific interest Although there is considerable variation across the world most countries now attempt to protect as official policy and through professional practice a much wider range of features than they did 60 years ago

It was gradually realized for instance that the protection of a monument or building was not in itself enough and that good conservation work was often being rendered ineffective by unsympathetic developments allowed to occur in front of beside behind or even over heritage buildings Attention therefore extended to the precincts around major monuments and buildings A further extension of interest took place in 1962 when Andreacute Malraux then the French minister for culture first established planning regulations (known as the loi Malraux) designed to protect and enhance the historic features of the Marais district of Paris The English were also expanding their focus at about this time to take in conservation areas the first of which were designated in 1967 England now has over 8000 protected areas including the centers of historic towns and cities fishing and mining villages eighteenth‐ and nineteenth‐century suburbs model housing estates and historic transport links and their environs such as stretches of canal (English Heritage nd)

At the international level the World Heritage List established under UNESCOrsquos Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972) or as it is commonly known the World Heritage Convention now contains a large number of cities inscribed for what the convention calls their Outstanding Universal Value An Organization of World Heritage Cities founded in 1993 with headquarters in Quebec City today brings together 250 cities that are either inscribed or have inscribed sites within them (OWHC 2014) In 1992 the World Heritage Committee added the new category of ldquocultural landscapesrdquo to the World Heritage system to allow recognition of places presenting a blend of cultural and natural elements Twenty years

the new heritage studies 3

later the landscape concept was translated into urban areas as the ldquohistoric urban landscaperdquo blending modern and historic architectural and urban design forms rather than natural and cultural elements but nevertheless emphasizing like cultural landscapes the need for a holistic view of the environment and a sensitive balanced approach to new human interventions

Vernacular structures are now seen as being of cultural heritage interest that is structures that are not architect‐designed but owner‐ or community‐built using avail-able resources and traditional techniques So too are industrial structures Publications by Miles Lewis (1977) Paul Oliver (1997) and William Siew Wai Lim and Tan Hock Beng (1998) began to fill in major gaps in the tangible heritage literature More recently there has been considerable heritage interest internationally in ldquocultural routesrdquo The Council of Europe in 1987 established a program of European cultural routes that is managed from a specialized institute located in Luxembourg The pro-gramrsquos first initiative is the Santiago de Compostela Route the famous Christian pilgrimage route of the Middle Ages In the United States and Canada efforts have been made to commemorate the Underground Railroad ndash the route taken by slaves trying to reach freedom before the Civil War ndash by protecting a series of key sites along its length In Asia UNESCO is supporting the Silk Road Project for developing cultural heritage and cultural tourism along the traditional routes of the silk trade between south‐eastern Europe and China

In the international development field there was a marked shift in the 1990s in the attitude of key agencies such as the World Bank towards cultural heritage Rather than seeing cultural heritage protection as an obstacle to development it is now recognized that the two can go hand in hand to bring about more effective programs to raise standards of living in developing countries and elsewhere (Logan 2003 xxi)

Neil Silberman (Chapter 2) explores the evolving heritage conception and the changing forms and functions of heritage places from their initial validation as national institutions in the early nineteenth century to their multicultural context in the early twenty‐first century He shows that the meanings and values of heritage places are neither static nor inherent but ascribed by particular social groups choosing to empha-size or ignore particular items or aspects for social and political purposes Romantic nationalism led to a first ldquoheritage boomrdquo during the emergence of nation‐states in nineteenth‐century Europe as commemorative sites and structures were created to serve as tangible evidence of a nationrsquos pedigree harmonizing the diverse populations of nations into singularly national peoples or sometimes re‐fragmenting them laying the foundations for new identity claims in the future Already by the late nineteenth century accelerating domestic and international tourism engendered a second ldquoheritage boomrdquo albeit differently motivated the new ldquoheritage touristsrdquo on their quest for his-torical authenticity and exotic landscapes as means of (however temporary) escape from modern industrial life dominated by economic calculus contradictorily created the demand that allowed for the commoditization of built heritage as a ldquocultural resourcerdquo

A focus on the built environment is arguably based on a European concept of cultural heritage which is entirely appropriate for an environment dealing largely with the conservation of buildings made of stone brick and other durable materials (Logan 2006) This view of heritage has been frequently criticized Walled cities cathedrals and eye‐catching landscape formations like the Giantrsquos Causeway in Northern Ireland heavily dominate the list of European World Heritage sites This contrasts starkly with the concept of permanency found on other continents An example of this is the

4 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

imperial shrine at Ise Japan From a Western perspective this shrine hardly qualifies as ldquooldrdquo since it is rebuilt every twenty years However from a Japanese perspective it is old because it is rebuilt ldquoin exactly the same way ndash using the same ancient instru-ments materials ndash with each step of the process marked by appropriate ancient ritualsrdquo (Sahlins 2002 9)

Although heritage has for a long time been defined primarily in terms of material objects as ldquotangible heritagerdquo there has been a parallel interest in what is nowadays called ldquointangible heritagerdquo which for most of the past two centuries however remained in the shadow of the more prominent heritage of material objects and the built environment To some extent and in some parts of the world particularly Europe North America and Australia this reflects the different social and political status of the signified whereas monuments works of fine art castles and cathedrals materially and visually project and transmit the heritage of the hegemony folk songs and wisdom as with many other traditional skills tend to project and transmit heritage of the lower classes non‐materially and orally

Kristin Kuutma (Chapter 3) traces the emergence of folklore as an academic discipline and its subsequent involvement in cultural policy‐making including the contemporary transition from ldquofolklorerdquo to ldquointangible cultural heritagerdquo and the disciplinersquos contri-bution to the international management of heritage regimes Originating during the period of nation‐building when they formed part of the creation of national cultural heritages collections of folklore represent past repertoires and practices of mostly pre‐industrial (peasant) lifestyles that nowadays often feed various linguistic ethnic or other local revival movements As global power relationships at the turn of the twenty‐first century are creating ever‐shifting discourses of inclusion and exclusion rooted-ness and rights for possession a need to identify and safeguard intangible cultural heritage was postulated leading to the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage adopted in 2003 and commonly known as the Intangible Heritage Convention Although intangible elements had always been included in understanding the significance of heritage places under the World Heritage Convention (1972) this new convention focused on and led to a system for evaluating and safeguarding intangible heritage in its own right

Heritage in the post‐war years was conceived as and called ldquocultural propertyrdquo an understanding and terminology that is still found today in relation to some disciplines (eg anthropology) and some forms of heritage (eg intellectual property) Pertti Anttonen has observed that ldquothe cultural representations that are selected for making heritage‐political claims are commonly called traditions with a special emphasis on their character as cultural properties that is representations with an ownership labelrdquo (Anttonen 2005 39) Ownership lying at the heart of the notion of cultural property has become a major and growing concern since the second half of the twentieth century Folarin Shyllon (Chapter 4) considers these concerns especially in the context of human rights Access to and enjoyment of cultural heritage is considered to be a fundamental cultural right a sub‐category of human rights (Shaheed 2011) It might be argued that a similar right to intellectual property also exists but some intellectual property rights do not fit human rights easily because they are economic and commercial rather than social or cultural Considering cultural heritage as a fundamental human right can raise difficult ethical issues as different cultures tend to regard their own values as universal and those of others where they conflict as culturally contingent The debate on intellectual and by extension cultural property is rather more focused

the new heritage studies 5

on economic value As Shyllon points out some cultural heritage such as the sites inscribed on UNESCOrsquos World Heritage List may be regarded as universal property in the wider sense while intellectual property rights tend to be held as monopolies

Except from a natural law perspective values can be seen as being in the mind this goes even for economic monetary values which are the result of negotiations between actors In contrast artistic linguistic and technical skills can be seen as embodied As an example of a non‐Western approach to intangible heritage Natsuko Akagawa (Chapter 5) examines the philosophy behind Japanese legislation for safeguarding cultural property Her analysis highlights the significance of embodiment as a concept for understanding and dealing with heritage

Landscapes of MemoryRecent decades have seen a growing interest across different contexts in how heritage has been embodied in the land (see Gilbert 2010) Perspectives on this vary from geographical analyses of how hegemonic powers have shaped symbolic landscapes (eg Cosgrove 1984) to accounts of indigenous relationships with the land as an ani-mate being and keeper of memory (eg Blue Spruce and Thrasher 2008) Associative landscapes now serve as the foundation for official designations of heritage origins such as the French terroir discussed by Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) Involving com-munities in identifying and managing heritage landscapes and individual sites has become a key concern moving traditional knowledge systems their contribution to heritage management and the need to support them into the spotlight

However this concern has not necessarily been recognized in the practice of inter-national heritage programs With reference to the Pacific islands Anita Smith (Chapter 7) explores differences in the recognition of traditional knowledge systems in two UNESCO conventions ndash the World Heritage Convention (1972) and the Intangible Heritage Convention (2003) ndash and underlines long‐standing critiques of the World Heritage system as Eurocentric in its determination of Outstanding Universal Value In the late 1990s there was an attempt to establish an indigenous body to advise the World Heritage Committee in accordance with the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (United Nations 2007) While this initiative failed (see Logan 2013 Meskell 2013a) the call has been renewed in recent years (see Disko this volume)

Although in public perception issues of land and landscape are particularly associated with indigenous peoples they also play a major role in other contexts The application by parts of Burgundy in eastern France for World Heritage status is a case in point Using an ldquoethnographic gazerdquo Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) examines different con-ceptions of Burgundy as a re‐territorialized site and the construction of its micro‐regional climats with their historical depth of place as ldquoGod‐givenrdquo naturalized artifacts in the context of global competition where UNESCO designation is prized for con-veying an elite status

The embodiment of heritage in landscapes of memory also raises issues of the rela-tionships between natural and cultural heritage and their frequent separation in the practice of heritage management where different government and non‐government bodies are in charge of different types of heritage and conflicts of interest arise not least from budget constraints and varying lines of responsibility This can be exacerbated where a designated site stretches across one or more political or administrative boundary

6 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

The Curonian Spit shared by Lithuania and Russia is one of only 31 such transnational World Heritage sites where different approaches by the two administrations to environ-mental issues have been problematic (Armaitiene et al 2007) Moreover multiple layers of cultural memory affect the site and its contemporary meaning as heritage for different constituencies (Kockel 2012a) Appropriately contextualizing cultural heri-tages in relation to place and memory has been made difficult by a widespread tendency to treat cultural differences as mere constructs (Kockel and Nic Craith 2015) This is particularly apparent where we are dealing with places of pain and shame

Not all heritage serves as a reminder of a glorious past (Logan and Reeves 2009) In the Lithuanian national open air museum at Rumšiškes near Kaunas the extensive display of farm buildings and machinery as well as the central small town invoke nineteenth‐ and early twentieth‐century Lithuania but close to the center there is a clearing in the woods where the time frame is different Several items including an earthen yurt and a cattle wagon commemorate the deportations of thousands of Lithuanians between 1941 and 1953 when they were sent to the Soviet Gulags (Kockel 2015) Jonathan Webber (Chapter 8) seeks to make sense of Auschwitz designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1979 as a heritage site and landscape of memory Auschwitz means different things to different victim groups in terms of their own histories but also to other visitors Emblematic of ldquoundesirable heri-tagerdquo it is at the same time a powerful symbol a theatre where multiple memorial events are performed and a destination for ldquodarkrdquo tourism attracting large numbers of spectators

Collecting HeritageEver since interest in heritage began to develop the collection of material items and oral testimony has been a central activity aimed at facilitating their preservation This remains so despite a growing critique of museum and archiving practices UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Programme (MoW) is a major initiative for the protection of documentary heritage However with the exception of Charlesworth (2010) it has been largely overlooked in academic research even within the field of heritage studies Against this background Anca Claudia Prodan (Chapter 9) attempts to clarify the main features of the program and to identify points for research MoW is part of UNESCOrsquos policies aimed at building inclusive knowledge societies While acknowledging the contribution of MoW in that regard Prodan argues that in the process of this the program is reduced to being merely a source of information and that it needs to be strengthened by being recontextualized within UNESCOrsquos international system of heritage protection

Artifact collections and the practices employed in accumulating them have come under scrutiny in the context of postcolonial critiques of intercultural relations In 2002 the British Museum and the Louvre together with an international group of major museums issued the Declaration on the Importance and Value of Universal Museums (ICOM 2004) Most of these museums date back to the late eighteenth century before the period of European imperial expansion and the declaration has been widely interpreted as an attempt to guard against claims for the repatriation of much of their collections to the countries of origin Such claims are made not only with regard to indigenous peoples but extend to Western countries such as Greece as the case of the Elgin Marbles illustrates Maurice Mugabowagahunde (Chapter 10)

contents ix

23 UNESCO and Cultural Heritage Unexpected Consequences 322 Christina Cameron

24 The Limits of Heritage Corporate Interests and Cultural Rights on Resource Frontiers 337

Rosemary J Coombe and Melissa F Baird

25 Indigenous Peoplesrsquo Rights and the World Heritage Convention 355 Stefan Disko

26 UNESCO the World Heritage Convention and Africa The Practice and the Practitioners 373

George Okello Abungu

27 World Heritage Sites in Africa What Are the Benefits of Nomination and Inscription 392

Webber Ndoro

28 Heritage in the ldquoAsian Centuryrdquo Responding to Geopolitical Change 410 Zeynep Aygen and William Logan

29 (Re‐)Building Heritage Integrating Tangible and Intangible 426 Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel

30 The Elephant in the Room Heritage Affect and Emotion 443 Laurajane Smith and Gary Campbell

31 Cross‐Cultural Encounters and ldquoDifficult Heritagerdquo on the ThaindashBurma Railway An Ethics of Cosmopolitanism rather than Practices of Exclusion 461

Andrea Witcomb

32 Heritage and Cosmopolitanism 479 Lynn Meskell

33 ldquoPutting Broken Pieces Back Togetherrdquo Reconciliation Justice and Heritage in Post‐Conflict Situations 491

Patrick Daly and Benjamin Chan

34 Achieving Dialogue through Transnational World Heritage Nomination The Case of the Silk Roads 507

Ona Vileikis

35 World Heritage Alternative Futures 522 Britta Rudolff and Kristal Buckley

36 Challenges for International Cultural Heritage Law 541 Ana Filipa Vrdoljak

37 The New Heritage Studies and Education Training and Capacity‐Building 557 William Logan and Gamini Wijesuriya

Index 574

List of Figures and Tables

Figures

71 Marae Taputapuatea Rarsquoiatea Island French Polynesia Source photograph by Anita Smith 107

72 Romy Tavaearirsquoi ldquoPapa Maraehaurdquo at Marae Taputapuatea November 2007 Source photograph by Anita Smith 109

101 Today in Rwanda the majority of Batwa are still potters Source photo by Maurice Mugabowagahunde 149

111 View of Grand‐Preacute and the Grand‐Preacute National Historic Site Source photo by Brenda Trofanenko 165

112 Evangeline statue and memorial church Source photo by Brenda Trofanenko 167

131 Industrial warehouses transformed into heritageart precinct District 798 Beijing Source photo by Tim Winter 194

132 Restoration of housing in Galle Fort Source photo by Tim Winter 196133 Restoration of housing in Galle Fort Source photo by Tim Winter 198134 Reconstruction of public infrastructure inside Galle Fort

Source photo by Tim Winter 199141 Maslowrsquos hierarchy of social needs Source adapted from

Huitt (2007) and Maslow (1943) 205142 Altaian girl dressed up as the Altai Princess during the

biennial El‐Oiuyn national festival Source copy httpwwwcheineshru 210

list of figures and tables xi

181 The Stari Most (Old Bridge) Mostar Source photo by Andrea Connor 256201 Large Buddha niche Bamiyan Source UNESCOGraciela

Gonzalez Brigas 282202 Results of the consolidation of the Small Buddha niche

Bamiyan 2005 Source UNESCO 286203 Conservation of fragments of the Large Buddha

Bamiyan 2006 Source UNESCO 287204 Ceremony for the start of the restoration of a mausoleum

Timbuktu 2014 Source UNESCOMINUSMAMarco Domino 290271 World Heritage sites contributing to economic growth 397272 A Tsodilo homestead in 1998 Source photo by Phenyo Thebe 399273 The results of World Heritage tourism a homestead near

Tsodilo in 2011 Source photo by Phenyo Thebe 399274 Lodges at Twyfelfontein Source photo by Webber Ndoro 405275 The World Heritage site of Kilwa Kisiwani Source photo by

Webber Ndoro 405291 The ldquodual trajectoriesrdquo of heritage 429292 A symbiotic concept of heritage 430293 The environmental heritage spectrum Source image courtesy of

Robin Turner copy Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland Used by permission 431

294 National Museum of the American Indian Washington Source Raul654 via Wikimedia Commons Attribution‐ShareAlike 30 Unported (CC BY‐SA 30) 432

295 Scottish Parliament Edinburgh Source copy Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland (Aerial Photography Collection) Licensor wwwrcahmsgovuk 433

311 The JEATH Museum with its transnational image clearly represented in the range of flags on display Source photo by Mike Knopp 462

312 The ldquoBridge on the River Kwairdquo Kanchanaburi Source photo by Andrea Witcomb 468

313 View of the text explaining the Weary Dunlop Peace Park Source photo by Andrea Witcomb 470

314 Australian school choir singing as part of the memorial service for Kanitrsquos wife Source photo by Andrea Witcomb 471

315 The interactive nature of the ceremony to assuage the spirits of the dead three of surviving POWs thank Buddhist monks for their prayers with offerings of rice Source photo by Andrea Witcomb 472

316 Wreaths from the ANZAC Day ceremony 2012 at the Kanchanaburi Commonwealth War Graves Cemetery Source photo by Andrea Witcomb 475

331 Display board in the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum showing the organizational structure of the Khmer Rouge leadership Source photo by Patrick Daly 497

xii list of figures and tables

332 Photos of Khmer Rouge soldiers killed by the regime on display amongst photos of civilian victims of the Khmer Rouge in the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum Source photo by Patrick Daly 498

333 Photos of victims of the Khmer Rouge on display in the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum Source photo by Patrick Daly 499

341 Training in the use of the Silk Roads Cultural Heritage Resource Information System and architectural heritage recording Chor Bakr Uzbekistan Source photo by Ona Vileikis 516

342 The Silk Roads management system Source figure by Ona Vileikis 517

Tables

121 Comparison of the key narrative elements in the scripts of Incredible India 2009ndash2011 and Peruacute 2012 179

271 The contribution of various industries to European GDP Source Greffe (2002 7) 398

272 Tourism‐related employment at the Cradle of Humankind Source GPG (2010) 403

281 States Parties to the Intangible Heritage Convention (2003) having the most elements inscribed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity February 2014 Source compiled by W Logan from UNESCO (nd) 415

282 States Parties to the World Heritage Convention (1972) having the most inscriptions on the World Heritage List July 2014 Source compiled by W Logan from UNESCO (2015a 2015b) 416

371 Different audiences and learning areas in the heritage sector Source Wijesuriya Thompson and Young (2013 51) copy UNESCO ICCROM ICOMOS IUCN 566

George Okello Abungu is Associate Professor of Heritage Studies at the University of Mauritius fellow of the Stellenbosch Institute for Advanced Studies at the University of Stellenbosch South Africa and Visiting Professor of Applied Anthropology University of Florida A former director‐general of the National Museums of Kenya he is currently vice‐president of ICOM and member of the international jury of the UNESCO Melina Mercouri International Prize for the Safeguard and Management of Cultural Landscapes He has published widely in the areas of archaeology heritage and museology

Natsuko Akagawa is Lecturer at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology University Australia She has undertaken heritage projects in Thailand Vietnam Japan China Macau SAR and the Netherlands and was a research fellow at East‐West Centre Hawaii She is currently vice‐president of the ICOMOS International Scientific Committee on Intangible Cultural Heritage Among her publications is Heritage Conservation and Japanrsquos Cultural Diplomacy Heritage National Identity and National Interest (2014)

Zeynep Aygen is Professor and chair at the Environmental Studies and Control Discipline Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University Istanbul Turkey She is a fellow of the Higher Education Academy and member of the Institute of Historic Building Conservation both in the United Kingdom Her research explores opportunities for physical and social sustainability in a cross‐cultural context through conservation pol-icies and their application

Melissa F Baird is Assistant Professor of Anthropology in the Social Sciences Department Michigan Technological University Her research seeks to broaden our

Notes on Contributors

xiv notes on contributors

understanding of global heritage and environmental politics especially how heritage intersects with indigenous rights and environmental protection

O Hugo Benavides is Professor of Anthropology Latin American and Latino studies and International Political Economy and Development Fordham University New York He is the editor and author of numerous articles and books on Latin American culture politics and history including Making Ecuadorian Histories Four Centuries of Defining Power (2004)

Kristal Buckley is Lecturer in Cultural Heritage at Deakin Universityrsquos Cultural Heritage Centre for Asia and the Pacific Melbourne Australia Her interests include evolving forms of global cultural heritage practice and heritage institutions and knowledge practices She has been a vice‐president of ICOMOS and a member of the ICOMOS delegation to the World Heritage Committee since 2007

Christina Cameron holds the Canada Research Chair on Built Heritage at the University of Montreal Canada She previously served as an executive with Parks Canada for thirty‐five years Involved with World Heritage since 1987 she carries out research on the history of the World Heritage Convention and directs the World Heritage Oral Archives program

Gary Campbell is an independent scholar based in Canberra Australia He has a background in sociology political studies and industrial relations He is co‐editor of the book Heritage Labour and the Working Classes and has co‐authored work with Laurajane Smith on issues of representation and recognition of working‐class heritage and de‐industrialization

Benjamin Chan is a member of the Political Science Department at the National University of Singapore His research interests include humanitarianism post‐conflict reconciliation and post‐disaster relief and reconstruction He has conducted fieldwork in mainland Southeast Asia and in Central America

Andrea Connor is a research associate with the Transforming Cultures Research Center at the University of Technology Sydney She is a sociocultural researcher working across the fields of heritage studies cultural geography museum studies and cultural studies She is currently working on a research monograph on the afterlife of monumental things

Rosemary J Coombe is the Tier One Canada Research Chair in Law Communication and Culture at York University Toronto Canada Her work explores the intersection of intellectual property cultural property and human rights with an emphasis on her-itage politics indigenous peoples governmentalities and neoliberalism

Patrick Daly is a senior fellow at the National University of Singapore and a principal investigator at the Earth Observatory of Singapore His research focuses upon the intersec-tion of heritage and post‐disasterpost‐conflict recovery and reconstruction He has con-ducted fieldwork in the Middle East the Philippines Cambodia and post‐tsunami Aceh Indonesia He is the co‐editor of the Routledge Handbook of Heritage in Asia (2011)

notes on contributors xv

Marion Demossier is Professor of French and European studies in the Department of Modern Languages University of Southampton England She is the author of various works on wine producers wine drinking culture and wine consumption She is cur-rently finalising a book on a critical analysis of terroir in Burgundy

Stefan Disko is an ethnologist focusing on human rights and the protection of cultural and natural heritage He is currently co‐editing a book on World Heritage sites and indigenous peoplesrsquo rights to be published jointly by the International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA) Forest Peoples Programme and the Gundjeihmi Aboriginal Corporation

Maria Economou is Lecturer in Museum Studies at the University of Glasgow Scotland and based at the Hunterian Museum and the Humanities Advanced Technology and Information Institute She has worked at the universities of the Aegean Manchester and Oxford (at the Pitt Rivers Museum) and collaborated with cultural heritage institutions around the world particularly on the use of new technologies for public engagement She specializes in digital cultural heritage

Julie Fedor is Lecturer in Modern European History at the University of Melbourne Australia She is the author of Russia and the Cult of State Security (2011) co‐author of Remembering Katyn (2012) and co‐editor of Memory and Theory in Eastern Europe (2013) and Memory Conflict and New Media (2013)

Richard W Hallett is Professor in the Department of Linguistics Northeastern Illinois University He is interested in the discourse(s) of tourism especially in the social construction of national identity through government‐sponsored tourism websites His research agenda also includes issues in the areas of world Englishes sociolinguistics and second‐language acquisition

Benjamin Isakhan is Senior Lecturer in Politics and Policy Studies and Convenor of the Middle East Studies Forum at Deakin University Australia Ben is also Adjunct Senior Research Associate in the Department of Politics at the University of Johannesburg South Africa

Ullrich Kockel is Professor of Culture and Economy at Heriot‐Watt University Edinburgh Scotland Visiting Professor of Social Anthropology at Vytautas Magnus University Kaunas Lithuania and Emeritus Professor of Ethnology at the University of Ulster He is currently editor‐in‐chief of the Anthropological Journal of European Cultures a fellow of the UKrsquos Academy of Social Sciences and a member of the Royal Irish Academy

Kristin Kuutma is Professor of Cultural Research at the University of Tartu Estonia Her research in cultural history and anthropology focuses on disciplinary knowledge production representation and critical heritage studies She has conducted fieldwork and published on policy‐making and implementation at the international and local level of UNESCOrsquos Intangible Heritage Convention

William Logan is Professor Emeritus at Deakin University Melbourne Australia where he was founding director of the Cultural Heritage Center for Asia and the Pacific

xvi notes on contributors

He is a fellow of the Academy of Social Sciences in Australia and has been president of Australia ICOMOS and a member of the Heritage Council of Victoria His research focuses on World Heritage heritage and human rights and Asian heritage

Christian Manhart is an art historian and archeologist Since joining UNESCO in 1987 he has worked on the conservation of heritage sites in Africa and Asia particu-larly Afghanistan He was responsible in the World Heritage Centre for partnerships communication and more recently matters arising in relation to the international con-ventions of 1954 1970 and 2001 and the Committee for Restitution of Cultural Property Museums and Creativity

Lynn Meskell is Professor of Anthropology and director of the Archaeology Center at Stanford University Her recent books include The Nature of Culture The New South Africa (2012) and the edited volume Cosmopolitan Archaeologies (2009) Her current research focuses on the role of UNESCO in terms of heritage rights sovereignty and international politics

Maurice Mugabowagahunde is a doctoral candidate in African archaeology at University of Bergen Norway His research interests include Rwandan prehistory and ethnography He has previously conducted archeological and ethnographic research in Rwanda for the Institute of National Museums of Rwanda

Webber Ndoro is a research associate with the Department of Archaeology University of Cape Town South Africa and director of the African World Heritage Fund based in Johannesburg

Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith is Professor of European Culture and Heritage at Heriot‐Watt University Edinburgh Scotland having previously held a chair in the School of Social Sciences and Applied Social Studies at the University of Ulster A Member of the Royal Irish Academy she has also been an honorary professor at the University of Exeter and a DAAD guest professor at the University of Goumlttingen Germany

Gertjan Plets was a researcher on the Altai Project at Ghent University Belgium from which he received his doctorate He joined Stanford University initially as a Belgian American Education Fund (BAEF) fellow and now holds a three‐year research‐intensive post‐doctoral fellowship at the Stanford Archaeology Center

Anca Claudia Prodan holds a PhD in Heritage Studies and works as scientific assistant at the UNESCO Chair in Heritage Studies BTU Cottbus-Senftenberg Prior to this she studied in Romania and Germany obtaining degrees in Anthropology Philosophy and World Heritage Studies Her research interests center on theories and concepts of culture and heritage

Keir Reeves holds a chair in Australian history at Federation University Australia Victoria Australia He has held teaching and research posts at Monash University and the University of Melbourne In 2013 he was a visiting fellow at Clare Hall University of Cambridge England His research concentrates on regional development as well as Australian Asian and Pacific cultural heritage

notes on contributors xvii

Britta Rudolff holds an interim chair in heritage management at Brandenburg Technical University Cottbus Germany where she is also the managing director of the Institute for Heritage Management A cultural heritage conservator with postgraduate qualifications in heritage studies and a doctorate in cultural geography her focus has been on UNESCO heritage conventions

Folarin Shyllon read law at Kingrsquos College London and taught at the University of Ibadan Nigeria from 1975 to 2005 His teaching and research interests are in cultural property and intellectual property law He is on the editorial board of the International Journal of Cultural Property and Art Antiquity and Law and is chairperson of the Nigeria chapter of UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Committee

Neil A Silberman is an author historian and managing partner of Coherit Associates an international heritage consulting firm He is an adjunct lecturer in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Massachusetts and serves as president of the ICOMOS International Committee on Interpretation and Presentation (ICIP) His research interests include interpretation theory the history of heritage practice and the politics of commemoration

Helaine Silverman is Professor in the Department of Anthropology University of Illinois Urbana‐Champaign and director of CHAMP (Collaborative for Cultural Heritage Management and Policy) She is especially interested in the cultural politics of heritage production and management tourism and economic development and iden-tity and memory She has conducted research in Peru Thailand and England

Anita Smith is Senior Lecturer responsible for course enhancement in the Faculty of Arts and Education Deakin University Melbourne Australia As an archeologist she has been engaged in the UNESCO Pacific World Heritage Programme since 2004 She was a member of Australiarsquos delegation to the World Heritage Committee between 2008 and 2012 and is editor of World Heritage in a Sea of Islands (2012)

Laurajane Smith is Professor of Heritage and Museum Studies and head of the Centre for Heritage and Museum Studies School of Archaeology and Anthropology Australian National University Canberra Australia She is editor of the International Journal of Heritage Studies co‐editor (with William Logan) of Routledgersquos Key Issues in Cultural Heritage Series and author of Uses of Heritage (2006)

Brenda Trofanenko holds the Canada Research Chair in Education Culture and Community at Acadia University in Wolfville Nova Scotia Canada Her research focuses on how public cultural institutions define identity and knowledge through social processes She is currently conducting research on how youth respond to the collective memories of distressing events

Ron van Oers held a doctorate from Delft University of Technology the Netherlands and had worked at UNESCOrsquos World Heritage Centre in Paris coordinating various programs including the development of the Recommendation on the Historic Urban Landscape (2011) He was vice‐director of the World Heritage Institute of Training and Research for Asia and the Pacific (WHITRAP) in Shanghai China

xviii notes on contributors

Editorrsquos note Dr van Oers passed away unexpectedly on 28 April 2015 while on a UNESCO mission to Lhasa Tibet He made a major contribution to the cultural her-itage field and will be greatly missed

Ona Vileikis is an architect with international experience in World Heritage‐related issues such as risk management monitoring geographic information systems heritage documentation and conservation She is currently a doctoral researcher at the Raymond Lemaire International Centre for Conservation University of Leuven Belgium working on the monitoring of serial transnational World Heritage issues and the use of geospatial content management systems focused on the Central Asia Silk Roads

Ana Filipa Vrdoljak is Professor of Law in the Faculty of Law University of Technology Sydney Australia She is the author of International Law Museums and the Return of Cultural Objects (2006) editor of The Cultural Dimension of Human Rights Law (2013) and joint general editor (with Franceso Francioni) of the Oxford University Press series Cultural Heritage Law and Policy

Jonathan Webber is Professor at the Institute of European Studies Jagiellonian University Krakoacutew Poland He specializes in Jewish studies and Holocaust studies and was a founding member of the International Auschwitz Council serving on it between 1990 and 2012

Gamini Wijesuriya has qualifications in architecture history and historic preservation and archaeology and heritage management He was director of conservation in the Sri Lankan Department of Archaeology between 1982 and 1999 and principal regional scientist in the New Zealand Department of Conservation from 2001 to 2004 Moving to ICCROM in Rome in 2004 he played a key role in developing the 2011 World Heritage Capacity Building Strategy

Tim Winter is Research Professor at the Alfred Deakin Institute for Citizenship and Globalisation Deakin University Melbourne Australia He has published widely on heritage development modernity urban conservation and tourism in Asia He is co‐editor of The Routledge Handbook of Heritage in Asia (2011) and editor of Shanghai Expo An International Forum on the Future of Cities (2013)

Andrea Witcomb is Professor of Cultural Heritage and Museum Studies and deputy director of the Alfred Deakin Institute for Citizenship and Globalisation at Deakin University Melbourne Australia Her work analyzes how museums and heritage sites create spaces for cross‐cultural encounters Her books include Reimagining the Museum Beyond the Mausoleum (2003) and (with Kylie Message) Museum Theory (2015)

Haiming Yan is a sociologist at the Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage Beijing and received his doctorate from the University of Virginia His research interests include cultural sociology memory and heritage and globalization

This volume originated in our desire to address the emergence and nature of the ldquonew heritage studiesrdquo which we see as the exploration of cultural heritage as a construct resulting from processes that give present‐day significance to elements from the past Our conception of the volume was rigorously reviewed by Wiley‐Blackwell For their time and patience we wish especially to thank Rosalie Robertson the initial commis-sioning editor and Ben Thatcher the project editor at Blackwell

We wish to say a special thank you to the contributors to this volume Coming from five continents these scholars were identified on the basis of their innovative ideas practical expertise and international reputation and invited to contribute to this collaborative multidisciplinary project in the cultural heritage field They were a pleasure to work with As the volume has been peer reviewed at every stage from the original proposal to its final production we would also wish to thank everybody who participated in that review process

While this project was in progress Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel moved from the University of Ulster in Northern Ireland to Heriot‐Watt University in Edinburgh and William Logan officially retired but was reappointed as emeritus pro-fessor attached to the Cultural Heritage Centre for Asia and the Pacific and the Alfred Deakin Research Institute at Deakin University in Melbourne We would like to thank our colleagues in all three institutions ndash Deakin University Heriot‐Watt University and the University of Ulster ndash for their continued support

Finally we would like to make a very special mention of Cristina Clopot and Philip Thomas Cristina is currently undertaking her PhD at Heriot‐Watt University but devoted much time and effort in administering the project Philip performed the criti-cal copy editing role with an eagle eye for detail We are very grateful to them both for their enthusiasm and professionalism in the preparation of the materials

William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel

Acknowledgements

ACCU Asia‐Pacific Cultural Centre of UNESCOACHPR African Commission on Human and Peoplesrsquo RightsACHS Association of Critical Heritage Studiesart articleEU European UnionFPIC free prior and informed consentGDP gross domestic productGIS geographic information systemGeoCMS geospatial content management systemsICCROM International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration

of Cultural PropertyICOM International Council of MuseumsICOMOS International Council on Monuments and SitesIUCN International Union for the Conservation of NatureIWGIA International Work Group for Indigenous AffairsMoW Memory of the World ProgrammeMDGs Millennium Development GoalsNGO non‐governmental organizationOHCR Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rightspara paragraphPOW prisoner of warsec sectionUN United NationsUNCERD United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial DiscriminationUNCESCR United Nations Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights

List of Abbreviations

list of abbreviations xxi

UNCEHR United Nations Commission on Human RightsUNDESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social AffairsUNDG United Nations Development GroupUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural OrganizationUNGA United Nations General AssemblyUN‐Habitat United Nations Human Settlements ProgrammeUNHRC United Nations Human Rights CouncilUNPFII United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous IssuesUNSC United Nations Security CouncilWHIPCOE World Heritage Indigenous Peoples Council of ExpertsWIPO World Intellectual Property OrganizationWTO World Trade Organization

Chapter 1

A Companion to Heritage Studies First Edition Edited by William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel copy 2016 John Wiley amp Sons Inc Published 2016 by John Wiley amp Sons Inc

The New Heritage Studies Origins and Evolution Problems and Prospects

William Logan Ullrich Kockel and Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith

Heritage and heritage studies have evolved in quite astounding ways over the last sixty years Nobody could have imagined when the Venice Charter (ICASHB 1964) jump‐started the heritage profession in the aftermath of World War II that there would be a veritable heritage boom in the 1990s and continuing into the twenty‐first century Who would have predicted that so much attention would now be paid to protecting environmental features material culture and living traditions from the past or the vast numbers of community members policy‐makers practitioners and scholars engaged in caring for managing and studying heritage Who would have foreseen the explosion of heritage‐based cultural tourism the reconfiguration of heritage as an economic asset and a World Heritage List comprising of more than a thousand properties spread around the globe

This volume seeks to investigate the story of expansion in heritage and heritage studies Containing 37 chapters commissioned from 44 scholars and practitioners from 5 continents it is designed to provide an up‐to‐date international analysis of the field the steady broadening of the concept of heritage and its social economic and political uses the difficulties that often arise from such uses and current trends in heritage scholarship Starting from a position of seeing ldquoheritagerdquo as a mental construct that attributes ldquosignificancerdquo to certain places artifacts and forms of behavior from the past through processes that are essentially political we see heritage conservation not merely as a technical or managerial matter but as cultural practice a form of cultural politics

CHaPTEr 1

2 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

We are interested in the different extent to which various groups within global national and local communities are able to participate in heritage identification interpretation and management Moreover we want to address the extent to which communities have access to and enjoy heritage once it has been officially recognized conserved or safeguarded This interest inevitably leads to human rights consider-ations to developing closer intellectual links with international lawyers and others in the human rights field and to strengthening both the multidisciplinary nature of heri-tage studies and what we sees as the critical relationship between theory and practice

Whether this new vision of heritage studies represents a ldquoparadigm shiftrdquo or only the culmination of changes already occurring in the heritage studies field since the late 1980s is an issue we will discuss later For now let us go back to the fieldrsquos origins and interpret its evolution

Expanding HEritagE

When ideas of ldquoheritagerdquo were initially formalized their focus was on monuments and sites This was especially the case in Europe from where these ideas spread across the British French and other European empires and the anglophone United States (Nic Craith 2007) Writer‐practitioners such as John Ruskin and Nikolaus Pevsner in England and Eugegravene Viollet‐le‐Duc in France were enormously influential in the early days of heritage identification and protection From these beginnings heritage planners around the world have sought to protect broad areas of historic aesthetic architectural or scientific interest Although there is considerable variation across the world most countries now attempt to protect as official policy and through professional practice a much wider range of features than they did 60 years ago

It was gradually realized for instance that the protection of a monument or building was not in itself enough and that good conservation work was often being rendered ineffective by unsympathetic developments allowed to occur in front of beside behind or even over heritage buildings Attention therefore extended to the precincts around major monuments and buildings A further extension of interest took place in 1962 when Andreacute Malraux then the French minister for culture first established planning regulations (known as the loi Malraux) designed to protect and enhance the historic features of the Marais district of Paris The English were also expanding their focus at about this time to take in conservation areas the first of which were designated in 1967 England now has over 8000 protected areas including the centers of historic towns and cities fishing and mining villages eighteenth‐ and nineteenth‐century suburbs model housing estates and historic transport links and their environs such as stretches of canal (English Heritage nd)

At the international level the World Heritage List established under UNESCOrsquos Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972) or as it is commonly known the World Heritage Convention now contains a large number of cities inscribed for what the convention calls their Outstanding Universal Value An Organization of World Heritage Cities founded in 1993 with headquarters in Quebec City today brings together 250 cities that are either inscribed or have inscribed sites within them (OWHC 2014) In 1992 the World Heritage Committee added the new category of ldquocultural landscapesrdquo to the World Heritage system to allow recognition of places presenting a blend of cultural and natural elements Twenty years

the new heritage studies 3

later the landscape concept was translated into urban areas as the ldquohistoric urban landscaperdquo blending modern and historic architectural and urban design forms rather than natural and cultural elements but nevertheless emphasizing like cultural landscapes the need for a holistic view of the environment and a sensitive balanced approach to new human interventions

Vernacular structures are now seen as being of cultural heritage interest that is structures that are not architect‐designed but owner‐ or community‐built using avail-able resources and traditional techniques So too are industrial structures Publications by Miles Lewis (1977) Paul Oliver (1997) and William Siew Wai Lim and Tan Hock Beng (1998) began to fill in major gaps in the tangible heritage literature More recently there has been considerable heritage interest internationally in ldquocultural routesrdquo The Council of Europe in 1987 established a program of European cultural routes that is managed from a specialized institute located in Luxembourg The pro-gramrsquos first initiative is the Santiago de Compostela Route the famous Christian pilgrimage route of the Middle Ages In the United States and Canada efforts have been made to commemorate the Underground Railroad ndash the route taken by slaves trying to reach freedom before the Civil War ndash by protecting a series of key sites along its length In Asia UNESCO is supporting the Silk Road Project for developing cultural heritage and cultural tourism along the traditional routes of the silk trade between south‐eastern Europe and China

In the international development field there was a marked shift in the 1990s in the attitude of key agencies such as the World Bank towards cultural heritage Rather than seeing cultural heritage protection as an obstacle to development it is now recognized that the two can go hand in hand to bring about more effective programs to raise standards of living in developing countries and elsewhere (Logan 2003 xxi)

Neil Silberman (Chapter 2) explores the evolving heritage conception and the changing forms and functions of heritage places from their initial validation as national institutions in the early nineteenth century to their multicultural context in the early twenty‐first century He shows that the meanings and values of heritage places are neither static nor inherent but ascribed by particular social groups choosing to empha-size or ignore particular items or aspects for social and political purposes Romantic nationalism led to a first ldquoheritage boomrdquo during the emergence of nation‐states in nineteenth‐century Europe as commemorative sites and structures were created to serve as tangible evidence of a nationrsquos pedigree harmonizing the diverse populations of nations into singularly national peoples or sometimes re‐fragmenting them laying the foundations for new identity claims in the future Already by the late nineteenth century accelerating domestic and international tourism engendered a second ldquoheritage boomrdquo albeit differently motivated the new ldquoheritage touristsrdquo on their quest for his-torical authenticity and exotic landscapes as means of (however temporary) escape from modern industrial life dominated by economic calculus contradictorily created the demand that allowed for the commoditization of built heritage as a ldquocultural resourcerdquo

A focus on the built environment is arguably based on a European concept of cultural heritage which is entirely appropriate for an environment dealing largely with the conservation of buildings made of stone brick and other durable materials (Logan 2006) This view of heritage has been frequently criticized Walled cities cathedrals and eye‐catching landscape formations like the Giantrsquos Causeway in Northern Ireland heavily dominate the list of European World Heritage sites This contrasts starkly with the concept of permanency found on other continents An example of this is the

4 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

imperial shrine at Ise Japan From a Western perspective this shrine hardly qualifies as ldquooldrdquo since it is rebuilt every twenty years However from a Japanese perspective it is old because it is rebuilt ldquoin exactly the same way ndash using the same ancient instru-ments materials ndash with each step of the process marked by appropriate ancient ritualsrdquo (Sahlins 2002 9)

Although heritage has for a long time been defined primarily in terms of material objects as ldquotangible heritagerdquo there has been a parallel interest in what is nowadays called ldquointangible heritagerdquo which for most of the past two centuries however remained in the shadow of the more prominent heritage of material objects and the built environment To some extent and in some parts of the world particularly Europe North America and Australia this reflects the different social and political status of the signified whereas monuments works of fine art castles and cathedrals materially and visually project and transmit the heritage of the hegemony folk songs and wisdom as with many other traditional skills tend to project and transmit heritage of the lower classes non‐materially and orally

Kristin Kuutma (Chapter 3) traces the emergence of folklore as an academic discipline and its subsequent involvement in cultural policy‐making including the contemporary transition from ldquofolklorerdquo to ldquointangible cultural heritagerdquo and the disciplinersquos contri-bution to the international management of heritage regimes Originating during the period of nation‐building when they formed part of the creation of national cultural heritages collections of folklore represent past repertoires and practices of mostly pre‐industrial (peasant) lifestyles that nowadays often feed various linguistic ethnic or other local revival movements As global power relationships at the turn of the twenty‐first century are creating ever‐shifting discourses of inclusion and exclusion rooted-ness and rights for possession a need to identify and safeguard intangible cultural heritage was postulated leading to the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage adopted in 2003 and commonly known as the Intangible Heritage Convention Although intangible elements had always been included in understanding the significance of heritage places under the World Heritage Convention (1972) this new convention focused on and led to a system for evaluating and safeguarding intangible heritage in its own right

Heritage in the post‐war years was conceived as and called ldquocultural propertyrdquo an understanding and terminology that is still found today in relation to some disciplines (eg anthropology) and some forms of heritage (eg intellectual property) Pertti Anttonen has observed that ldquothe cultural representations that are selected for making heritage‐political claims are commonly called traditions with a special emphasis on their character as cultural properties that is representations with an ownership labelrdquo (Anttonen 2005 39) Ownership lying at the heart of the notion of cultural property has become a major and growing concern since the second half of the twentieth century Folarin Shyllon (Chapter 4) considers these concerns especially in the context of human rights Access to and enjoyment of cultural heritage is considered to be a fundamental cultural right a sub‐category of human rights (Shaheed 2011) It might be argued that a similar right to intellectual property also exists but some intellectual property rights do not fit human rights easily because they are economic and commercial rather than social or cultural Considering cultural heritage as a fundamental human right can raise difficult ethical issues as different cultures tend to regard their own values as universal and those of others where they conflict as culturally contingent The debate on intellectual and by extension cultural property is rather more focused

the new heritage studies 5

on economic value As Shyllon points out some cultural heritage such as the sites inscribed on UNESCOrsquos World Heritage List may be regarded as universal property in the wider sense while intellectual property rights tend to be held as monopolies

Except from a natural law perspective values can be seen as being in the mind this goes even for economic monetary values which are the result of negotiations between actors In contrast artistic linguistic and technical skills can be seen as embodied As an example of a non‐Western approach to intangible heritage Natsuko Akagawa (Chapter 5) examines the philosophy behind Japanese legislation for safeguarding cultural property Her analysis highlights the significance of embodiment as a concept for understanding and dealing with heritage

Landscapes of MemoryRecent decades have seen a growing interest across different contexts in how heritage has been embodied in the land (see Gilbert 2010) Perspectives on this vary from geographical analyses of how hegemonic powers have shaped symbolic landscapes (eg Cosgrove 1984) to accounts of indigenous relationships with the land as an ani-mate being and keeper of memory (eg Blue Spruce and Thrasher 2008) Associative landscapes now serve as the foundation for official designations of heritage origins such as the French terroir discussed by Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) Involving com-munities in identifying and managing heritage landscapes and individual sites has become a key concern moving traditional knowledge systems their contribution to heritage management and the need to support them into the spotlight

However this concern has not necessarily been recognized in the practice of inter-national heritage programs With reference to the Pacific islands Anita Smith (Chapter 7) explores differences in the recognition of traditional knowledge systems in two UNESCO conventions ndash the World Heritage Convention (1972) and the Intangible Heritage Convention (2003) ndash and underlines long‐standing critiques of the World Heritage system as Eurocentric in its determination of Outstanding Universal Value In the late 1990s there was an attempt to establish an indigenous body to advise the World Heritage Committee in accordance with the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (United Nations 2007) While this initiative failed (see Logan 2013 Meskell 2013a) the call has been renewed in recent years (see Disko this volume)

Although in public perception issues of land and landscape are particularly associated with indigenous peoples they also play a major role in other contexts The application by parts of Burgundy in eastern France for World Heritage status is a case in point Using an ldquoethnographic gazerdquo Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) examines different con-ceptions of Burgundy as a re‐territorialized site and the construction of its micro‐regional climats with their historical depth of place as ldquoGod‐givenrdquo naturalized artifacts in the context of global competition where UNESCO designation is prized for con-veying an elite status

The embodiment of heritage in landscapes of memory also raises issues of the rela-tionships between natural and cultural heritage and their frequent separation in the practice of heritage management where different government and non‐government bodies are in charge of different types of heritage and conflicts of interest arise not least from budget constraints and varying lines of responsibility This can be exacerbated where a designated site stretches across one or more political or administrative boundary

6 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

The Curonian Spit shared by Lithuania and Russia is one of only 31 such transnational World Heritage sites where different approaches by the two administrations to environ-mental issues have been problematic (Armaitiene et al 2007) Moreover multiple layers of cultural memory affect the site and its contemporary meaning as heritage for different constituencies (Kockel 2012a) Appropriately contextualizing cultural heri-tages in relation to place and memory has been made difficult by a widespread tendency to treat cultural differences as mere constructs (Kockel and Nic Craith 2015) This is particularly apparent where we are dealing with places of pain and shame

Not all heritage serves as a reminder of a glorious past (Logan and Reeves 2009) In the Lithuanian national open air museum at Rumšiškes near Kaunas the extensive display of farm buildings and machinery as well as the central small town invoke nineteenth‐ and early twentieth‐century Lithuania but close to the center there is a clearing in the woods where the time frame is different Several items including an earthen yurt and a cattle wagon commemorate the deportations of thousands of Lithuanians between 1941 and 1953 when they were sent to the Soviet Gulags (Kockel 2015) Jonathan Webber (Chapter 8) seeks to make sense of Auschwitz designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1979 as a heritage site and landscape of memory Auschwitz means different things to different victim groups in terms of their own histories but also to other visitors Emblematic of ldquoundesirable heri-tagerdquo it is at the same time a powerful symbol a theatre where multiple memorial events are performed and a destination for ldquodarkrdquo tourism attracting large numbers of spectators

Collecting HeritageEver since interest in heritage began to develop the collection of material items and oral testimony has been a central activity aimed at facilitating their preservation This remains so despite a growing critique of museum and archiving practices UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Programme (MoW) is a major initiative for the protection of documentary heritage However with the exception of Charlesworth (2010) it has been largely overlooked in academic research even within the field of heritage studies Against this background Anca Claudia Prodan (Chapter 9) attempts to clarify the main features of the program and to identify points for research MoW is part of UNESCOrsquos policies aimed at building inclusive knowledge societies While acknowledging the contribution of MoW in that regard Prodan argues that in the process of this the program is reduced to being merely a source of information and that it needs to be strengthened by being recontextualized within UNESCOrsquos international system of heritage protection

Artifact collections and the practices employed in accumulating them have come under scrutiny in the context of postcolonial critiques of intercultural relations In 2002 the British Museum and the Louvre together with an international group of major museums issued the Declaration on the Importance and Value of Universal Museums (ICOM 2004) Most of these museums date back to the late eighteenth century before the period of European imperial expansion and the declaration has been widely interpreted as an attempt to guard against claims for the repatriation of much of their collections to the countries of origin Such claims are made not only with regard to indigenous peoples but extend to Western countries such as Greece as the case of the Elgin Marbles illustrates Maurice Mugabowagahunde (Chapter 10)

List of Figures and Tables

Figures

71 Marae Taputapuatea Rarsquoiatea Island French Polynesia Source photograph by Anita Smith 107

72 Romy Tavaearirsquoi ldquoPapa Maraehaurdquo at Marae Taputapuatea November 2007 Source photograph by Anita Smith 109

101 Today in Rwanda the majority of Batwa are still potters Source photo by Maurice Mugabowagahunde 149

111 View of Grand‐Preacute and the Grand‐Preacute National Historic Site Source photo by Brenda Trofanenko 165

112 Evangeline statue and memorial church Source photo by Brenda Trofanenko 167

131 Industrial warehouses transformed into heritageart precinct District 798 Beijing Source photo by Tim Winter 194

132 Restoration of housing in Galle Fort Source photo by Tim Winter 196133 Restoration of housing in Galle Fort Source photo by Tim Winter 198134 Reconstruction of public infrastructure inside Galle Fort

Source photo by Tim Winter 199141 Maslowrsquos hierarchy of social needs Source adapted from

Huitt (2007) and Maslow (1943) 205142 Altaian girl dressed up as the Altai Princess during the

biennial El‐Oiuyn national festival Source copy httpwwwcheineshru 210

list of figures and tables xi

181 The Stari Most (Old Bridge) Mostar Source photo by Andrea Connor 256201 Large Buddha niche Bamiyan Source UNESCOGraciela

Gonzalez Brigas 282202 Results of the consolidation of the Small Buddha niche

Bamiyan 2005 Source UNESCO 286203 Conservation of fragments of the Large Buddha

Bamiyan 2006 Source UNESCO 287204 Ceremony for the start of the restoration of a mausoleum

Timbuktu 2014 Source UNESCOMINUSMAMarco Domino 290271 World Heritage sites contributing to economic growth 397272 A Tsodilo homestead in 1998 Source photo by Phenyo Thebe 399273 The results of World Heritage tourism a homestead near

Tsodilo in 2011 Source photo by Phenyo Thebe 399274 Lodges at Twyfelfontein Source photo by Webber Ndoro 405275 The World Heritage site of Kilwa Kisiwani Source photo by

Webber Ndoro 405291 The ldquodual trajectoriesrdquo of heritage 429292 A symbiotic concept of heritage 430293 The environmental heritage spectrum Source image courtesy of

Robin Turner copy Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland Used by permission 431

294 National Museum of the American Indian Washington Source Raul654 via Wikimedia Commons Attribution‐ShareAlike 30 Unported (CC BY‐SA 30) 432

295 Scottish Parliament Edinburgh Source copy Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland (Aerial Photography Collection) Licensor wwwrcahmsgovuk 433

311 The JEATH Museum with its transnational image clearly represented in the range of flags on display Source photo by Mike Knopp 462

312 The ldquoBridge on the River Kwairdquo Kanchanaburi Source photo by Andrea Witcomb 468

313 View of the text explaining the Weary Dunlop Peace Park Source photo by Andrea Witcomb 470

314 Australian school choir singing as part of the memorial service for Kanitrsquos wife Source photo by Andrea Witcomb 471

315 The interactive nature of the ceremony to assuage the spirits of the dead three of surviving POWs thank Buddhist monks for their prayers with offerings of rice Source photo by Andrea Witcomb 472

316 Wreaths from the ANZAC Day ceremony 2012 at the Kanchanaburi Commonwealth War Graves Cemetery Source photo by Andrea Witcomb 475

331 Display board in the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum showing the organizational structure of the Khmer Rouge leadership Source photo by Patrick Daly 497

xii list of figures and tables

332 Photos of Khmer Rouge soldiers killed by the regime on display amongst photos of civilian victims of the Khmer Rouge in the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum Source photo by Patrick Daly 498

333 Photos of victims of the Khmer Rouge on display in the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum Source photo by Patrick Daly 499

341 Training in the use of the Silk Roads Cultural Heritage Resource Information System and architectural heritage recording Chor Bakr Uzbekistan Source photo by Ona Vileikis 516

342 The Silk Roads management system Source figure by Ona Vileikis 517

Tables

121 Comparison of the key narrative elements in the scripts of Incredible India 2009ndash2011 and Peruacute 2012 179

271 The contribution of various industries to European GDP Source Greffe (2002 7) 398

272 Tourism‐related employment at the Cradle of Humankind Source GPG (2010) 403

281 States Parties to the Intangible Heritage Convention (2003) having the most elements inscribed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity February 2014 Source compiled by W Logan from UNESCO (nd) 415

282 States Parties to the World Heritage Convention (1972) having the most inscriptions on the World Heritage List July 2014 Source compiled by W Logan from UNESCO (2015a 2015b) 416

371 Different audiences and learning areas in the heritage sector Source Wijesuriya Thompson and Young (2013 51) copy UNESCO ICCROM ICOMOS IUCN 566

George Okello Abungu is Associate Professor of Heritage Studies at the University of Mauritius fellow of the Stellenbosch Institute for Advanced Studies at the University of Stellenbosch South Africa and Visiting Professor of Applied Anthropology University of Florida A former director‐general of the National Museums of Kenya he is currently vice‐president of ICOM and member of the international jury of the UNESCO Melina Mercouri International Prize for the Safeguard and Management of Cultural Landscapes He has published widely in the areas of archaeology heritage and museology

Natsuko Akagawa is Lecturer at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology University Australia She has undertaken heritage projects in Thailand Vietnam Japan China Macau SAR and the Netherlands and was a research fellow at East‐West Centre Hawaii She is currently vice‐president of the ICOMOS International Scientific Committee on Intangible Cultural Heritage Among her publications is Heritage Conservation and Japanrsquos Cultural Diplomacy Heritage National Identity and National Interest (2014)

Zeynep Aygen is Professor and chair at the Environmental Studies and Control Discipline Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University Istanbul Turkey She is a fellow of the Higher Education Academy and member of the Institute of Historic Building Conservation both in the United Kingdom Her research explores opportunities for physical and social sustainability in a cross‐cultural context through conservation pol-icies and their application

Melissa F Baird is Assistant Professor of Anthropology in the Social Sciences Department Michigan Technological University Her research seeks to broaden our

Notes on Contributors

xiv notes on contributors

understanding of global heritage and environmental politics especially how heritage intersects with indigenous rights and environmental protection

O Hugo Benavides is Professor of Anthropology Latin American and Latino studies and International Political Economy and Development Fordham University New York He is the editor and author of numerous articles and books on Latin American culture politics and history including Making Ecuadorian Histories Four Centuries of Defining Power (2004)

Kristal Buckley is Lecturer in Cultural Heritage at Deakin Universityrsquos Cultural Heritage Centre for Asia and the Pacific Melbourne Australia Her interests include evolving forms of global cultural heritage practice and heritage institutions and knowledge practices She has been a vice‐president of ICOMOS and a member of the ICOMOS delegation to the World Heritage Committee since 2007

Christina Cameron holds the Canada Research Chair on Built Heritage at the University of Montreal Canada She previously served as an executive with Parks Canada for thirty‐five years Involved with World Heritage since 1987 she carries out research on the history of the World Heritage Convention and directs the World Heritage Oral Archives program

Gary Campbell is an independent scholar based in Canberra Australia He has a background in sociology political studies and industrial relations He is co‐editor of the book Heritage Labour and the Working Classes and has co‐authored work with Laurajane Smith on issues of representation and recognition of working‐class heritage and de‐industrialization

Benjamin Chan is a member of the Political Science Department at the National University of Singapore His research interests include humanitarianism post‐conflict reconciliation and post‐disaster relief and reconstruction He has conducted fieldwork in mainland Southeast Asia and in Central America

Andrea Connor is a research associate with the Transforming Cultures Research Center at the University of Technology Sydney She is a sociocultural researcher working across the fields of heritage studies cultural geography museum studies and cultural studies She is currently working on a research monograph on the afterlife of monumental things

Rosemary J Coombe is the Tier One Canada Research Chair in Law Communication and Culture at York University Toronto Canada Her work explores the intersection of intellectual property cultural property and human rights with an emphasis on her-itage politics indigenous peoples governmentalities and neoliberalism

Patrick Daly is a senior fellow at the National University of Singapore and a principal investigator at the Earth Observatory of Singapore His research focuses upon the intersec-tion of heritage and post‐disasterpost‐conflict recovery and reconstruction He has con-ducted fieldwork in the Middle East the Philippines Cambodia and post‐tsunami Aceh Indonesia He is the co‐editor of the Routledge Handbook of Heritage in Asia (2011)

notes on contributors xv

Marion Demossier is Professor of French and European studies in the Department of Modern Languages University of Southampton England She is the author of various works on wine producers wine drinking culture and wine consumption She is cur-rently finalising a book on a critical analysis of terroir in Burgundy

Stefan Disko is an ethnologist focusing on human rights and the protection of cultural and natural heritage He is currently co‐editing a book on World Heritage sites and indigenous peoplesrsquo rights to be published jointly by the International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA) Forest Peoples Programme and the Gundjeihmi Aboriginal Corporation

Maria Economou is Lecturer in Museum Studies at the University of Glasgow Scotland and based at the Hunterian Museum and the Humanities Advanced Technology and Information Institute She has worked at the universities of the Aegean Manchester and Oxford (at the Pitt Rivers Museum) and collaborated with cultural heritage institutions around the world particularly on the use of new technologies for public engagement She specializes in digital cultural heritage

Julie Fedor is Lecturer in Modern European History at the University of Melbourne Australia She is the author of Russia and the Cult of State Security (2011) co‐author of Remembering Katyn (2012) and co‐editor of Memory and Theory in Eastern Europe (2013) and Memory Conflict and New Media (2013)

Richard W Hallett is Professor in the Department of Linguistics Northeastern Illinois University He is interested in the discourse(s) of tourism especially in the social construction of national identity through government‐sponsored tourism websites His research agenda also includes issues in the areas of world Englishes sociolinguistics and second‐language acquisition

Benjamin Isakhan is Senior Lecturer in Politics and Policy Studies and Convenor of the Middle East Studies Forum at Deakin University Australia Ben is also Adjunct Senior Research Associate in the Department of Politics at the University of Johannesburg South Africa

Ullrich Kockel is Professor of Culture and Economy at Heriot‐Watt University Edinburgh Scotland Visiting Professor of Social Anthropology at Vytautas Magnus University Kaunas Lithuania and Emeritus Professor of Ethnology at the University of Ulster He is currently editor‐in‐chief of the Anthropological Journal of European Cultures a fellow of the UKrsquos Academy of Social Sciences and a member of the Royal Irish Academy

Kristin Kuutma is Professor of Cultural Research at the University of Tartu Estonia Her research in cultural history and anthropology focuses on disciplinary knowledge production representation and critical heritage studies She has conducted fieldwork and published on policy‐making and implementation at the international and local level of UNESCOrsquos Intangible Heritage Convention

William Logan is Professor Emeritus at Deakin University Melbourne Australia where he was founding director of the Cultural Heritage Center for Asia and the Pacific

xvi notes on contributors

He is a fellow of the Academy of Social Sciences in Australia and has been president of Australia ICOMOS and a member of the Heritage Council of Victoria His research focuses on World Heritage heritage and human rights and Asian heritage

Christian Manhart is an art historian and archeologist Since joining UNESCO in 1987 he has worked on the conservation of heritage sites in Africa and Asia particu-larly Afghanistan He was responsible in the World Heritage Centre for partnerships communication and more recently matters arising in relation to the international con-ventions of 1954 1970 and 2001 and the Committee for Restitution of Cultural Property Museums and Creativity

Lynn Meskell is Professor of Anthropology and director of the Archaeology Center at Stanford University Her recent books include The Nature of Culture The New South Africa (2012) and the edited volume Cosmopolitan Archaeologies (2009) Her current research focuses on the role of UNESCO in terms of heritage rights sovereignty and international politics

Maurice Mugabowagahunde is a doctoral candidate in African archaeology at University of Bergen Norway His research interests include Rwandan prehistory and ethnography He has previously conducted archeological and ethnographic research in Rwanda for the Institute of National Museums of Rwanda

Webber Ndoro is a research associate with the Department of Archaeology University of Cape Town South Africa and director of the African World Heritage Fund based in Johannesburg

Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith is Professor of European Culture and Heritage at Heriot‐Watt University Edinburgh Scotland having previously held a chair in the School of Social Sciences and Applied Social Studies at the University of Ulster A Member of the Royal Irish Academy she has also been an honorary professor at the University of Exeter and a DAAD guest professor at the University of Goumlttingen Germany

Gertjan Plets was a researcher on the Altai Project at Ghent University Belgium from which he received his doctorate He joined Stanford University initially as a Belgian American Education Fund (BAEF) fellow and now holds a three‐year research‐intensive post‐doctoral fellowship at the Stanford Archaeology Center

Anca Claudia Prodan holds a PhD in Heritage Studies and works as scientific assistant at the UNESCO Chair in Heritage Studies BTU Cottbus-Senftenberg Prior to this she studied in Romania and Germany obtaining degrees in Anthropology Philosophy and World Heritage Studies Her research interests center on theories and concepts of culture and heritage

Keir Reeves holds a chair in Australian history at Federation University Australia Victoria Australia He has held teaching and research posts at Monash University and the University of Melbourne In 2013 he was a visiting fellow at Clare Hall University of Cambridge England His research concentrates on regional development as well as Australian Asian and Pacific cultural heritage

notes on contributors xvii

Britta Rudolff holds an interim chair in heritage management at Brandenburg Technical University Cottbus Germany where she is also the managing director of the Institute for Heritage Management A cultural heritage conservator with postgraduate qualifications in heritage studies and a doctorate in cultural geography her focus has been on UNESCO heritage conventions

Folarin Shyllon read law at Kingrsquos College London and taught at the University of Ibadan Nigeria from 1975 to 2005 His teaching and research interests are in cultural property and intellectual property law He is on the editorial board of the International Journal of Cultural Property and Art Antiquity and Law and is chairperson of the Nigeria chapter of UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Committee

Neil A Silberman is an author historian and managing partner of Coherit Associates an international heritage consulting firm He is an adjunct lecturer in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Massachusetts and serves as president of the ICOMOS International Committee on Interpretation and Presentation (ICIP) His research interests include interpretation theory the history of heritage practice and the politics of commemoration

Helaine Silverman is Professor in the Department of Anthropology University of Illinois Urbana‐Champaign and director of CHAMP (Collaborative for Cultural Heritage Management and Policy) She is especially interested in the cultural politics of heritage production and management tourism and economic development and iden-tity and memory She has conducted research in Peru Thailand and England

Anita Smith is Senior Lecturer responsible for course enhancement in the Faculty of Arts and Education Deakin University Melbourne Australia As an archeologist she has been engaged in the UNESCO Pacific World Heritage Programme since 2004 She was a member of Australiarsquos delegation to the World Heritage Committee between 2008 and 2012 and is editor of World Heritage in a Sea of Islands (2012)

Laurajane Smith is Professor of Heritage and Museum Studies and head of the Centre for Heritage and Museum Studies School of Archaeology and Anthropology Australian National University Canberra Australia She is editor of the International Journal of Heritage Studies co‐editor (with William Logan) of Routledgersquos Key Issues in Cultural Heritage Series and author of Uses of Heritage (2006)

Brenda Trofanenko holds the Canada Research Chair in Education Culture and Community at Acadia University in Wolfville Nova Scotia Canada Her research focuses on how public cultural institutions define identity and knowledge through social processes She is currently conducting research on how youth respond to the collective memories of distressing events

Ron van Oers held a doctorate from Delft University of Technology the Netherlands and had worked at UNESCOrsquos World Heritage Centre in Paris coordinating various programs including the development of the Recommendation on the Historic Urban Landscape (2011) He was vice‐director of the World Heritage Institute of Training and Research for Asia and the Pacific (WHITRAP) in Shanghai China

xviii notes on contributors

Editorrsquos note Dr van Oers passed away unexpectedly on 28 April 2015 while on a UNESCO mission to Lhasa Tibet He made a major contribution to the cultural her-itage field and will be greatly missed

Ona Vileikis is an architect with international experience in World Heritage‐related issues such as risk management monitoring geographic information systems heritage documentation and conservation She is currently a doctoral researcher at the Raymond Lemaire International Centre for Conservation University of Leuven Belgium working on the monitoring of serial transnational World Heritage issues and the use of geospatial content management systems focused on the Central Asia Silk Roads

Ana Filipa Vrdoljak is Professor of Law in the Faculty of Law University of Technology Sydney Australia She is the author of International Law Museums and the Return of Cultural Objects (2006) editor of The Cultural Dimension of Human Rights Law (2013) and joint general editor (with Franceso Francioni) of the Oxford University Press series Cultural Heritage Law and Policy

Jonathan Webber is Professor at the Institute of European Studies Jagiellonian University Krakoacutew Poland He specializes in Jewish studies and Holocaust studies and was a founding member of the International Auschwitz Council serving on it between 1990 and 2012

Gamini Wijesuriya has qualifications in architecture history and historic preservation and archaeology and heritage management He was director of conservation in the Sri Lankan Department of Archaeology between 1982 and 1999 and principal regional scientist in the New Zealand Department of Conservation from 2001 to 2004 Moving to ICCROM in Rome in 2004 he played a key role in developing the 2011 World Heritage Capacity Building Strategy

Tim Winter is Research Professor at the Alfred Deakin Institute for Citizenship and Globalisation Deakin University Melbourne Australia He has published widely on heritage development modernity urban conservation and tourism in Asia He is co‐editor of The Routledge Handbook of Heritage in Asia (2011) and editor of Shanghai Expo An International Forum on the Future of Cities (2013)

Andrea Witcomb is Professor of Cultural Heritage and Museum Studies and deputy director of the Alfred Deakin Institute for Citizenship and Globalisation at Deakin University Melbourne Australia Her work analyzes how museums and heritage sites create spaces for cross‐cultural encounters Her books include Reimagining the Museum Beyond the Mausoleum (2003) and (with Kylie Message) Museum Theory (2015)

Haiming Yan is a sociologist at the Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage Beijing and received his doctorate from the University of Virginia His research interests include cultural sociology memory and heritage and globalization

This volume originated in our desire to address the emergence and nature of the ldquonew heritage studiesrdquo which we see as the exploration of cultural heritage as a construct resulting from processes that give present‐day significance to elements from the past Our conception of the volume was rigorously reviewed by Wiley‐Blackwell For their time and patience we wish especially to thank Rosalie Robertson the initial commis-sioning editor and Ben Thatcher the project editor at Blackwell

We wish to say a special thank you to the contributors to this volume Coming from five continents these scholars were identified on the basis of their innovative ideas practical expertise and international reputation and invited to contribute to this collaborative multidisciplinary project in the cultural heritage field They were a pleasure to work with As the volume has been peer reviewed at every stage from the original proposal to its final production we would also wish to thank everybody who participated in that review process

While this project was in progress Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel moved from the University of Ulster in Northern Ireland to Heriot‐Watt University in Edinburgh and William Logan officially retired but was reappointed as emeritus pro-fessor attached to the Cultural Heritage Centre for Asia and the Pacific and the Alfred Deakin Research Institute at Deakin University in Melbourne We would like to thank our colleagues in all three institutions ndash Deakin University Heriot‐Watt University and the University of Ulster ndash for their continued support

Finally we would like to make a very special mention of Cristina Clopot and Philip Thomas Cristina is currently undertaking her PhD at Heriot‐Watt University but devoted much time and effort in administering the project Philip performed the criti-cal copy editing role with an eagle eye for detail We are very grateful to them both for their enthusiasm and professionalism in the preparation of the materials

William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel

Acknowledgements

ACCU Asia‐Pacific Cultural Centre of UNESCOACHPR African Commission on Human and Peoplesrsquo RightsACHS Association of Critical Heritage Studiesart articleEU European UnionFPIC free prior and informed consentGDP gross domestic productGIS geographic information systemGeoCMS geospatial content management systemsICCROM International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration

of Cultural PropertyICOM International Council of MuseumsICOMOS International Council on Monuments and SitesIUCN International Union for the Conservation of NatureIWGIA International Work Group for Indigenous AffairsMoW Memory of the World ProgrammeMDGs Millennium Development GoalsNGO non‐governmental organizationOHCR Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rightspara paragraphPOW prisoner of warsec sectionUN United NationsUNCERD United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial DiscriminationUNCESCR United Nations Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights

List of Abbreviations

list of abbreviations xxi

UNCEHR United Nations Commission on Human RightsUNDESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social AffairsUNDG United Nations Development GroupUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural OrganizationUNGA United Nations General AssemblyUN‐Habitat United Nations Human Settlements ProgrammeUNHRC United Nations Human Rights CouncilUNPFII United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous IssuesUNSC United Nations Security CouncilWHIPCOE World Heritage Indigenous Peoples Council of ExpertsWIPO World Intellectual Property OrganizationWTO World Trade Organization

Chapter 1

A Companion to Heritage Studies First Edition Edited by William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel copy 2016 John Wiley amp Sons Inc Published 2016 by John Wiley amp Sons Inc

The New Heritage Studies Origins and Evolution Problems and Prospects

William Logan Ullrich Kockel and Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith

Heritage and heritage studies have evolved in quite astounding ways over the last sixty years Nobody could have imagined when the Venice Charter (ICASHB 1964) jump‐started the heritage profession in the aftermath of World War II that there would be a veritable heritage boom in the 1990s and continuing into the twenty‐first century Who would have predicted that so much attention would now be paid to protecting environmental features material culture and living traditions from the past or the vast numbers of community members policy‐makers practitioners and scholars engaged in caring for managing and studying heritage Who would have foreseen the explosion of heritage‐based cultural tourism the reconfiguration of heritage as an economic asset and a World Heritage List comprising of more than a thousand properties spread around the globe

This volume seeks to investigate the story of expansion in heritage and heritage studies Containing 37 chapters commissioned from 44 scholars and practitioners from 5 continents it is designed to provide an up‐to‐date international analysis of the field the steady broadening of the concept of heritage and its social economic and political uses the difficulties that often arise from such uses and current trends in heritage scholarship Starting from a position of seeing ldquoheritagerdquo as a mental construct that attributes ldquosignificancerdquo to certain places artifacts and forms of behavior from the past through processes that are essentially political we see heritage conservation not merely as a technical or managerial matter but as cultural practice a form of cultural politics

CHaPTEr 1

2 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

We are interested in the different extent to which various groups within global national and local communities are able to participate in heritage identification interpretation and management Moreover we want to address the extent to which communities have access to and enjoy heritage once it has been officially recognized conserved or safeguarded This interest inevitably leads to human rights consider-ations to developing closer intellectual links with international lawyers and others in the human rights field and to strengthening both the multidisciplinary nature of heri-tage studies and what we sees as the critical relationship between theory and practice

Whether this new vision of heritage studies represents a ldquoparadigm shiftrdquo or only the culmination of changes already occurring in the heritage studies field since the late 1980s is an issue we will discuss later For now let us go back to the fieldrsquos origins and interpret its evolution

Expanding HEritagE

When ideas of ldquoheritagerdquo were initially formalized their focus was on monuments and sites This was especially the case in Europe from where these ideas spread across the British French and other European empires and the anglophone United States (Nic Craith 2007) Writer‐practitioners such as John Ruskin and Nikolaus Pevsner in England and Eugegravene Viollet‐le‐Duc in France were enormously influential in the early days of heritage identification and protection From these beginnings heritage planners around the world have sought to protect broad areas of historic aesthetic architectural or scientific interest Although there is considerable variation across the world most countries now attempt to protect as official policy and through professional practice a much wider range of features than they did 60 years ago

It was gradually realized for instance that the protection of a monument or building was not in itself enough and that good conservation work was often being rendered ineffective by unsympathetic developments allowed to occur in front of beside behind or even over heritage buildings Attention therefore extended to the precincts around major monuments and buildings A further extension of interest took place in 1962 when Andreacute Malraux then the French minister for culture first established planning regulations (known as the loi Malraux) designed to protect and enhance the historic features of the Marais district of Paris The English were also expanding their focus at about this time to take in conservation areas the first of which were designated in 1967 England now has over 8000 protected areas including the centers of historic towns and cities fishing and mining villages eighteenth‐ and nineteenth‐century suburbs model housing estates and historic transport links and their environs such as stretches of canal (English Heritage nd)

At the international level the World Heritage List established under UNESCOrsquos Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972) or as it is commonly known the World Heritage Convention now contains a large number of cities inscribed for what the convention calls their Outstanding Universal Value An Organization of World Heritage Cities founded in 1993 with headquarters in Quebec City today brings together 250 cities that are either inscribed or have inscribed sites within them (OWHC 2014) In 1992 the World Heritage Committee added the new category of ldquocultural landscapesrdquo to the World Heritage system to allow recognition of places presenting a blend of cultural and natural elements Twenty years

the new heritage studies 3

later the landscape concept was translated into urban areas as the ldquohistoric urban landscaperdquo blending modern and historic architectural and urban design forms rather than natural and cultural elements but nevertheless emphasizing like cultural landscapes the need for a holistic view of the environment and a sensitive balanced approach to new human interventions

Vernacular structures are now seen as being of cultural heritage interest that is structures that are not architect‐designed but owner‐ or community‐built using avail-able resources and traditional techniques So too are industrial structures Publications by Miles Lewis (1977) Paul Oliver (1997) and William Siew Wai Lim and Tan Hock Beng (1998) began to fill in major gaps in the tangible heritage literature More recently there has been considerable heritage interest internationally in ldquocultural routesrdquo The Council of Europe in 1987 established a program of European cultural routes that is managed from a specialized institute located in Luxembourg The pro-gramrsquos first initiative is the Santiago de Compostela Route the famous Christian pilgrimage route of the Middle Ages In the United States and Canada efforts have been made to commemorate the Underground Railroad ndash the route taken by slaves trying to reach freedom before the Civil War ndash by protecting a series of key sites along its length In Asia UNESCO is supporting the Silk Road Project for developing cultural heritage and cultural tourism along the traditional routes of the silk trade between south‐eastern Europe and China

In the international development field there was a marked shift in the 1990s in the attitude of key agencies such as the World Bank towards cultural heritage Rather than seeing cultural heritage protection as an obstacle to development it is now recognized that the two can go hand in hand to bring about more effective programs to raise standards of living in developing countries and elsewhere (Logan 2003 xxi)

Neil Silberman (Chapter 2) explores the evolving heritage conception and the changing forms and functions of heritage places from their initial validation as national institutions in the early nineteenth century to their multicultural context in the early twenty‐first century He shows that the meanings and values of heritage places are neither static nor inherent but ascribed by particular social groups choosing to empha-size or ignore particular items or aspects for social and political purposes Romantic nationalism led to a first ldquoheritage boomrdquo during the emergence of nation‐states in nineteenth‐century Europe as commemorative sites and structures were created to serve as tangible evidence of a nationrsquos pedigree harmonizing the diverse populations of nations into singularly national peoples or sometimes re‐fragmenting them laying the foundations for new identity claims in the future Already by the late nineteenth century accelerating domestic and international tourism engendered a second ldquoheritage boomrdquo albeit differently motivated the new ldquoheritage touristsrdquo on their quest for his-torical authenticity and exotic landscapes as means of (however temporary) escape from modern industrial life dominated by economic calculus contradictorily created the demand that allowed for the commoditization of built heritage as a ldquocultural resourcerdquo

A focus on the built environment is arguably based on a European concept of cultural heritage which is entirely appropriate for an environment dealing largely with the conservation of buildings made of stone brick and other durable materials (Logan 2006) This view of heritage has been frequently criticized Walled cities cathedrals and eye‐catching landscape formations like the Giantrsquos Causeway in Northern Ireland heavily dominate the list of European World Heritage sites This contrasts starkly with the concept of permanency found on other continents An example of this is the

4 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

imperial shrine at Ise Japan From a Western perspective this shrine hardly qualifies as ldquooldrdquo since it is rebuilt every twenty years However from a Japanese perspective it is old because it is rebuilt ldquoin exactly the same way ndash using the same ancient instru-ments materials ndash with each step of the process marked by appropriate ancient ritualsrdquo (Sahlins 2002 9)

Although heritage has for a long time been defined primarily in terms of material objects as ldquotangible heritagerdquo there has been a parallel interest in what is nowadays called ldquointangible heritagerdquo which for most of the past two centuries however remained in the shadow of the more prominent heritage of material objects and the built environment To some extent and in some parts of the world particularly Europe North America and Australia this reflects the different social and political status of the signified whereas monuments works of fine art castles and cathedrals materially and visually project and transmit the heritage of the hegemony folk songs and wisdom as with many other traditional skills tend to project and transmit heritage of the lower classes non‐materially and orally

Kristin Kuutma (Chapter 3) traces the emergence of folklore as an academic discipline and its subsequent involvement in cultural policy‐making including the contemporary transition from ldquofolklorerdquo to ldquointangible cultural heritagerdquo and the disciplinersquos contri-bution to the international management of heritage regimes Originating during the period of nation‐building when they formed part of the creation of national cultural heritages collections of folklore represent past repertoires and practices of mostly pre‐industrial (peasant) lifestyles that nowadays often feed various linguistic ethnic or other local revival movements As global power relationships at the turn of the twenty‐first century are creating ever‐shifting discourses of inclusion and exclusion rooted-ness and rights for possession a need to identify and safeguard intangible cultural heritage was postulated leading to the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage adopted in 2003 and commonly known as the Intangible Heritage Convention Although intangible elements had always been included in understanding the significance of heritage places under the World Heritage Convention (1972) this new convention focused on and led to a system for evaluating and safeguarding intangible heritage in its own right

Heritage in the post‐war years was conceived as and called ldquocultural propertyrdquo an understanding and terminology that is still found today in relation to some disciplines (eg anthropology) and some forms of heritage (eg intellectual property) Pertti Anttonen has observed that ldquothe cultural representations that are selected for making heritage‐political claims are commonly called traditions with a special emphasis on their character as cultural properties that is representations with an ownership labelrdquo (Anttonen 2005 39) Ownership lying at the heart of the notion of cultural property has become a major and growing concern since the second half of the twentieth century Folarin Shyllon (Chapter 4) considers these concerns especially in the context of human rights Access to and enjoyment of cultural heritage is considered to be a fundamental cultural right a sub‐category of human rights (Shaheed 2011) It might be argued that a similar right to intellectual property also exists but some intellectual property rights do not fit human rights easily because they are economic and commercial rather than social or cultural Considering cultural heritage as a fundamental human right can raise difficult ethical issues as different cultures tend to regard their own values as universal and those of others where they conflict as culturally contingent The debate on intellectual and by extension cultural property is rather more focused

the new heritage studies 5

on economic value As Shyllon points out some cultural heritage such as the sites inscribed on UNESCOrsquos World Heritage List may be regarded as universal property in the wider sense while intellectual property rights tend to be held as monopolies

Except from a natural law perspective values can be seen as being in the mind this goes even for economic monetary values which are the result of negotiations between actors In contrast artistic linguistic and technical skills can be seen as embodied As an example of a non‐Western approach to intangible heritage Natsuko Akagawa (Chapter 5) examines the philosophy behind Japanese legislation for safeguarding cultural property Her analysis highlights the significance of embodiment as a concept for understanding and dealing with heritage

Landscapes of MemoryRecent decades have seen a growing interest across different contexts in how heritage has been embodied in the land (see Gilbert 2010) Perspectives on this vary from geographical analyses of how hegemonic powers have shaped symbolic landscapes (eg Cosgrove 1984) to accounts of indigenous relationships with the land as an ani-mate being and keeper of memory (eg Blue Spruce and Thrasher 2008) Associative landscapes now serve as the foundation for official designations of heritage origins such as the French terroir discussed by Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) Involving com-munities in identifying and managing heritage landscapes and individual sites has become a key concern moving traditional knowledge systems their contribution to heritage management and the need to support them into the spotlight

However this concern has not necessarily been recognized in the practice of inter-national heritage programs With reference to the Pacific islands Anita Smith (Chapter 7) explores differences in the recognition of traditional knowledge systems in two UNESCO conventions ndash the World Heritage Convention (1972) and the Intangible Heritage Convention (2003) ndash and underlines long‐standing critiques of the World Heritage system as Eurocentric in its determination of Outstanding Universal Value In the late 1990s there was an attempt to establish an indigenous body to advise the World Heritage Committee in accordance with the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (United Nations 2007) While this initiative failed (see Logan 2013 Meskell 2013a) the call has been renewed in recent years (see Disko this volume)

Although in public perception issues of land and landscape are particularly associated with indigenous peoples they also play a major role in other contexts The application by parts of Burgundy in eastern France for World Heritage status is a case in point Using an ldquoethnographic gazerdquo Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) examines different con-ceptions of Burgundy as a re‐territorialized site and the construction of its micro‐regional climats with their historical depth of place as ldquoGod‐givenrdquo naturalized artifacts in the context of global competition where UNESCO designation is prized for con-veying an elite status

The embodiment of heritage in landscapes of memory also raises issues of the rela-tionships between natural and cultural heritage and their frequent separation in the practice of heritage management where different government and non‐government bodies are in charge of different types of heritage and conflicts of interest arise not least from budget constraints and varying lines of responsibility This can be exacerbated where a designated site stretches across one or more political or administrative boundary

6 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

The Curonian Spit shared by Lithuania and Russia is one of only 31 such transnational World Heritage sites where different approaches by the two administrations to environ-mental issues have been problematic (Armaitiene et al 2007) Moreover multiple layers of cultural memory affect the site and its contemporary meaning as heritage for different constituencies (Kockel 2012a) Appropriately contextualizing cultural heri-tages in relation to place and memory has been made difficult by a widespread tendency to treat cultural differences as mere constructs (Kockel and Nic Craith 2015) This is particularly apparent where we are dealing with places of pain and shame

Not all heritage serves as a reminder of a glorious past (Logan and Reeves 2009) In the Lithuanian national open air museum at Rumšiškes near Kaunas the extensive display of farm buildings and machinery as well as the central small town invoke nineteenth‐ and early twentieth‐century Lithuania but close to the center there is a clearing in the woods where the time frame is different Several items including an earthen yurt and a cattle wagon commemorate the deportations of thousands of Lithuanians between 1941 and 1953 when they were sent to the Soviet Gulags (Kockel 2015) Jonathan Webber (Chapter 8) seeks to make sense of Auschwitz designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1979 as a heritage site and landscape of memory Auschwitz means different things to different victim groups in terms of their own histories but also to other visitors Emblematic of ldquoundesirable heri-tagerdquo it is at the same time a powerful symbol a theatre where multiple memorial events are performed and a destination for ldquodarkrdquo tourism attracting large numbers of spectators

Collecting HeritageEver since interest in heritage began to develop the collection of material items and oral testimony has been a central activity aimed at facilitating their preservation This remains so despite a growing critique of museum and archiving practices UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Programme (MoW) is a major initiative for the protection of documentary heritage However with the exception of Charlesworth (2010) it has been largely overlooked in academic research even within the field of heritage studies Against this background Anca Claudia Prodan (Chapter 9) attempts to clarify the main features of the program and to identify points for research MoW is part of UNESCOrsquos policies aimed at building inclusive knowledge societies While acknowledging the contribution of MoW in that regard Prodan argues that in the process of this the program is reduced to being merely a source of information and that it needs to be strengthened by being recontextualized within UNESCOrsquos international system of heritage protection

Artifact collections and the practices employed in accumulating them have come under scrutiny in the context of postcolonial critiques of intercultural relations In 2002 the British Museum and the Louvre together with an international group of major museums issued the Declaration on the Importance and Value of Universal Museums (ICOM 2004) Most of these museums date back to the late eighteenth century before the period of European imperial expansion and the declaration has been widely interpreted as an attempt to guard against claims for the repatriation of much of their collections to the countries of origin Such claims are made not only with regard to indigenous peoples but extend to Western countries such as Greece as the case of the Elgin Marbles illustrates Maurice Mugabowagahunde (Chapter 10)

list of figures and tables xi

181 The Stari Most (Old Bridge) Mostar Source photo by Andrea Connor 256201 Large Buddha niche Bamiyan Source UNESCOGraciela

Gonzalez Brigas 282202 Results of the consolidation of the Small Buddha niche

Bamiyan 2005 Source UNESCO 286203 Conservation of fragments of the Large Buddha

Bamiyan 2006 Source UNESCO 287204 Ceremony for the start of the restoration of a mausoleum

Timbuktu 2014 Source UNESCOMINUSMAMarco Domino 290271 World Heritage sites contributing to economic growth 397272 A Tsodilo homestead in 1998 Source photo by Phenyo Thebe 399273 The results of World Heritage tourism a homestead near

Tsodilo in 2011 Source photo by Phenyo Thebe 399274 Lodges at Twyfelfontein Source photo by Webber Ndoro 405275 The World Heritage site of Kilwa Kisiwani Source photo by

Webber Ndoro 405291 The ldquodual trajectoriesrdquo of heritage 429292 A symbiotic concept of heritage 430293 The environmental heritage spectrum Source image courtesy of

Robin Turner copy Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland Used by permission 431

294 National Museum of the American Indian Washington Source Raul654 via Wikimedia Commons Attribution‐ShareAlike 30 Unported (CC BY‐SA 30) 432

295 Scottish Parliament Edinburgh Source copy Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland (Aerial Photography Collection) Licensor wwwrcahmsgovuk 433

311 The JEATH Museum with its transnational image clearly represented in the range of flags on display Source photo by Mike Knopp 462

312 The ldquoBridge on the River Kwairdquo Kanchanaburi Source photo by Andrea Witcomb 468

313 View of the text explaining the Weary Dunlop Peace Park Source photo by Andrea Witcomb 470

314 Australian school choir singing as part of the memorial service for Kanitrsquos wife Source photo by Andrea Witcomb 471

315 The interactive nature of the ceremony to assuage the spirits of the dead three of surviving POWs thank Buddhist monks for their prayers with offerings of rice Source photo by Andrea Witcomb 472

316 Wreaths from the ANZAC Day ceremony 2012 at the Kanchanaburi Commonwealth War Graves Cemetery Source photo by Andrea Witcomb 475

331 Display board in the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum showing the organizational structure of the Khmer Rouge leadership Source photo by Patrick Daly 497

xii list of figures and tables

332 Photos of Khmer Rouge soldiers killed by the regime on display amongst photos of civilian victims of the Khmer Rouge in the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum Source photo by Patrick Daly 498

333 Photos of victims of the Khmer Rouge on display in the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum Source photo by Patrick Daly 499

341 Training in the use of the Silk Roads Cultural Heritage Resource Information System and architectural heritage recording Chor Bakr Uzbekistan Source photo by Ona Vileikis 516

342 The Silk Roads management system Source figure by Ona Vileikis 517

Tables

121 Comparison of the key narrative elements in the scripts of Incredible India 2009ndash2011 and Peruacute 2012 179

271 The contribution of various industries to European GDP Source Greffe (2002 7) 398

272 Tourism‐related employment at the Cradle of Humankind Source GPG (2010) 403

281 States Parties to the Intangible Heritage Convention (2003) having the most elements inscribed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity February 2014 Source compiled by W Logan from UNESCO (nd) 415

282 States Parties to the World Heritage Convention (1972) having the most inscriptions on the World Heritage List July 2014 Source compiled by W Logan from UNESCO (2015a 2015b) 416

371 Different audiences and learning areas in the heritage sector Source Wijesuriya Thompson and Young (2013 51) copy UNESCO ICCROM ICOMOS IUCN 566

George Okello Abungu is Associate Professor of Heritage Studies at the University of Mauritius fellow of the Stellenbosch Institute for Advanced Studies at the University of Stellenbosch South Africa and Visiting Professor of Applied Anthropology University of Florida A former director‐general of the National Museums of Kenya he is currently vice‐president of ICOM and member of the international jury of the UNESCO Melina Mercouri International Prize for the Safeguard and Management of Cultural Landscapes He has published widely in the areas of archaeology heritage and museology

Natsuko Akagawa is Lecturer at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology University Australia She has undertaken heritage projects in Thailand Vietnam Japan China Macau SAR and the Netherlands and was a research fellow at East‐West Centre Hawaii She is currently vice‐president of the ICOMOS International Scientific Committee on Intangible Cultural Heritage Among her publications is Heritage Conservation and Japanrsquos Cultural Diplomacy Heritage National Identity and National Interest (2014)

Zeynep Aygen is Professor and chair at the Environmental Studies and Control Discipline Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University Istanbul Turkey She is a fellow of the Higher Education Academy and member of the Institute of Historic Building Conservation both in the United Kingdom Her research explores opportunities for physical and social sustainability in a cross‐cultural context through conservation pol-icies and their application

Melissa F Baird is Assistant Professor of Anthropology in the Social Sciences Department Michigan Technological University Her research seeks to broaden our

Notes on Contributors

xiv notes on contributors

understanding of global heritage and environmental politics especially how heritage intersects with indigenous rights and environmental protection

O Hugo Benavides is Professor of Anthropology Latin American and Latino studies and International Political Economy and Development Fordham University New York He is the editor and author of numerous articles and books on Latin American culture politics and history including Making Ecuadorian Histories Four Centuries of Defining Power (2004)

Kristal Buckley is Lecturer in Cultural Heritage at Deakin Universityrsquos Cultural Heritage Centre for Asia and the Pacific Melbourne Australia Her interests include evolving forms of global cultural heritage practice and heritage institutions and knowledge practices She has been a vice‐president of ICOMOS and a member of the ICOMOS delegation to the World Heritage Committee since 2007

Christina Cameron holds the Canada Research Chair on Built Heritage at the University of Montreal Canada She previously served as an executive with Parks Canada for thirty‐five years Involved with World Heritage since 1987 she carries out research on the history of the World Heritage Convention and directs the World Heritage Oral Archives program

Gary Campbell is an independent scholar based in Canberra Australia He has a background in sociology political studies and industrial relations He is co‐editor of the book Heritage Labour and the Working Classes and has co‐authored work with Laurajane Smith on issues of representation and recognition of working‐class heritage and de‐industrialization

Benjamin Chan is a member of the Political Science Department at the National University of Singapore His research interests include humanitarianism post‐conflict reconciliation and post‐disaster relief and reconstruction He has conducted fieldwork in mainland Southeast Asia and in Central America

Andrea Connor is a research associate with the Transforming Cultures Research Center at the University of Technology Sydney She is a sociocultural researcher working across the fields of heritage studies cultural geography museum studies and cultural studies She is currently working on a research monograph on the afterlife of monumental things

Rosemary J Coombe is the Tier One Canada Research Chair in Law Communication and Culture at York University Toronto Canada Her work explores the intersection of intellectual property cultural property and human rights with an emphasis on her-itage politics indigenous peoples governmentalities and neoliberalism

Patrick Daly is a senior fellow at the National University of Singapore and a principal investigator at the Earth Observatory of Singapore His research focuses upon the intersec-tion of heritage and post‐disasterpost‐conflict recovery and reconstruction He has con-ducted fieldwork in the Middle East the Philippines Cambodia and post‐tsunami Aceh Indonesia He is the co‐editor of the Routledge Handbook of Heritage in Asia (2011)

notes on contributors xv

Marion Demossier is Professor of French and European studies in the Department of Modern Languages University of Southampton England She is the author of various works on wine producers wine drinking culture and wine consumption She is cur-rently finalising a book on a critical analysis of terroir in Burgundy

Stefan Disko is an ethnologist focusing on human rights and the protection of cultural and natural heritage He is currently co‐editing a book on World Heritage sites and indigenous peoplesrsquo rights to be published jointly by the International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA) Forest Peoples Programme and the Gundjeihmi Aboriginal Corporation

Maria Economou is Lecturer in Museum Studies at the University of Glasgow Scotland and based at the Hunterian Museum and the Humanities Advanced Technology and Information Institute She has worked at the universities of the Aegean Manchester and Oxford (at the Pitt Rivers Museum) and collaborated with cultural heritage institutions around the world particularly on the use of new technologies for public engagement She specializes in digital cultural heritage

Julie Fedor is Lecturer in Modern European History at the University of Melbourne Australia She is the author of Russia and the Cult of State Security (2011) co‐author of Remembering Katyn (2012) and co‐editor of Memory and Theory in Eastern Europe (2013) and Memory Conflict and New Media (2013)

Richard W Hallett is Professor in the Department of Linguistics Northeastern Illinois University He is interested in the discourse(s) of tourism especially in the social construction of national identity through government‐sponsored tourism websites His research agenda also includes issues in the areas of world Englishes sociolinguistics and second‐language acquisition

Benjamin Isakhan is Senior Lecturer in Politics and Policy Studies and Convenor of the Middle East Studies Forum at Deakin University Australia Ben is also Adjunct Senior Research Associate in the Department of Politics at the University of Johannesburg South Africa

Ullrich Kockel is Professor of Culture and Economy at Heriot‐Watt University Edinburgh Scotland Visiting Professor of Social Anthropology at Vytautas Magnus University Kaunas Lithuania and Emeritus Professor of Ethnology at the University of Ulster He is currently editor‐in‐chief of the Anthropological Journal of European Cultures a fellow of the UKrsquos Academy of Social Sciences and a member of the Royal Irish Academy

Kristin Kuutma is Professor of Cultural Research at the University of Tartu Estonia Her research in cultural history and anthropology focuses on disciplinary knowledge production representation and critical heritage studies She has conducted fieldwork and published on policy‐making and implementation at the international and local level of UNESCOrsquos Intangible Heritage Convention

William Logan is Professor Emeritus at Deakin University Melbourne Australia where he was founding director of the Cultural Heritage Center for Asia and the Pacific

xvi notes on contributors

He is a fellow of the Academy of Social Sciences in Australia and has been president of Australia ICOMOS and a member of the Heritage Council of Victoria His research focuses on World Heritage heritage and human rights and Asian heritage

Christian Manhart is an art historian and archeologist Since joining UNESCO in 1987 he has worked on the conservation of heritage sites in Africa and Asia particu-larly Afghanistan He was responsible in the World Heritage Centre for partnerships communication and more recently matters arising in relation to the international con-ventions of 1954 1970 and 2001 and the Committee for Restitution of Cultural Property Museums and Creativity

Lynn Meskell is Professor of Anthropology and director of the Archaeology Center at Stanford University Her recent books include The Nature of Culture The New South Africa (2012) and the edited volume Cosmopolitan Archaeologies (2009) Her current research focuses on the role of UNESCO in terms of heritage rights sovereignty and international politics

Maurice Mugabowagahunde is a doctoral candidate in African archaeology at University of Bergen Norway His research interests include Rwandan prehistory and ethnography He has previously conducted archeological and ethnographic research in Rwanda for the Institute of National Museums of Rwanda

Webber Ndoro is a research associate with the Department of Archaeology University of Cape Town South Africa and director of the African World Heritage Fund based in Johannesburg

Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith is Professor of European Culture and Heritage at Heriot‐Watt University Edinburgh Scotland having previously held a chair in the School of Social Sciences and Applied Social Studies at the University of Ulster A Member of the Royal Irish Academy she has also been an honorary professor at the University of Exeter and a DAAD guest professor at the University of Goumlttingen Germany

Gertjan Plets was a researcher on the Altai Project at Ghent University Belgium from which he received his doctorate He joined Stanford University initially as a Belgian American Education Fund (BAEF) fellow and now holds a three‐year research‐intensive post‐doctoral fellowship at the Stanford Archaeology Center

Anca Claudia Prodan holds a PhD in Heritage Studies and works as scientific assistant at the UNESCO Chair in Heritage Studies BTU Cottbus-Senftenberg Prior to this she studied in Romania and Germany obtaining degrees in Anthropology Philosophy and World Heritage Studies Her research interests center on theories and concepts of culture and heritage

Keir Reeves holds a chair in Australian history at Federation University Australia Victoria Australia He has held teaching and research posts at Monash University and the University of Melbourne In 2013 he was a visiting fellow at Clare Hall University of Cambridge England His research concentrates on regional development as well as Australian Asian and Pacific cultural heritage

notes on contributors xvii

Britta Rudolff holds an interim chair in heritage management at Brandenburg Technical University Cottbus Germany where she is also the managing director of the Institute for Heritage Management A cultural heritage conservator with postgraduate qualifications in heritage studies and a doctorate in cultural geography her focus has been on UNESCO heritage conventions

Folarin Shyllon read law at Kingrsquos College London and taught at the University of Ibadan Nigeria from 1975 to 2005 His teaching and research interests are in cultural property and intellectual property law He is on the editorial board of the International Journal of Cultural Property and Art Antiquity and Law and is chairperson of the Nigeria chapter of UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Committee

Neil A Silberman is an author historian and managing partner of Coherit Associates an international heritage consulting firm He is an adjunct lecturer in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Massachusetts and serves as president of the ICOMOS International Committee on Interpretation and Presentation (ICIP) His research interests include interpretation theory the history of heritage practice and the politics of commemoration

Helaine Silverman is Professor in the Department of Anthropology University of Illinois Urbana‐Champaign and director of CHAMP (Collaborative for Cultural Heritage Management and Policy) She is especially interested in the cultural politics of heritage production and management tourism and economic development and iden-tity and memory She has conducted research in Peru Thailand and England

Anita Smith is Senior Lecturer responsible for course enhancement in the Faculty of Arts and Education Deakin University Melbourne Australia As an archeologist she has been engaged in the UNESCO Pacific World Heritage Programme since 2004 She was a member of Australiarsquos delegation to the World Heritage Committee between 2008 and 2012 and is editor of World Heritage in a Sea of Islands (2012)

Laurajane Smith is Professor of Heritage and Museum Studies and head of the Centre for Heritage and Museum Studies School of Archaeology and Anthropology Australian National University Canberra Australia She is editor of the International Journal of Heritage Studies co‐editor (with William Logan) of Routledgersquos Key Issues in Cultural Heritage Series and author of Uses of Heritage (2006)

Brenda Trofanenko holds the Canada Research Chair in Education Culture and Community at Acadia University in Wolfville Nova Scotia Canada Her research focuses on how public cultural institutions define identity and knowledge through social processes She is currently conducting research on how youth respond to the collective memories of distressing events

Ron van Oers held a doctorate from Delft University of Technology the Netherlands and had worked at UNESCOrsquos World Heritage Centre in Paris coordinating various programs including the development of the Recommendation on the Historic Urban Landscape (2011) He was vice‐director of the World Heritage Institute of Training and Research for Asia and the Pacific (WHITRAP) in Shanghai China

xviii notes on contributors

Editorrsquos note Dr van Oers passed away unexpectedly on 28 April 2015 while on a UNESCO mission to Lhasa Tibet He made a major contribution to the cultural her-itage field and will be greatly missed

Ona Vileikis is an architect with international experience in World Heritage‐related issues such as risk management monitoring geographic information systems heritage documentation and conservation She is currently a doctoral researcher at the Raymond Lemaire International Centre for Conservation University of Leuven Belgium working on the monitoring of serial transnational World Heritage issues and the use of geospatial content management systems focused on the Central Asia Silk Roads

Ana Filipa Vrdoljak is Professor of Law in the Faculty of Law University of Technology Sydney Australia She is the author of International Law Museums and the Return of Cultural Objects (2006) editor of The Cultural Dimension of Human Rights Law (2013) and joint general editor (with Franceso Francioni) of the Oxford University Press series Cultural Heritage Law and Policy

Jonathan Webber is Professor at the Institute of European Studies Jagiellonian University Krakoacutew Poland He specializes in Jewish studies and Holocaust studies and was a founding member of the International Auschwitz Council serving on it between 1990 and 2012

Gamini Wijesuriya has qualifications in architecture history and historic preservation and archaeology and heritage management He was director of conservation in the Sri Lankan Department of Archaeology between 1982 and 1999 and principal regional scientist in the New Zealand Department of Conservation from 2001 to 2004 Moving to ICCROM in Rome in 2004 he played a key role in developing the 2011 World Heritage Capacity Building Strategy

Tim Winter is Research Professor at the Alfred Deakin Institute for Citizenship and Globalisation Deakin University Melbourne Australia He has published widely on heritage development modernity urban conservation and tourism in Asia He is co‐editor of The Routledge Handbook of Heritage in Asia (2011) and editor of Shanghai Expo An International Forum on the Future of Cities (2013)

Andrea Witcomb is Professor of Cultural Heritage and Museum Studies and deputy director of the Alfred Deakin Institute for Citizenship and Globalisation at Deakin University Melbourne Australia Her work analyzes how museums and heritage sites create spaces for cross‐cultural encounters Her books include Reimagining the Museum Beyond the Mausoleum (2003) and (with Kylie Message) Museum Theory (2015)

Haiming Yan is a sociologist at the Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage Beijing and received his doctorate from the University of Virginia His research interests include cultural sociology memory and heritage and globalization

This volume originated in our desire to address the emergence and nature of the ldquonew heritage studiesrdquo which we see as the exploration of cultural heritage as a construct resulting from processes that give present‐day significance to elements from the past Our conception of the volume was rigorously reviewed by Wiley‐Blackwell For their time and patience we wish especially to thank Rosalie Robertson the initial commis-sioning editor and Ben Thatcher the project editor at Blackwell

We wish to say a special thank you to the contributors to this volume Coming from five continents these scholars were identified on the basis of their innovative ideas practical expertise and international reputation and invited to contribute to this collaborative multidisciplinary project in the cultural heritage field They were a pleasure to work with As the volume has been peer reviewed at every stage from the original proposal to its final production we would also wish to thank everybody who participated in that review process

While this project was in progress Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel moved from the University of Ulster in Northern Ireland to Heriot‐Watt University in Edinburgh and William Logan officially retired but was reappointed as emeritus pro-fessor attached to the Cultural Heritage Centre for Asia and the Pacific and the Alfred Deakin Research Institute at Deakin University in Melbourne We would like to thank our colleagues in all three institutions ndash Deakin University Heriot‐Watt University and the University of Ulster ndash for their continued support

Finally we would like to make a very special mention of Cristina Clopot and Philip Thomas Cristina is currently undertaking her PhD at Heriot‐Watt University but devoted much time and effort in administering the project Philip performed the criti-cal copy editing role with an eagle eye for detail We are very grateful to them both for their enthusiasm and professionalism in the preparation of the materials

William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel

Acknowledgements

ACCU Asia‐Pacific Cultural Centre of UNESCOACHPR African Commission on Human and Peoplesrsquo RightsACHS Association of Critical Heritage Studiesart articleEU European UnionFPIC free prior and informed consentGDP gross domestic productGIS geographic information systemGeoCMS geospatial content management systemsICCROM International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration

of Cultural PropertyICOM International Council of MuseumsICOMOS International Council on Monuments and SitesIUCN International Union for the Conservation of NatureIWGIA International Work Group for Indigenous AffairsMoW Memory of the World ProgrammeMDGs Millennium Development GoalsNGO non‐governmental organizationOHCR Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rightspara paragraphPOW prisoner of warsec sectionUN United NationsUNCERD United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial DiscriminationUNCESCR United Nations Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights

List of Abbreviations

list of abbreviations xxi

UNCEHR United Nations Commission on Human RightsUNDESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social AffairsUNDG United Nations Development GroupUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural OrganizationUNGA United Nations General AssemblyUN‐Habitat United Nations Human Settlements ProgrammeUNHRC United Nations Human Rights CouncilUNPFII United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous IssuesUNSC United Nations Security CouncilWHIPCOE World Heritage Indigenous Peoples Council of ExpertsWIPO World Intellectual Property OrganizationWTO World Trade Organization

Chapter 1

A Companion to Heritage Studies First Edition Edited by William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel copy 2016 John Wiley amp Sons Inc Published 2016 by John Wiley amp Sons Inc

The New Heritage Studies Origins and Evolution Problems and Prospects

William Logan Ullrich Kockel and Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith

Heritage and heritage studies have evolved in quite astounding ways over the last sixty years Nobody could have imagined when the Venice Charter (ICASHB 1964) jump‐started the heritage profession in the aftermath of World War II that there would be a veritable heritage boom in the 1990s and continuing into the twenty‐first century Who would have predicted that so much attention would now be paid to protecting environmental features material culture and living traditions from the past or the vast numbers of community members policy‐makers practitioners and scholars engaged in caring for managing and studying heritage Who would have foreseen the explosion of heritage‐based cultural tourism the reconfiguration of heritage as an economic asset and a World Heritage List comprising of more than a thousand properties spread around the globe

This volume seeks to investigate the story of expansion in heritage and heritage studies Containing 37 chapters commissioned from 44 scholars and practitioners from 5 continents it is designed to provide an up‐to‐date international analysis of the field the steady broadening of the concept of heritage and its social economic and political uses the difficulties that often arise from such uses and current trends in heritage scholarship Starting from a position of seeing ldquoheritagerdquo as a mental construct that attributes ldquosignificancerdquo to certain places artifacts and forms of behavior from the past through processes that are essentially political we see heritage conservation not merely as a technical or managerial matter but as cultural practice a form of cultural politics

CHaPTEr 1

2 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

We are interested in the different extent to which various groups within global national and local communities are able to participate in heritage identification interpretation and management Moreover we want to address the extent to which communities have access to and enjoy heritage once it has been officially recognized conserved or safeguarded This interest inevitably leads to human rights consider-ations to developing closer intellectual links with international lawyers and others in the human rights field and to strengthening both the multidisciplinary nature of heri-tage studies and what we sees as the critical relationship between theory and practice

Whether this new vision of heritage studies represents a ldquoparadigm shiftrdquo or only the culmination of changes already occurring in the heritage studies field since the late 1980s is an issue we will discuss later For now let us go back to the fieldrsquos origins and interpret its evolution

Expanding HEritagE

When ideas of ldquoheritagerdquo were initially formalized their focus was on monuments and sites This was especially the case in Europe from where these ideas spread across the British French and other European empires and the anglophone United States (Nic Craith 2007) Writer‐practitioners such as John Ruskin and Nikolaus Pevsner in England and Eugegravene Viollet‐le‐Duc in France were enormously influential in the early days of heritage identification and protection From these beginnings heritage planners around the world have sought to protect broad areas of historic aesthetic architectural or scientific interest Although there is considerable variation across the world most countries now attempt to protect as official policy and through professional practice a much wider range of features than they did 60 years ago

It was gradually realized for instance that the protection of a monument or building was not in itself enough and that good conservation work was often being rendered ineffective by unsympathetic developments allowed to occur in front of beside behind or even over heritage buildings Attention therefore extended to the precincts around major monuments and buildings A further extension of interest took place in 1962 when Andreacute Malraux then the French minister for culture first established planning regulations (known as the loi Malraux) designed to protect and enhance the historic features of the Marais district of Paris The English were also expanding their focus at about this time to take in conservation areas the first of which were designated in 1967 England now has over 8000 protected areas including the centers of historic towns and cities fishing and mining villages eighteenth‐ and nineteenth‐century suburbs model housing estates and historic transport links and their environs such as stretches of canal (English Heritage nd)

At the international level the World Heritage List established under UNESCOrsquos Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972) or as it is commonly known the World Heritage Convention now contains a large number of cities inscribed for what the convention calls their Outstanding Universal Value An Organization of World Heritage Cities founded in 1993 with headquarters in Quebec City today brings together 250 cities that are either inscribed or have inscribed sites within them (OWHC 2014) In 1992 the World Heritage Committee added the new category of ldquocultural landscapesrdquo to the World Heritage system to allow recognition of places presenting a blend of cultural and natural elements Twenty years

the new heritage studies 3

later the landscape concept was translated into urban areas as the ldquohistoric urban landscaperdquo blending modern and historic architectural and urban design forms rather than natural and cultural elements but nevertheless emphasizing like cultural landscapes the need for a holistic view of the environment and a sensitive balanced approach to new human interventions

Vernacular structures are now seen as being of cultural heritage interest that is structures that are not architect‐designed but owner‐ or community‐built using avail-able resources and traditional techniques So too are industrial structures Publications by Miles Lewis (1977) Paul Oliver (1997) and William Siew Wai Lim and Tan Hock Beng (1998) began to fill in major gaps in the tangible heritage literature More recently there has been considerable heritage interest internationally in ldquocultural routesrdquo The Council of Europe in 1987 established a program of European cultural routes that is managed from a specialized institute located in Luxembourg The pro-gramrsquos first initiative is the Santiago de Compostela Route the famous Christian pilgrimage route of the Middle Ages In the United States and Canada efforts have been made to commemorate the Underground Railroad ndash the route taken by slaves trying to reach freedom before the Civil War ndash by protecting a series of key sites along its length In Asia UNESCO is supporting the Silk Road Project for developing cultural heritage and cultural tourism along the traditional routes of the silk trade between south‐eastern Europe and China

In the international development field there was a marked shift in the 1990s in the attitude of key agencies such as the World Bank towards cultural heritage Rather than seeing cultural heritage protection as an obstacle to development it is now recognized that the two can go hand in hand to bring about more effective programs to raise standards of living in developing countries and elsewhere (Logan 2003 xxi)

Neil Silberman (Chapter 2) explores the evolving heritage conception and the changing forms and functions of heritage places from their initial validation as national institutions in the early nineteenth century to their multicultural context in the early twenty‐first century He shows that the meanings and values of heritage places are neither static nor inherent but ascribed by particular social groups choosing to empha-size or ignore particular items or aspects for social and political purposes Romantic nationalism led to a first ldquoheritage boomrdquo during the emergence of nation‐states in nineteenth‐century Europe as commemorative sites and structures were created to serve as tangible evidence of a nationrsquos pedigree harmonizing the diverse populations of nations into singularly national peoples or sometimes re‐fragmenting them laying the foundations for new identity claims in the future Already by the late nineteenth century accelerating domestic and international tourism engendered a second ldquoheritage boomrdquo albeit differently motivated the new ldquoheritage touristsrdquo on their quest for his-torical authenticity and exotic landscapes as means of (however temporary) escape from modern industrial life dominated by economic calculus contradictorily created the demand that allowed for the commoditization of built heritage as a ldquocultural resourcerdquo

A focus on the built environment is arguably based on a European concept of cultural heritage which is entirely appropriate for an environment dealing largely with the conservation of buildings made of stone brick and other durable materials (Logan 2006) This view of heritage has been frequently criticized Walled cities cathedrals and eye‐catching landscape formations like the Giantrsquos Causeway in Northern Ireland heavily dominate the list of European World Heritage sites This contrasts starkly with the concept of permanency found on other continents An example of this is the

4 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

imperial shrine at Ise Japan From a Western perspective this shrine hardly qualifies as ldquooldrdquo since it is rebuilt every twenty years However from a Japanese perspective it is old because it is rebuilt ldquoin exactly the same way ndash using the same ancient instru-ments materials ndash with each step of the process marked by appropriate ancient ritualsrdquo (Sahlins 2002 9)

Although heritage has for a long time been defined primarily in terms of material objects as ldquotangible heritagerdquo there has been a parallel interest in what is nowadays called ldquointangible heritagerdquo which for most of the past two centuries however remained in the shadow of the more prominent heritage of material objects and the built environment To some extent and in some parts of the world particularly Europe North America and Australia this reflects the different social and political status of the signified whereas monuments works of fine art castles and cathedrals materially and visually project and transmit the heritage of the hegemony folk songs and wisdom as with many other traditional skills tend to project and transmit heritage of the lower classes non‐materially and orally

Kristin Kuutma (Chapter 3) traces the emergence of folklore as an academic discipline and its subsequent involvement in cultural policy‐making including the contemporary transition from ldquofolklorerdquo to ldquointangible cultural heritagerdquo and the disciplinersquos contri-bution to the international management of heritage regimes Originating during the period of nation‐building when they formed part of the creation of national cultural heritages collections of folklore represent past repertoires and practices of mostly pre‐industrial (peasant) lifestyles that nowadays often feed various linguistic ethnic or other local revival movements As global power relationships at the turn of the twenty‐first century are creating ever‐shifting discourses of inclusion and exclusion rooted-ness and rights for possession a need to identify and safeguard intangible cultural heritage was postulated leading to the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage adopted in 2003 and commonly known as the Intangible Heritage Convention Although intangible elements had always been included in understanding the significance of heritage places under the World Heritage Convention (1972) this new convention focused on and led to a system for evaluating and safeguarding intangible heritage in its own right

Heritage in the post‐war years was conceived as and called ldquocultural propertyrdquo an understanding and terminology that is still found today in relation to some disciplines (eg anthropology) and some forms of heritage (eg intellectual property) Pertti Anttonen has observed that ldquothe cultural representations that are selected for making heritage‐political claims are commonly called traditions with a special emphasis on their character as cultural properties that is representations with an ownership labelrdquo (Anttonen 2005 39) Ownership lying at the heart of the notion of cultural property has become a major and growing concern since the second half of the twentieth century Folarin Shyllon (Chapter 4) considers these concerns especially in the context of human rights Access to and enjoyment of cultural heritage is considered to be a fundamental cultural right a sub‐category of human rights (Shaheed 2011) It might be argued that a similar right to intellectual property also exists but some intellectual property rights do not fit human rights easily because they are economic and commercial rather than social or cultural Considering cultural heritage as a fundamental human right can raise difficult ethical issues as different cultures tend to regard their own values as universal and those of others where they conflict as culturally contingent The debate on intellectual and by extension cultural property is rather more focused

the new heritage studies 5

on economic value As Shyllon points out some cultural heritage such as the sites inscribed on UNESCOrsquos World Heritage List may be regarded as universal property in the wider sense while intellectual property rights tend to be held as monopolies

Except from a natural law perspective values can be seen as being in the mind this goes even for economic monetary values which are the result of negotiations between actors In contrast artistic linguistic and technical skills can be seen as embodied As an example of a non‐Western approach to intangible heritage Natsuko Akagawa (Chapter 5) examines the philosophy behind Japanese legislation for safeguarding cultural property Her analysis highlights the significance of embodiment as a concept for understanding and dealing with heritage

Landscapes of MemoryRecent decades have seen a growing interest across different contexts in how heritage has been embodied in the land (see Gilbert 2010) Perspectives on this vary from geographical analyses of how hegemonic powers have shaped symbolic landscapes (eg Cosgrove 1984) to accounts of indigenous relationships with the land as an ani-mate being and keeper of memory (eg Blue Spruce and Thrasher 2008) Associative landscapes now serve as the foundation for official designations of heritage origins such as the French terroir discussed by Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) Involving com-munities in identifying and managing heritage landscapes and individual sites has become a key concern moving traditional knowledge systems their contribution to heritage management and the need to support them into the spotlight

However this concern has not necessarily been recognized in the practice of inter-national heritage programs With reference to the Pacific islands Anita Smith (Chapter 7) explores differences in the recognition of traditional knowledge systems in two UNESCO conventions ndash the World Heritage Convention (1972) and the Intangible Heritage Convention (2003) ndash and underlines long‐standing critiques of the World Heritage system as Eurocentric in its determination of Outstanding Universal Value In the late 1990s there was an attempt to establish an indigenous body to advise the World Heritage Committee in accordance with the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (United Nations 2007) While this initiative failed (see Logan 2013 Meskell 2013a) the call has been renewed in recent years (see Disko this volume)

Although in public perception issues of land and landscape are particularly associated with indigenous peoples they also play a major role in other contexts The application by parts of Burgundy in eastern France for World Heritage status is a case in point Using an ldquoethnographic gazerdquo Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) examines different con-ceptions of Burgundy as a re‐territorialized site and the construction of its micro‐regional climats with their historical depth of place as ldquoGod‐givenrdquo naturalized artifacts in the context of global competition where UNESCO designation is prized for con-veying an elite status

The embodiment of heritage in landscapes of memory also raises issues of the rela-tionships between natural and cultural heritage and their frequent separation in the practice of heritage management where different government and non‐government bodies are in charge of different types of heritage and conflicts of interest arise not least from budget constraints and varying lines of responsibility This can be exacerbated where a designated site stretches across one or more political or administrative boundary

6 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

The Curonian Spit shared by Lithuania and Russia is one of only 31 such transnational World Heritage sites where different approaches by the two administrations to environ-mental issues have been problematic (Armaitiene et al 2007) Moreover multiple layers of cultural memory affect the site and its contemporary meaning as heritage for different constituencies (Kockel 2012a) Appropriately contextualizing cultural heri-tages in relation to place and memory has been made difficult by a widespread tendency to treat cultural differences as mere constructs (Kockel and Nic Craith 2015) This is particularly apparent where we are dealing with places of pain and shame

Not all heritage serves as a reminder of a glorious past (Logan and Reeves 2009) In the Lithuanian national open air museum at Rumšiškes near Kaunas the extensive display of farm buildings and machinery as well as the central small town invoke nineteenth‐ and early twentieth‐century Lithuania but close to the center there is a clearing in the woods where the time frame is different Several items including an earthen yurt and a cattle wagon commemorate the deportations of thousands of Lithuanians between 1941 and 1953 when they were sent to the Soviet Gulags (Kockel 2015) Jonathan Webber (Chapter 8) seeks to make sense of Auschwitz designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1979 as a heritage site and landscape of memory Auschwitz means different things to different victim groups in terms of their own histories but also to other visitors Emblematic of ldquoundesirable heri-tagerdquo it is at the same time a powerful symbol a theatre where multiple memorial events are performed and a destination for ldquodarkrdquo tourism attracting large numbers of spectators

Collecting HeritageEver since interest in heritage began to develop the collection of material items and oral testimony has been a central activity aimed at facilitating their preservation This remains so despite a growing critique of museum and archiving practices UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Programme (MoW) is a major initiative for the protection of documentary heritage However with the exception of Charlesworth (2010) it has been largely overlooked in academic research even within the field of heritage studies Against this background Anca Claudia Prodan (Chapter 9) attempts to clarify the main features of the program and to identify points for research MoW is part of UNESCOrsquos policies aimed at building inclusive knowledge societies While acknowledging the contribution of MoW in that regard Prodan argues that in the process of this the program is reduced to being merely a source of information and that it needs to be strengthened by being recontextualized within UNESCOrsquos international system of heritage protection

Artifact collections and the practices employed in accumulating them have come under scrutiny in the context of postcolonial critiques of intercultural relations In 2002 the British Museum and the Louvre together with an international group of major museums issued the Declaration on the Importance and Value of Universal Museums (ICOM 2004) Most of these museums date back to the late eighteenth century before the period of European imperial expansion and the declaration has been widely interpreted as an attempt to guard against claims for the repatriation of much of their collections to the countries of origin Such claims are made not only with regard to indigenous peoples but extend to Western countries such as Greece as the case of the Elgin Marbles illustrates Maurice Mugabowagahunde (Chapter 10)

xii list of figures and tables

332 Photos of Khmer Rouge soldiers killed by the regime on display amongst photos of civilian victims of the Khmer Rouge in the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum Source photo by Patrick Daly 498

333 Photos of victims of the Khmer Rouge on display in the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum Source photo by Patrick Daly 499

341 Training in the use of the Silk Roads Cultural Heritage Resource Information System and architectural heritage recording Chor Bakr Uzbekistan Source photo by Ona Vileikis 516

342 The Silk Roads management system Source figure by Ona Vileikis 517

Tables

121 Comparison of the key narrative elements in the scripts of Incredible India 2009ndash2011 and Peruacute 2012 179

271 The contribution of various industries to European GDP Source Greffe (2002 7) 398

272 Tourism‐related employment at the Cradle of Humankind Source GPG (2010) 403

281 States Parties to the Intangible Heritage Convention (2003) having the most elements inscribed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity February 2014 Source compiled by W Logan from UNESCO (nd) 415

282 States Parties to the World Heritage Convention (1972) having the most inscriptions on the World Heritage List July 2014 Source compiled by W Logan from UNESCO (2015a 2015b) 416

371 Different audiences and learning areas in the heritage sector Source Wijesuriya Thompson and Young (2013 51) copy UNESCO ICCROM ICOMOS IUCN 566

George Okello Abungu is Associate Professor of Heritage Studies at the University of Mauritius fellow of the Stellenbosch Institute for Advanced Studies at the University of Stellenbosch South Africa and Visiting Professor of Applied Anthropology University of Florida A former director‐general of the National Museums of Kenya he is currently vice‐president of ICOM and member of the international jury of the UNESCO Melina Mercouri International Prize for the Safeguard and Management of Cultural Landscapes He has published widely in the areas of archaeology heritage and museology

Natsuko Akagawa is Lecturer at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology University Australia She has undertaken heritage projects in Thailand Vietnam Japan China Macau SAR and the Netherlands and was a research fellow at East‐West Centre Hawaii She is currently vice‐president of the ICOMOS International Scientific Committee on Intangible Cultural Heritage Among her publications is Heritage Conservation and Japanrsquos Cultural Diplomacy Heritage National Identity and National Interest (2014)

Zeynep Aygen is Professor and chair at the Environmental Studies and Control Discipline Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University Istanbul Turkey She is a fellow of the Higher Education Academy and member of the Institute of Historic Building Conservation both in the United Kingdom Her research explores opportunities for physical and social sustainability in a cross‐cultural context through conservation pol-icies and their application

Melissa F Baird is Assistant Professor of Anthropology in the Social Sciences Department Michigan Technological University Her research seeks to broaden our

Notes on Contributors

xiv notes on contributors

understanding of global heritage and environmental politics especially how heritage intersects with indigenous rights and environmental protection

O Hugo Benavides is Professor of Anthropology Latin American and Latino studies and International Political Economy and Development Fordham University New York He is the editor and author of numerous articles and books on Latin American culture politics and history including Making Ecuadorian Histories Four Centuries of Defining Power (2004)

Kristal Buckley is Lecturer in Cultural Heritage at Deakin Universityrsquos Cultural Heritage Centre for Asia and the Pacific Melbourne Australia Her interests include evolving forms of global cultural heritage practice and heritage institutions and knowledge practices She has been a vice‐president of ICOMOS and a member of the ICOMOS delegation to the World Heritage Committee since 2007

Christina Cameron holds the Canada Research Chair on Built Heritage at the University of Montreal Canada She previously served as an executive with Parks Canada for thirty‐five years Involved with World Heritage since 1987 she carries out research on the history of the World Heritage Convention and directs the World Heritage Oral Archives program

Gary Campbell is an independent scholar based in Canberra Australia He has a background in sociology political studies and industrial relations He is co‐editor of the book Heritage Labour and the Working Classes and has co‐authored work with Laurajane Smith on issues of representation and recognition of working‐class heritage and de‐industrialization

Benjamin Chan is a member of the Political Science Department at the National University of Singapore His research interests include humanitarianism post‐conflict reconciliation and post‐disaster relief and reconstruction He has conducted fieldwork in mainland Southeast Asia and in Central America

Andrea Connor is a research associate with the Transforming Cultures Research Center at the University of Technology Sydney She is a sociocultural researcher working across the fields of heritage studies cultural geography museum studies and cultural studies She is currently working on a research monograph on the afterlife of monumental things

Rosemary J Coombe is the Tier One Canada Research Chair in Law Communication and Culture at York University Toronto Canada Her work explores the intersection of intellectual property cultural property and human rights with an emphasis on her-itage politics indigenous peoples governmentalities and neoliberalism

Patrick Daly is a senior fellow at the National University of Singapore and a principal investigator at the Earth Observatory of Singapore His research focuses upon the intersec-tion of heritage and post‐disasterpost‐conflict recovery and reconstruction He has con-ducted fieldwork in the Middle East the Philippines Cambodia and post‐tsunami Aceh Indonesia He is the co‐editor of the Routledge Handbook of Heritage in Asia (2011)

notes on contributors xv

Marion Demossier is Professor of French and European studies in the Department of Modern Languages University of Southampton England She is the author of various works on wine producers wine drinking culture and wine consumption She is cur-rently finalising a book on a critical analysis of terroir in Burgundy

Stefan Disko is an ethnologist focusing on human rights and the protection of cultural and natural heritage He is currently co‐editing a book on World Heritage sites and indigenous peoplesrsquo rights to be published jointly by the International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA) Forest Peoples Programme and the Gundjeihmi Aboriginal Corporation

Maria Economou is Lecturer in Museum Studies at the University of Glasgow Scotland and based at the Hunterian Museum and the Humanities Advanced Technology and Information Institute She has worked at the universities of the Aegean Manchester and Oxford (at the Pitt Rivers Museum) and collaborated with cultural heritage institutions around the world particularly on the use of new technologies for public engagement She specializes in digital cultural heritage

Julie Fedor is Lecturer in Modern European History at the University of Melbourne Australia She is the author of Russia and the Cult of State Security (2011) co‐author of Remembering Katyn (2012) and co‐editor of Memory and Theory in Eastern Europe (2013) and Memory Conflict and New Media (2013)

Richard W Hallett is Professor in the Department of Linguistics Northeastern Illinois University He is interested in the discourse(s) of tourism especially in the social construction of national identity through government‐sponsored tourism websites His research agenda also includes issues in the areas of world Englishes sociolinguistics and second‐language acquisition

Benjamin Isakhan is Senior Lecturer in Politics and Policy Studies and Convenor of the Middle East Studies Forum at Deakin University Australia Ben is also Adjunct Senior Research Associate in the Department of Politics at the University of Johannesburg South Africa

Ullrich Kockel is Professor of Culture and Economy at Heriot‐Watt University Edinburgh Scotland Visiting Professor of Social Anthropology at Vytautas Magnus University Kaunas Lithuania and Emeritus Professor of Ethnology at the University of Ulster He is currently editor‐in‐chief of the Anthropological Journal of European Cultures a fellow of the UKrsquos Academy of Social Sciences and a member of the Royal Irish Academy

Kristin Kuutma is Professor of Cultural Research at the University of Tartu Estonia Her research in cultural history and anthropology focuses on disciplinary knowledge production representation and critical heritage studies She has conducted fieldwork and published on policy‐making and implementation at the international and local level of UNESCOrsquos Intangible Heritage Convention

William Logan is Professor Emeritus at Deakin University Melbourne Australia where he was founding director of the Cultural Heritage Center for Asia and the Pacific

xvi notes on contributors

He is a fellow of the Academy of Social Sciences in Australia and has been president of Australia ICOMOS and a member of the Heritage Council of Victoria His research focuses on World Heritage heritage and human rights and Asian heritage

Christian Manhart is an art historian and archeologist Since joining UNESCO in 1987 he has worked on the conservation of heritage sites in Africa and Asia particu-larly Afghanistan He was responsible in the World Heritage Centre for partnerships communication and more recently matters arising in relation to the international con-ventions of 1954 1970 and 2001 and the Committee for Restitution of Cultural Property Museums and Creativity

Lynn Meskell is Professor of Anthropology and director of the Archaeology Center at Stanford University Her recent books include The Nature of Culture The New South Africa (2012) and the edited volume Cosmopolitan Archaeologies (2009) Her current research focuses on the role of UNESCO in terms of heritage rights sovereignty and international politics

Maurice Mugabowagahunde is a doctoral candidate in African archaeology at University of Bergen Norway His research interests include Rwandan prehistory and ethnography He has previously conducted archeological and ethnographic research in Rwanda for the Institute of National Museums of Rwanda

Webber Ndoro is a research associate with the Department of Archaeology University of Cape Town South Africa and director of the African World Heritage Fund based in Johannesburg

Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith is Professor of European Culture and Heritage at Heriot‐Watt University Edinburgh Scotland having previously held a chair in the School of Social Sciences and Applied Social Studies at the University of Ulster A Member of the Royal Irish Academy she has also been an honorary professor at the University of Exeter and a DAAD guest professor at the University of Goumlttingen Germany

Gertjan Plets was a researcher on the Altai Project at Ghent University Belgium from which he received his doctorate He joined Stanford University initially as a Belgian American Education Fund (BAEF) fellow and now holds a three‐year research‐intensive post‐doctoral fellowship at the Stanford Archaeology Center

Anca Claudia Prodan holds a PhD in Heritage Studies and works as scientific assistant at the UNESCO Chair in Heritage Studies BTU Cottbus-Senftenberg Prior to this she studied in Romania and Germany obtaining degrees in Anthropology Philosophy and World Heritage Studies Her research interests center on theories and concepts of culture and heritage

Keir Reeves holds a chair in Australian history at Federation University Australia Victoria Australia He has held teaching and research posts at Monash University and the University of Melbourne In 2013 he was a visiting fellow at Clare Hall University of Cambridge England His research concentrates on regional development as well as Australian Asian and Pacific cultural heritage

notes on contributors xvii

Britta Rudolff holds an interim chair in heritage management at Brandenburg Technical University Cottbus Germany where she is also the managing director of the Institute for Heritage Management A cultural heritage conservator with postgraduate qualifications in heritage studies and a doctorate in cultural geography her focus has been on UNESCO heritage conventions

Folarin Shyllon read law at Kingrsquos College London and taught at the University of Ibadan Nigeria from 1975 to 2005 His teaching and research interests are in cultural property and intellectual property law He is on the editorial board of the International Journal of Cultural Property and Art Antiquity and Law and is chairperson of the Nigeria chapter of UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Committee

Neil A Silberman is an author historian and managing partner of Coherit Associates an international heritage consulting firm He is an adjunct lecturer in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Massachusetts and serves as president of the ICOMOS International Committee on Interpretation and Presentation (ICIP) His research interests include interpretation theory the history of heritage practice and the politics of commemoration

Helaine Silverman is Professor in the Department of Anthropology University of Illinois Urbana‐Champaign and director of CHAMP (Collaborative for Cultural Heritage Management and Policy) She is especially interested in the cultural politics of heritage production and management tourism and economic development and iden-tity and memory She has conducted research in Peru Thailand and England

Anita Smith is Senior Lecturer responsible for course enhancement in the Faculty of Arts and Education Deakin University Melbourne Australia As an archeologist she has been engaged in the UNESCO Pacific World Heritage Programme since 2004 She was a member of Australiarsquos delegation to the World Heritage Committee between 2008 and 2012 and is editor of World Heritage in a Sea of Islands (2012)

Laurajane Smith is Professor of Heritage and Museum Studies and head of the Centre for Heritage and Museum Studies School of Archaeology and Anthropology Australian National University Canberra Australia She is editor of the International Journal of Heritage Studies co‐editor (with William Logan) of Routledgersquos Key Issues in Cultural Heritage Series and author of Uses of Heritage (2006)

Brenda Trofanenko holds the Canada Research Chair in Education Culture and Community at Acadia University in Wolfville Nova Scotia Canada Her research focuses on how public cultural institutions define identity and knowledge through social processes She is currently conducting research on how youth respond to the collective memories of distressing events

Ron van Oers held a doctorate from Delft University of Technology the Netherlands and had worked at UNESCOrsquos World Heritage Centre in Paris coordinating various programs including the development of the Recommendation on the Historic Urban Landscape (2011) He was vice‐director of the World Heritage Institute of Training and Research for Asia and the Pacific (WHITRAP) in Shanghai China

xviii notes on contributors

Editorrsquos note Dr van Oers passed away unexpectedly on 28 April 2015 while on a UNESCO mission to Lhasa Tibet He made a major contribution to the cultural her-itage field and will be greatly missed

Ona Vileikis is an architect with international experience in World Heritage‐related issues such as risk management monitoring geographic information systems heritage documentation and conservation She is currently a doctoral researcher at the Raymond Lemaire International Centre for Conservation University of Leuven Belgium working on the monitoring of serial transnational World Heritage issues and the use of geospatial content management systems focused on the Central Asia Silk Roads

Ana Filipa Vrdoljak is Professor of Law in the Faculty of Law University of Technology Sydney Australia She is the author of International Law Museums and the Return of Cultural Objects (2006) editor of The Cultural Dimension of Human Rights Law (2013) and joint general editor (with Franceso Francioni) of the Oxford University Press series Cultural Heritage Law and Policy

Jonathan Webber is Professor at the Institute of European Studies Jagiellonian University Krakoacutew Poland He specializes in Jewish studies and Holocaust studies and was a founding member of the International Auschwitz Council serving on it between 1990 and 2012

Gamini Wijesuriya has qualifications in architecture history and historic preservation and archaeology and heritage management He was director of conservation in the Sri Lankan Department of Archaeology between 1982 and 1999 and principal regional scientist in the New Zealand Department of Conservation from 2001 to 2004 Moving to ICCROM in Rome in 2004 he played a key role in developing the 2011 World Heritage Capacity Building Strategy

Tim Winter is Research Professor at the Alfred Deakin Institute for Citizenship and Globalisation Deakin University Melbourne Australia He has published widely on heritage development modernity urban conservation and tourism in Asia He is co‐editor of The Routledge Handbook of Heritage in Asia (2011) and editor of Shanghai Expo An International Forum on the Future of Cities (2013)

Andrea Witcomb is Professor of Cultural Heritage and Museum Studies and deputy director of the Alfred Deakin Institute for Citizenship and Globalisation at Deakin University Melbourne Australia Her work analyzes how museums and heritage sites create spaces for cross‐cultural encounters Her books include Reimagining the Museum Beyond the Mausoleum (2003) and (with Kylie Message) Museum Theory (2015)

Haiming Yan is a sociologist at the Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage Beijing and received his doctorate from the University of Virginia His research interests include cultural sociology memory and heritage and globalization

This volume originated in our desire to address the emergence and nature of the ldquonew heritage studiesrdquo which we see as the exploration of cultural heritage as a construct resulting from processes that give present‐day significance to elements from the past Our conception of the volume was rigorously reviewed by Wiley‐Blackwell For their time and patience we wish especially to thank Rosalie Robertson the initial commis-sioning editor and Ben Thatcher the project editor at Blackwell

We wish to say a special thank you to the contributors to this volume Coming from five continents these scholars were identified on the basis of their innovative ideas practical expertise and international reputation and invited to contribute to this collaborative multidisciplinary project in the cultural heritage field They were a pleasure to work with As the volume has been peer reviewed at every stage from the original proposal to its final production we would also wish to thank everybody who participated in that review process

While this project was in progress Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel moved from the University of Ulster in Northern Ireland to Heriot‐Watt University in Edinburgh and William Logan officially retired but was reappointed as emeritus pro-fessor attached to the Cultural Heritage Centre for Asia and the Pacific and the Alfred Deakin Research Institute at Deakin University in Melbourne We would like to thank our colleagues in all three institutions ndash Deakin University Heriot‐Watt University and the University of Ulster ndash for their continued support

Finally we would like to make a very special mention of Cristina Clopot and Philip Thomas Cristina is currently undertaking her PhD at Heriot‐Watt University but devoted much time and effort in administering the project Philip performed the criti-cal copy editing role with an eagle eye for detail We are very grateful to them both for their enthusiasm and professionalism in the preparation of the materials

William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel

Acknowledgements

ACCU Asia‐Pacific Cultural Centre of UNESCOACHPR African Commission on Human and Peoplesrsquo RightsACHS Association of Critical Heritage Studiesart articleEU European UnionFPIC free prior and informed consentGDP gross domestic productGIS geographic information systemGeoCMS geospatial content management systemsICCROM International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration

of Cultural PropertyICOM International Council of MuseumsICOMOS International Council on Monuments and SitesIUCN International Union for the Conservation of NatureIWGIA International Work Group for Indigenous AffairsMoW Memory of the World ProgrammeMDGs Millennium Development GoalsNGO non‐governmental organizationOHCR Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rightspara paragraphPOW prisoner of warsec sectionUN United NationsUNCERD United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial DiscriminationUNCESCR United Nations Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights

List of Abbreviations

list of abbreviations xxi

UNCEHR United Nations Commission on Human RightsUNDESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social AffairsUNDG United Nations Development GroupUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural OrganizationUNGA United Nations General AssemblyUN‐Habitat United Nations Human Settlements ProgrammeUNHRC United Nations Human Rights CouncilUNPFII United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous IssuesUNSC United Nations Security CouncilWHIPCOE World Heritage Indigenous Peoples Council of ExpertsWIPO World Intellectual Property OrganizationWTO World Trade Organization

Chapter 1

A Companion to Heritage Studies First Edition Edited by William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel copy 2016 John Wiley amp Sons Inc Published 2016 by John Wiley amp Sons Inc

The New Heritage Studies Origins and Evolution Problems and Prospects

William Logan Ullrich Kockel and Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith

Heritage and heritage studies have evolved in quite astounding ways over the last sixty years Nobody could have imagined when the Venice Charter (ICASHB 1964) jump‐started the heritage profession in the aftermath of World War II that there would be a veritable heritage boom in the 1990s and continuing into the twenty‐first century Who would have predicted that so much attention would now be paid to protecting environmental features material culture and living traditions from the past or the vast numbers of community members policy‐makers practitioners and scholars engaged in caring for managing and studying heritage Who would have foreseen the explosion of heritage‐based cultural tourism the reconfiguration of heritage as an economic asset and a World Heritage List comprising of more than a thousand properties spread around the globe

This volume seeks to investigate the story of expansion in heritage and heritage studies Containing 37 chapters commissioned from 44 scholars and practitioners from 5 continents it is designed to provide an up‐to‐date international analysis of the field the steady broadening of the concept of heritage and its social economic and political uses the difficulties that often arise from such uses and current trends in heritage scholarship Starting from a position of seeing ldquoheritagerdquo as a mental construct that attributes ldquosignificancerdquo to certain places artifacts and forms of behavior from the past through processes that are essentially political we see heritage conservation not merely as a technical or managerial matter but as cultural practice a form of cultural politics

CHaPTEr 1

2 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

We are interested in the different extent to which various groups within global national and local communities are able to participate in heritage identification interpretation and management Moreover we want to address the extent to which communities have access to and enjoy heritage once it has been officially recognized conserved or safeguarded This interest inevitably leads to human rights consider-ations to developing closer intellectual links with international lawyers and others in the human rights field and to strengthening both the multidisciplinary nature of heri-tage studies and what we sees as the critical relationship between theory and practice

Whether this new vision of heritage studies represents a ldquoparadigm shiftrdquo or only the culmination of changes already occurring in the heritage studies field since the late 1980s is an issue we will discuss later For now let us go back to the fieldrsquos origins and interpret its evolution

Expanding HEritagE

When ideas of ldquoheritagerdquo were initially formalized their focus was on monuments and sites This was especially the case in Europe from where these ideas spread across the British French and other European empires and the anglophone United States (Nic Craith 2007) Writer‐practitioners such as John Ruskin and Nikolaus Pevsner in England and Eugegravene Viollet‐le‐Duc in France were enormously influential in the early days of heritage identification and protection From these beginnings heritage planners around the world have sought to protect broad areas of historic aesthetic architectural or scientific interest Although there is considerable variation across the world most countries now attempt to protect as official policy and through professional practice a much wider range of features than they did 60 years ago

It was gradually realized for instance that the protection of a monument or building was not in itself enough and that good conservation work was often being rendered ineffective by unsympathetic developments allowed to occur in front of beside behind or even over heritage buildings Attention therefore extended to the precincts around major monuments and buildings A further extension of interest took place in 1962 when Andreacute Malraux then the French minister for culture first established planning regulations (known as the loi Malraux) designed to protect and enhance the historic features of the Marais district of Paris The English were also expanding their focus at about this time to take in conservation areas the first of which were designated in 1967 England now has over 8000 protected areas including the centers of historic towns and cities fishing and mining villages eighteenth‐ and nineteenth‐century suburbs model housing estates and historic transport links and their environs such as stretches of canal (English Heritage nd)

At the international level the World Heritage List established under UNESCOrsquos Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972) or as it is commonly known the World Heritage Convention now contains a large number of cities inscribed for what the convention calls their Outstanding Universal Value An Organization of World Heritage Cities founded in 1993 with headquarters in Quebec City today brings together 250 cities that are either inscribed or have inscribed sites within them (OWHC 2014) In 1992 the World Heritage Committee added the new category of ldquocultural landscapesrdquo to the World Heritage system to allow recognition of places presenting a blend of cultural and natural elements Twenty years

the new heritage studies 3

later the landscape concept was translated into urban areas as the ldquohistoric urban landscaperdquo blending modern and historic architectural and urban design forms rather than natural and cultural elements but nevertheless emphasizing like cultural landscapes the need for a holistic view of the environment and a sensitive balanced approach to new human interventions

Vernacular structures are now seen as being of cultural heritage interest that is structures that are not architect‐designed but owner‐ or community‐built using avail-able resources and traditional techniques So too are industrial structures Publications by Miles Lewis (1977) Paul Oliver (1997) and William Siew Wai Lim and Tan Hock Beng (1998) began to fill in major gaps in the tangible heritage literature More recently there has been considerable heritage interest internationally in ldquocultural routesrdquo The Council of Europe in 1987 established a program of European cultural routes that is managed from a specialized institute located in Luxembourg The pro-gramrsquos first initiative is the Santiago de Compostela Route the famous Christian pilgrimage route of the Middle Ages In the United States and Canada efforts have been made to commemorate the Underground Railroad ndash the route taken by slaves trying to reach freedom before the Civil War ndash by protecting a series of key sites along its length In Asia UNESCO is supporting the Silk Road Project for developing cultural heritage and cultural tourism along the traditional routes of the silk trade between south‐eastern Europe and China

In the international development field there was a marked shift in the 1990s in the attitude of key agencies such as the World Bank towards cultural heritage Rather than seeing cultural heritage protection as an obstacle to development it is now recognized that the two can go hand in hand to bring about more effective programs to raise standards of living in developing countries and elsewhere (Logan 2003 xxi)

Neil Silberman (Chapter 2) explores the evolving heritage conception and the changing forms and functions of heritage places from their initial validation as national institutions in the early nineteenth century to their multicultural context in the early twenty‐first century He shows that the meanings and values of heritage places are neither static nor inherent but ascribed by particular social groups choosing to empha-size or ignore particular items or aspects for social and political purposes Romantic nationalism led to a first ldquoheritage boomrdquo during the emergence of nation‐states in nineteenth‐century Europe as commemorative sites and structures were created to serve as tangible evidence of a nationrsquos pedigree harmonizing the diverse populations of nations into singularly national peoples or sometimes re‐fragmenting them laying the foundations for new identity claims in the future Already by the late nineteenth century accelerating domestic and international tourism engendered a second ldquoheritage boomrdquo albeit differently motivated the new ldquoheritage touristsrdquo on their quest for his-torical authenticity and exotic landscapes as means of (however temporary) escape from modern industrial life dominated by economic calculus contradictorily created the demand that allowed for the commoditization of built heritage as a ldquocultural resourcerdquo

A focus on the built environment is arguably based on a European concept of cultural heritage which is entirely appropriate for an environment dealing largely with the conservation of buildings made of stone brick and other durable materials (Logan 2006) This view of heritage has been frequently criticized Walled cities cathedrals and eye‐catching landscape formations like the Giantrsquos Causeway in Northern Ireland heavily dominate the list of European World Heritage sites This contrasts starkly with the concept of permanency found on other continents An example of this is the

4 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

imperial shrine at Ise Japan From a Western perspective this shrine hardly qualifies as ldquooldrdquo since it is rebuilt every twenty years However from a Japanese perspective it is old because it is rebuilt ldquoin exactly the same way ndash using the same ancient instru-ments materials ndash with each step of the process marked by appropriate ancient ritualsrdquo (Sahlins 2002 9)

Although heritage has for a long time been defined primarily in terms of material objects as ldquotangible heritagerdquo there has been a parallel interest in what is nowadays called ldquointangible heritagerdquo which for most of the past two centuries however remained in the shadow of the more prominent heritage of material objects and the built environment To some extent and in some parts of the world particularly Europe North America and Australia this reflects the different social and political status of the signified whereas monuments works of fine art castles and cathedrals materially and visually project and transmit the heritage of the hegemony folk songs and wisdom as with many other traditional skills tend to project and transmit heritage of the lower classes non‐materially and orally

Kristin Kuutma (Chapter 3) traces the emergence of folklore as an academic discipline and its subsequent involvement in cultural policy‐making including the contemporary transition from ldquofolklorerdquo to ldquointangible cultural heritagerdquo and the disciplinersquos contri-bution to the international management of heritage regimes Originating during the period of nation‐building when they formed part of the creation of national cultural heritages collections of folklore represent past repertoires and practices of mostly pre‐industrial (peasant) lifestyles that nowadays often feed various linguistic ethnic or other local revival movements As global power relationships at the turn of the twenty‐first century are creating ever‐shifting discourses of inclusion and exclusion rooted-ness and rights for possession a need to identify and safeguard intangible cultural heritage was postulated leading to the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage adopted in 2003 and commonly known as the Intangible Heritage Convention Although intangible elements had always been included in understanding the significance of heritage places under the World Heritage Convention (1972) this new convention focused on and led to a system for evaluating and safeguarding intangible heritage in its own right

Heritage in the post‐war years was conceived as and called ldquocultural propertyrdquo an understanding and terminology that is still found today in relation to some disciplines (eg anthropology) and some forms of heritage (eg intellectual property) Pertti Anttonen has observed that ldquothe cultural representations that are selected for making heritage‐political claims are commonly called traditions with a special emphasis on their character as cultural properties that is representations with an ownership labelrdquo (Anttonen 2005 39) Ownership lying at the heart of the notion of cultural property has become a major and growing concern since the second half of the twentieth century Folarin Shyllon (Chapter 4) considers these concerns especially in the context of human rights Access to and enjoyment of cultural heritage is considered to be a fundamental cultural right a sub‐category of human rights (Shaheed 2011) It might be argued that a similar right to intellectual property also exists but some intellectual property rights do not fit human rights easily because they are economic and commercial rather than social or cultural Considering cultural heritage as a fundamental human right can raise difficult ethical issues as different cultures tend to regard their own values as universal and those of others where they conflict as culturally contingent The debate on intellectual and by extension cultural property is rather more focused

the new heritage studies 5

on economic value As Shyllon points out some cultural heritage such as the sites inscribed on UNESCOrsquos World Heritage List may be regarded as universal property in the wider sense while intellectual property rights tend to be held as monopolies

Except from a natural law perspective values can be seen as being in the mind this goes even for economic monetary values which are the result of negotiations between actors In contrast artistic linguistic and technical skills can be seen as embodied As an example of a non‐Western approach to intangible heritage Natsuko Akagawa (Chapter 5) examines the philosophy behind Japanese legislation for safeguarding cultural property Her analysis highlights the significance of embodiment as a concept for understanding and dealing with heritage

Landscapes of MemoryRecent decades have seen a growing interest across different contexts in how heritage has been embodied in the land (see Gilbert 2010) Perspectives on this vary from geographical analyses of how hegemonic powers have shaped symbolic landscapes (eg Cosgrove 1984) to accounts of indigenous relationships with the land as an ani-mate being and keeper of memory (eg Blue Spruce and Thrasher 2008) Associative landscapes now serve as the foundation for official designations of heritage origins such as the French terroir discussed by Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) Involving com-munities in identifying and managing heritage landscapes and individual sites has become a key concern moving traditional knowledge systems their contribution to heritage management and the need to support them into the spotlight

However this concern has not necessarily been recognized in the practice of inter-national heritage programs With reference to the Pacific islands Anita Smith (Chapter 7) explores differences in the recognition of traditional knowledge systems in two UNESCO conventions ndash the World Heritage Convention (1972) and the Intangible Heritage Convention (2003) ndash and underlines long‐standing critiques of the World Heritage system as Eurocentric in its determination of Outstanding Universal Value In the late 1990s there was an attempt to establish an indigenous body to advise the World Heritage Committee in accordance with the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (United Nations 2007) While this initiative failed (see Logan 2013 Meskell 2013a) the call has been renewed in recent years (see Disko this volume)

Although in public perception issues of land and landscape are particularly associated with indigenous peoples they also play a major role in other contexts The application by parts of Burgundy in eastern France for World Heritage status is a case in point Using an ldquoethnographic gazerdquo Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) examines different con-ceptions of Burgundy as a re‐territorialized site and the construction of its micro‐regional climats with their historical depth of place as ldquoGod‐givenrdquo naturalized artifacts in the context of global competition where UNESCO designation is prized for con-veying an elite status

The embodiment of heritage in landscapes of memory also raises issues of the rela-tionships between natural and cultural heritage and their frequent separation in the practice of heritage management where different government and non‐government bodies are in charge of different types of heritage and conflicts of interest arise not least from budget constraints and varying lines of responsibility This can be exacerbated where a designated site stretches across one or more political or administrative boundary

6 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

The Curonian Spit shared by Lithuania and Russia is one of only 31 such transnational World Heritage sites where different approaches by the two administrations to environ-mental issues have been problematic (Armaitiene et al 2007) Moreover multiple layers of cultural memory affect the site and its contemporary meaning as heritage for different constituencies (Kockel 2012a) Appropriately contextualizing cultural heri-tages in relation to place and memory has been made difficult by a widespread tendency to treat cultural differences as mere constructs (Kockel and Nic Craith 2015) This is particularly apparent where we are dealing with places of pain and shame

Not all heritage serves as a reminder of a glorious past (Logan and Reeves 2009) In the Lithuanian national open air museum at Rumšiškes near Kaunas the extensive display of farm buildings and machinery as well as the central small town invoke nineteenth‐ and early twentieth‐century Lithuania but close to the center there is a clearing in the woods where the time frame is different Several items including an earthen yurt and a cattle wagon commemorate the deportations of thousands of Lithuanians between 1941 and 1953 when they were sent to the Soviet Gulags (Kockel 2015) Jonathan Webber (Chapter 8) seeks to make sense of Auschwitz designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1979 as a heritage site and landscape of memory Auschwitz means different things to different victim groups in terms of their own histories but also to other visitors Emblematic of ldquoundesirable heri-tagerdquo it is at the same time a powerful symbol a theatre where multiple memorial events are performed and a destination for ldquodarkrdquo tourism attracting large numbers of spectators

Collecting HeritageEver since interest in heritage began to develop the collection of material items and oral testimony has been a central activity aimed at facilitating their preservation This remains so despite a growing critique of museum and archiving practices UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Programme (MoW) is a major initiative for the protection of documentary heritage However with the exception of Charlesworth (2010) it has been largely overlooked in academic research even within the field of heritage studies Against this background Anca Claudia Prodan (Chapter 9) attempts to clarify the main features of the program and to identify points for research MoW is part of UNESCOrsquos policies aimed at building inclusive knowledge societies While acknowledging the contribution of MoW in that regard Prodan argues that in the process of this the program is reduced to being merely a source of information and that it needs to be strengthened by being recontextualized within UNESCOrsquos international system of heritage protection

Artifact collections and the practices employed in accumulating them have come under scrutiny in the context of postcolonial critiques of intercultural relations In 2002 the British Museum and the Louvre together with an international group of major museums issued the Declaration on the Importance and Value of Universal Museums (ICOM 2004) Most of these museums date back to the late eighteenth century before the period of European imperial expansion and the declaration has been widely interpreted as an attempt to guard against claims for the repatriation of much of their collections to the countries of origin Such claims are made not only with regard to indigenous peoples but extend to Western countries such as Greece as the case of the Elgin Marbles illustrates Maurice Mugabowagahunde (Chapter 10)

George Okello Abungu is Associate Professor of Heritage Studies at the University of Mauritius fellow of the Stellenbosch Institute for Advanced Studies at the University of Stellenbosch South Africa and Visiting Professor of Applied Anthropology University of Florida A former director‐general of the National Museums of Kenya he is currently vice‐president of ICOM and member of the international jury of the UNESCO Melina Mercouri International Prize for the Safeguard and Management of Cultural Landscapes He has published widely in the areas of archaeology heritage and museology

Natsuko Akagawa is Lecturer at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology University Australia She has undertaken heritage projects in Thailand Vietnam Japan China Macau SAR and the Netherlands and was a research fellow at East‐West Centre Hawaii She is currently vice‐president of the ICOMOS International Scientific Committee on Intangible Cultural Heritage Among her publications is Heritage Conservation and Japanrsquos Cultural Diplomacy Heritage National Identity and National Interest (2014)

Zeynep Aygen is Professor and chair at the Environmental Studies and Control Discipline Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University Istanbul Turkey She is a fellow of the Higher Education Academy and member of the Institute of Historic Building Conservation both in the United Kingdom Her research explores opportunities for physical and social sustainability in a cross‐cultural context through conservation pol-icies and their application

Melissa F Baird is Assistant Professor of Anthropology in the Social Sciences Department Michigan Technological University Her research seeks to broaden our

Notes on Contributors

xiv notes on contributors

understanding of global heritage and environmental politics especially how heritage intersects with indigenous rights and environmental protection

O Hugo Benavides is Professor of Anthropology Latin American and Latino studies and International Political Economy and Development Fordham University New York He is the editor and author of numerous articles and books on Latin American culture politics and history including Making Ecuadorian Histories Four Centuries of Defining Power (2004)

Kristal Buckley is Lecturer in Cultural Heritage at Deakin Universityrsquos Cultural Heritage Centre for Asia and the Pacific Melbourne Australia Her interests include evolving forms of global cultural heritage practice and heritage institutions and knowledge practices She has been a vice‐president of ICOMOS and a member of the ICOMOS delegation to the World Heritage Committee since 2007

Christina Cameron holds the Canada Research Chair on Built Heritage at the University of Montreal Canada She previously served as an executive with Parks Canada for thirty‐five years Involved with World Heritage since 1987 she carries out research on the history of the World Heritage Convention and directs the World Heritage Oral Archives program

Gary Campbell is an independent scholar based in Canberra Australia He has a background in sociology political studies and industrial relations He is co‐editor of the book Heritage Labour and the Working Classes and has co‐authored work with Laurajane Smith on issues of representation and recognition of working‐class heritage and de‐industrialization

Benjamin Chan is a member of the Political Science Department at the National University of Singapore His research interests include humanitarianism post‐conflict reconciliation and post‐disaster relief and reconstruction He has conducted fieldwork in mainland Southeast Asia and in Central America

Andrea Connor is a research associate with the Transforming Cultures Research Center at the University of Technology Sydney She is a sociocultural researcher working across the fields of heritage studies cultural geography museum studies and cultural studies She is currently working on a research monograph on the afterlife of monumental things

Rosemary J Coombe is the Tier One Canada Research Chair in Law Communication and Culture at York University Toronto Canada Her work explores the intersection of intellectual property cultural property and human rights with an emphasis on her-itage politics indigenous peoples governmentalities and neoliberalism

Patrick Daly is a senior fellow at the National University of Singapore and a principal investigator at the Earth Observatory of Singapore His research focuses upon the intersec-tion of heritage and post‐disasterpost‐conflict recovery and reconstruction He has con-ducted fieldwork in the Middle East the Philippines Cambodia and post‐tsunami Aceh Indonesia He is the co‐editor of the Routledge Handbook of Heritage in Asia (2011)

notes on contributors xv

Marion Demossier is Professor of French and European studies in the Department of Modern Languages University of Southampton England She is the author of various works on wine producers wine drinking culture and wine consumption She is cur-rently finalising a book on a critical analysis of terroir in Burgundy

Stefan Disko is an ethnologist focusing on human rights and the protection of cultural and natural heritage He is currently co‐editing a book on World Heritage sites and indigenous peoplesrsquo rights to be published jointly by the International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA) Forest Peoples Programme and the Gundjeihmi Aboriginal Corporation

Maria Economou is Lecturer in Museum Studies at the University of Glasgow Scotland and based at the Hunterian Museum and the Humanities Advanced Technology and Information Institute She has worked at the universities of the Aegean Manchester and Oxford (at the Pitt Rivers Museum) and collaborated with cultural heritage institutions around the world particularly on the use of new technologies for public engagement She specializes in digital cultural heritage

Julie Fedor is Lecturer in Modern European History at the University of Melbourne Australia She is the author of Russia and the Cult of State Security (2011) co‐author of Remembering Katyn (2012) and co‐editor of Memory and Theory in Eastern Europe (2013) and Memory Conflict and New Media (2013)

Richard W Hallett is Professor in the Department of Linguistics Northeastern Illinois University He is interested in the discourse(s) of tourism especially in the social construction of national identity through government‐sponsored tourism websites His research agenda also includes issues in the areas of world Englishes sociolinguistics and second‐language acquisition

Benjamin Isakhan is Senior Lecturer in Politics and Policy Studies and Convenor of the Middle East Studies Forum at Deakin University Australia Ben is also Adjunct Senior Research Associate in the Department of Politics at the University of Johannesburg South Africa

Ullrich Kockel is Professor of Culture and Economy at Heriot‐Watt University Edinburgh Scotland Visiting Professor of Social Anthropology at Vytautas Magnus University Kaunas Lithuania and Emeritus Professor of Ethnology at the University of Ulster He is currently editor‐in‐chief of the Anthropological Journal of European Cultures a fellow of the UKrsquos Academy of Social Sciences and a member of the Royal Irish Academy

Kristin Kuutma is Professor of Cultural Research at the University of Tartu Estonia Her research in cultural history and anthropology focuses on disciplinary knowledge production representation and critical heritage studies She has conducted fieldwork and published on policy‐making and implementation at the international and local level of UNESCOrsquos Intangible Heritage Convention

William Logan is Professor Emeritus at Deakin University Melbourne Australia where he was founding director of the Cultural Heritage Center for Asia and the Pacific

xvi notes on contributors

He is a fellow of the Academy of Social Sciences in Australia and has been president of Australia ICOMOS and a member of the Heritage Council of Victoria His research focuses on World Heritage heritage and human rights and Asian heritage

Christian Manhart is an art historian and archeologist Since joining UNESCO in 1987 he has worked on the conservation of heritage sites in Africa and Asia particu-larly Afghanistan He was responsible in the World Heritage Centre for partnerships communication and more recently matters arising in relation to the international con-ventions of 1954 1970 and 2001 and the Committee for Restitution of Cultural Property Museums and Creativity

Lynn Meskell is Professor of Anthropology and director of the Archaeology Center at Stanford University Her recent books include The Nature of Culture The New South Africa (2012) and the edited volume Cosmopolitan Archaeologies (2009) Her current research focuses on the role of UNESCO in terms of heritage rights sovereignty and international politics

Maurice Mugabowagahunde is a doctoral candidate in African archaeology at University of Bergen Norway His research interests include Rwandan prehistory and ethnography He has previously conducted archeological and ethnographic research in Rwanda for the Institute of National Museums of Rwanda

Webber Ndoro is a research associate with the Department of Archaeology University of Cape Town South Africa and director of the African World Heritage Fund based in Johannesburg

Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith is Professor of European Culture and Heritage at Heriot‐Watt University Edinburgh Scotland having previously held a chair in the School of Social Sciences and Applied Social Studies at the University of Ulster A Member of the Royal Irish Academy she has also been an honorary professor at the University of Exeter and a DAAD guest professor at the University of Goumlttingen Germany

Gertjan Plets was a researcher on the Altai Project at Ghent University Belgium from which he received his doctorate He joined Stanford University initially as a Belgian American Education Fund (BAEF) fellow and now holds a three‐year research‐intensive post‐doctoral fellowship at the Stanford Archaeology Center

Anca Claudia Prodan holds a PhD in Heritage Studies and works as scientific assistant at the UNESCO Chair in Heritage Studies BTU Cottbus-Senftenberg Prior to this she studied in Romania and Germany obtaining degrees in Anthropology Philosophy and World Heritage Studies Her research interests center on theories and concepts of culture and heritage

Keir Reeves holds a chair in Australian history at Federation University Australia Victoria Australia He has held teaching and research posts at Monash University and the University of Melbourne In 2013 he was a visiting fellow at Clare Hall University of Cambridge England His research concentrates on regional development as well as Australian Asian and Pacific cultural heritage

notes on contributors xvii

Britta Rudolff holds an interim chair in heritage management at Brandenburg Technical University Cottbus Germany where she is also the managing director of the Institute for Heritage Management A cultural heritage conservator with postgraduate qualifications in heritage studies and a doctorate in cultural geography her focus has been on UNESCO heritage conventions

Folarin Shyllon read law at Kingrsquos College London and taught at the University of Ibadan Nigeria from 1975 to 2005 His teaching and research interests are in cultural property and intellectual property law He is on the editorial board of the International Journal of Cultural Property and Art Antiquity and Law and is chairperson of the Nigeria chapter of UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Committee

Neil A Silberman is an author historian and managing partner of Coherit Associates an international heritage consulting firm He is an adjunct lecturer in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Massachusetts and serves as president of the ICOMOS International Committee on Interpretation and Presentation (ICIP) His research interests include interpretation theory the history of heritage practice and the politics of commemoration

Helaine Silverman is Professor in the Department of Anthropology University of Illinois Urbana‐Champaign and director of CHAMP (Collaborative for Cultural Heritage Management and Policy) She is especially interested in the cultural politics of heritage production and management tourism and economic development and iden-tity and memory She has conducted research in Peru Thailand and England

Anita Smith is Senior Lecturer responsible for course enhancement in the Faculty of Arts and Education Deakin University Melbourne Australia As an archeologist she has been engaged in the UNESCO Pacific World Heritage Programme since 2004 She was a member of Australiarsquos delegation to the World Heritage Committee between 2008 and 2012 and is editor of World Heritage in a Sea of Islands (2012)

Laurajane Smith is Professor of Heritage and Museum Studies and head of the Centre for Heritage and Museum Studies School of Archaeology and Anthropology Australian National University Canberra Australia She is editor of the International Journal of Heritage Studies co‐editor (with William Logan) of Routledgersquos Key Issues in Cultural Heritage Series and author of Uses of Heritage (2006)

Brenda Trofanenko holds the Canada Research Chair in Education Culture and Community at Acadia University in Wolfville Nova Scotia Canada Her research focuses on how public cultural institutions define identity and knowledge through social processes She is currently conducting research on how youth respond to the collective memories of distressing events

Ron van Oers held a doctorate from Delft University of Technology the Netherlands and had worked at UNESCOrsquos World Heritage Centre in Paris coordinating various programs including the development of the Recommendation on the Historic Urban Landscape (2011) He was vice‐director of the World Heritage Institute of Training and Research for Asia and the Pacific (WHITRAP) in Shanghai China

xviii notes on contributors

Editorrsquos note Dr van Oers passed away unexpectedly on 28 April 2015 while on a UNESCO mission to Lhasa Tibet He made a major contribution to the cultural her-itage field and will be greatly missed

Ona Vileikis is an architect with international experience in World Heritage‐related issues such as risk management monitoring geographic information systems heritage documentation and conservation She is currently a doctoral researcher at the Raymond Lemaire International Centre for Conservation University of Leuven Belgium working on the monitoring of serial transnational World Heritage issues and the use of geospatial content management systems focused on the Central Asia Silk Roads

Ana Filipa Vrdoljak is Professor of Law in the Faculty of Law University of Technology Sydney Australia She is the author of International Law Museums and the Return of Cultural Objects (2006) editor of The Cultural Dimension of Human Rights Law (2013) and joint general editor (with Franceso Francioni) of the Oxford University Press series Cultural Heritage Law and Policy

Jonathan Webber is Professor at the Institute of European Studies Jagiellonian University Krakoacutew Poland He specializes in Jewish studies and Holocaust studies and was a founding member of the International Auschwitz Council serving on it between 1990 and 2012

Gamini Wijesuriya has qualifications in architecture history and historic preservation and archaeology and heritage management He was director of conservation in the Sri Lankan Department of Archaeology between 1982 and 1999 and principal regional scientist in the New Zealand Department of Conservation from 2001 to 2004 Moving to ICCROM in Rome in 2004 he played a key role in developing the 2011 World Heritage Capacity Building Strategy

Tim Winter is Research Professor at the Alfred Deakin Institute for Citizenship and Globalisation Deakin University Melbourne Australia He has published widely on heritage development modernity urban conservation and tourism in Asia He is co‐editor of The Routledge Handbook of Heritage in Asia (2011) and editor of Shanghai Expo An International Forum on the Future of Cities (2013)

Andrea Witcomb is Professor of Cultural Heritage and Museum Studies and deputy director of the Alfred Deakin Institute for Citizenship and Globalisation at Deakin University Melbourne Australia Her work analyzes how museums and heritage sites create spaces for cross‐cultural encounters Her books include Reimagining the Museum Beyond the Mausoleum (2003) and (with Kylie Message) Museum Theory (2015)

Haiming Yan is a sociologist at the Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage Beijing and received his doctorate from the University of Virginia His research interests include cultural sociology memory and heritage and globalization

This volume originated in our desire to address the emergence and nature of the ldquonew heritage studiesrdquo which we see as the exploration of cultural heritage as a construct resulting from processes that give present‐day significance to elements from the past Our conception of the volume was rigorously reviewed by Wiley‐Blackwell For their time and patience we wish especially to thank Rosalie Robertson the initial commis-sioning editor and Ben Thatcher the project editor at Blackwell

We wish to say a special thank you to the contributors to this volume Coming from five continents these scholars were identified on the basis of their innovative ideas practical expertise and international reputation and invited to contribute to this collaborative multidisciplinary project in the cultural heritage field They were a pleasure to work with As the volume has been peer reviewed at every stage from the original proposal to its final production we would also wish to thank everybody who participated in that review process

While this project was in progress Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel moved from the University of Ulster in Northern Ireland to Heriot‐Watt University in Edinburgh and William Logan officially retired but was reappointed as emeritus pro-fessor attached to the Cultural Heritage Centre for Asia and the Pacific and the Alfred Deakin Research Institute at Deakin University in Melbourne We would like to thank our colleagues in all three institutions ndash Deakin University Heriot‐Watt University and the University of Ulster ndash for their continued support

Finally we would like to make a very special mention of Cristina Clopot and Philip Thomas Cristina is currently undertaking her PhD at Heriot‐Watt University but devoted much time and effort in administering the project Philip performed the criti-cal copy editing role with an eagle eye for detail We are very grateful to them both for their enthusiasm and professionalism in the preparation of the materials

William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel

Acknowledgements

ACCU Asia‐Pacific Cultural Centre of UNESCOACHPR African Commission on Human and Peoplesrsquo RightsACHS Association of Critical Heritage Studiesart articleEU European UnionFPIC free prior and informed consentGDP gross domestic productGIS geographic information systemGeoCMS geospatial content management systemsICCROM International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration

of Cultural PropertyICOM International Council of MuseumsICOMOS International Council on Monuments and SitesIUCN International Union for the Conservation of NatureIWGIA International Work Group for Indigenous AffairsMoW Memory of the World ProgrammeMDGs Millennium Development GoalsNGO non‐governmental organizationOHCR Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rightspara paragraphPOW prisoner of warsec sectionUN United NationsUNCERD United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial DiscriminationUNCESCR United Nations Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights

List of Abbreviations

list of abbreviations xxi

UNCEHR United Nations Commission on Human RightsUNDESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social AffairsUNDG United Nations Development GroupUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural OrganizationUNGA United Nations General AssemblyUN‐Habitat United Nations Human Settlements ProgrammeUNHRC United Nations Human Rights CouncilUNPFII United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous IssuesUNSC United Nations Security CouncilWHIPCOE World Heritage Indigenous Peoples Council of ExpertsWIPO World Intellectual Property OrganizationWTO World Trade Organization

Chapter 1

A Companion to Heritage Studies First Edition Edited by William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel copy 2016 John Wiley amp Sons Inc Published 2016 by John Wiley amp Sons Inc

The New Heritage Studies Origins and Evolution Problems and Prospects

William Logan Ullrich Kockel and Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith

Heritage and heritage studies have evolved in quite astounding ways over the last sixty years Nobody could have imagined when the Venice Charter (ICASHB 1964) jump‐started the heritage profession in the aftermath of World War II that there would be a veritable heritage boom in the 1990s and continuing into the twenty‐first century Who would have predicted that so much attention would now be paid to protecting environmental features material culture and living traditions from the past or the vast numbers of community members policy‐makers practitioners and scholars engaged in caring for managing and studying heritage Who would have foreseen the explosion of heritage‐based cultural tourism the reconfiguration of heritage as an economic asset and a World Heritage List comprising of more than a thousand properties spread around the globe

This volume seeks to investigate the story of expansion in heritage and heritage studies Containing 37 chapters commissioned from 44 scholars and practitioners from 5 continents it is designed to provide an up‐to‐date international analysis of the field the steady broadening of the concept of heritage and its social economic and political uses the difficulties that often arise from such uses and current trends in heritage scholarship Starting from a position of seeing ldquoheritagerdquo as a mental construct that attributes ldquosignificancerdquo to certain places artifacts and forms of behavior from the past through processes that are essentially political we see heritage conservation not merely as a technical or managerial matter but as cultural practice a form of cultural politics

CHaPTEr 1

2 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

We are interested in the different extent to which various groups within global national and local communities are able to participate in heritage identification interpretation and management Moreover we want to address the extent to which communities have access to and enjoy heritage once it has been officially recognized conserved or safeguarded This interest inevitably leads to human rights consider-ations to developing closer intellectual links with international lawyers and others in the human rights field and to strengthening both the multidisciplinary nature of heri-tage studies and what we sees as the critical relationship between theory and practice

Whether this new vision of heritage studies represents a ldquoparadigm shiftrdquo or only the culmination of changes already occurring in the heritage studies field since the late 1980s is an issue we will discuss later For now let us go back to the fieldrsquos origins and interpret its evolution

Expanding HEritagE

When ideas of ldquoheritagerdquo were initially formalized their focus was on monuments and sites This was especially the case in Europe from where these ideas spread across the British French and other European empires and the anglophone United States (Nic Craith 2007) Writer‐practitioners such as John Ruskin and Nikolaus Pevsner in England and Eugegravene Viollet‐le‐Duc in France were enormously influential in the early days of heritage identification and protection From these beginnings heritage planners around the world have sought to protect broad areas of historic aesthetic architectural or scientific interest Although there is considerable variation across the world most countries now attempt to protect as official policy and through professional practice a much wider range of features than they did 60 years ago

It was gradually realized for instance that the protection of a monument or building was not in itself enough and that good conservation work was often being rendered ineffective by unsympathetic developments allowed to occur in front of beside behind or even over heritage buildings Attention therefore extended to the precincts around major monuments and buildings A further extension of interest took place in 1962 when Andreacute Malraux then the French minister for culture first established planning regulations (known as the loi Malraux) designed to protect and enhance the historic features of the Marais district of Paris The English were also expanding their focus at about this time to take in conservation areas the first of which were designated in 1967 England now has over 8000 protected areas including the centers of historic towns and cities fishing and mining villages eighteenth‐ and nineteenth‐century suburbs model housing estates and historic transport links and their environs such as stretches of canal (English Heritage nd)

At the international level the World Heritage List established under UNESCOrsquos Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972) or as it is commonly known the World Heritage Convention now contains a large number of cities inscribed for what the convention calls their Outstanding Universal Value An Organization of World Heritage Cities founded in 1993 with headquarters in Quebec City today brings together 250 cities that are either inscribed or have inscribed sites within them (OWHC 2014) In 1992 the World Heritage Committee added the new category of ldquocultural landscapesrdquo to the World Heritage system to allow recognition of places presenting a blend of cultural and natural elements Twenty years

the new heritage studies 3

later the landscape concept was translated into urban areas as the ldquohistoric urban landscaperdquo blending modern and historic architectural and urban design forms rather than natural and cultural elements but nevertheless emphasizing like cultural landscapes the need for a holistic view of the environment and a sensitive balanced approach to new human interventions

Vernacular structures are now seen as being of cultural heritage interest that is structures that are not architect‐designed but owner‐ or community‐built using avail-able resources and traditional techniques So too are industrial structures Publications by Miles Lewis (1977) Paul Oliver (1997) and William Siew Wai Lim and Tan Hock Beng (1998) began to fill in major gaps in the tangible heritage literature More recently there has been considerable heritage interest internationally in ldquocultural routesrdquo The Council of Europe in 1987 established a program of European cultural routes that is managed from a specialized institute located in Luxembourg The pro-gramrsquos first initiative is the Santiago de Compostela Route the famous Christian pilgrimage route of the Middle Ages In the United States and Canada efforts have been made to commemorate the Underground Railroad ndash the route taken by slaves trying to reach freedom before the Civil War ndash by protecting a series of key sites along its length In Asia UNESCO is supporting the Silk Road Project for developing cultural heritage and cultural tourism along the traditional routes of the silk trade between south‐eastern Europe and China

In the international development field there was a marked shift in the 1990s in the attitude of key agencies such as the World Bank towards cultural heritage Rather than seeing cultural heritage protection as an obstacle to development it is now recognized that the two can go hand in hand to bring about more effective programs to raise standards of living in developing countries and elsewhere (Logan 2003 xxi)

Neil Silberman (Chapter 2) explores the evolving heritage conception and the changing forms and functions of heritage places from their initial validation as national institutions in the early nineteenth century to their multicultural context in the early twenty‐first century He shows that the meanings and values of heritage places are neither static nor inherent but ascribed by particular social groups choosing to empha-size or ignore particular items or aspects for social and political purposes Romantic nationalism led to a first ldquoheritage boomrdquo during the emergence of nation‐states in nineteenth‐century Europe as commemorative sites and structures were created to serve as tangible evidence of a nationrsquos pedigree harmonizing the diverse populations of nations into singularly national peoples or sometimes re‐fragmenting them laying the foundations for new identity claims in the future Already by the late nineteenth century accelerating domestic and international tourism engendered a second ldquoheritage boomrdquo albeit differently motivated the new ldquoheritage touristsrdquo on their quest for his-torical authenticity and exotic landscapes as means of (however temporary) escape from modern industrial life dominated by economic calculus contradictorily created the demand that allowed for the commoditization of built heritage as a ldquocultural resourcerdquo

A focus on the built environment is arguably based on a European concept of cultural heritage which is entirely appropriate for an environment dealing largely with the conservation of buildings made of stone brick and other durable materials (Logan 2006) This view of heritage has been frequently criticized Walled cities cathedrals and eye‐catching landscape formations like the Giantrsquos Causeway in Northern Ireland heavily dominate the list of European World Heritage sites This contrasts starkly with the concept of permanency found on other continents An example of this is the

4 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

imperial shrine at Ise Japan From a Western perspective this shrine hardly qualifies as ldquooldrdquo since it is rebuilt every twenty years However from a Japanese perspective it is old because it is rebuilt ldquoin exactly the same way ndash using the same ancient instru-ments materials ndash with each step of the process marked by appropriate ancient ritualsrdquo (Sahlins 2002 9)

Although heritage has for a long time been defined primarily in terms of material objects as ldquotangible heritagerdquo there has been a parallel interest in what is nowadays called ldquointangible heritagerdquo which for most of the past two centuries however remained in the shadow of the more prominent heritage of material objects and the built environment To some extent and in some parts of the world particularly Europe North America and Australia this reflects the different social and political status of the signified whereas monuments works of fine art castles and cathedrals materially and visually project and transmit the heritage of the hegemony folk songs and wisdom as with many other traditional skills tend to project and transmit heritage of the lower classes non‐materially and orally

Kristin Kuutma (Chapter 3) traces the emergence of folklore as an academic discipline and its subsequent involvement in cultural policy‐making including the contemporary transition from ldquofolklorerdquo to ldquointangible cultural heritagerdquo and the disciplinersquos contri-bution to the international management of heritage regimes Originating during the period of nation‐building when they formed part of the creation of national cultural heritages collections of folklore represent past repertoires and practices of mostly pre‐industrial (peasant) lifestyles that nowadays often feed various linguistic ethnic or other local revival movements As global power relationships at the turn of the twenty‐first century are creating ever‐shifting discourses of inclusion and exclusion rooted-ness and rights for possession a need to identify and safeguard intangible cultural heritage was postulated leading to the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage adopted in 2003 and commonly known as the Intangible Heritage Convention Although intangible elements had always been included in understanding the significance of heritage places under the World Heritage Convention (1972) this new convention focused on and led to a system for evaluating and safeguarding intangible heritage in its own right

Heritage in the post‐war years was conceived as and called ldquocultural propertyrdquo an understanding and terminology that is still found today in relation to some disciplines (eg anthropology) and some forms of heritage (eg intellectual property) Pertti Anttonen has observed that ldquothe cultural representations that are selected for making heritage‐political claims are commonly called traditions with a special emphasis on their character as cultural properties that is representations with an ownership labelrdquo (Anttonen 2005 39) Ownership lying at the heart of the notion of cultural property has become a major and growing concern since the second half of the twentieth century Folarin Shyllon (Chapter 4) considers these concerns especially in the context of human rights Access to and enjoyment of cultural heritage is considered to be a fundamental cultural right a sub‐category of human rights (Shaheed 2011) It might be argued that a similar right to intellectual property also exists but some intellectual property rights do not fit human rights easily because they are economic and commercial rather than social or cultural Considering cultural heritage as a fundamental human right can raise difficult ethical issues as different cultures tend to regard their own values as universal and those of others where they conflict as culturally contingent The debate on intellectual and by extension cultural property is rather more focused

the new heritage studies 5

on economic value As Shyllon points out some cultural heritage such as the sites inscribed on UNESCOrsquos World Heritage List may be regarded as universal property in the wider sense while intellectual property rights tend to be held as monopolies

Except from a natural law perspective values can be seen as being in the mind this goes even for economic monetary values which are the result of negotiations between actors In contrast artistic linguistic and technical skills can be seen as embodied As an example of a non‐Western approach to intangible heritage Natsuko Akagawa (Chapter 5) examines the philosophy behind Japanese legislation for safeguarding cultural property Her analysis highlights the significance of embodiment as a concept for understanding and dealing with heritage

Landscapes of MemoryRecent decades have seen a growing interest across different contexts in how heritage has been embodied in the land (see Gilbert 2010) Perspectives on this vary from geographical analyses of how hegemonic powers have shaped symbolic landscapes (eg Cosgrove 1984) to accounts of indigenous relationships with the land as an ani-mate being and keeper of memory (eg Blue Spruce and Thrasher 2008) Associative landscapes now serve as the foundation for official designations of heritage origins such as the French terroir discussed by Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) Involving com-munities in identifying and managing heritage landscapes and individual sites has become a key concern moving traditional knowledge systems their contribution to heritage management and the need to support them into the spotlight

However this concern has not necessarily been recognized in the practice of inter-national heritage programs With reference to the Pacific islands Anita Smith (Chapter 7) explores differences in the recognition of traditional knowledge systems in two UNESCO conventions ndash the World Heritage Convention (1972) and the Intangible Heritage Convention (2003) ndash and underlines long‐standing critiques of the World Heritage system as Eurocentric in its determination of Outstanding Universal Value In the late 1990s there was an attempt to establish an indigenous body to advise the World Heritage Committee in accordance with the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (United Nations 2007) While this initiative failed (see Logan 2013 Meskell 2013a) the call has been renewed in recent years (see Disko this volume)

Although in public perception issues of land and landscape are particularly associated with indigenous peoples they also play a major role in other contexts The application by parts of Burgundy in eastern France for World Heritage status is a case in point Using an ldquoethnographic gazerdquo Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) examines different con-ceptions of Burgundy as a re‐territorialized site and the construction of its micro‐regional climats with their historical depth of place as ldquoGod‐givenrdquo naturalized artifacts in the context of global competition where UNESCO designation is prized for con-veying an elite status

The embodiment of heritage in landscapes of memory also raises issues of the rela-tionships between natural and cultural heritage and their frequent separation in the practice of heritage management where different government and non‐government bodies are in charge of different types of heritage and conflicts of interest arise not least from budget constraints and varying lines of responsibility This can be exacerbated where a designated site stretches across one or more political or administrative boundary

6 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

The Curonian Spit shared by Lithuania and Russia is one of only 31 such transnational World Heritage sites where different approaches by the two administrations to environ-mental issues have been problematic (Armaitiene et al 2007) Moreover multiple layers of cultural memory affect the site and its contemporary meaning as heritage for different constituencies (Kockel 2012a) Appropriately contextualizing cultural heri-tages in relation to place and memory has been made difficult by a widespread tendency to treat cultural differences as mere constructs (Kockel and Nic Craith 2015) This is particularly apparent where we are dealing with places of pain and shame

Not all heritage serves as a reminder of a glorious past (Logan and Reeves 2009) In the Lithuanian national open air museum at Rumšiškes near Kaunas the extensive display of farm buildings and machinery as well as the central small town invoke nineteenth‐ and early twentieth‐century Lithuania but close to the center there is a clearing in the woods where the time frame is different Several items including an earthen yurt and a cattle wagon commemorate the deportations of thousands of Lithuanians between 1941 and 1953 when they were sent to the Soviet Gulags (Kockel 2015) Jonathan Webber (Chapter 8) seeks to make sense of Auschwitz designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1979 as a heritage site and landscape of memory Auschwitz means different things to different victim groups in terms of their own histories but also to other visitors Emblematic of ldquoundesirable heri-tagerdquo it is at the same time a powerful symbol a theatre where multiple memorial events are performed and a destination for ldquodarkrdquo tourism attracting large numbers of spectators

Collecting HeritageEver since interest in heritage began to develop the collection of material items and oral testimony has been a central activity aimed at facilitating their preservation This remains so despite a growing critique of museum and archiving practices UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Programme (MoW) is a major initiative for the protection of documentary heritage However with the exception of Charlesworth (2010) it has been largely overlooked in academic research even within the field of heritage studies Against this background Anca Claudia Prodan (Chapter 9) attempts to clarify the main features of the program and to identify points for research MoW is part of UNESCOrsquos policies aimed at building inclusive knowledge societies While acknowledging the contribution of MoW in that regard Prodan argues that in the process of this the program is reduced to being merely a source of information and that it needs to be strengthened by being recontextualized within UNESCOrsquos international system of heritage protection

Artifact collections and the practices employed in accumulating them have come under scrutiny in the context of postcolonial critiques of intercultural relations In 2002 the British Museum and the Louvre together with an international group of major museums issued the Declaration on the Importance and Value of Universal Museums (ICOM 2004) Most of these museums date back to the late eighteenth century before the period of European imperial expansion and the declaration has been widely interpreted as an attempt to guard against claims for the repatriation of much of their collections to the countries of origin Such claims are made not only with regard to indigenous peoples but extend to Western countries such as Greece as the case of the Elgin Marbles illustrates Maurice Mugabowagahunde (Chapter 10)

xiv notes on contributors

understanding of global heritage and environmental politics especially how heritage intersects with indigenous rights and environmental protection

O Hugo Benavides is Professor of Anthropology Latin American and Latino studies and International Political Economy and Development Fordham University New York He is the editor and author of numerous articles and books on Latin American culture politics and history including Making Ecuadorian Histories Four Centuries of Defining Power (2004)

Kristal Buckley is Lecturer in Cultural Heritage at Deakin Universityrsquos Cultural Heritage Centre for Asia and the Pacific Melbourne Australia Her interests include evolving forms of global cultural heritage practice and heritage institutions and knowledge practices She has been a vice‐president of ICOMOS and a member of the ICOMOS delegation to the World Heritage Committee since 2007

Christina Cameron holds the Canada Research Chair on Built Heritage at the University of Montreal Canada She previously served as an executive with Parks Canada for thirty‐five years Involved with World Heritage since 1987 she carries out research on the history of the World Heritage Convention and directs the World Heritage Oral Archives program

Gary Campbell is an independent scholar based in Canberra Australia He has a background in sociology political studies and industrial relations He is co‐editor of the book Heritage Labour and the Working Classes and has co‐authored work with Laurajane Smith on issues of representation and recognition of working‐class heritage and de‐industrialization

Benjamin Chan is a member of the Political Science Department at the National University of Singapore His research interests include humanitarianism post‐conflict reconciliation and post‐disaster relief and reconstruction He has conducted fieldwork in mainland Southeast Asia and in Central America

Andrea Connor is a research associate with the Transforming Cultures Research Center at the University of Technology Sydney She is a sociocultural researcher working across the fields of heritage studies cultural geography museum studies and cultural studies She is currently working on a research monograph on the afterlife of monumental things

Rosemary J Coombe is the Tier One Canada Research Chair in Law Communication and Culture at York University Toronto Canada Her work explores the intersection of intellectual property cultural property and human rights with an emphasis on her-itage politics indigenous peoples governmentalities and neoliberalism

Patrick Daly is a senior fellow at the National University of Singapore and a principal investigator at the Earth Observatory of Singapore His research focuses upon the intersec-tion of heritage and post‐disasterpost‐conflict recovery and reconstruction He has con-ducted fieldwork in the Middle East the Philippines Cambodia and post‐tsunami Aceh Indonesia He is the co‐editor of the Routledge Handbook of Heritage in Asia (2011)

notes on contributors xv

Marion Demossier is Professor of French and European studies in the Department of Modern Languages University of Southampton England She is the author of various works on wine producers wine drinking culture and wine consumption She is cur-rently finalising a book on a critical analysis of terroir in Burgundy

Stefan Disko is an ethnologist focusing on human rights and the protection of cultural and natural heritage He is currently co‐editing a book on World Heritage sites and indigenous peoplesrsquo rights to be published jointly by the International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA) Forest Peoples Programme and the Gundjeihmi Aboriginal Corporation

Maria Economou is Lecturer in Museum Studies at the University of Glasgow Scotland and based at the Hunterian Museum and the Humanities Advanced Technology and Information Institute She has worked at the universities of the Aegean Manchester and Oxford (at the Pitt Rivers Museum) and collaborated with cultural heritage institutions around the world particularly on the use of new technologies for public engagement She specializes in digital cultural heritage

Julie Fedor is Lecturer in Modern European History at the University of Melbourne Australia She is the author of Russia and the Cult of State Security (2011) co‐author of Remembering Katyn (2012) and co‐editor of Memory and Theory in Eastern Europe (2013) and Memory Conflict and New Media (2013)

Richard W Hallett is Professor in the Department of Linguistics Northeastern Illinois University He is interested in the discourse(s) of tourism especially in the social construction of national identity through government‐sponsored tourism websites His research agenda also includes issues in the areas of world Englishes sociolinguistics and second‐language acquisition

Benjamin Isakhan is Senior Lecturer in Politics and Policy Studies and Convenor of the Middle East Studies Forum at Deakin University Australia Ben is also Adjunct Senior Research Associate in the Department of Politics at the University of Johannesburg South Africa

Ullrich Kockel is Professor of Culture and Economy at Heriot‐Watt University Edinburgh Scotland Visiting Professor of Social Anthropology at Vytautas Magnus University Kaunas Lithuania and Emeritus Professor of Ethnology at the University of Ulster He is currently editor‐in‐chief of the Anthropological Journal of European Cultures a fellow of the UKrsquos Academy of Social Sciences and a member of the Royal Irish Academy

Kristin Kuutma is Professor of Cultural Research at the University of Tartu Estonia Her research in cultural history and anthropology focuses on disciplinary knowledge production representation and critical heritage studies She has conducted fieldwork and published on policy‐making and implementation at the international and local level of UNESCOrsquos Intangible Heritage Convention

William Logan is Professor Emeritus at Deakin University Melbourne Australia where he was founding director of the Cultural Heritage Center for Asia and the Pacific

xvi notes on contributors

He is a fellow of the Academy of Social Sciences in Australia and has been president of Australia ICOMOS and a member of the Heritage Council of Victoria His research focuses on World Heritage heritage and human rights and Asian heritage

Christian Manhart is an art historian and archeologist Since joining UNESCO in 1987 he has worked on the conservation of heritage sites in Africa and Asia particu-larly Afghanistan He was responsible in the World Heritage Centre for partnerships communication and more recently matters arising in relation to the international con-ventions of 1954 1970 and 2001 and the Committee for Restitution of Cultural Property Museums and Creativity

Lynn Meskell is Professor of Anthropology and director of the Archaeology Center at Stanford University Her recent books include The Nature of Culture The New South Africa (2012) and the edited volume Cosmopolitan Archaeologies (2009) Her current research focuses on the role of UNESCO in terms of heritage rights sovereignty and international politics

Maurice Mugabowagahunde is a doctoral candidate in African archaeology at University of Bergen Norway His research interests include Rwandan prehistory and ethnography He has previously conducted archeological and ethnographic research in Rwanda for the Institute of National Museums of Rwanda

Webber Ndoro is a research associate with the Department of Archaeology University of Cape Town South Africa and director of the African World Heritage Fund based in Johannesburg

Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith is Professor of European Culture and Heritage at Heriot‐Watt University Edinburgh Scotland having previously held a chair in the School of Social Sciences and Applied Social Studies at the University of Ulster A Member of the Royal Irish Academy she has also been an honorary professor at the University of Exeter and a DAAD guest professor at the University of Goumlttingen Germany

Gertjan Plets was a researcher on the Altai Project at Ghent University Belgium from which he received his doctorate He joined Stanford University initially as a Belgian American Education Fund (BAEF) fellow and now holds a three‐year research‐intensive post‐doctoral fellowship at the Stanford Archaeology Center

Anca Claudia Prodan holds a PhD in Heritage Studies and works as scientific assistant at the UNESCO Chair in Heritage Studies BTU Cottbus-Senftenberg Prior to this she studied in Romania and Germany obtaining degrees in Anthropology Philosophy and World Heritage Studies Her research interests center on theories and concepts of culture and heritage

Keir Reeves holds a chair in Australian history at Federation University Australia Victoria Australia He has held teaching and research posts at Monash University and the University of Melbourne In 2013 he was a visiting fellow at Clare Hall University of Cambridge England His research concentrates on regional development as well as Australian Asian and Pacific cultural heritage

notes on contributors xvii

Britta Rudolff holds an interim chair in heritage management at Brandenburg Technical University Cottbus Germany where she is also the managing director of the Institute for Heritage Management A cultural heritage conservator with postgraduate qualifications in heritage studies and a doctorate in cultural geography her focus has been on UNESCO heritage conventions

Folarin Shyllon read law at Kingrsquos College London and taught at the University of Ibadan Nigeria from 1975 to 2005 His teaching and research interests are in cultural property and intellectual property law He is on the editorial board of the International Journal of Cultural Property and Art Antiquity and Law and is chairperson of the Nigeria chapter of UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Committee

Neil A Silberman is an author historian and managing partner of Coherit Associates an international heritage consulting firm He is an adjunct lecturer in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Massachusetts and serves as president of the ICOMOS International Committee on Interpretation and Presentation (ICIP) His research interests include interpretation theory the history of heritage practice and the politics of commemoration

Helaine Silverman is Professor in the Department of Anthropology University of Illinois Urbana‐Champaign and director of CHAMP (Collaborative for Cultural Heritage Management and Policy) She is especially interested in the cultural politics of heritage production and management tourism and economic development and iden-tity and memory She has conducted research in Peru Thailand and England

Anita Smith is Senior Lecturer responsible for course enhancement in the Faculty of Arts and Education Deakin University Melbourne Australia As an archeologist she has been engaged in the UNESCO Pacific World Heritage Programme since 2004 She was a member of Australiarsquos delegation to the World Heritage Committee between 2008 and 2012 and is editor of World Heritage in a Sea of Islands (2012)

Laurajane Smith is Professor of Heritage and Museum Studies and head of the Centre for Heritage and Museum Studies School of Archaeology and Anthropology Australian National University Canberra Australia She is editor of the International Journal of Heritage Studies co‐editor (with William Logan) of Routledgersquos Key Issues in Cultural Heritage Series and author of Uses of Heritage (2006)

Brenda Trofanenko holds the Canada Research Chair in Education Culture and Community at Acadia University in Wolfville Nova Scotia Canada Her research focuses on how public cultural institutions define identity and knowledge through social processes She is currently conducting research on how youth respond to the collective memories of distressing events

Ron van Oers held a doctorate from Delft University of Technology the Netherlands and had worked at UNESCOrsquos World Heritage Centre in Paris coordinating various programs including the development of the Recommendation on the Historic Urban Landscape (2011) He was vice‐director of the World Heritage Institute of Training and Research for Asia and the Pacific (WHITRAP) in Shanghai China

xviii notes on contributors

Editorrsquos note Dr van Oers passed away unexpectedly on 28 April 2015 while on a UNESCO mission to Lhasa Tibet He made a major contribution to the cultural her-itage field and will be greatly missed

Ona Vileikis is an architect with international experience in World Heritage‐related issues such as risk management monitoring geographic information systems heritage documentation and conservation She is currently a doctoral researcher at the Raymond Lemaire International Centre for Conservation University of Leuven Belgium working on the monitoring of serial transnational World Heritage issues and the use of geospatial content management systems focused on the Central Asia Silk Roads

Ana Filipa Vrdoljak is Professor of Law in the Faculty of Law University of Technology Sydney Australia She is the author of International Law Museums and the Return of Cultural Objects (2006) editor of The Cultural Dimension of Human Rights Law (2013) and joint general editor (with Franceso Francioni) of the Oxford University Press series Cultural Heritage Law and Policy

Jonathan Webber is Professor at the Institute of European Studies Jagiellonian University Krakoacutew Poland He specializes in Jewish studies and Holocaust studies and was a founding member of the International Auschwitz Council serving on it between 1990 and 2012

Gamini Wijesuriya has qualifications in architecture history and historic preservation and archaeology and heritage management He was director of conservation in the Sri Lankan Department of Archaeology between 1982 and 1999 and principal regional scientist in the New Zealand Department of Conservation from 2001 to 2004 Moving to ICCROM in Rome in 2004 he played a key role in developing the 2011 World Heritage Capacity Building Strategy

Tim Winter is Research Professor at the Alfred Deakin Institute for Citizenship and Globalisation Deakin University Melbourne Australia He has published widely on heritage development modernity urban conservation and tourism in Asia He is co‐editor of The Routledge Handbook of Heritage in Asia (2011) and editor of Shanghai Expo An International Forum on the Future of Cities (2013)

Andrea Witcomb is Professor of Cultural Heritage and Museum Studies and deputy director of the Alfred Deakin Institute for Citizenship and Globalisation at Deakin University Melbourne Australia Her work analyzes how museums and heritage sites create spaces for cross‐cultural encounters Her books include Reimagining the Museum Beyond the Mausoleum (2003) and (with Kylie Message) Museum Theory (2015)

Haiming Yan is a sociologist at the Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage Beijing and received his doctorate from the University of Virginia His research interests include cultural sociology memory and heritage and globalization

This volume originated in our desire to address the emergence and nature of the ldquonew heritage studiesrdquo which we see as the exploration of cultural heritage as a construct resulting from processes that give present‐day significance to elements from the past Our conception of the volume was rigorously reviewed by Wiley‐Blackwell For their time and patience we wish especially to thank Rosalie Robertson the initial commis-sioning editor and Ben Thatcher the project editor at Blackwell

We wish to say a special thank you to the contributors to this volume Coming from five continents these scholars were identified on the basis of their innovative ideas practical expertise and international reputation and invited to contribute to this collaborative multidisciplinary project in the cultural heritage field They were a pleasure to work with As the volume has been peer reviewed at every stage from the original proposal to its final production we would also wish to thank everybody who participated in that review process

While this project was in progress Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel moved from the University of Ulster in Northern Ireland to Heriot‐Watt University in Edinburgh and William Logan officially retired but was reappointed as emeritus pro-fessor attached to the Cultural Heritage Centre for Asia and the Pacific and the Alfred Deakin Research Institute at Deakin University in Melbourne We would like to thank our colleagues in all three institutions ndash Deakin University Heriot‐Watt University and the University of Ulster ndash for their continued support

Finally we would like to make a very special mention of Cristina Clopot and Philip Thomas Cristina is currently undertaking her PhD at Heriot‐Watt University but devoted much time and effort in administering the project Philip performed the criti-cal copy editing role with an eagle eye for detail We are very grateful to them both for their enthusiasm and professionalism in the preparation of the materials

William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel

Acknowledgements

ACCU Asia‐Pacific Cultural Centre of UNESCOACHPR African Commission on Human and Peoplesrsquo RightsACHS Association of Critical Heritage Studiesart articleEU European UnionFPIC free prior and informed consentGDP gross domestic productGIS geographic information systemGeoCMS geospatial content management systemsICCROM International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration

of Cultural PropertyICOM International Council of MuseumsICOMOS International Council on Monuments and SitesIUCN International Union for the Conservation of NatureIWGIA International Work Group for Indigenous AffairsMoW Memory of the World ProgrammeMDGs Millennium Development GoalsNGO non‐governmental organizationOHCR Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rightspara paragraphPOW prisoner of warsec sectionUN United NationsUNCERD United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial DiscriminationUNCESCR United Nations Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights

List of Abbreviations

list of abbreviations xxi

UNCEHR United Nations Commission on Human RightsUNDESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social AffairsUNDG United Nations Development GroupUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural OrganizationUNGA United Nations General AssemblyUN‐Habitat United Nations Human Settlements ProgrammeUNHRC United Nations Human Rights CouncilUNPFII United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous IssuesUNSC United Nations Security CouncilWHIPCOE World Heritage Indigenous Peoples Council of ExpertsWIPO World Intellectual Property OrganizationWTO World Trade Organization

Chapter 1

A Companion to Heritage Studies First Edition Edited by William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel copy 2016 John Wiley amp Sons Inc Published 2016 by John Wiley amp Sons Inc

The New Heritage Studies Origins and Evolution Problems and Prospects

William Logan Ullrich Kockel and Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith

Heritage and heritage studies have evolved in quite astounding ways over the last sixty years Nobody could have imagined when the Venice Charter (ICASHB 1964) jump‐started the heritage profession in the aftermath of World War II that there would be a veritable heritage boom in the 1990s and continuing into the twenty‐first century Who would have predicted that so much attention would now be paid to protecting environmental features material culture and living traditions from the past or the vast numbers of community members policy‐makers practitioners and scholars engaged in caring for managing and studying heritage Who would have foreseen the explosion of heritage‐based cultural tourism the reconfiguration of heritage as an economic asset and a World Heritage List comprising of more than a thousand properties spread around the globe

This volume seeks to investigate the story of expansion in heritage and heritage studies Containing 37 chapters commissioned from 44 scholars and practitioners from 5 continents it is designed to provide an up‐to‐date international analysis of the field the steady broadening of the concept of heritage and its social economic and political uses the difficulties that often arise from such uses and current trends in heritage scholarship Starting from a position of seeing ldquoheritagerdquo as a mental construct that attributes ldquosignificancerdquo to certain places artifacts and forms of behavior from the past through processes that are essentially political we see heritage conservation not merely as a technical or managerial matter but as cultural practice a form of cultural politics

CHaPTEr 1

2 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

We are interested in the different extent to which various groups within global national and local communities are able to participate in heritage identification interpretation and management Moreover we want to address the extent to which communities have access to and enjoy heritage once it has been officially recognized conserved or safeguarded This interest inevitably leads to human rights consider-ations to developing closer intellectual links with international lawyers and others in the human rights field and to strengthening both the multidisciplinary nature of heri-tage studies and what we sees as the critical relationship between theory and practice

Whether this new vision of heritage studies represents a ldquoparadigm shiftrdquo or only the culmination of changes already occurring in the heritage studies field since the late 1980s is an issue we will discuss later For now let us go back to the fieldrsquos origins and interpret its evolution

Expanding HEritagE

When ideas of ldquoheritagerdquo were initially formalized their focus was on monuments and sites This was especially the case in Europe from where these ideas spread across the British French and other European empires and the anglophone United States (Nic Craith 2007) Writer‐practitioners such as John Ruskin and Nikolaus Pevsner in England and Eugegravene Viollet‐le‐Duc in France were enormously influential in the early days of heritage identification and protection From these beginnings heritage planners around the world have sought to protect broad areas of historic aesthetic architectural or scientific interest Although there is considerable variation across the world most countries now attempt to protect as official policy and through professional practice a much wider range of features than they did 60 years ago

It was gradually realized for instance that the protection of a monument or building was not in itself enough and that good conservation work was often being rendered ineffective by unsympathetic developments allowed to occur in front of beside behind or even over heritage buildings Attention therefore extended to the precincts around major monuments and buildings A further extension of interest took place in 1962 when Andreacute Malraux then the French minister for culture first established planning regulations (known as the loi Malraux) designed to protect and enhance the historic features of the Marais district of Paris The English were also expanding their focus at about this time to take in conservation areas the first of which were designated in 1967 England now has over 8000 protected areas including the centers of historic towns and cities fishing and mining villages eighteenth‐ and nineteenth‐century suburbs model housing estates and historic transport links and their environs such as stretches of canal (English Heritage nd)

At the international level the World Heritage List established under UNESCOrsquos Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972) or as it is commonly known the World Heritage Convention now contains a large number of cities inscribed for what the convention calls their Outstanding Universal Value An Organization of World Heritage Cities founded in 1993 with headquarters in Quebec City today brings together 250 cities that are either inscribed or have inscribed sites within them (OWHC 2014) In 1992 the World Heritage Committee added the new category of ldquocultural landscapesrdquo to the World Heritage system to allow recognition of places presenting a blend of cultural and natural elements Twenty years

the new heritage studies 3

later the landscape concept was translated into urban areas as the ldquohistoric urban landscaperdquo blending modern and historic architectural and urban design forms rather than natural and cultural elements but nevertheless emphasizing like cultural landscapes the need for a holistic view of the environment and a sensitive balanced approach to new human interventions

Vernacular structures are now seen as being of cultural heritage interest that is structures that are not architect‐designed but owner‐ or community‐built using avail-able resources and traditional techniques So too are industrial structures Publications by Miles Lewis (1977) Paul Oliver (1997) and William Siew Wai Lim and Tan Hock Beng (1998) began to fill in major gaps in the tangible heritage literature More recently there has been considerable heritage interest internationally in ldquocultural routesrdquo The Council of Europe in 1987 established a program of European cultural routes that is managed from a specialized institute located in Luxembourg The pro-gramrsquos first initiative is the Santiago de Compostela Route the famous Christian pilgrimage route of the Middle Ages In the United States and Canada efforts have been made to commemorate the Underground Railroad ndash the route taken by slaves trying to reach freedom before the Civil War ndash by protecting a series of key sites along its length In Asia UNESCO is supporting the Silk Road Project for developing cultural heritage and cultural tourism along the traditional routes of the silk trade between south‐eastern Europe and China

In the international development field there was a marked shift in the 1990s in the attitude of key agencies such as the World Bank towards cultural heritage Rather than seeing cultural heritage protection as an obstacle to development it is now recognized that the two can go hand in hand to bring about more effective programs to raise standards of living in developing countries and elsewhere (Logan 2003 xxi)

Neil Silberman (Chapter 2) explores the evolving heritage conception and the changing forms and functions of heritage places from their initial validation as national institutions in the early nineteenth century to their multicultural context in the early twenty‐first century He shows that the meanings and values of heritage places are neither static nor inherent but ascribed by particular social groups choosing to empha-size or ignore particular items or aspects for social and political purposes Romantic nationalism led to a first ldquoheritage boomrdquo during the emergence of nation‐states in nineteenth‐century Europe as commemorative sites and structures were created to serve as tangible evidence of a nationrsquos pedigree harmonizing the diverse populations of nations into singularly national peoples or sometimes re‐fragmenting them laying the foundations for new identity claims in the future Already by the late nineteenth century accelerating domestic and international tourism engendered a second ldquoheritage boomrdquo albeit differently motivated the new ldquoheritage touristsrdquo on their quest for his-torical authenticity and exotic landscapes as means of (however temporary) escape from modern industrial life dominated by economic calculus contradictorily created the demand that allowed for the commoditization of built heritage as a ldquocultural resourcerdquo

A focus on the built environment is arguably based on a European concept of cultural heritage which is entirely appropriate for an environment dealing largely with the conservation of buildings made of stone brick and other durable materials (Logan 2006) This view of heritage has been frequently criticized Walled cities cathedrals and eye‐catching landscape formations like the Giantrsquos Causeway in Northern Ireland heavily dominate the list of European World Heritage sites This contrasts starkly with the concept of permanency found on other continents An example of this is the

4 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

imperial shrine at Ise Japan From a Western perspective this shrine hardly qualifies as ldquooldrdquo since it is rebuilt every twenty years However from a Japanese perspective it is old because it is rebuilt ldquoin exactly the same way ndash using the same ancient instru-ments materials ndash with each step of the process marked by appropriate ancient ritualsrdquo (Sahlins 2002 9)

Although heritage has for a long time been defined primarily in terms of material objects as ldquotangible heritagerdquo there has been a parallel interest in what is nowadays called ldquointangible heritagerdquo which for most of the past two centuries however remained in the shadow of the more prominent heritage of material objects and the built environment To some extent and in some parts of the world particularly Europe North America and Australia this reflects the different social and political status of the signified whereas monuments works of fine art castles and cathedrals materially and visually project and transmit the heritage of the hegemony folk songs and wisdom as with many other traditional skills tend to project and transmit heritage of the lower classes non‐materially and orally

Kristin Kuutma (Chapter 3) traces the emergence of folklore as an academic discipline and its subsequent involvement in cultural policy‐making including the contemporary transition from ldquofolklorerdquo to ldquointangible cultural heritagerdquo and the disciplinersquos contri-bution to the international management of heritage regimes Originating during the period of nation‐building when they formed part of the creation of national cultural heritages collections of folklore represent past repertoires and practices of mostly pre‐industrial (peasant) lifestyles that nowadays often feed various linguistic ethnic or other local revival movements As global power relationships at the turn of the twenty‐first century are creating ever‐shifting discourses of inclusion and exclusion rooted-ness and rights for possession a need to identify and safeguard intangible cultural heritage was postulated leading to the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage adopted in 2003 and commonly known as the Intangible Heritage Convention Although intangible elements had always been included in understanding the significance of heritage places under the World Heritage Convention (1972) this new convention focused on and led to a system for evaluating and safeguarding intangible heritage in its own right

Heritage in the post‐war years was conceived as and called ldquocultural propertyrdquo an understanding and terminology that is still found today in relation to some disciplines (eg anthropology) and some forms of heritage (eg intellectual property) Pertti Anttonen has observed that ldquothe cultural representations that are selected for making heritage‐political claims are commonly called traditions with a special emphasis on their character as cultural properties that is representations with an ownership labelrdquo (Anttonen 2005 39) Ownership lying at the heart of the notion of cultural property has become a major and growing concern since the second half of the twentieth century Folarin Shyllon (Chapter 4) considers these concerns especially in the context of human rights Access to and enjoyment of cultural heritage is considered to be a fundamental cultural right a sub‐category of human rights (Shaheed 2011) It might be argued that a similar right to intellectual property also exists but some intellectual property rights do not fit human rights easily because they are economic and commercial rather than social or cultural Considering cultural heritage as a fundamental human right can raise difficult ethical issues as different cultures tend to regard their own values as universal and those of others where they conflict as culturally contingent The debate on intellectual and by extension cultural property is rather more focused

the new heritage studies 5

on economic value As Shyllon points out some cultural heritage such as the sites inscribed on UNESCOrsquos World Heritage List may be regarded as universal property in the wider sense while intellectual property rights tend to be held as monopolies

Except from a natural law perspective values can be seen as being in the mind this goes even for economic monetary values which are the result of negotiations between actors In contrast artistic linguistic and technical skills can be seen as embodied As an example of a non‐Western approach to intangible heritage Natsuko Akagawa (Chapter 5) examines the philosophy behind Japanese legislation for safeguarding cultural property Her analysis highlights the significance of embodiment as a concept for understanding and dealing with heritage

Landscapes of MemoryRecent decades have seen a growing interest across different contexts in how heritage has been embodied in the land (see Gilbert 2010) Perspectives on this vary from geographical analyses of how hegemonic powers have shaped symbolic landscapes (eg Cosgrove 1984) to accounts of indigenous relationships with the land as an ani-mate being and keeper of memory (eg Blue Spruce and Thrasher 2008) Associative landscapes now serve as the foundation for official designations of heritage origins such as the French terroir discussed by Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) Involving com-munities in identifying and managing heritage landscapes and individual sites has become a key concern moving traditional knowledge systems their contribution to heritage management and the need to support them into the spotlight

However this concern has not necessarily been recognized in the practice of inter-national heritage programs With reference to the Pacific islands Anita Smith (Chapter 7) explores differences in the recognition of traditional knowledge systems in two UNESCO conventions ndash the World Heritage Convention (1972) and the Intangible Heritage Convention (2003) ndash and underlines long‐standing critiques of the World Heritage system as Eurocentric in its determination of Outstanding Universal Value In the late 1990s there was an attempt to establish an indigenous body to advise the World Heritage Committee in accordance with the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (United Nations 2007) While this initiative failed (see Logan 2013 Meskell 2013a) the call has been renewed in recent years (see Disko this volume)

Although in public perception issues of land and landscape are particularly associated with indigenous peoples they also play a major role in other contexts The application by parts of Burgundy in eastern France for World Heritage status is a case in point Using an ldquoethnographic gazerdquo Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) examines different con-ceptions of Burgundy as a re‐territorialized site and the construction of its micro‐regional climats with their historical depth of place as ldquoGod‐givenrdquo naturalized artifacts in the context of global competition where UNESCO designation is prized for con-veying an elite status

The embodiment of heritage in landscapes of memory also raises issues of the rela-tionships between natural and cultural heritage and their frequent separation in the practice of heritage management where different government and non‐government bodies are in charge of different types of heritage and conflicts of interest arise not least from budget constraints and varying lines of responsibility This can be exacerbated where a designated site stretches across one or more political or administrative boundary

6 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

The Curonian Spit shared by Lithuania and Russia is one of only 31 such transnational World Heritage sites where different approaches by the two administrations to environ-mental issues have been problematic (Armaitiene et al 2007) Moreover multiple layers of cultural memory affect the site and its contemporary meaning as heritage for different constituencies (Kockel 2012a) Appropriately contextualizing cultural heri-tages in relation to place and memory has been made difficult by a widespread tendency to treat cultural differences as mere constructs (Kockel and Nic Craith 2015) This is particularly apparent where we are dealing with places of pain and shame

Not all heritage serves as a reminder of a glorious past (Logan and Reeves 2009) In the Lithuanian national open air museum at Rumšiškes near Kaunas the extensive display of farm buildings and machinery as well as the central small town invoke nineteenth‐ and early twentieth‐century Lithuania but close to the center there is a clearing in the woods where the time frame is different Several items including an earthen yurt and a cattle wagon commemorate the deportations of thousands of Lithuanians between 1941 and 1953 when they were sent to the Soviet Gulags (Kockel 2015) Jonathan Webber (Chapter 8) seeks to make sense of Auschwitz designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1979 as a heritage site and landscape of memory Auschwitz means different things to different victim groups in terms of their own histories but also to other visitors Emblematic of ldquoundesirable heri-tagerdquo it is at the same time a powerful symbol a theatre where multiple memorial events are performed and a destination for ldquodarkrdquo tourism attracting large numbers of spectators

Collecting HeritageEver since interest in heritage began to develop the collection of material items and oral testimony has been a central activity aimed at facilitating their preservation This remains so despite a growing critique of museum and archiving practices UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Programme (MoW) is a major initiative for the protection of documentary heritage However with the exception of Charlesworth (2010) it has been largely overlooked in academic research even within the field of heritage studies Against this background Anca Claudia Prodan (Chapter 9) attempts to clarify the main features of the program and to identify points for research MoW is part of UNESCOrsquos policies aimed at building inclusive knowledge societies While acknowledging the contribution of MoW in that regard Prodan argues that in the process of this the program is reduced to being merely a source of information and that it needs to be strengthened by being recontextualized within UNESCOrsquos international system of heritage protection

Artifact collections and the practices employed in accumulating them have come under scrutiny in the context of postcolonial critiques of intercultural relations In 2002 the British Museum and the Louvre together with an international group of major museums issued the Declaration on the Importance and Value of Universal Museums (ICOM 2004) Most of these museums date back to the late eighteenth century before the period of European imperial expansion and the declaration has been widely interpreted as an attempt to guard against claims for the repatriation of much of their collections to the countries of origin Such claims are made not only with regard to indigenous peoples but extend to Western countries such as Greece as the case of the Elgin Marbles illustrates Maurice Mugabowagahunde (Chapter 10)

notes on contributors xv

Marion Demossier is Professor of French and European studies in the Department of Modern Languages University of Southampton England She is the author of various works on wine producers wine drinking culture and wine consumption She is cur-rently finalising a book on a critical analysis of terroir in Burgundy

Stefan Disko is an ethnologist focusing on human rights and the protection of cultural and natural heritage He is currently co‐editing a book on World Heritage sites and indigenous peoplesrsquo rights to be published jointly by the International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA) Forest Peoples Programme and the Gundjeihmi Aboriginal Corporation

Maria Economou is Lecturer in Museum Studies at the University of Glasgow Scotland and based at the Hunterian Museum and the Humanities Advanced Technology and Information Institute She has worked at the universities of the Aegean Manchester and Oxford (at the Pitt Rivers Museum) and collaborated with cultural heritage institutions around the world particularly on the use of new technologies for public engagement She specializes in digital cultural heritage

Julie Fedor is Lecturer in Modern European History at the University of Melbourne Australia She is the author of Russia and the Cult of State Security (2011) co‐author of Remembering Katyn (2012) and co‐editor of Memory and Theory in Eastern Europe (2013) and Memory Conflict and New Media (2013)

Richard W Hallett is Professor in the Department of Linguistics Northeastern Illinois University He is interested in the discourse(s) of tourism especially in the social construction of national identity through government‐sponsored tourism websites His research agenda also includes issues in the areas of world Englishes sociolinguistics and second‐language acquisition

Benjamin Isakhan is Senior Lecturer in Politics and Policy Studies and Convenor of the Middle East Studies Forum at Deakin University Australia Ben is also Adjunct Senior Research Associate in the Department of Politics at the University of Johannesburg South Africa

Ullrich Kockel is Professor of Culture and Economy at Heriot‐Watt University Edinburgh Scotland Visiting Professor of Social Anthropology at Vytautas Magnus University Kaunas Lithuania and Emeritus Professor of Ethnology at the University of Ulster He is currently editor‐in‐chief of the Anthropological Journal of European Cultures a fellow of the UKrsquos Academy of Social Sciences and a member of the Royal Irish Academy

Kristin Kuutma is Professor of Cultural Research at the University of Tartu Estonia Her research in cultural history and anthropology focuses on disciplinary knowledge production representation and critical heritage studies She has conducted fieldwork and published on policy‐making and implementation at the international and local level of UNESCOrsquos Intangible Heritage Convention

William Logan is Professor Emeritus at Deakin University Melbourne Australia where he was founding director of the Cultural Heritage Center for Asia and the Pacific

xvi notes on contributors

He is a fellow of the Academy of Social Sciences in Australia and has been president of Australia ICOMOS and a member of the Heritage Council of Victoria His research focuses on World Heritage heritage and human rights and Asian heritage

Christian Manhart is an art historian and archeologist Since joining UNESCO in 1987 he has worked on the conservation of heritage sites in Africa and Asia particu-larly Afghanistan He was responsible in the World Heritage Centre for partnerships communication and more recently matters arising in relation to the international con-ventions of 1954 1970 and 2001 and the Committee for Restitution of Cultural Property Museums and Creativity

Lynn Meskell is Professor of Anthropology and director of the Archaeology Center at Stanford University Her recent books include The Nature of Culture The New South Africa (2012) and the edited volume Cosmopolitan Archaeologies (2009) Her current research focuses on the role of UNESCO in terms of heritage rights sovereignty and international politics

Maurice Mugabowagahunde is a doctoral candidate in African archaeology at University of Bergen Norway His research interests include Rwandan prehistory and ethnography He has previously conducted archeological and ethnographic research in Rwanda for the Institute of National Museums of Rwanda

Webber Ndoro is a research associate with the Department of Archaeology University of Cape Town South Africa and director of the African World Heritage Fund based in Johannesburg

Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith is Professor of European Culture and Heritage at Heriot‐Watt University Edinburgh Scotland having previously held a chair in the School of Social Sciences and Applied Social Studies at the University of Ulster A Member of the Royal Irish Academy she has also been an honorary professor at the University of Exeter and a DAAD guest professor at the University of Goumlttingen Germany

Gertjan Plets was a researcher on the Altai Project at Ghent University Belgium from which he received his doctorate He joined Stanford University initially as a Belgian American Education Fund (BAEF) fellow and now holds a three‐year research‐intensive post‐doctoral fellowship at the Stanford Archaeology Center

Anca Claudia Prodan holds a PhD in Heritage Studies and works as scientific assistant at the UNESCO Chair in Heritage Studies BTU Cottbus-Senftenberg Prior to this she studied in Romania and Germany obtaining degrees in Anthropology Philosophy and World Heritage Studies Her research interests center on theories and concepts of culture and heritage

Keir Reeves holds a chair in Australian history at Federation University Australia Victoria Australia He has held teaching and research posts at Monash University and the University of Melbourne In 2013 he was a visiting fellow at Clare Hall University of Cambridge England His research concentrates on regional development as well as Australian Asian and Pacific cultural heritage

notes on contributors xvii

Britta Rudolff holds an interim chair in heritage management at Brandenburg Technical University Cottbus Germany where she is also the managing director of the Institute for Heritage Management A cultural heritage conservator with postgraduate qualifications in heritage studies and a doctorate in cultural geography her focus has been on UNESCO heritage conventions

Folarin Shyllon read law at Kingrsquos College London and taught at the University of Ibadan Nigeria from 1975 to 2005 His teaching and research interests are in cultural property and intellectual property law He is on the editorial board of the International Journal of Cultural Property and Art Antiquity and Law and is chairperson of the Nigeria chapter of UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Committee

Neil A Silberman is an author historian and managing partner of Coherit Associates an international heritage consulting firm He is an adjunct lecturer in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Massachusetts and serves as president of the ICOMOS International Committee on Interpretation and Presentation (ICIP) His research interests include interpretation theory the history of heritage practice and the politics of commemoration

Helaine Silverman is Professor in the Department of Anthropology University of Illinois Urbana‐Champaign and director of CHAMP (Collaborative for Cultural Heritage Management and Policy) She is especially interested in the cultural politics of heritage production and management tourism and economic development and iden-tity and memory She has conducted research in Peru Thailand and England

Anita Smith is Senior Lecturer responsible for course enhancement in the Faculty of Arts and Education Deakin University Melbourne Australia As an archeologist she has been engaged in the UNESCO Pacific World Heritage Programme since 2004 She was a member of Australiarsquos delegation to the World Heritage Committee between 2008 and 2012 and is editor of World Heritage in a Sea of Islands (2012)

Laurajane Smith is Professor of Heritage and Museum Studies and head of the Centre for Heritage and Museum Studies School of Archaeology and Anthropology Australian National University Canberra Australia She is editor of the International Journal of Heritage Studies co‐editor (with William Logan) of Routledgersquos Key Issues in Cultural Heritage Series and author of Uses of Heritage (2006)

Brenda Trofanenko holds the Canada Research Chair in Education Culture and Community at Acadia University in Wolfville Nova Scotia Canada Her research focuses on how public cultural institutions define identity and knowledge through social processes She is currently conducting research on how youth respond to the collective memories of distressing events

Ron van Oers held a doctorate from Delft University of Technology the Netherlands and had worked at UNESCOrsquos World Heritage Centre in Paris coordinating various programs including the development of the Recommendation on the Historic Urban Landscape (2011) He was vice‐director of the World Heritage Institute of Training and Research for Asia and the Pacific (WHITRAP) in Shanghai China

xviii notes on contributors

Editorrsquos note Dr van Oers passed away unexpectedly on 28 April 2015 while on a UNESCO mission to Lhasa Tibet He made a major contribution to the cultural her-itage field and will be greatly missed

Ona Vileikis is an architect with international experience in World Heritage‐related issues such as risk management monitoring geographic information systems heritage documentation and conservation She is currently a doctoral researcher at the Raymond Lemaire International Centre for Conservation University of Leuven Belgium working on the monitoring of serial transnational World Heritage issues and the use of geospatial content management systems focused on the Central Asia Silk Roads

Ana Filipa Vrdoljak is Professor of Law in the Faculty of Law University of Technology Sydney Australia She is the author of International Law Museums and the Return of Cultural Objects (2006) editor of The Cultural Dimension of Human Rights Law (2013) and joint general editor (with Franceso Francioni) of the Oxford University Press series Cultural Heritage Law and Policy

Jonathan Webber is Professor at the Institute of European Studies Jagiellonian University Krakoacutew Poland He specializes in Jewish studies and Holocaust studies and was a founding member of the International Auschwitz Council serving on it between 1990 and 2012

Gamini Wijesuriya has qualifications in architecture history and historic preservation and archaeology and heritage management He was director of conservation in the Sri Lankan Department of Archaeology between 1982 and 1999 and principal regional scientist in the New Zealand Department of Conservation from 2001 to 2004 Moving to ICCROM in Rome in 2004 he played a key role in developing the 2011 World Heritage Capacity Building Strategy

Tim Winter is Research Professor at the Alfred Deakin Institute for Citizenship and Globalisation Deakin University Melbourne Australia He has published widely on heritage development modernity urban conservation and tourism in Asia He is co‐editor of The Routledge Handbook of Heritage in Asia (2011) and editor of Shanghai Expo An International Forum on the Future of Cities (2013)

Andrea Witcomb is Professor of Cultural Heritage and Museum Studies and deputy director of the Alfred Deakin Institute for Citizenship and Globalisation at Deakin University Melbourne Australia Her work analyzes how museums and heritage sites create spaces for cross‐cultural encounters Her books include Reimagining the Museum Beyond the Mausoleum (2003) and (with Kylie Message) Museum Theory (2015)

Haiming Yan is a sociologist at the Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage Beijing and received his doctorate from the University of Virginia His research interests include cultural sociology memory and heritage and globalization

This volume originated in our desire to address the emergence and nature of the ldquonew heritage studiesrdquo which we see as the exploration of cultural heritage as a construct resulting from processes that give present‐day significance to elements from the past Our conception of the volume was rigorously reviewed by Wiley‐Blackwell For their time and patience we wish especially to thank Rosalie Robertson the initial commis-sioning editor and Ben Thatcher the project editor at Blackwell

We wish to say a special thank you to the contributors to this volume Coming from five continents these scholars were identified on the basis of their innovative ideas practical expertise and international reputation and invited to contribute to this collaborative multidisciplinary project in the cultural heritage field They were a pleasure to work with As the volume has been peer reviewed at every stage from the original proposal to its final production we would also wish to thank everybody who participated in that review process

While this project was in progress Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel moved from the University of Ulster in Northern Ireland to Heriot‐Watt University in Edinburgh and William Logan officially retired but was reappointed as emeritus pro-fessor attached to the Cultural Heritage Centre for Asia and the Pacific and the Alfred Deakin Research Institute at Deakin University in Melbourne We would like to thank our colleagues in all three institutions ndash Deakin University Heriot‐Watt University and the University of Ulster ndash for their continued support

Finally we would like to make a very special mention of Cristina Clopot and Philip Thomas Cristina is currently undertaking her PhD at Heriot‐Watt University but devoted much time and effort in administering the project Philip performed the criti-cal copy editing role with an eagle eye for detail We are very grateful to them both for their enthusiasm and professionalism in the preparation of the materials

William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel

Acknowledgements

ACCU Asia‐Pacific Cultural Centre of UNESCOACHPR African Commission on Human and Peoplesrsquo RightsACHS Association of Critical Heritage Studiesart articleEU European UnionFPIC free prior and informed consentGDP gross domestic productGIS geographic information systemGeoCMS geospatial content management systemsICCROM International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration

of Cultural PropertyICOM International Council of MuseumsICOMOS International Council on Monuments and SitesIUCN International Union for the Conservation of NatureIWGIA International Work Group for Indigenous AffairsMoW Memory of the World ProgrammeMDGs Millennium Development GoalsNGO non‐governmental organizationOHCR Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rightspara paragraphPOW prisoner of warsec sectionUN United NationsUNCERD United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial DiscriminationUNCESCR United Nations Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights

List of Abbreviations

list of abbreviations xxi

UNCEHR United Nations Commission on Human RightsUNDESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social AffairsUNDG United Nations Development GroupUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural OrganizationUNGA United Nations General AssemblyUN‐Habitat United Nations Human Settlements ProgrammeUNHRC United Nations Human Rights CouncilUNPFII United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous IssuesUNSC United Nations Security CouncilWHIPCOE World Heritage Indigenous Peoples Council of ExpertsWIPO World Intellectual Property OrganizationWTO World Trade Organization

Chapter 1

A Companion to Heritage Studies First Edition Edited by William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel copy 2016 John Wiley amp Sons Inc Published 2016 by John Wiley amp Sons Inc

The New Heritage Studies Origins and Evolution Problems and Prospects

William Logan Ullrich Kockel and Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith

Heritage and heritage studies have evolved in quite astounding ways over the last sixty years Nobody could have imagined when the Venice Charter (ICASHB 1964) jump‐started the heritage profession in the aftermath of World War II that there would be a veritable heritage boom in the 1990s and continuing into the twenty‐first century Who would have predicted that so much attention would now be paid to protecting environmental features material culture and living traditions from the past or the vast numbers of community members policy‐makers practitioners and scholars engaged in caring for managing and studying heritage Who would have foreseen the explosion of heritage‐based cultural tourism the reconfiguration of heritage as an economic asset and a World Heritage List comprising of more than a thousand properties spread around the globe

This volume seeks to investigate the story of expansion in heritage and heritage studies Containing 37 chapters commissioned from 44 scholars and practitioners from 5 continents it is designed to provide an up‐to‐date international analysis of the field the steady broadening of the concept of heritage and its social economic and political uses the difficulties that often arise from such uses and current trends in heritage scholarship Starting from a position of seeing ldquoheritagerdquo as a mental construct that attributes ldquosignificancerdquo to certain places artifacts and forms of behavior from the past through processes that are essentially political we see heritage conservation not merely as a technical or managerial matter but as cultural practice a form of cultural politics

CHaPTEr 1

2 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

We are interested in the different extent to which various groups within global national and local communities are able to participate in heritage identification interpretation and management Moreover we want to address the extent to which communities have access to and enjoy heritage once it has been officially recognized conserved or safeguarded This interest inevitably leads to human rights consider-ations to developing closer intellectual links with international lawyers and others in the human rights field and to strengthening both the multidisciplinary nature of heri-tage studies and what we sees as the critical relationship between theory and practice

Whether this new vision of heritage studies represents a ldquoparadigm shiftrdquo or only the culmination of changes already occurring in the heritage studies field since the late 1980s is an issue we will discuss later For now let us go back to the fieldrsquos origins and interpret its evolution

Expanding HEritagE

When ideas of ldquoheritagerdquo were initially formalized their focus was on monuments and sites This was especially the case in Europe from where these ideas spread across the British French and other European empires and the anglophone United States (Nic Craith 2007) Writer‐practitioners such as John Ruskin and Nikolaus Pevsner in England and Eugegravene Viollet‐le‐Duc in France were enormously influential in the early days of heritage identification and protection From these beginnings heritage planners around the world have sought to protect broad areas of historic aesthetic architectural or scientific interest Although there is considerable variation across the world most countries now attempt to protect as official policy and through professional practice a much wider range of features than they did 60 years ago

It was gradually realized for instance that the protection of a monument or building was not in itself enough and that good conservation work was often being rendered ineffective by unsympathetic developments allowed to occur in front of beside behind or even over heritage buildings Attention therefore extended to the precincts around major monuments and buildings A further extension of interest took place in 1962 when Andreacute Malraux then the French minister for culture first established planning regulations (known as the loi Malraux) designed to protect and enhance the historic features of the Marais district of Paris The English were also expanding their focus at about this time to take in conservation areas the first of which were designated in 1967 England now has over 8000 protected areas including the centers of historic towns and cities fishing and mining villages eighteenth‐ and nineteenth‐century suburbs model housing estates and historic transport links and their environs such as stretches of canal (English Heritage nd)

At the international level the World Heritage List established under UNESCOrsquos Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972) or as it is commonly known the World Heritage Convention now contains a large number of cities inscribed for what the convention calls their Outstanding Universal Value An Organization of World Heritage Cities founded in 1993 with headquarters in Quebec City today brings together 250 cities that are either inscribed or have inscribed sites within them (OWHC 2014) In 1992 the World Heritage Committee added the new category of ldquocultural landscapesrdquo to the World Heritage system to allow recognition of places presenting a blend of cultural and natural elements Twenty years

the new heritage studies 3

later the landscape concept was translated into urban areas as the ldquohistoric urban landscaperdquo blending modern and historic architectural and urban design forms rather than natural and cultural elements but nevertheless emphasizing like cultural landscapes the need for a holistic view of the environment and a sensitive balanced approach to new human interventions

Vernacular structures are now seen as being of cultural heritage interest that is structures that are not architect‐designed but owner‐ or community‐built using avail-able resources and traditional techniques So too are industrial structures Publications by Miles Lewis (1977) Paul Oliver (1997) and William Siew Wai Lim and Tan Hock Beng (1998) began to fill in major gaps in the tangible heritage literature More recently there has been considerable heritage interest internationally in ldquocultural routesrdquo The Council of Europe in 1987 established a program of European cultural routes that is managed from a specialized institute located in Luxembourg The pro-gramrsquos first initiative is the Santiago de Compostela Route the famous Christian pilgrimage route of the Middle Ages In the United States and Canada efforts have been made to commemorate the Underground Railroad ndash the route taken by slaves trying to reach freedom before the Civil War ndash by protecting a series of key sites along its length In Asia UNESCO is supporting the Silk Road Project for developing cultural heritage and cultural tourism along the traditional routes of the silk trade between south‐eastern Europe and China

In the international development field there was a marked shift in the 1990s in the attitude of key agencies such as the World Bank towards cultural heritage Rather than seeing cultural heritage protection as an obstacle to development it is now recognized that the two can go hand in hand to bring about more effective programs to raise standards of living in developing countries and elsewhere (Logan 2003 xxi)

Neil Silberman (Chapter 2) explores the evolving heritage conception and the changing forms and functions of heritage places from their initial validation as national institutions in the early nineteenth century to their multicultural context in the early twenty‐first century He shows that the meanings and values of heritage places are neither static nor inherent but ascribed by particular social groups choosing to empha-size or ignore particular items or aspects for social and political purposes Romantic nationalism led to a first ldquoheritage boomrdquo during the emergence of nation‐states in nineteenth‐century Europe as commemorative sites and structures were created to serve as tangible evidence of a nationrsquos pedigree harmonizing the diverse populations of nations into singularly national peoples or sometimes re‐fragmenting them laying the foundations for new identity claims in the future Already by the late nineteenth century accelerating domestic and international tourism engendered a second ldquoheritage boomrdquo albeit differently motivated the new ldquoheritage touristsrdquo on their quest for his-torical authenticity and exotic landscapes as means of (however temporary) escape from modern industrial life dominated by economic calculus contradictorily created the demand that allowed for the commoditization of built heritage as a ldquocultural resourcerdquo

A focus on the built environment is arguably based on a European concept of cultural heritage which is entirely appropriate for an environment dealing largely with the conservation of buildings made of stone brick and other durable materials (Logan 2006) This view of heritage has been frequently criticized Walled cities cathedrals and eye‐catching landscape formations like the Giantrsquos Causeway in Northern Ireland heavily dominate the list of European World Heritage sites This contrasts starkly with the concept of permanency found on other continents An example of this is the

4 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

imperial shrine at Ise Japan From a Western perspective this shrine hardly qualifies as ldquooldrdquo since it is rebuilt every twenty years However from a Japanese perspective it is old because it is rebuilt ldquoin exactly the same way ndash using the same ancient instru-ments materials ndash with each step of the process marked by appropriate ancient ritualsrdquo (Sahlins 2002 9)

Although heritage has for a long time been defined primarily in terms of material objects as ldquotangible heritagerdquo there has been a parallel interest in what is nowadays called ldquointangible heritagerdquo which for most of the past two centuries however remained in the shadow of the more prominent heritage of material objects and the built environment To some extent and in some parts of the world particularly Europe North America and Australia this reflects the different social and political status of the signified whereas monuments works of fine art castles and cathedrals materially and visually project and transmit the heritage of the hegemony folk songs and wisdom as with many other traditional skills tend to project and transmit heritage of the lower classes non‐materially and orally

Kristin Kuutma (Chapter 3) traces the emergence of folklore as an academic discipline and its subsequent involvement in cultural policy‐making including the contemporary transition from ldquofolklorerdquo to ldquointangible cultural heritagerdquo and the disciplinersquos contri-bution to the international management of heritage regimes Originating during the period of nation‐building when they formed part of the creation of national cultural heritages collections of folklore represent past repertoires and practices of mostly pre‐industrial (peasant) lifestyles that nowadays often feed various linguistic ethnic or other local revival movements As global power relationships at the turn of the twenty‐first century are creating ever‐shifting discourses of inclusion and exclusion rooted-ness and rights for possession a need to identify and safeguard intangible cultural heritage was postulated leading to the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage adopted in 2003 and commonly known as the Intangible Heritage Convention Although intangible elements had always been included in understanding the significance of heritage places under the World Heritage Convention (1972) this new convention focused on and led to a system for evaluating and safeguarding intangible heritage in its own right

Heritage in the post‐war years was conceived as and called ldquocultural propertyrdquo an understanding and terminology that is still found today in relation to some disciplines (eg anthropology) and some forms of heritage (eg intellectual property) Pertti Anttonen has observed that ldquothe cultural representations that are selected for making heritage‐political claims are commonly called traditions with a special emphasis on their character as cultural properties that is representations with an ownership labelrdquo (Anttonen 2005 39) Ownership lying at the heart of the notion of cultural property has become a major and growing concern since the second half of the twentieth century Folarin Shyllon (Chapter 4) considers these concerns especially in the context of human rights Access to and enjoyment of cultural heritage is considered to be a fundamental cultural right a sub‐category of human rights (Shaheed 2011) It might be argued that a similar right to intellectual property also exists but some intellectual property rights do not fit human rights easily because they are economic and commercial rather than social or cultural Considering cultural heritage as a fundamental human right can raise difficult ethical issues as different cultures tend to regard their own values as universal and those of others where they conflict as culturally contingent The debate on intellectual and by extension cultural property is rather more focused

the new heritage studies 5

on economic value As Shyllon points out some cultural heritage such as the sites inscribed on UNESCOrsquos World Heritage List may be regarded as universal property in the wider sense while intellectual property rights tend to be held as monopolies

Except from a natural law perspective values can be seen as being in the mind this goes even for economic monetary values which are the result of negotiations between actors In contrast artistic linguistic and technical skills can be seen as embodied As an example of a non‐Western approach to intangible heritage Natsuko Akagawa (Chapter 5) examines the philosophy behind Japanese legislation for safeguarding cultural property Her analysis highlights the significance of embodiment as a concept for understanding and dealing with heritage

Landscapes of MemoryRecent decades have seen a growing interest across different contexts in how heritage has been embodied in the land (see Gilbert 2010) Perspectives on this vary from geographical analyses of how hegemonic powers have shaped symbolic landscapes (eg Cosgrove 1984) to accounts of indigenous relationships with the land as an ani-mate being and keeper of memory (eg Blue Spruce and Thrasher 2008) Associative landscapes now serve as the foundation for official designations of heritage origins such as the French terroir discussed by Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) Involving com-munities in identifying and managing heritage landscapes and individual sites has become a key concern moving traditional knowledge systems their contribution to heritage management and the need to support them into the spotlight

However this concern has not necessarily been recognized in the practice of inter-national heritage programs With reference to the Pacific islands Anita Smith (Chapter 7) explores differences in the recognition of traditional knowledge systems in two UNESCO conventions ndash the World Heritage Convention (1972) and the Intangible Heritage Convention (2003) ndash and underlines long‐standing critiques of the World Heritage system as Eurocentric in its determination of Outstanding Universal Value In the late 1990s there was an attempt to establish an indigenous body to advise the World Heritage Committee in accordance with the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (United Nations 2007) While this initiative failed (see Logan 2013 Meskell 2013a) the call has been renewed in recent years (see Disko this volume)

Although in public perception issues of land and landscape are particularly associated with indigenous peoples they also play a major role in other contexts The application by parts of Burgundy in eastern France for World Heritage status is a case in point Using an ldquoethnographic gazerdquo Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) examines different con-ceptions of Burgundy as a re‐territorialized site and the construction of its micro‐regional climats with their historical depth of place as ldquoGod‐givenrdquo naturalized artifacts in the context of global competition where UNESCO designation is prized for con-veying an elite status

The embodiment of heritage in landscapes of memory also raises issues of the rela-tionships between natural and cultural heritage and their frequent separation in the practice of heritage management where different government and non‐government bodies are in charge of different types of heritage and conflicts of interest arise not least from budget constraints and varying lines of responsibility This can be exacerbated where a designated site stretches across one or more political or administrative boundary

6 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

The Curonian Spit shared by Lithuania and Russia is one of only 31 such transnational World Heritage sites where different approaches by the two administrations to environ-mental issues have been problematic (Armaitiene et al 2007) Moreover multiple layers of cultural memory affect the site and its contemporary meaning as heritage for different constituencies (Kockel 2012a) Appropriately contextualizing cultural heri-tages in relation to place and memory has been made difficult by a widespread tendency to treat cultural differences as mere constructs (Kockel and Nic Craith 2015) This is particularly apparent where we are dealing with places of pain and shame

Not all heritage serves as a reminder of a glorious past (Logan and Reeves 2009) In the Lithuanian national open air museum at Rumšiškes near Kaunas the extensive display of farm buildings and machinery as well as the central small town invoke nineteenth‐ and early twentieth‐century Lithuania but close to the center there is a clearing in the woods where the time frame is different Several items including an earthen yurt and a cattle wagon commemorate the deportations of thousands of Lithuanians between 1941 and 1953 when they were sent to the Soviet Gulags (Kockel 2015) Jonathan Webber (Chapter 8) seeks to make sense of Auschwitz designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1979 as a heritage site and landscape of memory Auschwitz means different things to different victim groups in terms of their own histories but also to other visitors Emblematic of ldquoundesirable heri-tagerdquo it is at the same time a powerful symbol a theatre where multiple memorial events are performed and a destination for ldquodarkrdquo tourism attracting large numbers of spectators

Collecting HeritageEver since interest in heritage began to develop the collection of material items and oral testimony has been a central activity aimed at facilitating their preservation This remains so despite a growing critique of museum and archiving practices UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Programme (MoW) is a major initiative for the protection of documentary heritage However with the exception of Charlesworth (2010) it has been largely overlooked in academic research even within the field of heritage studies Against this background Anca Claudia Prodan (Chapter 9) attempts to clarify the main features of the program and to identify points for research MoW is part of UNESCOrsquos policies aimed at building inclusive knowledge societies While acknowledging the contribution of MoW in that regard Prodan argues that in the process of this the program is reduced to being merely a source of information and that it needs to be strengthened by being recontextualized within UNESCOrsquos international system of heritage protection

Artifact collections and the practices employed in accumulating them have come under scrutiny in the context of postcolonial critiques of intercultural relations In 2002 the British Museum and the Louvre together with an international group of major museums issued the Declaration on the Importance and Value of Universal Museums (ICOM 2004) Most of these museums date back to the late eighteenth century before the period of European imperial expansion and the declaration has been widely interpreted as an attempt to guard against claims for the repatriation of much of their collections to the countries of origin Such claims are made not only with regard to indigenous peoples but extend to Western countries such as Greece as the case of the Elgin Marbles illustrates Maurice Mugabowagahunde (Chapter 10)

xvi notes on contributors

He is a fellow of the Academy of Social Sciences in Australia and has been president of Australia ICOMOS and a member of the Heritage Council of Victoria His research focuses on World Heritage heritage and human rights and Asian heritage

Christian Manhart is an art historian and archeologist Since joining UNESCO in 1987 he has worked on the conservation of heritage sites in Africa and Asia particu-larly Afghanistan He was responsible in the World Heritage Centre for partnerships communication and more recently matters arising in relation to the international con-ventions of 1954 1970 and 2001 and the Committee for Restitution of Cultural Property Museums and Creativity

Lynn Meskell is Professor of Anthropology and director of the Archaeology Center at Stanford University Her recent books include The Nature of Culture The New South Africa (2012) and the edited volume Cosmopolitan Archaeologies (2009) Her current research focuses on the role of UNESCO in terms of heritage rights sovereignty and international politics

Maurice Mugabowagahunde is a doctoral candidate in African archaeology at University of Bergen Norway His research interests include Rwandan prehistory and ethnography He has previously conducted archeological and ethnographic research in Rwanda for the Institute of National Museums of Rwanda

Webber Ndoro is a research associate with the Department of Archaeology University of Cape Town South Africa and director of the African World Heritage Fund based in Johannesburg

Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith is Professor of European Culture and Heritage at Heriot‐Watt University Edinburgh Scotland having previously held a chair in the School of Social Sciences and Applied Social Studies at the University of Ulster A Member of the Royal Irish Academy she has also been an honorary professor at the University of Exeter and a DAAD guest professor at the University of Goumlttingen Germany

Gertjan Plets was a researcher on the Altai Project at Ghent University Belgium from which he received his doctorate He joined Stanford University initially as a Belgian American Education Fund (BAEF) fellow and now holds a three‐year research‐intensive post‐doctoral fellowship at the Stanford Archaeology Center

Anca Claudia Prodan holds a PhD in Heritage Studies and works as scientific assistant at the UNESCO Chair in Heritage Studies BTU Cottbus-Senftenberg Prior to this she studied in Romania and Germany obtaining degrees in Anthropology Philosophy and World Heritage Studies Her research interests center on theories and concepts of culture and heritage

Keir Reeves holds a chair in Australian history at Federation University Australia Victoria Australia He has held teaching and research posts at Monash University and the University of Melbourne In 2013 he was a visiting fellow at Clare Hall University of Cambridge England His research concentrates on regional development as well as Australian Asian and Pacific cultural heritage

notes on contributors xvii

Britta Rudolff holds an interim chair in heritage management at Brandenburg Technical University Cottbus Germany where she is also the managing director of the Institute for Heritage Management A cultural heritage conservator with postgraduate qualifications in heritage studies and a doctorate in cultural geography her focus has been on UNESCO heritage conventions

Folarin Shyllon read law at Kingrsquos College London and taught at the University of Ibadan Nigeria from 1975 to 2005 His teaching and research interests are in cultural property and intellectual property law He is on the editorial board of the International Journal of Cultural Property and Art Antiquity and Law and is chairperson of the Nigeria chapter of UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Committee

Neil A Silberman is an author historian and managing partner of Coherit Associates an international heritage consulting firm He is an adjunct lecturer in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Massachusetts and serves as president of the ICOMOS International Committee on Interpretation and Presentation (ICIP) His research interests include interpretation theory the history of heritage practice and the politics of commemoration

Helaine Silverman is Professor in the Department of Anthropology University of Illinois Urbana‐Champaign and director of CHAMP (Collaborative for Cultural Heritage Management and Policy) She is especially interested in the cultural politics of heritage production and management tourism and economic development and iden-tity and memory She has conducted research in Peru Thailand and England

Anita Smith is Senior Lecturer responsible for course enhancement in the Faculty of Arts and Education Deakin University Melbourne Australia As an archeologist she has been engaged in the UNESCO Pacific World Heritage Programme since 2004 She was a member of Australiarsquos delegation to the World Heritage Committee between 2008 and 2012 and is editor of World Heritage in a Sea of Islands (2012)

Laurajane Smith is Professor of Heritage and Museum Studies and head of the Centre for Heritage and Museum Studies School of Archaeology and Anthropology Australian National University Canberra Australia She is editor of the International Journal of Heritage Studies co‐editor (with William Logan) of Routledgersquos Key Issues in Cultural Heritage Series and author of Uses of Heritage (2006)

Brenda Trofanenko holds the Canada Research Chair in Education Culture and Community at Acadia University in Wolfville Nova Scotia Canada Her research focuses on how public cultural institutions define identity and knowledge through social processes She is currently conducting research on how youth respond to the collective memories of distressing events

Ron van Oers held a doctorate from Delft University of Technology the Netherlands and had worked at UNESCOrsquos World Heritage Centre in Paris coordinating various programs including the development of the Recommendation on the Historic Urban Landscape (2011) He was vice‐director of the World Heritage Institute of Training and Research for Asia and the Pacific (WHITRAP) in Shanghai China

xviii notes on contributors

Editorrsquos note Dr van Oers passed away unexpectedly on 28 April 2015 while on a UNESCO mission to Lhasa Tibet He made a major contribution to the cultural her-itage field and will be greatly missed

Ona Vileikis is an architect with international experience in World Heritage‐related issues such as risk management monitoring geographic information systems heritage documentation and conservation She is currently a doctoral researcher at the Raymond Lemaire International Centre for Conservation University of Leuven Belgium working on the monitoring of serial transnational World Heritage issues and the use of geospatial content management systems focused on the Central Asia Silk Roads

Ana Filipa Vrdoljak is Professor of Law in the Faculty of Law University of Technology Sydney Australia She is the author of International Law Museums and the Return of Cultural Objects (2006) editor of The Cultural Dimension of Human Rights Law (2013) and joint general editor (with Franceso Francioni) of the Oxford University Press series Cultural Heritage Law and Policy

Jonathan Webber is Professor at the Institute of European Studies Jagiellonian University Krakoacutew Poland He specializes in Jewish studies and Holocaust studies and was a founding member of the International Auschwitz Council serving on it between 1990 and 2012

Gamini Wijesuriya has qualifications in architecture history and historic preservation and archaeology and heritage management He was director of conservation in the Sri Lankan Department of Archaeology between 1982 and 1999 and principal regional scientist in the New Zealand Department of Conservation from 2001 to 2004 Moving to ICCROM in Rome in 2004 he played a key role in developing the 2011 World Heritage Capacity Building Strategy

Tim Winter is Research Professor at the Alfred Deakin Institute for Citizenship and Globalisation Deakin University Melbourne Australia He has published widely on heritage development modernity urban conservation and tourism in Asia He is co‐editor of The Routledge Handbook of Heritage in Asia (2011) and editor of Shanghai Expo An International Forum on the Future of Cities (2013)

Andrea Witcomb is Professor of Cultural Heritage and Museum Studies and deputy director of the Alfred Deakin Institute for Citizenship and Globalisation at Deakin University Melbourne Australia Her work analyzes how museums and heritage sites create spaces for cross‐cultural encounters Her books include Reimagining the Museum Beyond the Mausoleum (2003) and (with Kylie Message) Museum Theory (2015)

Haiming Yan is a sociologist at the Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage Beijing and received his doctorate from the University of Virginia His research interests include cultural sociology memory and heritage and globalization

This volume originated in our desire to address the emergence and nature of the ldquonew heritage studiesrdquo which we see as the exploration of cultural heritage as a construct resulting from processes that give present‐day significance to elements from the past Our conception of the volume was rigorously reviewed by Wiley‐Blackwell For their time and patience we wish especially to thank Rosalie Robertson the initial commis-sioning editor and Ben Thatcher the project editor at Blackwell

We wish to say a special thank you to the contributors to this volume Coming from five continents these scholars were identified on the basis of their innovative ideas practical expertise and international reputation and invited to contribute to this collaborative multidisciplinary project in the cultural heritage field They were a pleasure to work with As the volume has been peer reviewed at every stage from the original proposal to its final production we would also wish to thank everybody who participated in that review process

While this project was in progress Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel moved from the University of Ulster in Northern Ireland to Heriot‐Watt University in Edinburgh and William Logan officially retired but was reappointed as emeritus pro-fessor attached to the Cultural Heritage Centre for Asia and the Pacific and the Alfred Deakin Research Institute at Deakin University in Melbourne We would like to thank our colleagues in all three institutions ndash Deakin University Heriot‐Watt University and the University of Ulster ndash for their continued support

Finally we would like to make a very special mention of Cristina Clopot and Philip Thomas Cristina is currently undertaking her PhD at Heriot‐Watt University but devoted much time and effort in administering the project Philip performed the criti-cal copy editing role with an eagle eye for detail We are very grateful to them both for their enthusiasm and professionalism in the preparation of the materials

William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel

Acknowledgements

ACCU Asia‐Pacific Cultural Centre of UNESCOACHPR African Commission on Human and Peoplesrsquo RightsACHS Association of Critical Heritage Studiesart articleEU European UnionFPIC free prior and informed consentGDP gross domestic productGIS geographic information systemGeoCMS geospatial content management systemsICCROM International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration

of Cultural PropertyICOM International Council of MuseumsICOMOS International Council on Monuments and SitesIUCN International Union for the Conservation of NatureIWGIA International Work Group for Indigenous AffairsMoW Memory of the World ProgrammeMDGs Millennium Development GoalsNGO non‐governmental organizationOHCR Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rightspara paragraphPOW prisoner of warsec sectionUN United NationsUNCERD United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial DiscriminationUNCESCR United Nations Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights

List of Abbreviations

list of abbreviations xxi

UNCEHR United Nations Commission on Human RightsUNDESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social AffairsUNDG United Nations Development GroupUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural OrganizationUNGA United Nations General AssemblyUN‐Habitat United Nations Human Settlements ProgrammeUNHRC United Nations Human Rights CouncilUNPFII United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous IssuesUNSC United Nations Security CouncilWHIPCOE World Heritage Indigenous Peoples Council of ExpertsWIPO World Intellectual Property OrganizationWTO World Trade Organization

Chapter 1

A Companion to Heritage Studies First Edition Edited by William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel copy 2016 John Wiley amp Sons Inc Published 2016 by John Wiley amp Sons Inc

The New Heritage Studies Origins and Evolution Problems and Prospects

William Logan Ullrich Kockel and Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith

Heritage and heritage studies have evolved in quite astounding ways over the last sixty years Nobody could have imagined when the Venice Charter (ICASHB 1964) jump‐started the heritage profession in the aftermath of World War II that there would be a veritable heritage boom in the 1990s and continuing into the twenty‐first century Who would have predicted that so much attention would now be paid to protecting environmental features material culture and living traditions from the past or the vast numbers of community members policy‐makers practitioners and scholars engaged in caring for managing and studying heritage Who would have foreseen the explosion of heritage‐based cultural tourism the reconfiguration of heritage as an economic asset and a World Heritage List comprising of more than a thousand properties spread around the globe

This volume seeks to investigate the story of expansion in heritage and heritage studies Containing 37 chapters commissioned from 44 scholars and practitioners from 5 continents it is designed to provide an up‐to‐date international analysis of the field the steady broadening of the concept of heritage and its social economic and political uses the difficulties that often arise from such uses and current trends in heritage scholarship Starting from a position of seeing ldquoheritagerdquo as a mental construct that attributes ldquosignificancerdquo to certain places artifacts and forms of behavior from the past through processes that are essentially political we see heritage conservation not merely as a technical or managerial matter but as cultural practice a form of cultural politics

CHaPTEr 1

2 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

We are interested in the different extent to which various groups within global national and local communities are able to participate in heritage identification interpretation and management Moreover we want to address the extent to which communities have access to and enjoy heritage once it has been officially recognized conserved or safeguarded This interest inevitably leads to human rights consider-ations to developing closer intellectual links with international lawyers and others in the human rights field and to strengthening both the multidisciplinary nature of heri-tage studies and what we sees as the critical relationship between theory and practice

Whether this new vision of heritage studies represents a ldquoparadigm shiftrdquo or only the culmination of changes already occurring in the heritage studies field since the late 1980s is an issue we will discuss later For now let us go back to the fieldrsquos origins and interpret its evolution

Expanding HEritagE

When ideas of ldquoheritagerdquo were initially formalized their focus was on monuments and sites This was especially the case in Europe from where these ideas spread across the British French and other European empires and the anglophone United States (Nic Craith 2007) Writer‐practitioners such as John Ruskin and Nikolaus Pevsner in England and Eugegravene Viollet‐le‐Duc in France were enormously influential in the early days of heritage identification and protection From these beginnings heritage planners around the world have sought to protect broad areas of historic aesthetic architectural or scientific interest Although there is considerable variation across the world most countries now attempt to protect as official policy and through professional practice a much wider range of features than they did 60 years ago

It was gradually realized for instance that the protection of a monument or building was not in itself enough and that good conservation work was often being rendered ineffective by unsympathetic developments allowed to occur in front of beside behind or even over heritage buildings Attention therefore extended to the precincts around major monuments and buildings A further extension of interest took place in 1962 when Andreacute Malraux then the French minister for culture first established planning regulations (known as the loi Malraux) designed to protect and enhance the historic features of the Marais district of Paris The English were also expanding their focus at about this time to take in conservation areas the first of which were designated in 1967 England now has over 8000 protected areas including the centers of historic towns and cities fishing and mining villages eighteenth‐ and nineteenth‐century suburbs model housing estates and historic transport links and their environs such as stretches of canal (English Heritage nd)

At the international level the World Heritage List established under UNESCOrsquos Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972) or as it is commonly known the World Heritage Convention now contains a large number of cities inscribed for what the convention calls their Outstanding Universal Value An Organization of World Heritage Cities founded in 1993 with headquarters in Quebec City today brings together 250 cities that are either inscribed or have inscribed sites within them (OWHC 2014) In 1992 the World Heritage Committee added the new category of ldquocultural landscapesrdquo to the World Heritage system to allow recognition of places presenting a blend of cultural and natural elements Twenty years

the new heritage studies 3

later the landscape concept was translated into urban areas as the ldquohistoric urban landscaperdquo blending modern and historic architectural and urban design forms rather than natural and cultural elements but nevertheless emphasizing like cultural landscapes the need for a holistic view of the environment and a sensitive balanced approach to new human interventions

Vernacular structures are now seen as being of cultural heritage interest that is structures that are not architect‐designed but owner‐ or community‐built using avail-able resources and traditional techniques So too are industrial structures Publications by Miles Lewis (1977) Paul Oliver (1997) and William Siew Wai Lim and Tan Hock Beng (1998) began to fill in major gaps in the tangible heritage literature More recently there has been considerable heritage interest internationally in ldquocultural routesrdquo The Council of Europe in 1987 established a program of European cultural routes that is managed from a specialized institute located in Luxembourg The pro-gramrsquos first initiative is the Santiago de Compostela Route the famous Christian pilgrimage route of the Middle Ages In the United States and Canada efforts have been made to commemorate the Underground Railroad ndash the route taken by slaves trying to reach freedom before the Civil War ndash by protecting a series of key sites along its length In Asia UNESCO is supporting the Silk Road Project for developing cultural heritage and cultural tourism along the traditional routes of the silk trade between south‐eastern Europe and China

In the international development field there was a marked shift in the 1990s in the attitude of key agencies such as the World Bank towards cultural heritage Rather than seeing cultural heritage protection as an obstacle to development it is now recognized that the two can go hand in hand to bring about more effective programs to raise standards of living in developing countries and elsewhere (Logan 2003 xxi)

Neil Silberman (Chapter 2) explores the evolving heritage conception and the changing forms and functions of heritage places from their initial validation as national institutions in the early nineteenth century to their multicultural context in the early twenty‐first century He shows that the meanings and values of heritage places are neither static nor inherent but ascribed by particular social groups choosing to empha-size or ignore particular items or aspects for social and political purposes Romantic nationalism led to a first ldquoheritage boomrdquo during the emergence of nation‐states in nineteenth‐century Europe as commemorative sites and structures were created to serve as tangible evidence of a nationrsquos pedigree harmonizing the diverse populations of nations into singularly national peoples or sometimes re‐fragmenting them laying the foundations for new identity claims in the future Already by the late nineteenth century accelerating domestic and international tourism engendered a second ldquoheritage boomrdquo albeit differently motivated the new ldquoheritage touristsrdquo on their quest for his-torical authenticity and exotic landscapes as means of (however temporary) escape from modern industrial life dominated by economic calculus contradictorily created the demand that allowed for the commoditization of built heritage as a ldquocultural resourcerdquo

A focus on the built environment is arguably based on a European concept of cultural heritage which is entirely appropriate for an environment dealing largely with the conservation of buildings made of stone brick and other durable materials (Logan 2006) This view of heritage has been frequently criticized Walled cities cathedrals and eye‐catching landscape formations like the Giantrsquos Causeway in Northern Ireland heavily dominate the list of European World Heritage sites This contrasts starkly with the concept of permanency found on other continents An example of this is the

4 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

imperial shrine at Ise Japan From a Western perspective this shrine hardly qualifies as ldquooldrdquo since it is rebuilt every twenty years However from a Japanese perspective it is old because it is rebuilt ldquoin exactly the same way ndash using the same ancient instru-ments materials ndash with each step of the process marked by appropriate ancient ritualsrdquo (Sahlins 2002 9)

Although heritage has for a long time been defined primarily in terms of material objects as ldquotangible heritagerdquo there has been a parallel interest in what is nowadays called ldquointangible heritagerdquo which for most of the past two centuries however remained in the shadow of the more prominent heritage of material objects and the built environment To some extent and in some parts of the world particularly Europe North America and Australia this reflects the different social and political status of the signified whereas monuments works of fine art castles and cathedrals materially and visually project and transmit the heritage of the hegemony folk songs and wisdom as with many other traditional skills tend to project and transmit heritage of the lower classes non‐materially and orally

Kristin Kuutma (Chapter 3) traces the emergence of folklore as an academic discipline and its subsequent involvement in cultural policy‐making including the contemporary transition from ldquofolklorerdquo to ldquointangible cultural heritagerdquo and the disciplinersquos contri-bution to the international management of heritage regimes Originating during the period of nation‐building when they formed part of the creation of national cultural heritages collections of folklore represent past repertoires and practices of mostly pre‐industrial (peasant) lifestyles that nowadays often feed various linguistic ethnic or other local revival movements As global power relationships at the turn of the twenty‐first century are creating ever‐shifting discourses of inclusion and exclusion rooted-ness and rights for possession a need to identify and safeguard intangible cultural heritage was postulated leading to the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage adopted in 2003 and commonly known as the Intangible Heritage Convention Although intangible elements had always been included in understanding the significance of heritage places under the World Heritage Convention (1972) this new convention focused on and led to a system for evaluating and safeguarding intangible heritage in its own right

Heritage in the post‐war years was conceived as and called ldquocultural propertyrdquo an understanding and terminology that is still found today in relation to some disciplines (eg anthropology) and some forms of heritage (eg intellectual property) Pertti Anttonen has observed that ldquothe cultural representations that are selected for making heritage‐political claims are commonly called traditions with a special emphasis on their character as cultural properties that is representations with an ownership labelrdquo (Anttonen 2005 39) Ownership lying at the heart of the notion of cultural property has become a major and growing concern since the second half of the twentieth century Folarin Shyllon (Chapter 4) considers these concerns especially in the context of human rights Access to and enjoyment of cultural heritage is considered to be a fundamental cultural right a sub‐category of human rights (Shaheed 2011) It might be argued that a similar right to intellectual property also exists but some intellectual property rights do not fit human rights easily because they are economic and commercial rather than social or cultural Considering cultural heritage as a fundamental human right can raise difficult ethical issues as different cultures tend to regard their own values as universal and those of others where they conflict as culturally contingent The debate on intellectual and by extension cultural property is rather more focused

the new heritage studies 5

on economic value As Shyllon points out some cultural heritage such as the sites inscribed on UNESCOrsquos World Heritage List may be regarded as universal property in the wider sense while intellectual property rights tend to be held as monopolies

Except from a natural law perspective values can be seen as being in the mind this goes even for economic monetary values which are the result of negotiations between actors In contrast artistic linguistic and technical skills can be seen as embodied As an example of a non‐Western approach to intangible heritage Natsuko Akagawa (Chapter 5) examines the philosophy behind Japanese legislation for safeguarding cultural property Her analysis highlights the significance of embodiment as a concept for understanding and dealing with heritage

Landscapes of MemoryRecent decades have seen a growing interest across different contexts in how heritage has been embodied in the land (see Gilbert 2010) Perspectives on this vary from geographical analyses of how hegemonic powers have shaped symbolic landscapes (eg Cosgrove 1984) to accounts of indigenous relationships with the land as an ani-mate being and keeper of memory (eg Blue Spruce and Thrasher 2008) Associative landscapes now serve as the foundation for official designations of heritage origins such as the French terroir discussed by Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) Involving com-munities in identifying and managing heritage landscapes and individual sites has become a key concern moving traditional knowledge systems their contribution to heritage management and the need to support them into the spotlight

However this concern has not necessarily been recognized in the practice of inter-national heritage programs With reference to the Pacific islands Anita Smith (Chapter 7) explores differences in the recognition of traditional knowledge systems in two UNESCO conventions ndash the World Heritage Convention (1972) and the Intangible Heritage Convention (2003) ndash and underlines long‐standing critiques of the World Heritage system as Eurocentric in its determination of Outstanding Universal Value In the late 1990s there was an attempt to establish an indigenous body to advise the World Heritage Committee in accordance with the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (United Nations 2007) While this initiative failed (see Logan 2013 Meskell 2013a) the call has been renewed in recent years (see Disko this volume)

Although in public perception issues of land and landscape are particularly associated with indigenous peoples they also play a major role in other contexts The application by parts of Burgundy in eastern France for World Heritage status is a case in point Using an ldquoethnographic gazerdquo Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) examines different con-ceptions of Burgundy as a re‐territorialized site and the construction of its micro‐regional climats with their historical depth of place as ldquoGod‐givenrdquo naturalized artifacts in the context of global competition where UNESCO designation is prized for con-veying an elite status

The embodiment of heritage in landscapes of memory also raises issues of the rela-tionships between natural and cultural heritage and their frequent separation in the practice of heritage management where different government and non‐government bodies are in charge of different types of heritage and conflicts of interest arise not least from budget constraints and varying lines of responsibility This can be exacerbated where a designated site stretches across one or more political or administrative boundary

6 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

The Curonian Spit shared by Lithuania and Russia is one of only 31 such transnational World Heritage sites where different approaches by the two administrations to environ-mental issues have been problematic (Armaitiene et al 2007) Moreover multiple layers of cultural memory affect the site and its contemporary meaning as heritage for different constituencies (Kockel 2012a) Appropriately contextualizing cultural heri-tages in relation to place and memory has been made difficult by a widespread tendency to treat cultural differences as mere constructs (Kockel and Nic Craith 2015) This is particularly apparent where we are dealing with places of pain and shame

Not all heritage serves as a reminder of a glorious past (Logan and Reeves 2009) In the Lithuanian national open air museum at Rumšiškes near Kaunas the extensive display of farm buildings and machinery as well as the central small town invoke nineteenth‐ and early twentieth‐century Lithuania but close to the center there is a clearing in the woods where the time frame is different Several items including an earthen yurt and a cattle wagon commemorate the deportations of thousands of Lithuanians between 1941 and 1953 when they were sent to the Soviet Gulags (Kockel 2015) Jonathan Webber (Chapter 8) seeks to make sense of Auschwitz designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1979 as a heritage site and landscape of memory Auschwitz means different things to different victim groups in terms of their own histories but also to other visitors Emblematic of ldquoundesirable heri-tagerdquo it is at the same time a powerful symbol a theatre where multiple memorial events are performed and a destination for ldquodarkrdquo tourism attracting large numbers of spectators

Collecting HeritageEver since interest in heritage began to develop the collection of material items and oral testimony has been a central activity aimed at facilitating their preservation This remains so despite a growing critique of museum and archiving practices UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Programme (MoW) is a major initiative for the protection of documentary heritage However with the exception of Charlesworth (2010) it has been largely overlooked in academic research even within the field of heritage studies Against this background Anca Claudia Prodan (Chapter 9) attempts to clarify the main features of the program and to identify points for research MoW is part of UNESCOrsquos policies aimed at building inclusive knowledge societies While acknowledging the contribution of MoW in that regard Prodan argues that in the process of this the program is reduced to being merely a source of information and that it needs to be strengthened by being recontextualized within UNESCOrsquos international system of heritage protection

Artifact collections and the practices employed in accumulating them have come under scrutiny in the context of postcolonial critiques of intercultural relations In 2002 the British Museum and the Louvre together with an international group of major museums issued the Declaration on the Importance and Value of Universal Museums (ICOM 2004) Most of these museums date back to the late eighteenth century before the period of European imperial expansion and the declaration has been widely interpreted as an attempt to guard against claims for the repatriation of much of their collections to the countries of origin Such claims are made not only with regard to indigenous peoples but extend to Western countries such as Greece as the case of the Elgin Marbles illustrates Maurice Mugabowagahunde (Chapter 10)

notes on contributors xvii

Britta Rudolff holds an interim chair in heritage management at Brandenburg Technical University Cottbus Germany where she is also the managing director of the Institute for Heritage Management A cultural heritage conservator with postgraduate qualifications in heritage studies and a doctorate in cultural geography her focus has been on UNESCO heritage conventions

Folarin Shyllon read law at Kingrsquos College London and taught at the University of Ibadan Nigeria from 1975 to 2005 His teaching and research interests are in cultural property and intellectual property law He is on the editorial board of the International Journal of Cultural Property and Art Antiquity and Law and is chairperson of the Nigeria chapter of UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Committee

Neil A Silberman is an author historian and managing partner of Coherit Associates an international heritage consulting firm He is an adjunct lecturer in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Massachusetts and serves as president of the ICOMOS International Committee on Interpretation and Presentation (ICIP) His research interests include interpretation theory the history of heritage practice and the politics of commemoration

Helaine Silverman is Professor in the Department of Anthropology University of Illinois Urbana‐Champaign and director of CHAMP (Collaborative for Cultural Heritage Management and Policy) She is especially interested in the cultural politics of heritage production and management tourism and economic development and iden-tity and memory She has conducted research in Peru Thailand and England

Anita Smith is Senior Lecturer responsible for course enhancement in the Faculty of Arts and Education Deakin University Melbourne Australia As an archeologist she has been engaged in the UNESCO Pacific World Heritage Programme since 2004 She was a member of Australiarsquos delegation to the World Heritage Committee between 2008 and 2012 and is editor of World Heritage in a Sea of Islands (2012)

Laurajane Smith is Professor of Heritage and Museum Studies and head of the Centre for Heritage and Museum Studies School of Archaeology and Anthropology Australian National University Canberra Australia She is editor of the International Journal of Heritage Studies co‐editor (with William Logan) of Routledgersquos Key Issues in Cultural Heritage Series and author of Uses of Heritage (2006)

Brenda Trofanenko holds the Canada Research Chair in Education Culture and Community at Acadia University in Wolfville Nova Scotia Canada Her research focuses on how public cultural institutions define identity and knowledge through social processes She is currently conducting research on how youth respond to the collective memories of distressing events

Ron van Oers held a doctorate from Delft University of Technology the Netherlands and had worked at UNESCOrsquos World Heritage Centre in Paris coordinating various programs including the development of the Recommendation on the Historic Urban Landscape (2011) He was vice‐director of the World Heritage Institute of Training and Research for Asia and the Pacific (WHITRAP) in Shanghai China

xviii notes on contributors

Editorrsquos note Dr van Oers passed away unexpectedly on 28 April 2015 while on a UNESCO mission to Lhasa Tibet He made a major contribution to the cultural her-itage field and will be greatly missed

Ona Vileikis is an architect with international experience in World Heritage‐related issues such as risk management monitoring geographic information systems heritage documentation and conservation She is currently a doctoral researcher at the Raymond Lemaire International Centre for Conservation University of Leuven Belgium working on the monitoring of serial transnational World Heritage issues and the use of geospatial content management systems focused on the Central Asia Silk Roads

Ana Filipa Vrdoljak is Professor of Law in the Faculty of Law University of Technology Sydney Australia She is the author of International Law Museums and the Return of Cultural Objects (2006) editor of The Cultural Dimension of Human Rights Law (2013) and joint general editor (with Franceso Francioni) of the Oxford University Press series Cultural Heritage Law and Policy

Jonathan Webber is Professor at the Institute of European Studies Jagiellonian University Krakoacutew Poland He specializes in Jewish studies and Holocaust studies and was a founding member of the International Auschwitz Council serving on it between 1990 and 2012

Gamini Wijesuriya has qualifications in architecture history and historic preservation and archaeology and heritage management He was director of conservation in the Sri Lankan Department of Archaeology between 1982 and 1999 and principal regional scientist in the New Zealand Department of Conservation from 2001 to 2004 Moving to ICCROM in Rome in 2004 he played a key role in developing the 2011 World Heritage Capacity Building Strategy

Tim Winter is Research Professor at the Alfred Deakin Institute for Citizenship and Globalisation Deakin University Melbourne Australia He has published widely on heritage development modernity urban conservation and tourism in Asia He is co‐editor of The Routledge Handbook of Heritage in Asia (2011) and editor of Shanghai Expo An International Forum on the Future of Cities (2013)

Andrea Witcomb is Professor of Cultural Heritage and Museum Studies and deputy director of the Alfred Deakin Institute for Citizenship and Globalisation at Deakin University Melbourne Australia Her work analyzes how museums and heritage sites create spaces for cross‐cultural encounters Her books include Reimagining the Museum Beyond the Mausoleum (2003) and (with Kylie Message) Museum Theory (2015)

Haiming Yan is a sociologist at the Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage Beijing and received his doctorate from the University of Virginia His research interests include cultural sociology memory and heritage and globalization

This volume originated in our desire to address the emergence and nature of the ldquonew heritage studiesrdquo which we see as the exploration of cultural heritage as a construct resulting from processes that give present‐day significance to elements from the past Our conception of the volume was rigorously reviewed by Wiley‐Blackwell For their time and patience we wish especially to thank Rosalie Robertson the initial commis-sioning editor and Ben Thatcher the project editor at Blackwell

We wish to say a special thank you to the contributors to this volume Coming from five continents these scholars were identified on the basis of their innovative ideas practical expertise and international reputation and invited to contribute to this collaborative multidisciplinary project in the cultural heritage field They were a pleasure to work with As the volume has been peer reviewed at every stage from the original proposal to its final production we would also wish to thank everybody who participated in that review process

While this project was in progress Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel moved from the University of Ulster in Northern Ireland to Heriot‐Watt University in Edinburgh and William Logan officially retired but was reappointed as emeritus pro-fessor attached to the Cultural Heritage Centre for Asia and the Pacific and the Alfred Deakin Research Institute at Deakin University in Melbourne We would like to thank our colleagues in all three institutions ndash Deakin University Heriot‐Watt University and the University of Ulster ndash for their continued support

Finally we would like to make a very special mention of Cristina Clopot and Philip Thomas Cristina is currently undertaking her PhD at Heriot‐Watt University but devoted much time and effort in administering the project Philip performed the criti-cal copy editing role with an eagle eye for detail We are very grateful to them both for their enthusiasm and professionalism in the preparation of the materials

William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel

Acknowledgements

ACCU Asia‐Pacific Cultural Centre of UNESCOACHPR African Commission on Human and Peoplesrsquo RightsACHS Association of Critical Heritage Studiesart articleEU European UnionFPIC free prior and informed consentGDP gross domestic productGIS geographic information systemGeoCMS geospatial content management systemsICCROM International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration

of Cultural PropertyICOM International Council of MuseumsICOMOS International Council on Monuments and SitesIUCN International Union for the Conservation of NatureIWGIA International Work Group for Indigenous AffairsMoW Memory of the World ProgrammeMDGs Millennium Development GoalsNGO non‐governmental organizationOHCR Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rightspara paragraphPOW prisoner of warsec sectionUN United NationsUNCERD United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial DiscriminationUNCESCR United Nations Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights

List of Abbreviations

list of abbreviations xxi

UNCEHR United Nations Commission on Human RightsUNDESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social AffairsUNDG United Nations Development GroupUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural OrganizationUNGA United Nations General AssemblyUN‐Habitat United Nations Human Settlements ProgrammeUNHRC United Nations Human Rights CouncilUNPFII United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous IssuesUNSC United Nations Security CouncilWHIPCOE World Heritage Indigenous Peoples Council of ExpertsWIPO World Intellectual Property OrganizationWTO World Trade Organization

Chapter 1

A Companion to Heritage Studies First Edition Edited by William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel copy 2016 John Wiley amp Sons Inc Published 2016 by John Wiley amp Sons Inc

The New Heritage Studies Origins and Evolution Problems and Prospects

William Logan Ullrich Kockel and Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith

Heritage and heritage studies have evolved in quite astounding ways over the last sixty years Nobody could have imagined when the Venice Charter (ICASHB 1964) jump‐started the heritage profession in the aftermath of World War II that there would be a veritable heritage boom in the 1990s and continuing into the twenty‐first century Who would have predicted that so much attention would now be paid to protecting environmental features material culture and living traditions from the past or the vast numbers of community members policy‐makers practitioners and scholars engaged in caring for managing and studying heritage Who would have foreseen the explosion of heritage‐based cultural tourism the reconfiguration of heritage as an economic asset and a World Heritage List comprising of more than a thousand properties spread around the globe

This volume seeks to investigate the story of expansion in heritage and heritage studies Containing 37 chapters commissioned from 44 scholars and practitioners from 5 continents it is designed to provide an up‐to‐date international analysis of the field the steady broadening of the concept of heritage and its social economic and political uses the difficulties that often arise from such uses and current trends in heritage scholarship Starting from a position of seeing ldquoheritagerdquo as a mental construct that attributes ldquosignificancerdquo to certain places artifacts and forms of behavior from the past through processes that are essentially political we see heritage conservation not merely as a technical or managerial matter but as cultural practice a form of cultural politics

CHaPTEr 1

2 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

We are interested in the different extent to which various groups within global national and local communities are able to participate in heritage identification interpretation and management Moreover we want to address the extent to which communities have access to and enjoy heritage once it has been officially recognized conserved or safeguarded This interest inevitably leads to human rights consider-ations to developing closer intellectual links with international lawyers and others in the human rights field and to strengthening both the multidisciplinary nature of heri-tage studies and what we sees as the critical relationship between theory and practice

Whether this new vision of heritage studies represents a ldquoparadigm shiftrdquo or only the culmination of changes already occurring in the heritage studies field since the late 1980s is an issue we will discuss later For now let us go back to the fieldrsquos origins and interpret its evolution

Expanding HEritagE

When ideas of ldquoheritagerdquo were initially formalized their focus was on monuments and sites This was especially the case in Europe from where these ideas spread across the British French and other European empires and the anglophone United States (Nic Craith 2007) Writer‐practitioners such as John Ruskin and Nikolaus Pevsner in England and Eugegravene Viollet‐le‐Duc in France were enormously influential in the early days of heritage identification and protection From these beginnings heritage planners around the world have sought to protect broad areas of historic aesthetic architectural or scientific interest Although there is considerable variation across the world most countries now attempt to protect as official policy and through professional practice a much wider range of features than they did 60 years ago

It was gradually realized for instance that the protection of a monument or building was not in itself enough and that good conservation work was often being rendered ineffective by unsympathetic developments allowed to occur in front of beside behind or even over heritage buildings Attention therefore extended to the precincts around major monuments and buildings A further extension of interest took place in 1962 when Andreacute Malraux then the French minister for culture first established planning regulations (known as the loi Malraux) designed to protect and enhance the historic features of the Marais district of Paris The English were also expanding their focus at about this time to take in conservation areas the first of which were designated in 1967 England now has over 8000 protected areas including the centers of historic towns and cities fishing and mining villages eighteenth‐ and nineteenth‐century suburbs model housing estates and historic transport links and their environs such as stretches of canal (English Heritage nd)

At the international level the World Heritage List established under UNESCOrsquos Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972) or as it is commonly known the World Heritage Convention now contains a large number of cities inscribed for what the convention calls their Outstanding Universal Value An Organization of World Heritage Cities founded in 1993 with headquarters in Quebec City today brings together 250 cities that are either inscribed or have inscribed sites within them (OWHC 2014) In 1992 the World Heritage Committee added the new category of ldquocultural landscapesrdquo to the World Heritage system to allow recognition of places presenting a blend of cultural and natural elements Twenty years

the new heritage studies 3

later the landscape concept was translated into urban areas as the ldquohistoric urban landscaperdquo blending modern and historic architectural and urban design forms rather than natural and cultural elements but nevertheless emphasizing like cultural landscapes the need for a holistic view of the environment and a sensitive balanced approach to new human interventions

Vernacular structures are now seen as being of cultural heritage interest that is structures that are not architect‐designed but owner‐ or community‐built using avail-able resources and traditional techniques So too are industrial structures Publications by Miles Lewis (1977) Paul Oliver (1997) and William Siew Wai Lim and Tan Hock Beng (1998) began to fill in major gaps in the tangible heritage literature More recently there has been considerable heritage interest internationally in ldquocultural routesrdquo The Council of Europe in 1987 established a program of European cultural routes that is managed from a specialized institute located in Luxembourg The pro-gramrsquos first initiative is the Santiago de Compostela Route the famous Christian pilgrimage route of the Middle Ages In the United States and Canada efforts have been made to commemorate the Underground Railroad ndash the route taken by slaves trying to reach freedom before the Civil War ndash by protecting a series of key sites along its length In Asia UNESCO is supporting the Silk Road Project for developing cultural heritage and cultural tourism along the traditional routes of the silk trade between south‐eastern Europe and China

In the international development field there was a marked shift in the 1990s in the attitude of key agencies such as the World Bank towards cultural heritage Rather than seeing cultural heritage protection as an obstacle to development it is now recognized that the two can go hand in hand to bring about more effective programs to raise standards of living in developing countries and elsewhere (Logan 2003 xxi)

Neil Silberman (Chapter 2) explores the evolving heritage conception and the changing forms and functions of heritage places from their initial validation as national institutions in the early nineteenth century to their multicultural context in the early twenty‐first century He shows that the meanings and values of heritage places are neither static nor inherent but ascribed by particular social groups choosing to empha-size or ignore particular items or aspects for social and political purposes Romantic nationalism led to a first ldquoheritage boomrdquo during the emergence of nation‐states in nineteenth‐century Europe as commemorative sites and structures were created to serve as tangible evidence of a nationrsquos pedigree harmonizing the diverse populations of nations into singularly national peoples or sometimes re‐fragmenting them laying the foundations for new identity claims in the future Already by the late nineteenth century accelerating domestic and international tourism engendered a second ldquoheritage boomrdquo albeit differently motivated the new ldquoheritage touristsrdquo on their quest for his-torical authenticity and exotic landscapes as means of (however temporary) escape from modern industrial life dominated by economic calculus contradictorily created the demand that allowed for the commoditization of built heritage as a ldquocultural resourcerdquo

A focus on the built environment is arguably based on a European concept of cultural heritage which is entirely appropriate for an environment dealing largely with the conservation of buildings made of stone brick and other durable materials (Logan 2006) This view of heritage has been frequently criticized Walled cities cathedrals and eye‐catching landscape formations like the Giantrsquos Causeway in Northern Ireland heavily dominate the list of European World Heritage sites This contrasts starkly with the concept of permanency found on other continents An example of this is the

4 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

imperial shrine at Ise Japan From a Western perspective this shrine hardly qualifies as ldquooldrdquo since it is rebuilt every twenty years However from a Japanese perspective it is old because it is rebuilt ldquoin exactly the same way ndash using the same ancient instru-ments materials ndash with each step of the process marked by appropriate ancient ritualsrdquo (Sahlins 2002 9)

Although heritage has for a long time been defined primarily in terms of material objects as ldquotangible heritagerdquo there has been a parallel interest in what is nowadays called ldquointangible heritagerdquo which for most of the past two centuries however remained in the shadow of the more prominent heritage of material objects and the built environment To some extent and in some parts of the world particularly Europe North America and Australia this reflects the different social and political status of the signified whereas monuments works of fine art castles and cathedrals materially and visually project and transmit the heritage of the hegemony folk songs and wisdom as with many other traditional skills tend to project and transmit heritage of the lower classes non‐materially and orally

Kristin Kuutma (Chapter 3) traces the emergence of folklore as an academic discipline and its subsequent involvement in cultural policy‐making including the contemporary transition from ldquofolklorerdquo to ldquointangible cultural heritagerdquo and the disciplinersquos contri-bution to the international management of heritage regimes Originating during the period of nation‐building when they formed part of the creation of national cultural heritages collections of folklore represent past repertoires and practices of mostly pre‐industrial (peasant) lifestyles that nowadays often feed various linguistic ethnic or other local revival movements As global power relationships at the turn of the twenty‐first century are creating ever‐shifting discourses of inclusion and exclusion rooted-ness and rights for possession a need to identify and safeguard intangible cultural heritage was postulated leading to the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage adopted in 2003 and commonly known as the Intangible Heritage Convention Although intangible elements had always been included in understanding the significance of heritage places under the World Heritage Convention (1972) this new convention focused on and led to a system for evaluating and safeguarding intangible heritage in its own right

Heritage in the post‐war years was conceived as and called ldquocultural propertyrdquo an understanding and terminology that is still found today in relation to some disciplines (eg anthropology) and some forms of heritage (eg intellectual property) Pertti Anttonen has observed that ldquothe cultural representations that are selected for making heritage‐political claims are commonly called traditions with a special emphasis on their character as cultural properties that is representations with an ownership labelrdquo (Anttonen 2005 39) Ownership lying at the heart of the notion of cultural property has become a major and growing concern since the second half of the twentieth century Folarin Shyllon (Chapter 4) considers these concerns especially in the context of human rights Access to and enjoyment of cultural heritage is considered to be a fundamental cultural right a sub‐category of human rights (Shaheed 2011) It might be argued that a similar right to intellectual property also exists but some intellectual property rights do not fit human rights easily because they are economic and commercial rather than social or cultural Considering cultural heritage as a fundamental human right can raise difficult ethical issues as different cultures tend to regard their own values as universal and those of others where they conflict as culturally contingent The debate on intellectual and by extension cultural property is rather more focused

the new heritage studies 5

on economic value As Shyllon points out some cultural heritage such as the sites inscribed on UNESCOrsquos World Heritage List may be regarded as universal property in the wider sense while intellectual property rights tend to be held as monopolies

Except from a natural law perspective values can be seen as being in the mind this goes even for economic monetary values which are the result of negotiations between actors In contrast artistic linguistic and technical skills can be seen as embodied As an example of a non‐Western approach to intangible heritage Natsuko Akagawa (Chapter 5) examines the philosophy behind Japanese legislation for safeguarding cultural property Her analysis highlights the significance of embodiment as a concept for understanding and dealing with heritage

Landscapes of MemoryRecent decades have seen a growing interest across different contexts in how heritage has been embodied in the land (see Gilbert 2010) Perspectives on this vary from geographical analyses of how hegemonic powers have shaped symbolic landscapes (eg Cosgrove 1984) to accounts of indigenous relationships with the land as an ani-mate being and keeper of memory (eg Blue Spruce and Thrasher 2008) Associative landscapes now serve as the foundation for official designations of heritage origins such as the French terroir discussed by Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) Involving com-munities in identifying and managing heritage landscapes and individual sites has become a key concern moving traditional knowledge systems their contribution to heritage management and the need to support them into the spotlight

However this concern has not necessarily been recognized in the practice of inter-national heritage programs With reference to the Pacific islands Anita Smith (Chapter 7) explores differences in the recognition of traditional knowledge systems in two UNESCO conventions ndash the World Heritage Convention (1972) and the Intangible Heritage Convention (2003) ndash and underlines long‐standing critiques of the World Heritage system as Eurocentric in its determination of Outstanding Universal Value In the late 1990s there was an attempt to establish an indigenous body to advise the World Heritage Committee in accordance with the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (United Nations 2007) While this initiative failed (see Logan 2013 Meskell 2013a) the call has been renewed in recent years (see Disko this volume)

Although in public perception issues of land and landscape are particularly associated with indigenous peoples they also play a major role in other contexts The application by parts of Burgundy in eastern France for World Heritage status is a case in point Using an ldquoethnographic gazerdquo Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) examines different con-ceptions of Burgundy as a re‐territorialized site and the construction of its micro‐regional climats with their historical depth of place as ldquoGod‐givenrdquo naturalized artifacts in the context of global competition where UNESCO designation is prized for con-veying an elite status

The embodiment of heritage in landscapes of memory also raises issues of the rela-tionships between natural and cultural heritage and their frequent separation in the practice of heritage management where different government and non‐government bodies are in charge of different types of heritage and conflicts of interest arise not least from budget constraints and varying lines of responsibility This can be exacerbated where a designated site stretches across one or more political or administrative boundary

6 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

The Curonian Spit shared by Lithuania and Russia is one of only 31 such transnational World Heritage sites where different approaches by the two administrations to environ-mental issues have been problematic (Armaitiene et al 2007) Moreover multiple layers of cultural memory affect the site and its contemporary meaning as heritage for different constituencies (Kockel 2012a) Appropriately contextualizing cultural heri-tages in relation to place and memory has been made difficult by a widespread tendency to treat cultural differences as mere constructs (Kockel and Nic Craith 2015) This is particularly apparent where we are dealing with places of pain and shame

Not all heritage serves as a reminder of a glorious past (Logan and Reeves 2009) In the Lithuanian national open air museum at Rumšiškes near Kaunas the extensive display of farm buildings and machinery as well as the central small town invoke nineteenth‐ and early twentieth‐century Lithuania but close to the center there is a clearing in the woods where the time frame is different Several items including an earthen yurt and a cattle wagon commemorate the deportations of thousands of Lithuanians between 1941 and 1953 when they were sent to the Soviet Gulags (Kockel 2015) Jonathan Webber (Chapter 8) seeks to make sense of Auschwitz designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1979 as a heritage site and landscape of memory Auschwitz means different things to different victim groups in terms of their own histories but also to other visitors Emblematic of ldquoundesirable heri-tagerdquo it is at the same time a powerful symbol a theatre where multiple memorial events are performed and a destination for ldquodarkrdquo tourism attracting large numbers of spectators

Collecting HeritageEver since interest in heritage began to develop the collection of material items and oral testimony has been a central activity aimed at facilitating their preservation This remains so despite a growing critique of museum and archiving practices UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Programme (MoW) is a major initiative for the protection of documentary heritage However with the exception of Charlesworth (2010) it has been largely overlooked in academic research even within the field of heritage studies Against this background Anca Claudia Prodan (Chapter 9) attempts to clarify the main features of the program and to identify points for research MoW is part of UNESCOrsquos policies aimed at building inclusive knowledge societies While acknowledging the contribution of MoW in that regard Prodan argues that in the process of this the program is reduced to being merely a source of information and that it needs to be strengthened by being recontextualized within UNESCOrsquos international system of heritage protection

Artifact collections and the practices employed in accumulating them have come under scrutiny in the context of postcolonial critiques of intercultural relations In 2002 the British Museum and the Louvre together with an international group of major museums issued the Declaration on the Importance and Value of Universal Museums (ICOM 2004) Most of these museums date back to the late eighteenth century before the period of European imperial expansion and the declaration has been widely interpreted as an attempt to guard against claims for the repatriation of much of their collections to the countries of origin Such claims are made not only with regard to indigenous peoples but extend to Western countries such as Greece as the case of the Elgin Marbles illustrates Maurice Mugabowagahunde (Chapter 10)

xviii notes on contributors

Editorrsquos note Dr van Oers passed away unexpectedly on 28 April 2015 while on a UNESCO mission to Lhasa Tibet He made a major contribution to the cultural her-itage field and will be greatly missed

Ona Vileikis is an architect with international experience in World Heritage‐related issues such as risk management monitoring geographic information systems heritage documentation and conservation She is currently a doctoral researcher at the Raymond Lemaire International Centre for Conservation University of Leuven Belgium working on the monitoring of serial transnational World Heritage issues and the use of geospatial content management systems focused on the Central Asia Silk Roads

Ana Filipa Vrdoljak is Professor of Law in the Faculty of Law University of Technology Sydney Australia She is the author of International Law Museums and the Return of Cultural Objects (2006) editor of The Cultural Dimension of Human Rights Law (2013) and joint general editor (with Franceso Francioni) of the Oxford University Press series Cultural Heritage Law and Policy

Jonathan Webber is Professor at the Institute of European Studies Jagiellonian University Krakoacutew Poland He specializes in Jewish studies and Holocaust studies and was a founding member of the International Auschwitz Council serving on it between 1990 and 2012

Gamini Wijesuriya has qualifications in architecture history and historic preservation and archaeology and heritage management He was director of conservation in the Sri Lankan Department of Archaeology between 1982 and 1999 and principal regional scientist in the New Zealand Department of Conservation from 2001 to 2004 Moving to ICCROM in Rome in 2004 he played a key role in developing the 2011 World Heritage Capacity Building Strategy

Tim Winter is Research Professor at the Alfred Deakin Institute for Citizenship and Globalisation Deakin University Melbourne Australia He has published widely on heritage development modernity urban conservation and tourism in Asia He is co‐editor of The Routledge Handbook of Heritage in Asia (2011) and editor of Shanghai Expo An International Forum on the Future of Cities (2013)

Andrea Witcomb is Professor of Cultural Heritage and Museum Studies and deputy director of the Alfred Deakin Institute for Citizenship and Globalisation at Deakin University Melbourne Australia Her work analyzes how museums and heritage sites create spaces for cross‐cultural encounters Her books include Reimagining the Museum Beyond the Mausoleum (2003) and (with Kylie Message) Museum Theory (2015)

Haiming Yan is a sociologist at the Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage Beijing and received his doctorate from the University of Virginia His research interests include cultural sociology memory and heritage and globalization

This volume originated in our desire to address the emergence and nature of the ldquonew heritage studiesrdquo which we see as the exploration of cultural heritage as a construct resulting from processes that give present‐day significance to elements from the past Our conception of the volume was rigorously reviewed by Wiley‐Blackwell For their time and patience we wish especially to thank Rosalie Robertson the initial commis-sioning editor and Ben Thatcher the project editor at Blackwell

We wish to say a special thank you to the contributors to this volume Coming from five continents these scholars were identified on the basis of their innovative ideas practical expertise and international reputation and invited to contribute to this collaborative multidisciplinary project in the cultural heritage field They were a pleasure to work with As the volume has been peer reviewed at every stage from the original proposal to its final production we would also wish to thank everybody who participated in that review process

While this project was in progress Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel moved from the University of Ulster in Northern Ireland to Heriot‐Watt University in Edinburgh and William Logan officially retired but was reappointed as emeritus pro-fessor attached to the Cultural Heritage Centre for Asia and the Pacific and the Alfred Deakin Research Institute at Deakin University in Melbourne We would like to thank our colleagues in all three institutions ndash Deakin University Heriot‐Watt University and the University of Ulster ndash for their continued support

Finally we would like to make a very special mention of Cristina Clopot and Philip Thomas Cristina is currently undertaking her PhD at Heriot‐Watt University but devoted much time and effort in administering the project Philip performed the criti-cal copy editing role with an eagle eye for detail We are very grateful to them both for their enthusiasm and professionalism in the preparation of the materials

William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel

Acknowledgements

ACCU Asia‐Pacific Cultural Centre of UNESCOACHPR African Commission on Human and Peoplesrsquo RightsACHS Association of Critical Heritage Studiesart articleEU European UnionFPIC free prior and informed consentGDP gross domestic productGIS geographic information systemGeoCMS geospatial content management systemsICCROM International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration

of Cultural PropertyICOM International Council of MuseumsICOMOS International Council on Monuments and SitesIUCN International Union for the Conservation of NatureIWGIA International Work Group for Indigenous AffairsMoW Memory of the World ProgrammeMDGs Millennium Development GoalsNGO non‐governmental organizationOHCR Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rightspara paragraphPOW prisoner of warsec sectionUN United NationsUNCERD United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial DiscriminationUNCESCR United Nations Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights

List of Abbreviations

list of abbreviations xxi

UNCEHR United Nations Commission on Human RightsUNDESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social AffairsUNDG United Nations Development GroupUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural OrganizationUNGA United Nations General AssemblyUN‐Habitat United Nations Human Settlements ProgrammeUNHRC United Nations Human Rights CouncilUNPFII United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous IssuesUNSC United Nations Security CouncilWHIPCOE World Heritage Indigenous Peoples Council of ExpertsWIPO World Intellectual Property OrganizationWTO World Trade Organization

Chapter 1

A Companion to Heritage Studies First Edition Edited by William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel copy 2016 John Wiley amp Sons Inc Published 2016 by John Wiley amp Sons Inc

The New Heritage Studies Origins and Evolution Problems and Prospects

William Logan Ullrich Kockel and Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith

Heritage and heritage studies have evolved in quite astounding ways over the last sixty years Nobody could have imagined when the Venice Charter (ICASHB 1964) jump‐started the heritage profession in the aftermath of World War II that there would be a veritable heritage boom in the 1990s and continuing into the twenty‐first century Who would have predicted that so much attention would now be paid to protecting environmental features material culture and living traditions from the past or the vast numbers of community members policy‐makers practitioners and scholars engaged in caring for managing and studying heritage Who would have foreseen the explosion of heritage‐based cultural tourism the reconfiguration of heritage as an economic asset and a World Heritage List comprising of more than a thousand properties spread around the globe

This volume seeks to investigate the story of expansion in heritage and heritage studies Containing 37 chapters commissioned from 44 scholars and practitioners from 5 continents it is designed to provide an up‐to‐date international analysis of the field the steady broadening of the concept of heritage and its social economic and political uses the difficulties that often arise from such uses and current trends in heritage scholarship Starting from a position of seeing ldquoheritagerdquo as a mental construct that attributes ldquosignificancerdquo to certain places artifacts and forms of behavior from the past through processes that are essentially political we see heritage conservation not merely as a technical or managerial matter but as cultural practice a form of cultural politics

CHaPTEr 1

2 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

We are interested in the different extent to which various groups within global national and local communities are able to participate in heritage identification interpretation and management Moreover we want to address the extent to which communities have access to and enjoy heritage once it has been officially recognized conserved or safeguarded This interest inevitably leads to human rights consider-ations to developing closer intellectual links with international lawyers and others in the human rights field and to strengthening both the multidisciplinary nature of heri-tage studies and what we sees as the critical relationship between theory and practice

Whether this new vision of heritage studies represents a ldquoparadigm shiftrdquo or only the culmination of changes already occurring in the heritage studies field since the late 1980s is an issue we will discuss later For now let us go back to the fieldrsquos origins and interpret its evolution

Expanding HEritagE

When ideas of ldquoheritagerdquo were initially formalized their focus was on monuments and sites This was especially the case in Europe from where these ideas spread across the British French and other European empires and the anglophone United States (Nic Craith 2007) Writer‐practitioners such as John Ruskin and Nikolaus Pevsner in England and Eugegravene Viollet‐le‐Duc in France were enormously influential in the early days of heritage identification and protection From these beginnings heritage planners around the world have sought to protect broad areas of historic aesthetic architectural or scientific interest Although there is considerable variation across the world most countries now attempt to protect as official policy and through professional practice a much wider range of features than they did 60 years ago

It was gradually realized for instance that the protection of a monument or building was not in itself enough and that good conservation work was often being rendered ineffective by unsympathetic developments allowed to occur in front of beside behind or even over heritage buildings Attention therefore extended to the precincts around major monuments and buildings A further extension of interest took place in 1962 when Andreacute Malraux then the French minister for culture first established planning regulations (known as the loi Malraux) designed to protect and enhance the historic features of the Marais district of Paris The English were also expanding their focus at about this time to take in conservation areas the first of which were designated in 1967 England now has over 8000 protected areas including the centers of historic towns and cities fishing and mining villages eighteenth‐ and nineteenth‐century suburbs model housing estates and historic transport links and their environs such as stretches of canal (English Heritage nd)

At the international level the World Heritage List established under UNESCOrsquos Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972) or as it is commonly known the World Heritage Convention now contains a large number of cities inscribed for what the convention calls their Outstanding Universal Value An Organization of World Heritage Cities founded in 1993 with headquarters in Quebec City today brings together 250 cities that are either inscribed or have inscribed sites within them (OWHC 2014) In 1992 the World Heritage Committee added the new category of ldquocultural landscapesrdquo to the World Heritage system to allow recognition of places presenting a blend of cultural and natural elements Twenty years

the new heritage studies 3

later the landscape concept was translated into urban areas as the ldquohistoric urban landscaperdquo blending modern and historic architectural and urban design forms rather than natural and cultural elements but nevertheless emphasizing like cultural landscapes the need for a holistic view of the environment and a sensitive balanced approach to new human interventions

Vernacular structures are now seen as being of cultural heritage interest that is structures that are not architect‐designed but owner‐ or community‐built using avail-able resources and traditional techniques So too are industrial structures Publications by Miles Lewis (1977) Paul Oliver (1997) and William Siew Wai Lim and Tan Hock Beng (1998) began to fill in major gaps in the tangible heritage literature More recently there has been considerable heritage interest internationally in ldquocultural routesrdquo The Council of Europe in 1987 established a program of European cultural routes that is managed from a specialized institute located in Luxembourg The pro-gramrsquos first initiative is the Santiago de Compostela Route the famous Christian pilgrimage route of the Middle Ages In the United States and Canada efforts have been made to commemorate the Underground Railroad ndash the route taken by slaves trying to reach freedom before the Civil War ndash by protecting a series of key sites along its length In Asia UNESCO is supporting the Silk Road Project for developing cultural heritage and cultural tourism along the traditional routes of the silk trade between south‐eastern Europe and China

In the international development field there was a marked shift in the 1990s in the attitude of key agencies such as the World Bank towards cultural heritage Rather than seeing cultural heritage protection as an obstacle to development it is now recognized that the two can go hand in hand to bring about more effective programs to raise standards of living in developing countries and elsewhere (Logan 2003 xxi)

Neil Silberman (Chapter 2) explores the evolving heritage conception and the changing forms and functions of heritage places from their initial validation as national institutions in the early nineteenth century to their multicultural context in the early twenty‐first century He shows that the meanings and values of heritage places are neither static nor inherent but ascribed by particular social groups choosing to empha-size or ignore particular items or aspects for social and political purposes Romantic nationalism led to a first ldquoheritage boomrdquo during the emergence of nation‐states in nineteenth‐century Europe as commemorative sites and structures were created to serve as tangible evidence of a nationrsquos pedigree harmonizing the diverse populations of nations into singularly national peoples or sometimes re‐fragmenting them laying the foundations for new identity claims in the future Already by the late nineteenth century accelerating domestic and international tourism engendered a second ldquoheritage boomrdquo albeit differently motivated the new ldquoheritage touristsrdquo on their quest for his-torical authenticity and exotic landscapes as means of (however temporary) escape from modern industrial life dominated by economic calculus contradictorily created the demand that allowed for the commoditization of built heritage as a ldquocultural resourcerdquo

A focus on the built environment is arguably based on a European concept of cultural heritage which is entirely appropriate for an environment dealing largely with the conservation of buildings made of stone brick and other durable materials (Logan 2006) This view of heritage has been frequently criticized Walled cities cathedrals and eye‐catching landscape formations like the Giantrsquos Causeway in Northern Ireland heavily dominate the list of European World Heritage sites This contrasts starkly with the concept of permanency found on other continents An example of this is the

4 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

imperial shrine at Ise Japan From a Western perspective this shrine hardly qualifies as ldquooldrdquo since it is rebuilt every twenty years However from a Japanese perspective it is old because it is rebuilt ldquoin exactly the same way ndash using the same ancient instru-ments materials ndash with each step of the process marked by appropriate ancient ritualsrdquo (Sahlins 2002 9)

Although heritage has for a long time been defined primarily in terms of material objects as ldquotangible heritagerdquo there has been a parallel interest in what is nowadays called ldquointangible heritagerdquo which for most of the past two centuries however remained in the shadow of the more prominent heritage of material objects and the built environment To some extent and in some parts of the world particularly Europe North America and Australia this reflects the different social and political status of the signified whereas monuments works of fine art castles and cathedrals materially and visually project and transmit the heritage of the hegemony folk songs and wisdom as with many other traditional skills tend to project and transmit heritage of the lower classes non‐materially and orally

Kristin Kuutma (Chapter 3) traces the emergence of folklore as an academic discipline and its subsequent involvement in cultural policy‐making including the contemporary transition from ldquofolklorerdquo to ldquointangible cultural heritagerdquo and the disciplinersquos contri-bution to the international management of heritage regimes Originating during the period of nation‐building when they formed part of the creation of national cultural heritages collections of folklore represent past repertoires and practices of mostly pre‐industrial (peasant) lifestyles that nowadays often feed various linguistic ethnic or other local revival movements As global power relationships at the turn of the twenty‐first century are creating ever‐shifting discourses of inclusion and exclusion rooted-ness and rights for possession a need to identify and safeguard intangible cultural heritage was postulated leading to the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage adopted in 2003 and commonly known as the Intangible Heritage Convention Although intangible elements had always been included in understanding the significance of heritage places under the World Heritage Convention (1972) this new convention focused on and led to a system for evaluating and safeguarding intangible heritage in its own right

Heritage in the post‐war years was conceived as and called ldquocultural propertyrdquo an understanding and terminology that is still found today in relation to some disciplines (eg anthropology) and some forms of heritage (eg intellectual property) Pertti Anttonen has observed that ldquothe cultural representations that are selected for making heritage‐political claims are commonly called traditions with a special emphasis on their character as cultural properties that is representations with an ownership labelrdquo (Anttonen 2005 39) Ownership lying at the heart of the notion of cultural property has become a major and growing concern since the second half of the twentieth century Folarin Shyllon (Chapter 4) considers these concerns especially in the context of human rights Access to and enjoyment of cultural heritage is considered to be a fundamental cultural right a sub‐category of human rights (Shaheed 2011) It might be argued that a similar right to intellectual property also exists but some intellectual property rights do not fit human rights easily because they are economic and commercial rather than social or cultural Considering cultural heritage as a fundamental human right can raise difficult ethical issues as different cultures tend to regard their own values as universal and those of others where they conflict as culturally contingent The debate on intellectual and by extension cultural property is rather more focused

the new heritage studies 5

on economic value As Shyllon points out some cultural heritage such as the sites inscribed on UNESCOrsquos World Heritage List may be regarded as universal property in the wider sense while intellectual property rights tend to be held as monopolies

Except from a natural law perspective values can be seen as being in the mind this goes even for economic monetary values which are the result of negotiations between actors In contrast artistic linguistic and technical skills can be seen as embodied As an example of a non‐Western approach to intangible heritage Natsuko Akagawa (Chapter 5) examines the philosophy behind Japanese legislation for safeguarding cultural property Her analysis highlights the significance of embodiment as a concept for understanding and dealing with heritage

Landscapes of MemoryRecent decades have seen a growing interest across different contexts in how heritage has been embodied in the land (see Gilbert 2010) Perspectives on this vary from geographical analyses of how hegemonic powers have shaped symbolic landscapes (eg Cosgrove 1984) to accounts of indigenous relationships with the land as an ani-mate being and keeper of memory (eg Blue Spruce and Thrasher 2008) Associative landscapes now serve as the foundation for official designations of heritage origins such as the French terroir discussed by Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) Involving com-munities in identifying and managing heritage landscapes and individual sites has become a key concern moving traditional knowledge systems their contribution to heritage management and the need to support them into the spotlight

However this concern has not necessarily been recognized in the practice of inter-national heritage programs With reference to the Pacific islands Anita Smith (Chapter 7) explores differences in the recognition of traditional knowledge systems in two UNESCO conventions ndash the World Heritage Convention (1972) and the Intangible Heritage Convention (2003) ndash and underlines long‐standing critiques of the World Heritage system as Eurocentric in its determination of Outstanding Universal Value In the late 1990s there was an attempt to establish an indigenous body to advise the World Heritage Committee in accordance with the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (United Nations 2007) While this initiative failed (see Logan 2013 Meskell 2013a) the call has been renewed in recent years (see Disko this volume)

Although in public perception issues of land and landscape are particularly associated with indigenous peoples they also play a major role in other contexts The application by parts of Burgundy in eastern France for World Heritage status is a case in point Using an ldquoethnographic gazerdquo Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) examines different con-ceptions of Burgundy as a re‐territorialized site and the construction of its micro‐regional climats with their historical depth of place as ldquoGod‐givenrdquo naturalized artifacts in the context of global competition where UNESCO designation is prized for con-veying an elite status

The embodiment of heritage in landscapes of memory also raises issues of the rela-tionships between natural and cultural heritage and their frequent separation in the practice of heritage management where different government and non‐government bodies are in charge of different types of heritage and conflicts of interest arise not least from budget constraints and varying lines of responsibility This can be exacerbated where a designated site stretches across one or more political or administrative boundary

6 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

The Curonian Spit shared by Lithuania and Russia is one of only 31 such transnational World Heritage sites where different approaches by the two administrations to environ-mental issues have been problematic (Armaitiene et al 2007) Moreover multiple layers of cultural memory affect the site and its contemporary meaning as heritage for different constituencies (Kockel 2012a) Appropriately contextualizing cultural heri-tages in relation to place and memory has been made difficult by a widespread tendency to treat cultural differences as mere constructs (Kockel and Nic Craith 2015) This is particularly apparent where we are dealing with places of pain and shame

Not all heritage serves as a reminder of a glorious past (Logan and Reeves 2009) In the Lithuanian national open air museum at Rumšiškes near Kaunas the extensive display of farm buildings and machinery as well as the central small town invoke nineteenth‐ and early twentieth‐century Lithuania but close to the center there is a clearing in the woods where the time frame is different Several items including an earthen yurt and a cattle wagon commemorate the deportations of thousands of Lithuanians between 1941 and 1953 when they were sent to the Soviet Gulags (Kockel 2015) Jonathan Webber (Chapter 8) seeks to make sense of Auschwitz designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1979 as a heritage site and landscape of memory Auschwitz means different things to different victim groups in terms of their own histories but also to other visitors Emblematic of ldquoundesirable heri-tagerdquo it is at the same time a powerful symbol a theatre where multiple memorial events are performed and a destination for ldquodarkrdquo tourism attracting large numbers of spectators

Collecting HeritageEver since interest in heritage began to develop the collection of material items and oral testimony has been a central activity aimed at facilitating their preservation This remains so despite a growing critique of museum and archiving practices UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Programme (MoW) is a major initiative for the protection of documentary heritage However with the exception of Charlesworth (2010) it has been largely overlooked in academic research even within the field of heritage studies Against this background Anca Claudia Prodan (Chapter 9) attempts to clarify the main features of the program and to identify points for research MoW is part of UNESCOrsquos policies aimed at building inclusive knowledge societies While acknowledging the contribution of MoW in that regard Prodan argues that in the process of this the program is reduced to being merely a source of information and that it needs to be strengthened by being recontextualized within UNESCOrsquos international system of heritage protection

Artifact collections and the practices employed in accumulating them have come under scrutiny in the context of postcolonial critiques of intercultural relations In 2002 the British Museum and the Louvre together with an international group of major museums issued the Declaration on the Importance and Value of Universal Museums (ICOM 2004) Most of these museums date back to the late eighteenth century before the period of European imperial expansion and the declaration has been widely interpreted as an attempt to guard against claims for the repatriation of much of their collections to the countries of origin Such claims are made not only with regard to indigenous peoples but extend to Western countries such as Greece as the case of the Elgin Marbles illustrates Maurice Mugabowagahunde (Chapter 10)

This volume originated in our desire to address the emergence and nature of the ldquonew heritage studiesrdquo which we see as the exploration of cultural heritage as a construct resulting from processes that give present‐day significance to elements from the past Our conception of the volume was rigorously reviewed by Wiley‐Blackwell For their time and patience we wish especially to thank Rosalie Robertson the initial commis-sioning editor and Ben Thatcher the project editor at Blackwell

We wish to say a special thank you to the contributors to this volume Coming from five continents these scholars were identified on the basis of their innovative ideas practical expertise and international reputation and invited to contribute to this collaborative multidisciplinary project in the cultural heritage field They were a pleasure to work with As the volume has been peer reviewed at every stage from the original proposal to its final production we would also wish to thank everybody who participated in that review process

While this project was in progress Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel moved from the University of Ulster in Northern Ireland to Heriot‐Watt University in Edinburgh and William Logan officially retired but was reappointed as emeritus pro-fessor attached to the Cultural Heritage Centre for Asia and the Pacific and the Alfred Deakin Research Institute at Deakin University in Melbourne We would like to thank our colleagues in all three institutions ndash Deakin University Heriot‐Watt University and the University of Ulster ndash for their continued support

Finally we would like to make a very special mention of Cristina Clopot and Philip Thomas Cristina is currently undertaking her PhD at Heriot‐Watt University but devoted much time and effort in administering the project Philip performed the criti-cal copy editing role with an eagle eye for detail We are very grateful to them both for their enthusiasm and professionalism in the preparation of the materials

William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel

Acknowledgements

ACCU Asia‐Pacific Cultural Centre of UNESCOACHPR African Commission on Human and Peoplesrsquo RightsACHS Association of Critical Heritage Studiesart articleEU European UnionFPIC free prior and informed consentGDP gross domestic productGIS geographic information systemGeoCMS geospatial content management systemsICCROM International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration

of Cultural PropertyICOM International Council of MuseumsICOMOS International Council on Monuments and SitesIUCN International Union for the Conservation of NatureIWGIA International Work Group for Indigenous AffairsMoW Memory of the World ProgrammeMDGs Millennium Development GoalsNGO non‐governmental organizationOHCR Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rightspara paragraphPOW prisoner of warsec sectionUN United NationsUNCERD United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial DiscriminationUNCESCR United Nations Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights

List of Abbreviations

list of abbreviations xxi

UNCEHR United Nations Commission on Human RightsUNDESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social AffairsUNDG United Nations Development GroupUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural OrganizationUNGA United Nations General AssemblyUN‐Habitat United Nations Human Settlements ProgrammeUNHRC United Nations Human Rights CouncilUNPFII United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous IssuesUNSC United Nations Security CouncilWHIPCOE World Heritage Indigenous Peoples Council of ExpertsWIPO World Intellectual Property OrganizationWTO World Trade Organization

Chapter 1

A Companion to Heritage Studies First Edition Edited by William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel copy 2016 John Wiley amp Sons Inc Published 2016 by John Wiley amp Sons Inc

The New Heritage Studies Origins and Evolution Problems and Prospects

William Logan Ullrich Kockel and Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith

Heritage and heritage studies have evolved in quite astounding ways over the last sixty years Nobody could have imagined when the Venice Charter (ICASHB 1964) jump‐started the heritage profession in the aftermath of World War II that there would be a veritable heritage boom in the 1990s and continuing into the twenty‐first century Who would have predicted that so much attention would now be paid to protecting environmental features material culture and living traditions from the past or the vast numbers of community members policy‐makers practitioners and scholars engaged in caring for managing and studying heritage Who would have foreseen the explosion of heritage‐based cultural tourism the reconfiguration of heritage as an economic asset and a World Heritage List comprising of more than a thousand properties spread around the globe

This volume seeks to investigate the story of expansion in heritage and heritage studies Containing 37 chapters commissioned from 44 scholars and practitioners from 5 continents it is designed to provide an up‐to‐date international analysis of the field the steady broadening of the concept of heritage and its social economic and political uses the difficulties that often arise from such uses and current trends in heritage scholarship Starting from a position of seeing ldquoheritagerdquo as a mental construct that attributes ldquosignificancerdquo to certain places artifacts and forms of behavior from the past through processes that are essentially political we see heritage conservation not merely as a technical or managerial matter but as cultural practice a form of cultural politics

CHaPTEr 1

2 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

We are interested in the different extent to which various groups within global national and local communities are able to participate in heritage identification interpretation and management Moreover we want to address the extent to which communities have access to and enjoy heritage once it has been officially recognized conserved or safeguarded This interest inevitably leads to human rights consider-ations to developing closer intellectual links with international lawyers and others in the human rights field and to strengthening both the multidisciplinary nature of heri-tage studies and what we sees as the critical relationship between theory and practice

Whether this new vision of heritage studies represents a ldquoparadigm shiftrdquo or only the culmination of changes already occurring in the heritage studies field since the late 1980s is an issue we will discuss later For now let us go back to the fieldrsquos origins and interpret its evolution

Expanding HEritagE

When ideas of ldquoheritagerdquo were initially formalized their focus was on monuments and sites This was especially the case in Europe from where these ideas spread across the British French and other European empires and the anglophone United States (Nic Craith 2007) Writer‐practitioners such as John Ruskin and Nikolaus Pevsner in England and Eugegravene Viollet‐le‐Duc in France were enormously influential in the early days of heritage identification and protection From these beginnings heritage planners around the world have sought to protect broad areas of historic aesthetic architectural or scientific interest Although there is considerable variation across the world most countries now attempt to protect as official policy and through professional practice a much wider range of features than they did 60 years ago

It was gradually realized for instance that the protection of a monument or building was not in itself enough and that good conservation work was often being rendered ineffective by unsympathetic developments allowed to occur in front of beside behind or even over heritage buildings Attention therefore extended to the precincts around major monuments and buildings A further extension of interest took place in 1962 when Andreacute Malraux then the French minister for culture first established planning regulations (known as the loi Malraux) designed to protect and enhance the historic features of the Marais district of Paris The English were also expanding their focus at about this time to take in conservation areas the first of which were designated in 1967 England now has over 8000 protected areas including the centers of historic towns and cities fishing and mining villages eighteenth‐ and nineteenth‐century suburbs model housing estates and historic transport links and their environs such as stretches of canal (English Heritage nd)

At the international level the World Heritage List established under UNESCOrsquos Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972) or as it is commonly known the World Heritage Convention now contains a large number of cities inscribed for what the convention calls their Outstanding Universal Value An Organization of World Heritage Cities founded in 1993 with headquarters in Quebec City today brings together 250 cities that are either inscribed or have inscribed sites within them (OWHC 2014) In 1992 the World Heritage Committee added the new category of ldquocultural landscapesrdquo to the World Heritage system to allow recognition of places presenting a blend of cultural and natural elements Twenty years

the new heritage studies 3

later the landscape concept was translated into urban areas as the ldquohistoric urban landscaperdquo blending modern and historic architectural and urban design forms rather than natural and cultural elements but nevertheless emphasizing like cultural landscapes the need for a holistic view of the environment and a sensitive balanced approach to new human interventions

Vernacular structures are now seen as being of cultural heritage interest that is structures that are not architect‐designed but owner‐ or community‐built using avail-able resources and traditional techniques So too are industrial structures Publications by Miles Lewis (1977) Paul Oliver (1997) and William Siew Wai Lim and Tan Hock Beng (1998) began to fill in major gaps in the tangible heritage literature More recently there has been considerable heritage interest internationally in ldquocultural routesrdquo The Council of Europe in 1987 established a program of European cultural routes that is managed from a specialized institute located in Luxembourg The pro-gramrsquos first initiative is the Santiago de Compostela Route the famous Christian pilgrimage route of the Middle Ages In the United States and Canada efforts have been made to commemorate the Underground Railroad ndash the route taken by slaves trying to reach freedom before the Civil War ndash by protecting a series of key sites along its length In Asia UNESCO is supporting the Silk Road Project for developing cultural heritage and cultural tourism along the traditional routes of the silk trade between south‐eastern Europe and China

In the international development field there was a marked shift in the 1990s in the attitude of key agencies such as the World Bank towards cultural heritage Rather than seeing cultural heritage protection as an obstacle to development it is now recognized that the two can go hand in hand to bring about more effective programs to raise standards of living in developing countries and elsewhere (Logan 2003 xxi)

Neil Silberman (Chapter 2) explores the evolving heritage conception and the changing forms and functions of heritage places from their initial validation as national institutions in the early nineteenth century to their multicultural context in the early twenty‐first century He shows that the meanings and values of heritage places are neither static nor inherent but ascribed by particular social groups choosing to empha-size or ignore particular items or aspects for social and political purposes Romantic nationalism led to a first ldquoheritage boomrdquo during the emergence of nation‐states in nineteenth‐century Europe as commemorative sites and structures were created to serve as tangible evidence of a nationrsquos pedigree harmonizing the diverse populations of nations into singularly national peoples or sometimes re‐fragmenting them laying the foundations for new identity claims in the future Already by the late nineteenth century accelerating domestic and international tourism engendered a second ldquoheritage boomrdquo albeit differently motivated the new ldquoheritage touristsrdquo on their quest for his-torical authenticity and exotic landscapes as means of (however temporary) escape from modern industrial life dominated by economic calculus contradictorily created the demand that allowed for the commoditization of built heritage as a ldquocultural resourcerdquo

A focus on the built environment is arguably based on a European concept of cultural heritage which is entirely appropriate for an environment dealing largely with the conservation of buildings made of stone brick and other durable materials (Logan 2006) This view of heritage has been frequently criticized Walled cities cathedrals and eye‐catching landscape formations like the Giantrsquos Causeway in Northern Ireland heavily dominate the list of European World Heritage sites This contrasts starkly with the concept of permanency found on other continents An example of this is the

4 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

imperial shrine at Ise Japan From a Western perspective this shrine hardly qualifies as ldquooldrdquo since it is rebuilt every twenty years However from a Japanese perspective it is old because it is rebuilt ldquoin exactly the same way ndash using the same ancient instru-ments materials ndash with each step of the process marked by appropriate ancient ritualsrdquo (Sahlins 2002 9)

Although heritage has for a long time been defined primarily in terms of material objects as ldquotangible heritagerdquo there has been a parallel interest in what is nowadays called ldquointangible heritagerdquo which for most of the past two centuries however remained in the shadow of the more prominent heritage of material objects and the built environment To some extent and in some parts of the world particularly Europe North America and Australia this reflects the different social and political status of the signified whereas monuments works of fine art castles and cathedrals materially and visually project and transmit the heritage of the hegemony folk songs and wisdom as with many other traditional skills tend to project and transmit heritage of the lower classes non‐materially and orally

Kristin Kuutma (Chapter 3) traces the emergence of folklore as an academic discipline and its subsequent involvement in cultural policy‐making including the contemporary transition from ldquofolklorerdquo to ldquointangible cultural heritagerdquo and the disciplinersquos contri-bution to the international management of heritage regimes Originating during the period of nation‐building when they formed part of the creation of national cultural heritages collections of folklore represent past repertoires and practices of mostly pre‐industrial (peasant) lifestyles that nowadays often feed various linguistic ethnic or other local revival movements As global power relationships at the turn of the twenty‐first century are creating ever‐shifting discourses of inclusion and exclusion rooted-ness and rights for possession a need to identify and safeguard intangible cultural heritage was postulated leading to the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage adopted in 2003 and commonly known as the Intangible Heritage Convention Although intangible elements had always been included in understanding the significance of heritage places under the World Heritage Convention (1972) this new convention focused on and led to a system for evaluating and safeguarding intangible heritage in its own right

Heritage in the post‐war years was conceived as and called ldquocultural propertyrdquo an understanding and terminology that is still found today in relation to some disciplines (eg anthropology) and some forms of heritage (eg intellectual property) Pertti Anttonen has observed that ldquothe cultural representations that are selected for making heritage‐political claims are commonly called traditions with a special emphasis on their character as cultural properties that is representations with an ownership labelrdquo (Anttonen 2005 39) Ownership lying at the heart of the notion of cultural property has become a major and growing concern since the second half of the twentieth century Folarin Shyllon (Chapter 4) considers these concerns especially in the context of human rights Access to and enjoyment of cultural heritage is considered to be a fundamental cultural right a sub‐category of human rights (Shaheed 2011) It might be argued that a similar right to intellectual property also exists but some intellectual property rights do not fit human rights easily because they are economic and commercial rather than social or cultural Considering cultural heritage as a fundamental human right can raise difficult ethical issues as different cultures tend to regard their own values as universal and those of others where they conflict as culturally contingent The debate on intellectual and by extension cultural property is rather more focused

the new heritage studies 5

on economic value As Shyllon points out some cultural heritage such as the sites inscribed on UNESCOrsquos World Heritage List may be regarded as universal property in the wider sense while intellectual property rights tend to be held as monopolies

Except from a natural law perspective values can be seen as being in the mind this goes even for economic monetary values which are the result of negotiations between actors In contrast artistic linguistic and technical skills can be seen as embodied As an example of a non‐Western approach to intangible heritage Natsuko Akagawa (Chapter 5) examines the philosophy behind Japanese legislation for safeguarding cultural property Her analysis highlights the significance of embodiment as a concept for understanding and dealing with heritage

Landscapes of MemoryRecent decades have seen a growing interest across different contexts in how heritage has been embodied in the land (see Gilbert 2010) Perspectives on this vary from geographical analyses of how hegemonic powers have shaped symbolic landscapes (eg Cosgrove 1984) to accounts of indigenous relationships with the land as an ani-mate being and keeper of memory (eg Blue Spruce and Thrasher 2008) Associative landscapes now serve as the foundation for official designations of heritage origins such as the French terroir discussed by Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) Involving com-munities in identifying and managing heritage landscapes and individual sites has become a key concern moving traditional knowledge systems their contribution to heritage management and the need to support them into the spotlight

However this concern has not necessarily been recognized in the practice of inter-national heritage programs With reference to the Pacific islands Anita Smith (Chapter 7) explores differences in the recognition of traditional knowledge systems in two UNESCO conventions ndash the World Heritage Convention (1972) and the Intangible Heritage Convention (2003) ndash and underlines long‐standing critiques of the World Heritage system as Eurocentric in its determination of Outstanding Universal Value In the late 1990s there was an attempt to establish an indigenous body to advise the World Heritage Committee in accordance with the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (United Nations 2007) While this initiative failed (see Logan 2013 Meskell 2013a) the call has been renewed in recent years (see Disko this volume)

Although in public perception issues of land and landscape are particularly associated with indigenous peoples they also play a major role in other contexts The application by parts of Burgundy in eastern France for World Heritage status is a case in point Using an ldquoethnographic gazerdquo Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) examines different con-ceptions of Burgundy as a re‐territorialized site and the construction of its micro‐regional climats with their historical depth of place as ldquoGod‐givenrdquo naturalized artifacts in the context of global competition where UNESCO designation is prized for con-veying an elite status

The embodiment of heritage in landscapes of memory also raises issues of the rela-tionships between natural and cultural heritage and their frequent separation in the practice of heritage management where different government and non‐government bodies are in charge of different types of heritage and conflicts of interest arise not least from budget constraints and varying lines of responsibility This can be exacerbated where a designated site stretches across one or more political or administrative boundary

6 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

The Curonian Spit shared by Lithuania and Russia is one of only 31 such transnational World Heritage sites where different approaches by the two administrations to environ-mental issues have been problematic (Armaitiene et al 2007) Moreover multiple layers of cultural memory affect the site and its contemporary meaning as heritage for different constituencies (Kockel 2012a) Appropriately contextualizing cultural heri-tages in relation to place and memory has been made difficult by a widespread tendency to treat cultural differences as mere constructs (Kockel and Nic Craith 2015) This is particularly apparent where we are dealing with places of pain and shame

Not all heritage serves as a reminder of a glorious past (Logan and Reeves 2009) In the Lithuanian national open air museum at Rumšiškes near Kaunas the extensive display of farm buildings and machinery as well as the central small town invoke nineteenth‐ and early twentieth‐century Lithuania but close to the center there is a clearing in the woods where the time frame is different Several items including an earthen yurt and a cattle wagon commemorate the deportations of thousands of Lithuanians between 1941 and 1953 when they were sent to the Soviet Gulags (Kockel 2015) Jonathan Webber (Chapter 8) seeks to make sense of Auschwitz designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1979 as a heritage site and landscape of memory Auschwitz means different things to different victim groups in terms of their own histories but also to other visitors Emblematic of ldquoundesirable heri-tagerdquo it is at the same time a powerful symbol a theatre where multiple memorial events are performed and a destination for ldquodarkrdquo tourism attracting large numbers of spectators

Collecting HeritageEver since interest in heritage began to develop the collection of material items and oral testimony has been a central activity aimed at facilitating their preservation This remains so despite a growing critique of museum and archiving practices UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Programme (MoW) is a major initiative for the protection of documentary heritage However with the exception of Charlesworth (2010) it has been largely overlooked in academic research even within the field of heritage studies Against this background Anca Claudia Prodan (Chapter 9) attempts to clarify the main features of the program and to identify points for research MoW is part of UNESCOrsquos policies aimed at building inclusive knowledge societies While acknowledging the contribution of MoW in that regard Prodan argues that in the process of this the program is reduced to being merely a source of information and that it needs to be strengthened by being recontextualized within UNESCOrsquos international system of heritage protection

Artifact collections and the practices employed in accumulating them have come under scrutiny in the context of postcolonial critiques of intercultural relations In 2002 the British Museum and the Louvre together with an international group of major museums issued the Declaration on the Importance and Value of Universal Museums (ICOM 2004) Most of these museums date back to the late eighteenth century before the period of European imperial expansion and the declaration has been widely interpreted as an attempt to guard against claims for the repatriation of much of their collections to the countries of origin Such claims are made not only with regard to indigenous peoples but extend to Western countries such as Greece as the case of the Elgin Marbles illustrates Maurice Mugabowagahunde (Chapter 10)

ACCU Asia‐Pacific Cultural Centre of UNESCOACHPR African Commission on Human and Peoplesrsquo RightsACHS Association of Critical Heritage Studiesart articleEU European UnionFPIC free prior and informed consentGDP gross domestic productGIS geographic information systemGeoCMS geospatial content management systemsICCROM International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration

of Cultural PropertyICOM International Council of MuseumsICOMOS International Council on Monuments and SitesIUCN International Union for the Conservation of NatureIWGIA International Work Group for Indigenous AffairsMoW Memory of the World ProgrammeMDGs Millennium Development GoalsNGO non‐governmental organizationOHCR Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rightspara paragraphPOW prisoner of warsec sectionUN United NationsUNCERD United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial DiscriminationUNCESCR United Nations Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights

List of Abbreviations

list of abbreviations xxi

UNCEHR United Nations Commission on Human RightsUNDESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social AffairsUNDG United Nations Development GroupUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural OrganizationUNGA United Nations General AssemblyUN‐Habitat United Nations Human Settlements ProgrammeUNHRC United Nations Human Rights CouncilUNPFII United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous IssuesUNSC United Nations Security CouncilWHIPCOE World Heritage Indigenous Peoples Council of ExpertsWIPO World Intellectual Property OrganizationWTO World Trade Organization

Chapter 1

A Companion to Heritage Studies First Edition Edited by William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel copy 2016 John Wiley amp Sons Inc Published 2016 by John Wiley amp Sons Inc

The New Heritage Studies Origins and Evolution Problems and Prospects

William Logan Ullrich Kockel and Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith

Heritage and heritage studies have evolved in quite astounding ways over the last sixty years Nobody could have imagined when the Venice Charter (ICASHB 1964) jump‐started the heritage profession in the aftermath of World War II that there would be a veritable heritage boom in the 1990s and continuing into the twenty‐first century Who would have predicted that so much attention would now be paid to protecting environmental features material culture and living traditions from the past or the vast numbers of community members policy‐makers practitioners and scholars engaged in caring for managing and studying heritage Who would have foreseen the explosion of heritage‐based cultural tourism the reconfiguration of heritage as an economic asset and a World Heritage List comprising of more than a thousand properties spread around the globe

This volume seeks to investigate the story of expansion in heritage and heritage studies Containing 37 chapters commissioned from 44 scholars and practitioners from 5 continents it is designed to provide an up‐to‐date international analysis of the field the steady broadening of the concept of heritage and its social economic and political uses the difficulties that often arise from such uses and current trends in heritage scholarship Starting from a position of seeing ldquoheritagerdquo as a mental construct that attributes ldquosignificancerdquo to certain places artifacts and forms of behavior from the past through processes that are essentially political we see heritage conservation not merely as a technical or managerial matter but as cultural practice a form of cultural politics

CHaPTEr 1

2 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

We are interested in the different extent to which various groups within global national and local communities are able to participate in heritage identification interpretation and management Moreover we want to address the extent to which communities have access to and enjoy heritage once it has been officially recognized conserved or safeguarded This interest inevitably leads to human rights consider-ations to developing closer intellectual links with international lawyers and others in the human rights field and to strengthening both the multidisciplinary nature of heri-tage studies and what we sees as the critical relationship between theory and practice

Whether this new vision of heritage studies represents a ldquoparadigm shiftrdquo or only the culmination of changes already occurring in the heritage studies field since the late 1980s is an issue we will discuss later For now let us go back to the fieldrsquos origins and interpret its evolution

Expanding HEritagE

When ideas of ldquoheritagerdquo were initially formalized their focus was on monuments and sites This was especially the case in Europe from where these ideas spread across the British French and other European empires and the anglophone United States (Nic Craith 2007) Writer‐practitioners such as John Ruskin and Nikolaus Pevsner in England and Eugegravene Viollet‐le‐Duc in France were enormously influential in the early days of heritage identification and protection From these beginnings heritage planners around the world have sought to protect broad areas of historic aesthetic architectural or scientific interest Although there is considerable variation across the world most countries now attempt to protect as official policy and through professional practice a much wider range of features than they did 60 years ago

It was gradually realized for instance that the protection of a monument or building was not in itself enough and that good conservation work was often being rendered ineffective by unsympathetic developments allowed to occur in front of beside behind or even over heritage buildings Attention therefore extended to the precincts around major monuments and buildings A further extension of interest took place in 1962 when Andreacute Malraux then the French minister for culture first established planning regulations (known as the loi Malraux) designed to protect and enhance the historic features of the Marais district of Paris The English were also expanding their focus at about this time to take in conservation areas the first of which were designated in 1967 England now has over 8000 protected areas including the centers of historic towns and cities fishing and mining villages eighteenth‐ and nineteenth‐century suburbs model housing estates and historic transport links and their environs such as stretches of canal (English Heritage nd)

At the international level the World Heritage List established under UNESCOrsquos Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972) or as it is commonly known the World Heritage Convention now contains a large number of cities inscribed for what the convention calls their Outstanding Universal Value An Organization of World Heritage Cities founded in 1993 with headquarters in Quebec City today brings together 250 cities that are either inscribed or have inscribed sites within them (OWHC 2014) In 1992 the World Heritage Committee added the new category of ldquocultural landscapesrdquo to the World Heritage system to allow recognition of places presenting a blend of cultural and natural elements Twenty years

the new heritage studies 3

later the landscape concept was translated into urban areas as the ldquohistoric urban landscaperdquo blending modern and historic architectural and urban design forms rather than natural and cultural elements but nevertheless emphasizing like cultural landscapes the need for a holistic view of the environment and a sensitive balanced approach to new human interventions

Vernacular structures are now seen as being of cultural heritage interest that is structures that are not architect‐designed but owner‐ or community‐built using avail-able resources and traditional techniques So too are industrial structures Publications by Miles Lewis (1977) Paul Oliver (1997) and William Siew Wai Lim and Tan Hock Beng (1998) began to fill in major gaps in the tangible heritage literature More recently there has been considerable heritage interest internationally in ldquocultural routesrdquo The Council of Europe in 1987 established a program of European cultural routes that is managed from a specialized institute located in Luxembourg The pro-gramrsquos first initiative is the Santiago de Compostela Route the famous Christian pilgrimage route of the Middle Ages In the United States and Canada efforts have been made to commemorate the Underground Railroad ndash the route taken by slaves trying to reach freedom before the Civil War ndash by protecting a series of key sites along its length In Asia UNESCO is supporting the Silk Road Project for developing cultural heritage and cultural tourism along the traditional routes of the silk trade between south‐eastern Europe and China

In the international development field there was a marked shift in the 1990s in the attitude of key agencies such as the World Bank towards cultural heritage Rather than seeing cultural heritage protection as an obstacle to development it is now recognized that the two can go hand in hand to bring about more effective programs to raise standards of living in developing countries and elsewhere (Logan 2003 xxi)

Neil Silberman (Chapter 2) explores the evolving heritage conception and the changing forms and functions of heritage places from their initial validation as national institutions in the early nineteenth century to their multicultural context in the early twenty‐first century He shows that the meanings and values of heritage places are neither static nor inherent but ascribed by particular social groups choosing to empha-size or ignore particular items or aspects for social and political purposes Romantic nationalism led to a first ldquoheritage boomrdquo during the emergence of nation‐states in nineteenth‐century Europe as commemorative sites and structures were created to serve as tangible evidence of a nationrsquos pedigree harmonizing the diverse populations of nations into singularly national peoples or sometimes re‐fragmenting them laying the foundations for new identity claims in the future Already by the late nineteenth century accelerating domestic and international tourism engendered a second ldquoheritage boomrdquo albeit differently motivated the new ldquoheritage touristsrdquo on their quest for his-torical authenticity and exotic landscapes as means of (however temporary) escape from modern industrial life dominated by economic calculus contradictorily created the demand that allowed for the commoditization of built heritage as a ldquocultural resourcerdquo

A focus on the built environment is arguably based on a European concept of cultural heritage which is entirely appropriate for an environment dealing largely with the conservation of buildings made of stone brick and other durable materials (Logan 2006) This view of heritage has been frequently criticized Walled cities cathedrals and eye‐catching landscape formations like the Giantrsquos Causeway in Northern Ireland heavily dominate the list of European World Heritage sites This contrasts starkly with the concept of permanency found on other continents An example of this is the

4 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

imperial shrine at Ise Japan From a Western perspective this shrine hardly qualifies as ldquooldrdquo since it is rebuilt every twenty years However from a Japanese perspective it is old because it is rebuilt ldquoin exactly the same way ndash using the same ancient instru-ments materials ndash with each step of the process marked by appropriate ancient ritualsrdquo (Sahlins 2002 9)

Although heritage has for a long time been defined primarily in terms of material objects as ldquotangible heritagerdquo there has been a parallel interest in what is nowadays called ldquointangible heritagerdquo which for most of the past two centuries however remained in the shadow of the more prominent heritage of material objects and the built environment To some extent and in some parts of the world particularly Europe North America and Australia this reflects the different social and political status of the signified whereas monuments works of fine art castles and cathedrals materially and visually project and transmit the heritage of the hegemony folk songs and wisdom as with many other traditional skills tend to project and transmit heritage of the lower classes non‐materially and orally

Kristin Kuutma (Chapter 3) traces the emergence of folklore as an academic discipline and its subsequent involvement in cultural policy‐making including the contemporary transition from ldquofolklorerdquo to ldquointangible cultural heritagerdquo and the disciplinersquos contri-bution to the international management of heritage regimes Originating during the period of nation‐building when they formed part of the creation of national cultural heritages collections of folklore represent past repertoires and practices of mostly pre‐industrial (peasant) lifestyles that nowadays often feed various linguistic ethnic or other local revival movements As global power relationships at the turn of the twenty‐first century are creating ever‐shifting discourses of inclusion and exclusion rooted-ness and rights for possession a need to identify and safeguard intangible cultural heritage was postulated leading to the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage adopted in 2003 and commonly known as the Intangible Heritage Convention Although intangible elements had always been included in understanding the significance of heritage places under the World Heritage Convention (1972) this new convention focused on and led to a system for evaluating and safeguarding intangible heritage in its own right

Heritage in the post‐war years was conceived as and called ldquocultural propertyrdquo an understanding and terminology that is still found today in relation to some disciplines (eg anthropology) and some forms of heritage (eg intellectual property) Pertti Anttonen has observed that ldquothe cultural representations that are selected for making heritage‐political claims are commonly called traditions with a special emphasis on their character as cultural properties that is representations with an ownership labelrdquo (Anttonen 2005 39) Ownership lying at the heart of the notion of cultural property has become a major and growing concern since the second half of the twentieth century Folarin Shyllon (Chapter 4) considers these concerns especially in the context of human rights Access to and enjoyment of cultural heritage is considered to be a fundamental cultural right a sub‐category of human rights (Shaheed 2011) It might be argued that a similar right to intellectual property also exists but some intellectual property rights do not fit human rights easily because they are economic and commercial rather than social or cultural Considering cultural heritage as a fundamental human right can raise difficult ethical issues as different cultures tend to regard their own values as universal and those of others where they conflict as culturally contingent The debate on intellectual and by extension cultural property is rather more focused

the new heritage studies 5

on economic value As Shyllon points out some cultural heritage such as the sites inscribed on UNESCOrsquos World Heritage List may be regarded as universal property in the wider sense while intellectual property rights tend to be held as monopolies

Except from a natural law perspective values can be seen as being in the mind this goes even for economic monetary values which are the result of negotiations between actors In contrast artistic linguistic and technical skills can be seen as embodied As an example of a non‐Western approach to intangible heritage Natsuko Akagawa (Chapter 5) examines the philosophy behind Japanese legislation for safeguarding cultural property Her analysis highlights the significance of embodiment as a concept for understanding and dealing with heritage

Landscapes of MemoryRecent decades have seen a growing interest across different contexts in how heritage has been embodied in the land (see Gilbert 2010) Perspectives on this vary from geographical analyses of how hegemonic powers have shaped symbolic landscapes (eg Cosgrove 1984) to accounts of indigenous relationships with the land as an ani-mate being and keeper of memory (eg Blue Spruce and Thrasher 2008) Associative landscapes now serve as the foundation for official designations of heritage origins such as the French terroir discussed by Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) Involving com-munities in identifying and managing heritage landscapes and individual sites has become a key concern moving traditional knowledge systems their contribution to heritage management and the need to support them into the spotlight

However this concern has not necessarily been recognized in the practice of inter-national heritage programs With reference to the Pacific islands Anita Smith (Chapter 7) explores differences in the recognition of traditional knowledge systems in two UNESCO conventions ndash the World Heritage Convention (1972) and the Intangible Heritage Convention (2003) ndash and underlines long‐standing critiques of the World Heritage system as Eurocentric in its determination of Outstanding Universal Value In the late 1990s there was an attempt to establish an indigenous body to advise the World Heritage Committee in accordance with the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (United Nations 2007) While this initiative failed (see Logan 2013 Meskell 2013a) the call has been renewed in recent years (see Disko this volume)

Although in public perception issues of land and landscape are particularly associated with indigenous peoples they also play a major role in other contexts The application by parts of Burgundy in eastern France for World Heritage status is a case in point Using an ldquoethnographic gazerdquo Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) examines different con-ceptions of Burgundy as a re‐territorialized site and the construction of its micro‐regional climats with their historical depth of place as ldquoGod‐givenrdquo naturalized artifacts in the context of global competition where UNESCO designation is prized for con-veying an elite status

The embodiment of heritage in landscapes of memory also raises issues of the rela-tionships between natural and cultural heritage and their frequent separation in the practice of heritage management where different government and non‐government bodies are in charge of different types of heritage and conflicts of interest arise not least from budget constraints and varying lines of responsibility This can be exacerbated where a designated site stretches across one or more political or administrative boundary

6 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

The Curonian Spit shared by Lithuania and Russia is one of only 31 such transnational World Heritage sites where different approaches by the two administrations to environ-mental issues have been problematic (Armaitiene et al 2007) Moreover multiple layers of cultural memory affect the site and its contemporary meaning as heritage for different constituencies (Kockel 2012a) Appropriately contextualizing cultural heri-tages in relation to place and memory has been made difficult by a widespread tendency to treat cultural differences as mere constructs (Kockel and Nic Craith 2015) This is particularly apparent where we are dealing with places of pain and shame

Not all heritage serves as a reminder of a glorious past (Logan and Reeves 2009) In the Lithuanian national open air museum at Rumšiškes near Kaunas the extensive display of farm buildings and machinery as well as the central small town invoke nineteenth‐ and early twentieth‐century Lithuania but close to the center there is a clearing in the woods where the time frame is different Several items including an earthen yurt and a cattle wagon commemorate the deportations of thousands of Lithuanians between 1941 and 1953 when they were sent to the Soviet Gulags (Kockel 2015) Jonathan Webber (Chapter 8) seeks to make sense of Auschwitz designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1979 as a heritage site and landscape of memory Auschwitz means different things to different victim groups in terms of their own histories but also to other visitors Emblematic of ldquoundesirable heri-tagerdquo it is at the same time a powerful symbol a theatre where multiple memorial events are performed and a destination for ldquodarkrdquo tourism attracting large numbers of spectators

Collecting HeritageEver since interest in heritage began to develop the collection of material items and oral testimony has been a central activity aimed at facilitating their preservation This remains so despite a growing critique of museum and archiving practices UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Programme (MoW) is a major initiative for the protection of documentary heritage However with the exception of Charlesworth (2010) it has been largely overlooked in academic research even within the field of heritage studies Against this background Anca Claudia Prodan (Chapter 9) attempts to clarify the main features of the program and to identify points for research MoW is part of UNESCOrsquos policies aimed at building inclusive knowledge societies While acknowledging the contribution of MoW in that regard Prodan argues that in the process of this the program is reduced to being merely a source of information and that it needs to be strengthened by being recontextualized within UNESCOrsquos international system of heritage protection

Artifact collections and the practices employed in accumulating them have come under scrutiny in the context of postcolonial critiques of intercultural relations In 2002 the British Museum and the Louvre together with an international group of major museums issued the Declaration on the Importance and Value of Universal Museums (ICOM 2004) Most of these museums date back to the late eighteenth century before the period of European imperial expansion and the declaration has been widely interpreted as an attempt to guard against claims for the repatriation of much of their collections to the countries of origin Such claims are made not only with regard to indigenous peoples but extend to Western countries such as Greece as the case of the Elgin Marbles illustrates Maurice Mugabowagahunde (Chapter 10)

list of abbreviations xxi

UNCEHR United Nations Commission on Human RightsUNDESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social AffairsUNDG United Nations Development GroupUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural OrganizationUNGA United Nations General AssemblyUN‐Habitat United Nations Human Settlements ProgrammeUNHRC United Nations Human Rights CouncilUNPFII United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous IssuesUNSC United Nations Security CouncilWHIPCOE World Heritage Indigenous Peoples Council of ExpertsWIPO World Intellectual Property OrganizationWTO World Trade Organization

Chapter 1

A Companion to Heritage Studies First Edition Edited by William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel copy 2016 John Wiley amp Sons Inc Published 2016 by John Wiley amp Sons Inc

The New Heritage Studies Origins and Evolution Problems and Prospects

William Logan Ullrich Kockel and Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith

Heritage and heritage studies have evolved in quite astounding ways over the last sixty years Nobody could have imagined when the Venice Charter (ICASHB 1964) jump‐started the heritage profession in the aftermath of World War II that there would be a veritable heritage boom in the 1990s and continuing into the twenty‐first century Who would have predicted that so much attention would now be paid to protecting environmental features material culture and living traditions from the past or the vast numbers of community members policy‐makers practitioners and scholars engaged in caring for managing and studying heritage Who would have foreseen the explosion of heritage‐based cultural tourism the reconfiguration of heritage as an economic asset and a World Heritage List comprising of more than a thousand properties spread around the globe

This volume seeks to investigate the story of expansion in heritage and heritage studies Containing 37 chapters commissioned from 44 scholars and practitioners from 5 continents it is designed to provide an up‐to‐date international analysis of the field the steady broadening of the concept of heritage and its social economic and political uses the difficulties that often arise from such uses and current trends in heritage scholarship Starting from a position of seeing ldquoheritagerdquo as a mental construct that attributes ldquosignificancerdquo to certain places artifacts and forms of behavior from the past through processes that are essentially political we see heritage conservation not merely as a technical or managerial matter but as cultural practice a form of cultural politics

CHaPTEr 1

2 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

We are interested in the different extent to which various groups within global national and local communities are able to participate in heritage identification interpretation and management Moreover we want to address the extent to which communities have access to and enjoy heritage once it has been officially recognized conserved or safeguarded This interest inevitably leads to human rights consider-ations to developing closer intellectual links with international lawyers and others in the human rights field and to strengthening both the multidisciplinary nature of heri-tage studies and what we sees as the critical relationship between theory and practice

Whether this new vision of heritage studies represents a ldquoparadigm shiftrdquo or only the culmination of changes already occurring in the heritage studies field since the late 1980s is an issue we will discuss later For now let us go back to the fieldrsquos origins and interpret its evolution

Expanding HEritagE

When ideas of ldquoheritagerdquo were initially formalized their focus was on monuments and sites This was especially the case in Europe from where these ideas spread across the British French and other European empires and the anglophone United States (Nic Craith 2007) Writer‐practitioners such as John Ruskin and Nikolaus Pevsner in England and Eugegravene Viollet‐le‐Duc in France were enormously influential in the early days of heritage identification and protection From these beginnings heritage planners around the world have sought to protect broad areas of historic aesthetic architectural or scientific interest Although there is considerable variation across the world most countries now attempt to protect as official policy and through professional practice a much wider range of features than they did 60 years ago

It was gradually realized for instance that the protection of a monument or building was not in itself enough and that good conservation work was often being rendered ineffective by unsympathetic developments allowed to occur in front of beside behind or even over heritage buildings Attention therefore extended to the precincts around major monuments and buildings A further extension of interest took place in 1962 when Andreacute Malraux then the French minister for culture first established planning regulations (known as the loi Malraux) designed to protect and enhance the historic features of the Marais district of Paris The English were also expanding their focus at about this time to take in conservation areas the first of which were designated in 1967 England now has over 8000 protected areas including the centers of historic towns and cities fishing and mining villages eighteenth‐ and nineteenth‐century suburbs model housing estates and historic transport links and their environs such as stretches of canal (English Heritage nd)

At the international level the World Heritage List established under UNESCOrsquos Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972) or as it is commonly known the World Heritage Convention now contains a large number of cities inscribed for what the convention calls their Outstanding Universal Value An Organization of World Heritage Cities founded in 1993 with headquarters in Quebec City today brings together 250 cities that are either inscribed or have inscribed sites within them (OWHC 2014) In 1992 the World Heritage Committee added the new category of ldquocultural landscapesrdquo to the World Heritage system to allow recognition of places presenting a blend of cultural and natural elements Twenty years

the new heritage studies 3

later the landscape concept was translated into urban areas as the ldquohistoric urban landscaperdquo blending modern and historic architectural and urban design forms rather than natural and cultural elements but nevertheless emphasizing like cultural landscapes the need for a holistic view of the environment and a sensitive balanced approach to new human interventions

Vernacular structures are now seen as being of cultural heritage interest that is structures that are not architect‐designed but owner‐ or community‐built using avail-able resources and traditional techniques So too are industrial structures Publications by Miles Lewis (1977) Paul Oliver (1997) and William Siew Wai Lim and Tan Hock Beng (1998) began to fill in major gaps in the tangible heritage literature More recently there has been considerable heritage interest internationally in ldquocultural routesrdquo The Council of Europe in 1987 established a program of European cultural routes that is managed from a specialized institute located in Luxembourg The pro-gramrsquos first initiative is the Santiago de Compostela Route the famous Christian pilgrimage route of the Middle Ages In the United States and Canada efforts have been made to commemorate the Underground Railroad ndash the route taken by slaves trying to reach freedom before the Civil War ndash by protecting a series of key sites along its length In Asia UNESCO is supporting the Silk Road Project for developing cultural heritage and cultural tourism along the traditional routes of the silk trade between south‐eastern Europe and China

In the international development field there was a marked shift in the 1990s in the attitude of key agencies such as the World Bank towards cultural heritage Rather than seeing cultural heritage protection as an obstacle to development it is now recognized that the two can go hand in hand to bring about more effective programs to raise standards of living in developing countries and elsewhere (Logan 2003 xxi)

Neil Silberman (Chapter 2) explores the evolving heritage conception and the changing forms and functions of heritage places from their initial validation as national institutions in the early nineteenth century to their multicultural context in the early twenty‐first century He shows that the meanings and values of heritage places are neither static nor inherent but ascribed by particular social groups choosing to empha-size or ignore particular items or aspects for social and political purposes Romantic nationalism led to a first ldquoheritage boomrdquo during the emergence of nation‐states in nineteenth‐century Europe as commemorative sites and structures were created to serve as tangible evidence of a nationrsquos pedigree harmonizing the diverse populations of nations into singularly national peoples or sometimes re‐fragmenting them laying the foundations for new identity claims in the future Already by the late nineteenth century accelerating domestic and international tourism engendered a second ldquoheritage boomrdquo albeit differently motivated the new ldquoheritage touristsrdquo on their quest for his-torical authenticity and exotic landscapes as means of (however temporary) escape from modern industrial life dominated by economic calculus contradictorily created the demand that allowed for the commoditization of built heritage as a ldquocultural resourcerdquo

A focus on the built environment is arguably based on a European concept of cultural heritage which is entirely appropriate for an environment dealing largely with the conservation of buildings made of stone brick and other durable materials (Logan 2006) This view of heritage has been frequently criticized Walled cities cathedrals and eye‐catching landscape formations like the Giantrsquos Causeway in Northern Ireland heavily dominate the list of European World Heritage sites This contrasts starkly with the concept of permanency found on other continents An example of this is the

4 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

imperial shrine at Ise Japan From a Western perspective this shrine hardly qualifies as ldquooldrdquo since it is rebuilt every twenty years However from a Japanese perspective it is old because it is rebuilt ldquoin exactly the same way ndash using the same ancient instru-ments materials ndash with each step of the process marked by appropriate ancient ritualsrdquo (Sahlins 2002 9)

Although heritage has for a long time been defined primarily in terms of material objects as ldquotangible heritagerdquo there has been a parallel interest in what is nowadays called ldquointangible heritagerdquo which for most of the past two centuries however remained in the shadow of the more prominent heritage of material objects and the built environment To some extent and in some parts of the world particularly Europe North America and Australia this reflects the different social and political status of the signified whereas monuments works of fine art castles and cathedrals materially and visually project and transmit the heritage of the hegemony folk songs and wisdom as with many other traditional skills tend to project and transmit heritage of the lower classes non‐materially and orally

Kristin Kuutma (Chapter 3) traces the emergence of folklore as an academic discipline and its subsequent involvement in cultural policy‐making including the contemporary transition from ldquofolklorerdquo to ldquointangible cultural heritagerdquo and the disciplinersquos contri-bution to the international management of heritage regimes Originating during the period of nation‐building when they formed part of the creation of national cultural heritages collections of folklore represent past repertoires and practices of mostly pre‐industrial (peasant) lifestyles that nowadays often feed various linguistic ethnic or other local revival movements As global power relationships at the turn of the twenty‐first century are creating ever‐shifting discourses of inclusion and exclusion rooted-ness and rights for possession a need to identify and safeguard intangible cultural heritage was postulated leading to the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage adopted in 2003 and commonly known as the Intangible Heritage Convention Although intangible elements had always been included in understanding the significance of heritage places under the World Heritage Convention (1972) this new convention focused on and led to a system for evaluating and safeguarding intangible heritage in its own right

Heritage in the post‐war years was conceived as and called ldquocultural propertyrdquo an understanding and terminology that is still found today in relation to some disciplines (eg anthropology) and some forms of heritage (eg intellectual property) Pertti Anttonen has observed that ldquothe cultural representations that are selected for making heritage‐political claims are commonly called traditions with a special emphasis on their character as cultural properties that is representations with an ownership labelrdquo (Anttonen 2005 39) Ownership lying at the heart of the notion of cultural property has become a major and growing concern since the second half of the twentieth century Folarin Shyllon (Chapter 4) considers these concerns especially in the context of human rights Access to and enjoyment of cultural heritage is considered to be a fundamental cultural right a sub‐category of human rights (Shaheed 2011) It might be argued that a similar right to intellectual property also exists but some intellectual property rights do not fit human rights easily because they are economic and commercial rather than social or cultural Considering cultural heritage as a fundamental human right can raise difficult ethical issues as different cultures tend to regard their own values as universal and those of others where they conflict as culturally contingent The debate on intellectual and by extension cultural property is rather more focused

the new heritage studies 5

on economic value As Shyllon points out some cultural heritage such as the sites inscribed on UNESCOrsquos World Heritage List may be regarded as universal property in the wider sense while intellectual property rights tend to be held as monopolies

Except from a natural law perspective values can be seen as being in the mind this goes even for economic monetary values which are the result of negotiations between actors In contrast artistic linguistic and technical skills can be seen as embodied As an example of a non‐Western approach to intangible heritage Natsuko Akagawa (Chapter 5) examines the philosophy behind Japanese legislation for safeguarding cultural property Her analysis highlights the significance of embodiment as a concept for understanding and dealing with heritage

Landscapes of MemoryRecent decades have seen a growing interest across different contexts in how heritage has been embodied in the land (see Gilbert 2010) Perspectives on this vary from geographical analyses of how hegemonic powers have shaped symbolic landscapes (eg Cosgrove 1984) to accounts of indigenous relationships with the land as an ani-mate being and keeper of memory (eg Blue Spruce and Thrasher 2008) Associative landscapes now serve as the foundation for official designations of heritage origins such as the French terroir discussed by Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) Involving com-munities in identifying and managing heritage landscapes and individual sites has become a key concern moving traditional knowledge systems their contribution to heritage management and the need to support them into the spotlight

However this concern has not necessarily been recognized in the practice of inter-national heritage programs With reference to the Pacific islands Anita Smith (Chapter 7) explores differences in the recognition of traditional knowledge systems in two UNESCO conventions ndash the World Heritage Convention (1972) and the Intangible Heritage Convention (2003) ndash and underlines long‐standing critiques of the World Heritage system as Eurocentric in its determination of Outstanding Universal Value In the late 1990s there was an attempt to establish an indigenous body to advise the World Heritage Committee in accordance with the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (United Nations 2007) While this initiative failed (see Logan 2013 Meskell 2013a) the call has been renewed in recent years (see Disko this volume)

Although in public perception issues of land and landscape are particularly associated with indigenous peoples they also play a major role in other contexts The application by parts of Burgundy in eastern France for World Heritage status is a case in point Using an ldquoethnographic gazerdquo Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) examines different con-ceptions of Burgundy as a re‐territorialized site and the construction of its micro‐regional climats with their historical depth of place as ldquoGod‐givenrdquo naturalized artifacts in the context of global competition where UNESCO designation is prized for con-veying an elite status

The embodiment of heritage in landscapes of memory also raises issues of the rela-tionships between natural and cultural heritage and their frequent separation in the practice of heritage management where different government and non‐government bodies are in charge of different types of heritage and conflicts of interest arise not least from budget constraints and varying lines of responsibility This can be exacerbated where a designated site stretches across one or more political or administrative boundary

6 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

The Curonian Spit shared by Lithuania and Russia is one of only 31 such transnational World Heritage sites where different approaches by the two administrations to environ-mental issues have been problematic (Armaitiene et al 2007) Moreover multiple layers of cultural memory affect the site and its contemporary meaning as heritage for different constituencies (Kockel 2012a) Appropriately contextualizing cultural heri-tages in relation to place and memory has been made difficult by a widespread tendency to treat cultural differences as mere constructs (Kockel and Nic Craith 2015) This is particularly apparent where we are dealing with places of pain and shame

Not all heritage serves as a reminder of a glorious past (Logan and Reeves 2009) In the Lithuanian national open air museum at Rumšiškes near Kaunas the extensive display of farm buildings and machinery as well as the central small town invoke nineteenth‐ and early twentieth‐century Lithuania but close to the center there is a clearing in the woods where the time frame is different Several items including an earthen yurt and a cattle wagon commemorate the deportations of thousands of Lithuanians between 1941 and 1953 when they were sent to the Soviet Gulags (Kockel 2015) Jonathan Webber (Chapter 8) seeks to make sense of Auschwitz designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1979 as a heritage site and landscape of memory Auschwitz means different things to different victim groups in terms of their own histories but also to other visitors Emblematic of ldquoundesirable heri-tagerdquo it is at the same time a powerful symbol a theatre where multiple memorial events are performed and a destination for ldquodarkrdquo tourism attracting large numbers of spectators

Collecting HeritageEver since interest in heritage began to develop the collection of material items and oral testimony has been a central activity aimed at facilitating their preservation This remains so despite a growing critique of museum and archiving practices UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Programme (MoW) is a major initiative for the protection of documentary heritage However with the exception of Charlesworth (2010) it has been largely overlooked in academic research even within the field of heritage studies Against this background Anca Claudia Prodan (Chapter 9) attempts to clarify the main features of the program and to identify points for research MoW is part of UNESCOrsquos policies aimed at building inclusive knowledge societies While acknowledging the contribution of MoW in that regard Prodan argues that in the process of this the program is reduced to being merely a source of information and that it needs to be strengthened by being recontextualized within UNESCOrsquos international system of heritage protection

Artifact collections and the practices employed in accumulating them have come under scrutiny in the context of postcolonial critiques of intercultural relations In 2002 the British Museum and the Louvre together with an international group of major museums issued the Declaration on the Importance and Value of Universal Museums (ICOM 2004) Most of these museums date back to the late eighteenth century before the period of European imperial expansion and the declaration has been widely interpreted as an attempt to guard against claims for the repatriation of much of their collections to the countries of origin Such claims are made not only with regard to indigenous peoples but extend to Western countries such as Greece as the case of the Elgin Marbles illustrates Maurice Mugabowagahunde (Chapter 10)

Chapter 1

A Companion to Heritage Studies First Edition Edited by William Logan Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel copy 2016 John Wiley amp Sons Inc Published 2016 by John Wiley amp Sons Inc

The New Heritage Studies Origins and Evolution Problems and Prospects

William Logan Ullrich Kockel and Maacuteireacutead Nic Craith

Heritage and heritage studies have evolved in quite astounding ways over the last sixty years Nobody could have imagined when the Venice Charter (ICASHB 1964) jump‐started the heritage profession in the aftermath of World War II that there would be a veritable heritage boom in the 1990s and continuing into the twenty‐first century Who would have predicted that so much attention would now be paid to protecting environmental features material culture and living traditions from the past or the vast numbers of community members policy‐makers practitioners and scholars engaged in caring for managing and studying heritage Who would have foreseen the explosion of heritage‐based cultural tourism the reconfiguration of heritage as an economic asset and a World Heritage List comprising of more than a thousand properties spread around the globe

This volume seeks to investigate the story of expansion in heritage and heritage studies Containing 37 chapters commissioned from 44 scholars and practitioners from 5 continents it is designed to provide an up‐to‐date international analysis of the field the steady broadening of the concept of heritage and its social economic and political uses the difficulties that often arise from such uses and current trends in heritage scholarship Starting from a position of seeing ldquoheritagerdquo as a mental construct that attributes ldquosignificancerdquo to certain places artifacts and forms of behavior from the past through processes that are essentially political we see heritage conservation not merely as a technical or managerial matter but as cultural practice a form of cultural politics

CHaPTEr 1

2 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

We are interested in the different extent to which various groups within global national and local communities are able to participate in heritage identification interpretation and management Moreover we want to address the extent to which communities have access to and enjoy heritage once it has been officially recognized conserved or safeguarded This interest inevitably leads to human rights consider-ations to developing closer intellectual links with international lawyers and others in the human rights field and to strengthening both the multidisciplinary nature of heri-tage studies and what we sees as the critical relationship between theory and practice

Whether this new vision of heritage studies represents a ldquoparadigm shiftrdquo or only the culmination of changes already occurring in the heritage studies field since the late 1980s is an issue we will discuss later For now let us go back to the fieldrsquos origins and interpret its evolution

Expanding HEritagE

When ideas of ldquoheritagerdquo were initially formalized their focus was on monuments and sites This was especially the case in Europe from where these ideas spread across the British French and other European empires and the anglophone United States (Nic Craith 2007) Writer‐practitioners such as John Ruskin and Nikolaus Pevsner in England and Eugegravene Viollet‐le‐Duc in France were enormously influential in the early days of heritage identification and protection From these beginnings heritage planners around the world have sought to protect broad areas of historic aesthetic architectural or scientific interest Although there is considerable variation across the world most countries now attempt to protect as official policy and through professional practice a much wider range of features than they did 60 years ago

It was gradually realized for instance that the protection of a monument or building was not in itself enough and that good conservation work was often being rendered ineffective by unsympathetic developments allowed to occur in front of beside behind or even over heritage buildings Attention therefore extended to the precincts around major monuments and buildings A further extension of interest took place in 1962 when Andreacute Malraux then the French minister for culture first established planning regulations (known as the loi Malraux) designed to protect and enhance the historic features of the Marais district of Paris The English were also expanding their focus at about this time to take in conservation areas the first of which were designated in 1967 England now has over 8000 protected areas including the centers of historic towns and cities fishing and mining villages eighteenth‐ and nineteenth‐century suburbs model housing estates and historic transport links and their environs such as stretches of canal (English Heritage nd)

At the international level the World Heritage List established under UNESCOrsquos Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972) or as it is commonly known the World Heritage Convention now contains a large number of cities inscribed for what the convention calls their Outstanding Universal Value An Organization of World Heritage Cities founded in 1993 with headquarters in Quebec City today brings together 250 cities that are either inscribed or have inscribed sites within them (OWHC 2014) In 1992 the World Heritage Committee added the new category of ldquocultural landscapesrdquo to the World Heritage system to allow recognition of places presenting a blend of cultural and natural elements Twenty years

the new heritage studies 3

later the landscape concept was translated into urban areas as the ldquohistoric urban landscaperdquo blending modern and historic architectural and urban design forms rather than natural and cultural elements but nevertheless emphasizing like cultural landscapes the need for a holistic view of the environment and a sensitive balanced approach to new human interventions

Vernacular structures are now seen as being of cultural heritage interest that is structures that are not architect‐designed but owner‐ or community‐built using avail-able resources and traditional techniques So too are industrial structures Publications by Miles Lewis (1977) Paul Oliver (1997) and William Siew Wai Lim and Tan Hock Beng (1998) began to fill in major gaps in the tangible heritage literature More recently there has been considerable heritage interest internationally in ldquocultural routesrdquo The Council of Europe in 1987 established a program of European cultural routes that is managed from a specialized institute located in Luxembourg The pro-gramrsquos first initiative is the Santiago de Compostela Route the famous Christian pilgrimage route of the Middle Ages In the United States and Canada efforts have been made to commemorate the Underground Railroad ndash the route taken by slaves trying to reach freedom before the Civil War ndash by protecting a series of key sites along its length In Asia UNESCO is supporting the Silk Road Project for developing cultural heritage and cultural tourism along the traditional routes of the silk trade between south‐eastern Europe and China

In the international development field there was a marked shift in the 1990s in the attitude of key agencies such as the World Bank towards cultural heritage Rather than seeing cultural heritage protection as an obstacle to development it is now recognized that the two can go hand in hand to bring about more effective programs to raise standards of living in developing countries and elsewhere (Logan 2003 xxi)

Neil Silberman (Chapter 2) explores the evolving heritage conception and the changing forms and functions of heritage places from their initial validation as national institutions in the early nineteenth century to their multicultural context in the early twenty‐first century He shows that the meanings and values of heritage places are neither static nor inherent but ascribed by particular social groups choosing to empha-size or ignore particular items or aspects for social and political purposes Romantic nationalism led to a first ldquoheritage boomrdquo during the emergence of nation‐states in nineteenth‐century Europe as commemorative sites and structures were created to serve as tangible evidence of a nationrsquos pedigree harmonizing the diverse populations of nations into singularly national peoples or sometimes re‐fragmenting them laying the foundations for new identity claims in the future Already by the late nineteenth century accelerating domestic and international tourism engendered a second ldquoheritage boomrdquo albeit differently motivated the new ldquoheritage touristsrdquo on their quest for his-torical authenticity and exotic landscapes as means of (however temporary) escape from modern industrial life dominated by economic calculus contradictorily created the demand that allowed for the commoditization of built heritage as a ldquocultural resourcerdquo

A focus on the built environment is arguably based on a European concept of cultural heritage which is entirely appropriate for an environment dealing largely with the conservation of buildings made of stone brick and other durable materials (Logan 2006) This view of heritage has been frequently criticized Walled cities cathedrals and eye‐catching landscape formations like the Giantrsquos Causeway in Northern Ireland heavily dominate the list of European World Heritage sites This contrasts starkly with the concept of permanency found on other continents An example of this is the

4 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

imperial shrine at Ise Japan From a Western perspective this shrine hardly qualifies as ldquooldrdquo since it is rebuilt every twenty years However from a Japanese perspective it is old because it is rebuilt ldquoin exactly the same way ndash using the same ancient instru-ments materials ndash with each step of the process marked by appropriate ancient ritualsrdquo (Sahlins 2002 9)

Although heritage has for a long time been defined primarily in terms of material objects as ldquotangible heritagerdquo there has been a parallel interest in what is nowadays called ldquointangible heritagerdquo which for most of the past two centuries however remained in the shadow of the more prominent heritage of material objects and the built environment To some extent and in some parts of the world particularly Europe North America and Australia this reflects the different social and political status of the signified whereas monuments works of fine art castles and cathedrals materially and visually project and transmit the heritage of the hegemony folk songs and wisdom as with many other traditional skills tend to project and transmit heritage of the lower classes non‐materially and orally

Kristin Kuutma (Chapter 3) traces the emergence of folklore as an academic discipline and its subsequent involvement in cultural policy‐making including the contemporary transition from ldquofolklorerdquo to ldquointangible cultural heritagerdquo and the disciplinersquos contri-bution to the international management of heritage regimes Originating during the period of nation‐building when they formed part of the creation of national cultural heritages collections of folklore represent past repertoires and practices of mostly pre‐industrial (peasant) lifestyles that nowadays often feed various linguistic ethnic or other local revival movements As global power relationships at the turn of the twenty‐first century are creating ever‐shifting discourses of inclusion and exclusion rooted-ness and rights for possession a need to identify and safeguard intangible cultural heritage was postulated leading to the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage adopted in 2003 and commonly known as the Intangible Heritage Convention Although intangible elements had always been included in understanding the significance of heritage places under the World Heritage Convention (1972) this new convention focused on and led to a system for evaluating and safeguarding intangible heritage in its own right

Heritage in the post‐war years was conceived as and called ldquocultural propertyrdquo an understanding and terminology that is still found today in relation to some disciplines (eg anthropology) and some forms of heritage (eg intellectual property) Pertti Anttonen has observed that ldquothe cultural representations that are selected for making heritage‐political claims are commonly called traditions with a special emphasis on their character as cultural properties that is representations with an ownership labelrdquo (Anttonen 2005 39) Ownership lying at the heart of the notion of cultural property has become a major and growing concern since the second half of the twentieth century Folarin Shyllon (Chapter 4) considers these concerns especially in the context of human rights Access to and enjoyment of cultural heritage is considered to be a fundamental cultural right a sub‐category of human rights (Shaheed 2011) It might be argued that a similar right to intellectual property also exists but some intellectual property rights do not fit human rights easily because they are economic and commercial rather than social or cultural Considering cultural heritage as a fundamental human right can raise difficult ethical issues as different cultures tend to regard their own values as universal and those of others where they conflict as culturally contingent The debate on intellectual and by extension cultural property is rather more focused

the new heritage studies 5

on economic value As Shyllon points out some cultural heritage such as the sites inscribed on UNESCOrsquos World Heritage List may be regarded as universal property in the wider sense while intellectual property rights tend to be held as monopolies

Except from a natural law perspective values can be seen as being in the mind this goes even for economic monetary values which are the result of negotiations between actors In contrast artistic linguistic and technical skills can be seen as embodied As an example of a non‐Western approach to intangible heritage Natsuko Akagawa (Chapter 5) examines the philosophy behind Japanese legislation for safeguarding cultural property Her analysis highlights the significance of embodiment as a concept for understanding and dealing with heritage

Landscapes of MemoryRecent decades have seen a growing interest across different contexts in how heritage has been embodied in the land (see Gilbert 2010) Perspectives on this vary from geographical analyses of how hegemonic powers have shaped symbolic landscapes (eg Cosgrove 1984) to accounts of indigenous relationships with the land as an ani-mate being and keeper of memory (eg Blue Spruce and Thrasher 2008) Associative landscapes now serve as the foundation for official designations of heritage origins such as the French terroir discussed by Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) Involving com-munities in identifying and managing heritage landscapes and individual sites has become a key concern moving traditional knowledge systems their contribution to heritage management and the need to support them into the spotlight

However this concern has not necessarily been recognized in the practice of inter-national heritage programs With reference to the Pacific islands Anita Smith (Chapter 7) explores differences in the recognition of traditional knowledge systems in two UNESCO conventions ndash the World Heritage Convention (1972) and the Intangible Heritage Convention (2003) ndash and underlines long‐standing critiques of the World Heritage system as Eurocentric in its determination of Outstanding Universal Value In the late 1990s there was an attempt to establish an indigenous body to advise the World Heritage Committee in accordance with the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (United Nations 2007) While this initiative failed (see Logan 2013 Meskell 2013a) the call has been renewed in recent years (see Disko this volume)

Although in public perception issues of land and landscape are particularly associated with indigenous peoples they also play a major role in other contexts The application by parts of Burgundy in eastern France for World Heritage status is a case in point Using an ldquoethnographic gazerdquo Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) examines different con-ceptions of Burgundy as a re‐territorialized site and the construction of its micro‐regional climats with their historical depth of place as ldquoGod‐givenrdquo naturalized artifacts in the context of global competition where UNESCO designation is prized for con-veying an elite status

The embodiment of heritage in landscapes of memory also raises issues of the rela-tionships between natural and cultural heritage and their frequent separation in the practice of heritage management where different government and non‐government bodies are in charge of different types of heritage and conflicts of interest arise not least from budget constraints and varying lines of responsibility This can be exacerbated where a designated site stretches across one or more political or administrative boundary

6 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

The Curonian Spit shared by Lithuania and Russia is one of only 31 such transnational World Heritage sites where different approaches by the two administrations to environ-mental issues have been problematic (Armaitiene et al 2007) Moreover multiple layers of cultural memory affect the site and its contemporary meaning as heritage for different constituencies (Kockel 2012a) Appropriately contextualizing cultural heri-tages in relation to place and memory has been made difficult by a widespread tendency to treat cultural differences as mere constructs (Kockel and Nic Craith 2015) This is particularly apparent where we are dealing with places of pain and shame

Not all heritage serves as a reminder of a glorious past (Logan and Reeves 2009) In the Lithuanian national open air museum at Rumšiškes near Kaunas the extensive display of farm buildings and machinery as well as the central small town invoke nineteenth‐ and early twentieth‐century Lithuania but close to the center there is a clearing in the woods where the time frame is different Several items including an earthen yurt and a cattle wagon commemorate the deportations of thousands of Lithuanians between 1941 and 1953 when they were sent to the Soviet Gulags (Kockel 2015) Jonathan Webber (Chapter 8) seeks to make sense of Auschwitz designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1979 as a heritage site and landscape of memory Auschwitz means different things to different victim groups in terms of their own histories but also to other visitors Emblematic of ldquoundesirable heri-tagerdquo it is at the same time a powerful symbol a theatre where multiple memorial events are performed and a destination for ldquodarkrdquo tourism attracting large numbers of spectators

Collecting HeritageEver since interest in heritage began to develop the collection of material items and oral testimony has been a central activity aimed at facilitating their preservation This remains so despite a growing critique of museum and archiving practices UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Programme (MoW) is a major initiative for the protection of documentary heritage However with the exception of Charlesworth (2010) it has been largely overlooked in academic research even within the field of heritage studies Against this background Anca Claudia Prodan (Chapter 9) attempts to clarify the main features of the program and to identify points for research MoW is part of UNESCOrsquos policies aimed at building inclusive knowledge societies While acknowledging the contribution of MoW in that regard Prodan argues that in the process of this the program is reduced to being merely a source of information and that it needs to be strengthened by being recontextualized within UNESCOrsquos international system of heritage protection

Artifact collections and the practices employed in accumulating them have come under scrutiny in the context of postcolonial critiques of intercultural relations In 2002 the British Museum and the Louvre together with an international group of major museums issued the Declaration on the Importance and Value of Universal Museums (ICOM 2004) Most of these museums date back to the late eighteenth century before the period of European imperial expansion and the declaration has been widely interpreted as an attempt to guard against claims for the repatriation of much of their collections to the countries of origin Such claims are made not only with regard to indigenous peoples but extend to Western countries such as Greece as the case of the Elgin Marbles illustrates Maurice Mugabowagahunde (Chapter 10)

2 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

We are interested in the different extent to which various groups within global national and local communities are able to participate in heritage identification interpretation and management Moreover we want to address the extent to which communities have access to and enjoy heritage once it has been officially recognized conserved or safeguarded This interest inevitably leads to human rights consider-ations to developing closer intellectual links with international lawyers and others in the human rights field and to strengthening both the multidisciplinary nature of heri-tage studies and what we sees as the critical relationship between theory and practice

Whether this new vision of heritage studies represents a ldquoparadigm shiftrdquo or only the culmination of changes already occurring in the heritage studies field since the late 1980s is an issue we will discuss later For now let us go back to the fieldrsquos origins and interpret its evolution

Expanding HEritagE

When ideas of ldquoheritagerdquo were initially formalized their focus was on monuments and sites This was especially the case in Europe from where these ideas spread across the British French and other European empires and the anglophone United States (Nic Craith 2007) Writer‐practitioners such as John Ruskin and Nikolaus Pevsner in England and Eugegravene Viollet‐le‐Duc in France were enormously influential in the early days of heritage identification and protection From these beginnings heritage planners around the world have sought to protect broad areas of historic aesthetic architectural or scientific interest Although there is considerable variation across the world most countries now attempt to protect as official policy and through professional practice a much wider range of features than they did 60 years ago

It was gradually realized for instance that the protection of a monument or building was not in itself enough and that good conservation work was often being rendered ineffective by unsympathetic developments allowed to occur in front of beside behind or even over heritage buildings Attention therefore extended to the precincts around major monuments and buildings A further extension of interest took place in 1962 when Andreacute Malraux then the French minister for culture first established planning regulations (known as the loi Malraux) designed to protect and enhance the historic features of the Marais district of Paris The English were also expanding their focus at about this time to take in conservation areas the first of which were designated in 1967 England now has over 8000 protected areas including the centers of historic towns and cities fishing and mining villages eighteenth‐ and nineteenth‐century suburbs model housing estates and historic transport links and their environs such as stretches of canal (English Heritage nd)

At the international level the World Heritage List established under UNESCOrsquos Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972) or as it is commonly known the World Heritage Convention now contains a large number of cities inscribed for what the convention calls their Outstanding Universal Value An Organization of World Heritage Cities founded in 1993 with headquarters in Quebec City today brings together 250 cities that are either inscribed or have inscribed sites within them (OWHC 2014) In 1992 the World Heritage Committee added the new category of ldquocultural landscapesrdquo to the World Heritage system to allow recognition of places presenting a blend of cultural and natural elements Twenty years

the new heritage studies 3

later the landscape concept was translated into urban areas as the ldquohistoric urban landscaperdquo blending modern and historic architectural and urban design forms rather than natural and cultural elements but nevertheless emphasizing like cultural landscapes the need for a holistic view of the environment and a sensitive balanced approach to new human interventions

Vernacular structures are now seen as being of cultural heritage interest that is structures that are not architect‐designed but owner‐ or community‐built using avail-able resources and traditional techniques So too are industrial structures Publications by Miles Lewis (1977) Paul Oliver (1997) and William Siew Wai Lim and Tan Hock Beng (1998) began to fill in major gaps in the tangible heritage literature More recently there has been considerable heritage interest internationally in ldquocultural routesrdquo The Council of Europe in 1987 established a program of European cultural routes that is managed from a specialized institute located in Luxembourg The pro-gramrsquos first initiative is the Santiago de Compostela Route the famous Christian pilgrimage route of the Middle Ages In the United States and Canada efforts have been made to commemorate the Underground Railroad ndash the route taken by slaves trying to reach freedom before the Civil War ndash by protecting a series of key sites along its length In Asia UNESCO is supporting the Silk Road Project for developing cultural heritage and cultural tourism along the traditional routes of the silk trade between south‐eastern Europe and China

In the international development field there was a marked shift in the 1990s in the attitude of key agencies such as the World Bank towards cultural heritage Rather than seeing cultural heritage protection as an obstacle to development it is now recognized that the two can go hand in hand to bring about more effective programs to raise standards of living in developing countries and elsewhere (Logan 2003 xxi)

Neil Silberman (Chapter 2) explores the evolving heritage conception and the changing forms and functions of heritage places from their initial validation as national institutions in the early nineteenth century to their multicultural context in the early twenty‐first century He shows that the meanings and values of heritage places are neither static nor inherent but ascribed by particular social groups choosing to empha-size or ignore particular items or aspects for social and political purposes Romantic nationalism led to a first ldquoheritage boomrdquo during the emergence of nation‐states in nineteenth‐century Europe as commemorative sites and structures were created to serve as tangible evidence of a nationrsquos pedigree harmonizing the diverse populations of nations into singularly national peoples or sometimes re‐fragmenting them laying the foundations for new identity claims in the future Already by the late nineteenth century accelerating domestic and international tourism engendered a second ldquoheritage boomrdquo albeit differently motivated the new ldquoheritage touristsrdquo on their quest for his-torical authenticity and exotic landscapes as means of (however temporary) escape from modern industrial life dominated by economic calculus contradictorily created the demand that allowed for the commoditization of built heritage as a ldquocultural resourcerdquo

A focus on the built environment is arguably based on a European concept of cultural heritage which is entirely appropriate for an environment dealing largely with the conservation of buildings made of stone brick and other durable materials (Logan 2006) This view of heritage has been frequently criticized Walled cities cathedrals and eye‐catching landscape formations like the Giantrsquos Causeway in Northern Ireland heavily dominate the list of European World Heritage sites This contrasts starkly with the concept of permanency found on other continents An example of this is the

4 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

imperial shrine at Ise Japan From a Western perspective this shrine hardly qualifies as ldquooldrdquo since it is rebuilt every twenty years However from a Japanese perspective it is old because it is rebuilt ldquoin exactly the same way ndash using the same ancient instru-ments materials ndash with each step of the process marked by appropriate ancient ritualsrdquo (Sahlins 2002 9)

Although heritage has for a long time been defined primarily in terms of material objects as ldquotangible heritagerdquo there has been a parallel interest in what is nowadays called ldquointangible heritagerdquo which for most of the past two centuries however remained in the shadow of the more prominent heritage of material objects and the built environment To some extent and in some parts of the world particularly Europe North America and Australia this reflects the different social and political status of the signified whereas monuments works of fine art castles and cathedrals materially and visually project and transmit the heritage of the hegemony folk songs and wisdom as with many other traditional skills tend to project and transmit heritage of the lower classes non‐materially and orally

Kristin Kuutma (Chapter 3) traces the emergence of folklore as an academic discipline and its subsequent involvement in cultural policy‐making including the contemporary transition from ldquofolklorerdquo to ldquointangible cultural heritagerdquo and the disciplinersquos contri-bution to the international management of heritage regimes Originating during the period of nation‐building when they formed part of the creation of national cultural heritages collections of folklore represent past repertoires and practices of mostly pre‐industrial (peasant) lifestyles that nowadays often feed various linguistic ethnic or other local revival movements As global power relationships at the turn of the twenty‐first century are creating ever‐shifting discourses of inclusion and exclusion rooted-ness and rights for possession a need to identify and safeguard intangible cultural heritage was postulated leading to the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage adopted in 2003 and commonly known as the Intangible Heritage Convention Although intangible elements had always been included in understanding the significance of heritage places under the World Heritage Convention (1972) this new convention focused on and led to a system for evaluating and safeguarding intangible heritage in its own right

Heritage in the post‐war years was conceived as and called ldquocultural propertyrdquo an understanding and terminology that is still found today in relation to some disciplines (eg anthropology) and some forms of heritage (eg intellectual property) Pertti Anttonen has observed that ldquothe cultural representations that are selected for making heritage‐political claims are commonly called traditions with a special emphasis on their character as cultural properties that is representations with an ownership labelrdquo (Anttonen 2005 39) Ownership lying at the heart of the notion of cultural property has become a major and growing concern since the second half of the twentieth century Folarin Shyllon (Chapter 4) considers these concerns especially in the context of human rights Access to and enjoyment of cultural heritage is considered to be a fundamental cultural right a sub‐category of human rights (Shaheed 2011) It might be argued that a similar right to intellectual property also exists but some intellectual property rights do not fit human rights easily because they are economic and commercial rather than social or cultural Considering cultural heritage as a fundamental human right can raise difficult ethical issues as different cultures tend to regard their own values as universal and those of others where they conflict as culturally contingent The debate on intellectual and by extension cultural property is rather more focused

the new heritage studies 5

on economic value As Shyllon points out some cultural heritage such as the sites inscribed on UNESCOrsquos World Heritage List may be regarded as universal property in the wider sense while intellectual property rights tend to be held as monopolies

Except from a natural law perspective values can be seen as being in the mind this goes even for economic monetary values which are the result of negotiations between actors In contrast artistic linguistic and technical skills can be seen as embodied As an example of a non‐Western approach to intangible heritage Natsuko Akagawa (Chapter 5) examines the philosophy behind Japanese legislation for safeguarding cultural property Her analysis highlights the significance of embodiment as a concept for understanding and dealing with heritage

Landscapes of MemoryRecent decades have seen a growing interest across different contexts in how heritage has been embodied in the land (see Gilbert 2010) Perspectives on this vary from geographical analyses of how hegemonic powers have shaped symbolic landscapes (eg Cosgrove 1984) to accounts of indigenous relationships with the land as an ani-mate being and keeper of memory (eg Blue Spruce and Thrasher 2008) Associative landscapes now serve as the foundation for official designations of heritage origins such as the French terroir discussed by Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) Involving com-munities in identifying and managing heritage landscapes and individual sites has become a key concern moving traditional knowledge systems their contribution to heritage management and the need to support them into the spotlight

However this concern has not necessarily been recognized in the practice of inter-national heritage programs With reference to the Pacific islands Anita Smith (Chapter 7) explores differences in the recognition of traditional knowledge systems in two UNESCO conventions ndash the World Heritage Convention (1972) and the Intangible Heritage Convention (2003) ndash and underlines long‐standing critiques of the World Heritage system as Eurocentric in its determination of Outstanding Universal Value In the late 1990s there was an attempt to establish an indigenous body to advise the World Heritage Committee in accordance with the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (United Nations 2007) While this initiative failed (see Logan 2013 Meskell 2013a) the call has been renewed in recent years (see Disko this volume)

Although in public perception issues of land and landscape are particularly associated with indigenous peoples they also play a major role in other contexts The application by parts of Burgundy in eastern France for World Heritage status is a case in point Using an ldquoethnographic gazerdquo Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) examines different con-ceptions of Burgundy as a re‐territorialized site and the construction of its micro‐regional climats with their historical depth of place as ldquoGod‐givenrdquo naturalized artifacts in the context of global competition where UNESCO designation is prized for con-veying an elite status

The embodiment of heritage in landscapes of memory also raises issues of the rela-tionships between natural and cultural heritage and their frequent separation in the practice of heritage management where different government and non‐government bodies are in charge of different types of heritage and conflicts of interest arise not least from budget constraints and varying lines of responsibility This can be exacerbated where a designated site stretches across one or more political or administrative boundary

6 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

The Curonian Spit shared by Lithuania and Russia is one of only 31 such transnational World Heritage sites where different approaches by the two administrations to environ-mental issues have been problematic (Armaitiene et al 2007) Moreover multiple layers of cultural memory affect the site and its contemporary meaning as heritage for different constituencies (Kockel 2012a) Appropriately contextualizing cultural heri-tages in relation to place and memory has been made difficult by a widespread tendency to treat cultural differences as mere constructs (Kockel and Nic Craith 2015) This is particularly apparent where we are dealing with places of pain and shame

Not all heritage serves as a reminder of a glorious past (Logan and Reeves 2009) In the Lithuanian national open air museum at Rumšiškes near Kaunas the extensive display of farm buildings and machinery as well as the central small town invoke nineteenth‐ and early twentieth‐century Lithuania but close to the center there is a clearing in the woods where the time frame is different Several items including an earthen yurt and a cattle wagon commemorate the deportations of thousands of Lithuanians between 1941 and 1953 when they were sent to the Soviet Gulags (Kockel 2015) Jonathan Webber (Chapter 8) seeks to make sense of Auschwitz designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1979 as a heritage site and landscape of memory Auschwitz means different things to different victim groups in terms of their own histories but also to other visitors Emblematic of ldquoundesirable heri-tagerdquo it is at the same time a powerful symbol a theatre where multiple memorial events are performed and a destination for ldquodarkrdquo tourism attracting large numbers of spectators

Collecting HeritageEver since interest in heritage began to develop the collection of material items and oral testimony has been a central activity aimed at facilitating their preservation This remains so despite a growing critique of museum and archiving practices UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Programme (MoW) is a major initiative for the protection of documentary heritage However with the exception of Charlesworth (2010) it has been largely overlooked in academic research even within the field of heritage studies Against this background Anca Claudia Prodan (Chapter 9) attempts to clarify the main features of the program and to identify points for research MoW is part of UNESCOrsquos policies aimed at building inclusive knowledge societies While acknowledging the contribution of MoW in that regard Prodan argues that in the process of this the program is reduced to being merely a source of information and that it needs to be strengthened by being recontextualized within UNESCOrsquos international system of heritage protection

Artifact collections and the practices employed in accumulating them have come under scrutiny in the context of postcolonial critiques of intercultural relations In 2002 the British Museum and the Louvre together with an international group of major museums issued the Declaration on the Importance and Value of Universal Museums (ICOM 2004) Most of these museums date back to the late eighteenth century before the period of European imperial expansion and the declaration has been widely interpreted as an attempt to guard against claims for the repatriation of much of their collections to the countries of origin Such claims are made not only with regard to indigenous peoples but extend to Western countries such as Greece as the case of the Elgin Marbles illustrates Maurice Mugabowagahunde (Chapter 10)

the new heritage studies 3

later the landscape concept was translated into urban areas as the ldquohistoric urban landscaperdquo blending modern and historic architectural and urban design forms rather than natural and cultural elements but nevertheless emphasizing like cultural landscapes the need for a holistic view of the environment and a sensitive balanced approach to new human interventions

Vernacular structures are now seen as being of cultural heritage interest that is structures that are not architect‐designed but owner‐ or community‐built using avail-able resources and traditional techniques So too are industrial structures Publications by Miles Lewis (1977) Paul Oliver (1997) and William Siew Wai Lim and Tan Hock Beng (1998) began to fill in major gaps in the tangible heritage literature More recently there has been considerable heritage interest internationally in ldquocultural routesrdquo The Council of Europe in 1987 established a program of European cultural routes that is managed from a specialized institute located in Luxembourg The pro-gramrsquos first initiative is the Santiago de Compostela Route the famous Christian pilgrimage route of the Middle Ages In the United States and Canada efforts have been made to commemorate the Underground Railroad ndash the route taken by slaves trying to reach freedom before the Civil War ndash by protecting a series of key sites along its length In Asia UNESCO is supporting the Silk Road Project for developing cultural heritage and cultural tourism along the traditional routes of the silk trade between south‐eastern Europe and China

In the international development field there was a marked shift in the 1990s in the attitude of key agencies such as the World Bank towards cultural heritage Rather than seeing cultural heritage protection as an obstacle to development it is now recognized that the two can go hand in hand to bring about more effective programs to raise standards of living in developing countries and elsewhere (Logan 2003 xxi)

Neil Silberman (Chapter 2) explores the evolving heritage conception and the changing forms and functions of heritage places from their initial validation as national institutions in the early nineteenth century to their multicultural context in the early twenty‐first century He shows that the meanings and values of heritage places are neither static nor inherent but ascribed by particular social groups choosing to empha-size or ignore particular items or aspects for social and political purposes Romantic nationalism led to a first ldquoheritage boomrdquo during the emergence of nation‐states in nineteenth‐century Europe as commemorative sites and structures were created to serve as tangible evidence of a nationrsquos pedigree harmonizing the diverse populations of nations into singularly national peoples or sometimes re‐fragmenting them laying the foundations for new identity claims in the future Already by the late nineteenth century accelerating domestic and international tourism engendered a second ldquoheritage boomrdquo albeit differently motivated the new ldquoheritage touristsrdquo on their quest for his-torical authenticity and exotic landscapes as means of (however temporary) escape from modern industrial life dominated by economic calculus contradictorily created the demand that allowed for the commoditization of built heritage as a ldquocultural resourcerdquo

A focus on the built environment is arguably based on a European concept of cultural heritage which is entirely appropriate for an environment dealing largely with the conservation of buildings made of stone brick and other durable materials (Logan 2006) This view of heritage has been frequently criticized Walled cities cathedrals and eye‐catching landscape formations like the Giantrsquos Causeway in Northern Ireland heavily dominate the list of European World Heritage sites This contrasts starkly with the concept of permanency found on other continents An example of this is the

4 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

imperial shrine at Ise Japan From a Western perspective this shrine hardly qualifies as ldquooldrdquo since it is rebuilt every twenty years However from a Japanese perspective it is old because it is rebuilt ldquoin exactly the same way ndash using the same ancient instru-ments materials ndash with each step of the process marked by appropriate ancient ritualsrdquo (Sahlins 2002 9)

Although heritage has for a long time been defined primarily in terms of material objects as ldquotangible heritagerdquo there has been a parallel interest in what is nowadays called ldquointangible heritagerdquo which for most of the past two centuries however remained in the shadow of the more prominent heritage of material objects and the built environment To some extent and in some parts of the world particularly Europe North America and Australia this reflects the different social and political status of the signified whereas monuments works of fine art castles and cathedrals materially and visually project and transmit the heritage of the hegemony folk songs and wisdom as with many other traditional skills tend to project and transmit heritage of the lower classes non‐materially and orally

Kristin Kuutma (Chapter 3) traces the emergence of folklore as an academic discipline and its subsequent involvement in cultural policy‐making including the contemporary transition from ldquofolklorerdquo to ldquointangible cultural heritagerdquo and the disciplinersquos contri-bution to the international management of heritage regimes Originating during the period of nation‐building when they formed part of the creation of national cultural heritages collections of folklore represent past repertoires and practices of mostly pre‐industrial (peasant) lifestyles that nowadays often feed various linguistic ethnic or other local revival movements As global power relationships at the turn of the twenty‐first century are creating ever‐shifting discourses of inclusion and exclusion rooted-ness and rights for possession a need to identify and safeguard intangible cultural heritage was postulated leading to the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage adopted in 2003 and commonly known as the Intangible Heritage Convention Although intangible elements had always been included in understanding the significance of heritage places under the World Heritage Convention (1972) this new convention focused on and led to a system for evaluating and safeguarding intangible heritage in its own right

Heritage in the post‐war years was conceived as and called ldquocultural propertyrdquo an understanding and terminology that is still found today in relation to some disciplines (eg anthropology) and some forms of heritage (eg intellectual property) Pertti Anttonen has observed that ldquothe cultural representations that are selected for making heritage‐political claims are commonly called traditions with a special emphasis on their character as cultural properties that is representations with an ownership labelrdquo (Anttonen 2005 39) Ownership lying at the heart of the notion of cultural property has become a major and growing concern since the second half of the twentieth century Folarin Shyllon (Chapter 4) considers these concerns especially in the context of human rights Access to and enjoyment of cultural heritage is considered to be a fundamental cultural right a sub‐category of human rights (Shaheed 2011) It might be argued that a similar right to intellectual property also exists but some intellectual property rights do not fit human rights easily because they are economic and commercial rather than social or cultural Considering cultural heritage as a fundamental human right can raise difficult ethical issues as different cultures tend to regard their own values as universal and those of others where they conflict as culturally contingent The debate on intellectual and by extension cultural property is rather more focused

the new heritage studies 5

on economic value As Shyllon points out some cultural heritage such as the sites inscribed on UNESCOrsquos World Heritage List may be regarded as universal property in the wider sense while intellectual property rights tend to be held as monopolies

Except from a natural law perspective values can be seen as being in the mind this goes even for economic monetary values which are the result of negotiations between actors In contrast artistic linguistic and technical skills can be seen as embodied As an example of a non‐Western approach to intangible heritage Natsuko Akagawa (Chapter 5) examines the philosophy behind Japanese legislation for safeguarding cultural property Her analysis highlights the significance of embodiment as a concept for understanding and dealing with heritage

Landscapes of MemoryRecent decades have seen a growing interest across different contexts in how heritage has been embodied in the land (see Gilbert 2010) Perspectives on this vary from geographical analyses of how hegemonic powers have shaped symbolic landscapes (eg Cosgrove 1984) to accounts of indigenous relationships with the land as an ani-mate being and keeper of memory (eg Blue Spruce and Thrasher 2008) Associative landscapes now serve as the foundation for official designations of heritage origins such as the French terroir discussed by Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) Involving com-munities in identifying and managing heritage landscapes and individual sites has become a key concern moving traditional knowledge systems their contribution to heritage management and the need to support them into the spotlight

However this concern has not necessarily been recognized in the practice of inter-national heritage programs With reference to the Pacific islands Anita Smith (Chapter 7) explores differences in the recognition of traditional knowledge systems in two UNESCO conventions ndash the World Heritage Convention (1972) and the Intangible Heritage Convention (2003) ndash and underlines long‐standing critiques of the World Heritage system as Eurocentric in its determination of Outstanding Universal Value In the late 1990s there was an attempt to establish an indigenous body to advise the World Heritage Committee in accordance with the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (United Nations 2007) While this initiative failed (see Logan 2013 Meskell 2013a) the call has been renewed in recent years (see Disko this volume)

Although in public perception issues of land and landscape are particularly associated with indigenous peoples they also play a major role in other contexts The application by parts of Burgundy in eastern France for World Heritage status is a case in point Using an ldquoethnographic gazerdquo Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) examines different con-ceptions of Burgundy as a re‐territorialized site and the construction of its micro‐regional climats with their historical depth of place as ldquoGod‐givenrdquo naturalized artifacts in the context of global competition where UNESCO designation is prized for con-veying an elite status

The embodiment of heritage in landscapes of memory also raises issues of the rela-tionships between natural and cultural heritage and their frequent separation in the practice of heritage management where different government and non‐government bodies are in charge of different types of heritage and conflicts of interest arise not least from budget constraints and varying lines of responsibility This can be exacerbated where a designated site stretches across one or more political or administrative boundary

6 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

The Curonian Spit shared by Lithuania and Russia is one of only 31 such transnational World Heritage sites where different approaches by the two administrations to environ-mental issues have been problematic (Armaitiene et al 2007) Moreover multiple layers of cultural memory affect the site and its contemporary meaning as heritage for different constituencies (Kockel 2012a) Appropriately contextualizing cultural heri-tages in relation to place and memory has been made difficult by a widespread tendency to treat cultural differences as mere constructs (Kockel and Nic Craith 2015) This is particularly apparent where we are dealing with places of pain and shame

Not all heritage serves as a reminder of a glorious past (Logan and Reeves 2009) In the Lithuanian national open air museum at Rumšiškes near Kaunas the extensive display of farm buildings and machinery as well as the central small town invoke nineteenth‐ and early twentieth‐century Lithuania but close to the center there is a clearing in the woods where the time frame is different Several items including an earthen yurt and a cattle wagon commemorate the deportations of thousands of Lithuanians between 1941 and 1953 when they were sent to the Soviet Gulags (Kockel 2015) Jonathan Webber (Chapter 8) seeks to make sense of Auschwitz designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1979 as a heritage site and landscape of memory Auschwitz means different things to different victim groups in terms of their own histories but also to other visitors Emblematic of ldquoundesirable heri-tagerdquo it is at the same time a powerful symbol a theatre where multiple memorial events are performed and a destination for ldquodarkrdquo tourism attracting large numbers of spectators

Collecting HeritageEver since interest in heritage began to develop the collection of material items and oral testimony has been a central activity aimed at facilitating their preservation This remains so despite a growing critique of museum and archiving practices UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Programme (MoW) is a major initiative for the protection of documentary heritage However with the exception of Charlesworth (2010) it has been largely overlooked in academic research even within the field of heritage studies Against this background Anca Claudia Prodan (Chapter 9) attempts to clarify the main features of the program and to identify points for research MoW is part of UNESCOrsquos policies aimed at building inclusive knowledge societies While acknowledging the contribution of MoW in that regard Prodan argues that in the process of this the program is reduced to being merely a source of information and that it needs to be strengthened by being recontextualized within UNESCOrsquos international system of heritage protection

Artifact collections and the practices employed in accumulating them have come under scrutiny in the context of postcolonial critiques of intercultural relations In 2002 the British Museum and the Louvre together with an international group of major museums issued the Declaration on the Importance and Value of Universal Museums (ICOM 2004) Most of these museums date back to the late eighteenth century before the period of European imperial expansion and the declaration has been widely interpreted as an attempt to guard against claims for the repatriation of much of their collections to the countries of origin Such claims are made not only with regard to indigenous peoples but extend to Western countries such as Greece as the case of the Elgin Marbles illustrates Maurice Mugabowagahunde (Chapter 10)

4 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

imperial shrine at Ise Japan From a Western perspective this shrine hardly qualifies as ldquooldrdquo since it is rebuilt every twenty years However from a Japanese perspective it is old because it is rebuilt ldquoin exactly the same way ndash using the same ancient instru-ments materials ndash with each step of the process marked by appropriate ancient ritualsrdquo (Sahlins 2002 9)

Although heritage has for a long time been defined primarily in terms of material objects as ldquotangible heritagerdquo there has been a parallel interest in what is nowadays called ldquointangible heritagerdquo which for most of the past two centuries however remained in the shadow of the more prominent heritage of material objects and the built environment To some extent and in some parts of the world particularly Europe North America and Australia this reflects the different social and political status of the signified whereas monuments works of fine art castles and cathedrals materially and visually project and transmit the heritage of the hegemony folk songs and wisdom as with many other traditional skills tend to project and transmit heritage of the lower classes non‐materially and orally

Kristin Kuutma (Chapter 3) traces the emergence of folklore as an academic discipline and its subsequent involvement in cultural policy‐making including the contemporary transition from ldquofolklorerdquo to ldquointangible cultural heritagerdquo and the disciplinersquos contri-bution to the international management of heritage regimes Originating during the period of nation‐building when they formed part of the creation of national cultural heritages collections of folklore represent past repertoires and practices of mostly pre‐industrial (peasant) lifestyles that nowadays often feed various linguistic ethnic or other local revival movements As global power relationships at the turn of the twenty‐first century are creating ever‐shifting discourses of inclusion and exclusion rooted-ness and rights for possession a need to identify and safeguard intangible cultural heritage was postulated leading to the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage adopted in 2003 and commonly known as the Intangible Heritage Convention Although intangible elements had always been included in understanding the significance of heritage places under the World Heritage Convention (1972) this new convention focused on and led to a system for evaluating and safeguarding intangible heritage in its own right

Heritage in the post‐war years was conceived as and called ldquocultural propertyrdquo an understanding and terminology that is still found today in relation to some disciplines (eg anthropology) and some forms of heritage (eg intellectual property) Pertti Anttonen has observed that ldquothe cultural representations that are selected for making heritage‐political claims are commonly called traditions with a special emphasis on their character as cultural properties that is representations with an ownership labelrdquo (Anttonen 2005 39) Ownership lying at the heart of the notion of cultural property has become a major and growing concern since the second half of the twentieth century Folarin Shyllon (Chapter 4) considers these concerns especially in the context of human rights Access to and enjoyment of cultural heritage is considered to be a fundamental cultural right a sub‐category of human rights (Shaheed 2011) It might be argued that a similar right to intellectual property also exists but some intellectual property rights do not fit human rights easily because they are economic and commercial rather than social or cultural Considering cultural heritage as a fundamental human right can raise difficult ethical issues as different cultures tend to regard their own values as universal and those of others where they conflict as culturally contingent The debate on intellectual and by extension cultural property is rather more focused

the new heritage studies 5

on economic value As Shyllon points out some cultural heritage such as the sites inscribed on UNESCOrsquos World Heritage List may be regarded as universal property in the wider sense while intellectual property rights tend to be held as monopolies

Except from a natural law perspective values can be seen as being in the mind this goes even for economic monetary values which are the result of negotiations between actors In contrast artistic linguistic and technical skills can be seen as embodied As an example of a non‐Western approach to intangible heritage Natsuko Akagawa (Chapter 5) examines the philosophy behind Japanese legislation for safeguarding cultural property Her analysis highlights the significance of embodiment as a concept for understanding and dealing with heritage

Landscapes of MemoryRecent decades have seen a growing interest across different contexts in how heritage has been embodied in the land (see Gilbert 2010) Perspectives on this vary from geographical analyses of how hegemonic powers have shaped symbolic landscapes (eg Cosgrove 1984) to accounts of indigenous relationships with the land as an ani-mate being and keeper of memory (eg Blue Spruce and Thrasher 2008) Associative landscapes now serve as the foundation for official designations of heritage origins such as the French terroir discussed by Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) Involving com-munities in identifying and managing heritage landscapes and individual sites has become a key concern moving traditional knowledge systems their contribution to heritage management and the need to support them into the spotlight

However this concern has not necessarily been recognized in the practice of inter-national heritage programs With reference to the Pacific islands Anita Smith (Chapter 7) explores differences in the recognition of traditional knowledge systems in two UNESCO conventions ndash the World Heritage Convention (1972) and the Intangible Heritage Convention (2003) ndash and underlines long‐standing critiques of the World Heritage system as Eurocentric in its determination of Outstanding Universal Value In the late 1990s there was an attempt to establish an indigenous body to advise the World Heritage Committee in accordance with the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (United Nations 2007) While this initiative failed (see Logan 2013 Meskell 2013a) the call has been renewed in recent years (see Disko this volume)

Although in public perception issues of land and landscape are particularly associated with indigenous peoples they also play a major role in other contexts The application by parts of Burgundy in eastern France for World Heritage status is a case in point Using an ldquoethnographic gazerdquo Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) examines different con-ceptions of Burgundy as a re‐territorialized site and the construction of its micro‐regional climats with their historical depth of place as ldquoGod‐givenrdquo naturalized artifacts in the context of global competition where UNESCO designation is prized for con-veying an elite status

The embodiment of heritage in landscapes of memory also raises issues of the rela-tionships between natural and cultural heritage and their frequent separation in the practice of heritage management where different government and non‐government bodies are in charge of different types of heritage and conflicts of interest arise not least from budget constraints and varying lines of responsibility This can be exacerbated where a designated site stretches across one or more political or administrative boundary

6 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

The Curonian Spit shared by Lithuania and Russia is one of only 31 such transnational World Heritage sites where different approaches by the two administrations to environ-mental issues have been problematic (Armaitiene et al 2007) Moreover multiple layers of cultural memory affect the site and its contemporary meaning as heritage for different constituencies (Kockel 2012a) Appropriately contextualizing cultural heri-tages in relation to place and memory has been made difficult by a widespread tendency to treat cultural differences as mere constructs (Kockel and Nic Craith 2015) This is particularly apparent where we are dealing with places of pain and shame

Not all heritage serves as a reminder of a glorious past (Logan and Reeves 2009) In the Lithuanian national open air museum at Rumšiškes near Kaunas the extensive display of farm buildings and machinery as well as the central small town invoke nineteenth‐ and early twentieth‐century Lithuania but close to the center there is a clearing in the woods where the time frame is different Several items including an earthen yurt and a cattle wagon commemorate the deportations of thousands of Lithuanians between 1941 and 1953 when they were sent to the Soviet Gulags (Kockel 2015) Jonathan Webber (Chapter 8) seeks to make sense of Auschwitz designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1979 as a heritage site and landscape of memory Auschwitz means different things to different victim groups in terms of their own histories but also to other visitors Emblematic of ldquoundesirable heri-tagerdquo it is at the same time a powerful symbol a theatre where multiple memorial events are performed and a destination for ldquodarkrdquo tourism attracting large numbers of spectators

Collecting HeritageEver since interest in heritage began to develop the collection of material items and oral testimony has been a central activity aimed at facilitating their preservation This remains so despite a growing critique of museum and archiving practices UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Programme (MoW) is a major initiative for the protection of documentary heritage However with the exception of Charlesworth (2010) it has been largely overlooked in academic research even within the field of heritage studies Against this background Anca Claudia Prodan (Chapter 9) attempts to clarify the main features of the program and to identify points for research MoW is part of UNESCOrsquos policies aimed at building inclusive knowledge societies While acknowledging the contribution of MoW in that regard Prodan argues that in the process of this the program is reduced to being merely a source of information and that it needs to be strengthened by being recontextualized within UNESCOrsquos international system of heritage protection

Artifact collections and the practices employed in accumulating them have come under scrutiny in the context of postcolonial critiques of intercultural relations In 2002 the British Museum and the Louvre together with an international group of major museums issued the Declaration on the Importance and Value of Universal Museums (ICOM 2004) Most of these museums date back to the late eighteenth century before the period of European imperial expansion and the declaration has been widely interpreted as an attempt to guard against claims for the repatriation of much of their collections to the countries of origin Such claims are made not only with regard to indigenous peoples but extend to Western countries such as Greece as the case of the Elgin Marbles illustrates Maurice Mugabowagahunde (Chapter 10)

the new heritage studies 5

on economic value As Shyllon points out some cultural heritage such as the sites inscribed on UNESCOrsquos World Heritage List may be regarded as universal property in the wider sense while intellectual property rights tend to be held as monopolies

Except from a natural law perspective values can be seen as being in the mind this goes even for economic monetary values which are the result of negotiations between actors In contrast artistic linguistic and technical skills can be seen as embodied As an example of a non‐Western approach to intangible heritage Natsuko Akagawa (Chapter 5) examines the philosophy behind Japanese legislation for safeguarding cultural property Her analysis highlights the significance of embodiment as a concept for understanding and dealing with heritage

Landscapes of MemoryRecent decades have seen a growing interest across different contexts in how heritage has been embodied in the land (see Gilbert 2010) Perspectives on this vary from geographical analyses of how hegemonic powers have shaped symbolic landscapes (eg Cosgrove 1984) to accounts of indigenous relationships with the land as an ani-mate being and keeper of memory (eg Blue Spruce and Thrasher 2008) Associative landscapes now serve as the foundation for official designations of heritage origins such as the French terroir discussed by Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) Involving com-munities in identifying and managing heritage landscapes and individual sites has become a key concern moving traditional knowledge systems their contribution to heritage management and the need to support them into the spotlight

However this concern has not necessarily been recognized in the practice of inter-national heritage programs With reference to the Pacific islands Anita Smith (Chapter 7) explores differences in the recognition of traditional knowledge systems in two UNESCO conventions ndash the World Heritage Convention (1972) and the Intangible Heritage Convention (2003) ndash and underlines long‐standing critiques of the World Heritage system as Eurocentric in its determination of Outstanding Universal Value In the late 1990s there was an attempt to establish an indigenous body to advise the World Heritage Committee in accordance with the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (United Nations 2007) While this initiative failed (see Logan 2013 Meskell 2013a) the call has been renewed in recent years (see Disko this volume)

Although in public perception issues of land and landscape are particularly associated with indigenous peoples they also play a major role in other contexts The application by parts of Burgundy in eastern France for World Heritage status is a case in point Using an ldquoethnographic gazerdquo Marion Demossier (Chapter 6) examines different con-ceptions of Burgundy as a re‐territorialized site and the construction of its micro‐regional climats with their historical depth of place as ldquoGod‐givenrdquo naturalized artifacts in the context of global competition where UNESCO designation is prized for con-veying an elite status

The embodiment of heritage in landscapes of memory also raises issues of the rela-tionships between natural and cultural heritage and their frequent separation in the practice of heritage management where different government and non‐government bodies are in charge of different types of heritage and conflicts of interest arise not least from budget constraints and varying lines of responsibility This can be exacerbated where a designated site stretches across one or more political or administrative boundary

6 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

The Curonian Spit shared by Lithuania and Russia is one of only 31 such transnational World Heritage sites where different approaches by the two administrations to environ-mental issues have been problematic (Armaitiene et al 2007) Moreover multiple layers of cultural memory affect the site and its contemporary meaning as heritage for different constituencies (Kockel 2012a) Appropriately contextualizing cultural heri-tages in relation to place and memory has been made difficult by a widespread tendency to treat cultural differences as mere constructs (Kockel and Nic Craith 2015) This is particularly apparent where we are dealing with places of pain and shame

Not all heritage serves as a reminder of a glorious past (Logan and Reeves 2009) In the Lithuanian national open air museum at Rumšiškes near Kaunas the extensive display of farm buildings and machinery as well as the central small town invoke nineteenth‐ and early twentieth‐century Lithuania but close to the center there is a clearing in the woods where the time frame is different Several items including an earthen yurt and a cattle wagon commemorate the deportations of thousands of Lithuanians between 1941 and 1953 when they were sent to the Soviet Gulags (Kockel 2015) Jonathan Webber (Chapter 8) seeks to make sense of Auschwitz designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1979 as a heritage site and landscape of memory Auschwitz means different things to different victim groups in terms of their own histories but also to other visitors Emblematic of ldquoundesirable heri-tagerdquo it is at the same time a powerful symbol a theatre where multiple memorial events are performed and a destination for ldquodarkrdquo tourism attracting large numbers of spectators

Collecting HeritageEver since interest in heritage began to develop the collection of material items and oral testimony has been a central activity aimed at facilitating their preservation This remains so despite a growing critique of museum and archiving practices UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Programme (MoW) is a major initiative for the protection of documentary heritage However with the exception of Charlesworth (2010) it has been largely overlooked in academic research even within the field of heritage studies Against this background Anca Claudia Prodan (Chapter 9) attempts to clarify the main features of the program and to identify points for research MoW is part of UNESCOrsquos policies aimed at building inclusive knowledge societies While acknowledging the contribution of MoW in that regard Prodan argues that in the process of this the program is reduced to being merely a source of information and that it needs to be strengthened by being recontextualized within UNESCOrsquos international system of heritage protection

Artifact collections and the practices employed in accumulating them have come under scrutiny in the context of postcolonial critiques of intercultural relations In 2002 the British Museum and the Louvre together with an international group of major museums issued the Declaration on the Importance and Value of Universal Museums (ICOM 2004) Most of these museums date back to the late eighteenth century before the period of European imperial expansion and the declaration has been widely interpreted as an attempt to guard against claims for the repatriation of much of their collections to the countries of origin Such claims are made not only with regard to indigenous peoples but extend to Western countries such as Greece as the case of the Elgin Marbles illustrates Maurice Mugabowagahunde (Chapter 10)

6 william logan ullrich kockel and maacuteireacutead nic craith

The Curonian Spit shared by Lithuania and Russia is one of only 31 such transnational World Heritage sites where different approaches by the two administrations to environ-mental issues have been problematic (Armaitiene et al 2007) Moreover multiple layers of cultural memory affect the site and its contemporary meaning as heritage for different constituencies (Kockel 2012a) Appropriately contextualizing cultural heri-tages in relation to place and memory has been made difficult by a widespread tendency to treat cultural differences as mere constructs (Kockel and Nic Craith 2015) This is particularly apparent where we are dealing with places of pain and shame

Not all heritage serves as a reminder of a glorious past (Logan and Reeves 2009) In the Lithuanian national open air museum at Rumšiškes near Kaunas the extensive display of farm buildings and machinery as well as the central small town invoke nineteenth‐ and early twentieth‐century Lithuania but close to the center there is a clearing in the woods where the time frame is different Several items including an earthen yurt and a cattle wagon commemorate the deportations of thousands of Lithuanians between 1941 and 1953 when they were sent to the Soviet Gulags (Kockel 2015) Jonathan Webber (Chapter 8) seeks to make sense of Auschwitz designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1979 as a heritage site and landscape of memory Auschwitz means different things to different victim groups in terms of their own histories but also to other visitors Emblematic of ldquoundesirable heri-tagerdquo it is at the same time a powerful symbol a theatre where multiple memorial events are performed and a destination for ldquodarkrdquo tourism attracting large numbers of spectators

Collecting HeritageEver since interest in heritage began to develop the collection of material items and oral testimony has been a central activity aimed at facilitating their preservation This remains so despite a growing critique of museum and archiving practices UNESCOrsquos Memory of the World Programme (MoW) is a major initiative for the protection of documentary heritage However with the exception of Charlesworth (2010) it has been largely overlooked in academic research even within the field of heritage studies Against this background Anca Claudia Prodan (Chapter 9) attempts to clarify the main features of the program and to identify points for research MoW is part of UNESCOrsquos policies aimed at building inclusive knowledge societies While acknowledging the contribution of MoW in that regard Prodan argues that in the process of this the program is reduced to being merely a source of information and that it needs to be strengthened by being recontextualized within UNESCOrsquos international system of heritage protection

Artifact collections and the practices employed in accumulating them have come under scrutiny in the context of postcolonial critiques of intercultural relations In 2002 the British Museum and the Louvre together with an international group of major museums issued the Declaration on the Importance and Value of Universal Museums (ICOM 2004) Most of these museums date back to the late eighteenth century before the period of European imperial expansion and the declaration has been widely interpreted as an attempt to guard against claims for the repatriation of much of their collections to the countries of origin Such claims are made not only with regard to indigenous peoples but extend to Western countries such as Greece as the case of the Elgin Marbles illustrates Maurice Mugabowagahunde (Chapter 10)