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Fixed-Mobile Wireless Networks Convergence

Technologies, Solutions, Services

Do you need to understand the technical solutions and associated services that allowmultimedia communications between established mobile cellular networks and any formof fixed wireless communications? If so, this practical book, presenting the fundamentalsof individual fixed and mobile wireless technologies in terms of architectures, standards,management capabilities, and quality of service issues, is essential reading.

Adopting the term Fixed-Mobile Convergence (FMC), an analysis of the interwork-ing between cellular networks and a variety of wireless technologies such as WLAN,WiMAX, RFID and UWB is provided. An in-depth study of the convergent solutionsoffered by UMA and IMS is also given, in addition to the commercial realities of imple-menting convergent solutions. Up-to-date information about technical solutions, prod-ucts, vendors, and current service offerings is included. You’ll also find criteria foranalyzing and evaluating fixed-mobile convergent products and services, and numerousdiagrams and feature/component tables. This practical text is ideal for engineers andpractitioners in the field of telecommunications and wireless communications, as wellas for graduate students of electrical and computer engineering.

Joseph Ghetie is a Network and Systems Engineer Consultant and Instructor for hisown technical consulting and training business TCOM & NET. He previously workedfor Telcordia Technologies (Bell Communications Research) for over 13 years, wherehe was responsible for developing architectures, requirements, and designing solutionsfor network management integration, providing consulting, and supporting managementstandards development. He has taught over 35 tutorials at major international conferencesand symposia, and has authored 27 advanced technical courses in data communications,telecommunications, Internet networking, network and service management, and wire-less communications.

Fixed-Mobile Wireless NetworksConvergenceTechnologies, Solutions, Services

JOSEPH GHET IE

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo

Cambridge University PressThe Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK

First published in print format

ISBN-13 978-0-521-51356-2

ISBN-13 978-0-511-42891-3

© Cambridge University Press 2008

2008

Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521513562

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

www.cambridge.org

eBook (EBL)

hardback

I dedicate this book to my granddaughters,Nadia and Talia,with the wish they discover that science is the key to understandingour universe and that art is the key to understanding human beingsand the human spirit.

Contents

Disclaimer page xvHow the Book is Organized xviList of Figures xxList of Tables xxviPreface xxixAcknowledgments xxxiAcronyms xxxiii

Part I Wireless Communications: Networking and Management

1 Wireless Communications and Networking 3

1.1 Communications Networks 31.2 Communications Architectures and Protocols 51.3 Wireless Communications 91.4 Wireless Communications Classification 111.5 Wireless Communications Architecture 141.6 Wireless Communications Architectural Components 151.7 Wired and Wireless Communications Networks 171.8 Spectrum Designation in Wireless Communications 191.9 Wireless Communications at a Glance 22

2 Network Management 25

2.1 Network and Systems Management Concepts 252.2 Network and Systems Management Models 282.3 Management Systems Classification 302.4 Management Systems Evolution 312.5 Network and Systems Management Platforms 332.6 Internet SNMP-based Management 362.7 ISO OSI CMIP-based Management 402.8 Network and Systems Management Requirements 452.9 Network and Systems Management Products 46

viii Contents

3 Service Management 47

3.1 Service Management Conceptual Model 473.2 Classes of Services 483.3 Quality of Service Parameters 493.4 Service Level Specifications/Agreements 513.5 Guidelines for Establishing SLAs 533.6 QOS Measurement Mechanisms 543.7 Service Management and COS/QOS/SLA 543.8 High-level Service Management Requirements 553.9 Service Level Management 56

3.10 Service Management Products 57

Part II Cellular Mobile Radio Networking and Management

4 Cellular Mobile Radio Networking 63

4.1 Cellular Mobile Radio Communications Concepts 634.2 Mobile Radio Link Access Methods 644.3 PCS/PCN Communications Architecture and Components 664.4 Cellular Mobile Radio Spectrum 684.5 Handoff/Handover and Roaming in Mobile Networks 704.6 Cellular Mobile Networks Classification 714.7 GSM Packet Radio Service Network Architecture and Components 734.8 Cellular Mobile Standards and Standards Organizations 754.9 Cellular Mobile Applications and Services 78

4.10 Cellular Mobile Networks Evolution 804.11 GSM and CDMA Cellular Networks Comparison 824.12 UMTS/IMT-2000 Architecture and Components 864.13 Mobile Internet Protocol 904.14 Signaling in Cellular Mobile Communications 934.15 Leading Cellular Smartphone Technical Specifications 96

5 Cellular Mobile Radio Networks Management and Services 100

5.1 Cellular Mobile Network Management Services 1005.2 Mobile Networks Management Requirements 1015.3 Cellular Mobile Networks Service Providers 1015.4 Cellular Mobile Networks Management Products 1035.5 Service Level Management in Mobile Networks 1065.6 GSM/GPRS Data Networking 1105.7 GPRS Classes of Services 1125.8 GPRS QOS Profiles 1135.9 Service Management Products in Mobile Networks 115

Contents ix

Part III Fixed Wireless Technologies: Networking and Management

6 Wireless Local Area Networking 121

6.1 Wireless LAN Architecture 1216.2 WLAN Networking Solutions Comparison 1226.3 WLAN IEEE Standards 1246.4 IEEE 802.11n and 802.11s WLAN Standards 1256.5 Wi-Fi Multimedia Specifications 1276.6 FCC Released Unlicensed Spectrum Specifications 1286.7 WLAN Security Aspects 1286.8 Wireless LAN Adapters for Computing Devices 1326.9 WLAN Systems Controllers 134

6.10 Advantages and Disadvantages of WLAN Technologies 1356.11 WLAN Access Points and WLAN Service Platforms 1366.12 WLAN Layered Communications 1396.13 WLAN Management Requirements 1406.14 WLAN Management Products 1426.15 Voice over WLAN Architecture 1436.16 Challenges of Transmitting Voice and Video over WLAN 1446.17 WLAN QOS and VoWLAN QOS Metrics 147

7 Wireless Personal Area Networking 149

7.1 Wireless PAN Architecture 1497.2 WPAN Networking Solutions 1507.3 Bluetooth WPAN Architecture 1517.4 Bluetooth Protocol Architecture 1547.5 Bluetooth Profiles 1557.6 Bluetooth Standards and Applications 1577.7 Bluetooth Security 1587.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of Bluetooth Technology 1597.9 Bluetooth Products 160

7.10 ZigBee Network Architecture 1607.11 ZigBee Protocol Architecture 1627.12 Advantages and Disadvantages of ZigBee Technology 1647.13 ZigBee Products 1647.14 Comparison of Bluetooth and ZigBee 1667.15 Power Line Communications Architecture 1667.16 WPAN Management and WPAN QOS 169

8 Wireless Metropolitan Area Networking 172

8.1 Wireless MAN Technologies 1728.2 Local Multipoint Distributed Services 173

x Contents

8.3 Multi-Channel Multipoint Distributed Services 1748.4 Free Space Optics Metropolitan Access 1768.5 WiMAX-Wireless Metropolitan Area Network Architecture 1778.6 WMAN Networking Solutions Technical Comparison 1788.7 WiMAX Standardization 1798.8 Mobile WiMAX 802.16e Main Features 1808.9 WiMAX Protocol Architecture 181

8.10 WiMAX Security 1828.11 Advantages and Disadvantages of WiMAX Technology 1838.12 WiMAX and 3G Cellular Mobile Comparison 1848.13 WiMAX Applications, Products and Service Providers 1848.14 WiMAX Management Requirements and Management Products 1878.15 WiMAX Quality of Services and QOS Metrics 188

9 Wireless Near-Field Sensor Networking 191

9.1 Near-Field Sensor Technologies 1919.2 RFID Networking Architecture Components, Frequencies 1929.3 Classification of RFID Tags 1939.4 RFID Standards 1949.5 RFID Applications 1959.6 RFID Security Aspects 1979.7 RFID Vendors, Products, and System Integrators 1989.8 Near-Field Communications 1999.9 Advantages and Disadvantages of RFID and NFC Technologies 201

9.10 Ultra Wide Band Network Architecture 2029.11 Advantages and Disadvantages of UWB Technology 2049.12 Wireless USB 205

Part IV Fixed Wireless Cellular Mobile Networks Convergence and Integration

10 Fixed-Mobile Convergence Overview 209

10.1 Why Convergence? 20910.2 Convergence Explained 21010.3 Fixed-Mobile Convergence History 21110.4 A High Level Wireless Convergence Concept 21110.5 Fixed-Mobile Convergent Network Architecture 21210.6 Fixed-Mobile Convergent Network Components 21310.7 Fixed-Mobile Convergent Network Interfaces and Protocols 21410.8 Drivers of Fixed-Mobile Convergence 21410.9 Convergence Functional Requirements 215

10.10 Media Independent Handover Services (IEEE 802.21) 21610.11 Fixed-Mobile Convergent Networking Solutions 21810.12 Fixed-Mobile Convergent Networking Forums 218

Contents xi

11 Wireless LAN Cellular Mobile Convergence 220

11.1 WLAN Convergent Network Architecture 22011.2 WLAN Convergent Applications 22011.3 802.11n–based WLAN Implementation Case Study 22111.4 Convergent WLAN Cellular Mobile Network Architecture 22311.5 Dual Mode WLAN Mobile Convergent Handsets 22411.6 Siemens WLAN Cellular Mobile Convergent Network Case Study 22611.7 WLAN Mesh Networks 22711.8 Metropolitan Mesh WLAN Convergent Network Case Study 23011.9 Wi-Fi and BlackBerry Convergence 231

11.10 Wi-Fi and iPhone Convergence 23211.11 Siemens HiPath WLAN Network Management Solution 23311.12 QOS in WLAN Cellular Mobile Convergent Networks 235

12 Wireless PAN Cellular Mobile Convergence 238

12.1 Bluetooth Networking 23812.2 Bluetooth Convergent Applications 23912.3 Multi-mode Bluetooth Mobile Convergent Terminals 24012.4 Convergent Bluetooth Cellular Mobile Network Architecture 24112.5 Bluetooth and GSM Health Care Convergent Networks Case Studies 24312.6 ZigBee Networking Standards 24412.7 ZigBee Convergent Applications 24712.8 ZigBee-based Electrical Power Management Case Study 24712.9 ZigBee, Wi-Fi, GSM Convergence Case Study 248

12.10 ZigBee and Wi-Fi Coexistence and Interference 25012.11 AirBee ZigBee Network Management System 25112.12 WPAN PLC-based Management System 25312.13 The Concept of Femtocell 254

13 Wireless MAN Cellular Mobile Convergence 256

13.1 WiMAX Mobile Convergent Applications 25613.2 WiMAX and Internet Protocol Television 25613.3 Multi-mode WiMAX Mobile Convergent Terminals 25713.4 Convergent WiMAX Cellular Mobile Network Architecture 25913.5 WiMAX and Ultra Wide Band Convergence 26013.6 WiMAX and Fixed Wired EPON Convergence 26113.7 WiMAX, Wi-Fi, and RFID Convergence Case Study 26313.8 WiMAX and Metro Mesh Convergence Case Study 26413.9 QOS in Fixed-Mobile WiMAX Convergence 266

13.10 WiMAX Mobile Convergence Service Providers 26613.11 WiMAX as an Alternative to 4G Cellular Mobile 26713.12 The Upcoming Auction of the 700 MHz Spectrum 268

xii Contents

14 Wireless Sensor Networks Cellular Mobile Convergence 270

14.1 RFID Technology Development 27014.2 RFID Tag Standards and Code Structures 27214.3 RFID Tag Evaluation Criteria 27414.4 RFID Reader Evaluation Criteria 27414.5 RFID and Cellular Mobile Networks Convergence 27514.6 RFID-based Health Care Services Case Study 27614.7 IBM’s Secure Trade Lane RFID-based Case Study 27814.8 NFC Networking, Standards, and Applications 28014.9 NFC and Cellular Mobile Networks Convergence 281

14.10 NFC Payment and Promotion Case Study 28214.11 UWB-based Wireless USB Products 28414.12 Mobile Ad-hoc and Wireless Sensor Networks 284

Part V Fixed Wireless Cellular Mobile Networks Convergence: StandardizedNetworking Solutions

15 UMA-based Fixed Wireless and Cellular Mobile Networking Solutions and Products 289

15.1 What is Unlicensed Mobile Access or GAN? 28915.2 UMA-based Network Architecture 28915.3 UMA-based Networking Overview 29015.4 UMA-based WLAN and GSM/CDMA Convergent Networking Solution 29115.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of the UMA/GAN Technology 29215.6 UMA/GAN Standard Specifications 29315.7 UMAN UNC Design Requirements and Functionalities 29315.8 UMAN UNC Discovery and Registration 29415.9 Securing the UMA “up” Interface 295

15.10 GERAN to UMAN UNC Handover Operation 29615.11 UMAN to GERAN UNC Handover Operation 29615.12 UMAN Signaling Protocol for Voice Communications 29715.13 UMAN Signaling Protocol for Data Communications 29715.14 UMAN Mobile Station Lower Layers Protocols 29915.15 UMA-based FMC Solutions, Products, and Services 30015.16 UMA-based Nokia Dual-mode 6301 Handset 302

16 Session Initiation Protocol 303

16.1 What is the Session Initiation Protocol-SIP? 30316.2 SIP System Architecture 30316.3 SIP Overview 30516.4 SIP-based Message Exchange 30716.5 SIP Message Format, Fields, and Options 30816.6 SIP IETF Standards and Extensions 310

Contents xiii

16.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of SIP 31116.8 SIP Applications 31216.9 ITU-T H.323 Signaling Protocols 313

16.10 Signaling Gateways/Session Controllers 31416.11 SIP-based Interoperability in Wireless Networks 31616.12 SIP-based VoIP Network Architecture 31716.13 SIP-based Solutions, Products, and Services 31816.14 SIP-based Signaling in the MobileIGNITE Architecture 32016.15 Electronic Number Mapping (ENUM) 321

17 IMS-based Fixed Wireless and Cellular Mobile Networking Solutions and Products 324

17.1 What is the IP-based Multimedia Subsystem? 32417.2 The Convergence Path to IMS 32517.3 IMS Networking Overview 32717.4 High-Level IMS Architecture 32817.5 IMS Reference Architecture 32917.6 Call Session Control Functional Modules 33217.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of IMS Technology 33317.8 IMS Standard Specifications 33417.9 IMS Applications 336

17.10 IMS Architecture Reference Points 33617.11 IMS-based FMC Solutions, Products, and Services 33917.12 Verizon Wireless IMS Vision 34217.13 IMS and Softswitches 34317.14 ETSI TISPAN 34617.15 Customized Applications for Mobile Networks Enhanced Logic

(CAMEL) 349

Part VI Fixed-Mobile Convergence Services, Industry Trends, andImplementation Issues

18 QOS in Fixed Wireless Cellular Mobile Convergent Networks 355

18.1 Fixed-Mobile Convergent Network Management 35518.2 Service Level Management in Wireless Convergent Networks 35718.3 Integrated and Differentiated Services 35918.4 Multi-Protocol Label Switching 36318.5 Policy-based Management 36518.6 QOS in UMA-based Fixed-Mobile Convergent Networks 36918.7 QOS in IMS-based Fixed-Mobile Convergent Networks 37218.8 Open Mobile Alliance and Handset Management 375

xiv Contents

19 The Economics of Fixed Wireless Cellular Mobile Networks Integration 378

19.1 Economic Drivers of Fixed-Mobile Convergence 37819.2 Projected Mobile Communications Growth 37919.3 Projected Development of WLANs and Mesh WLANs 38119.4 Projected Development of Bluetooth and ZigBee Networks 38219.5 Projected Development of WiMAX Networks 38219.6 Projected Development of RFID, NFC, and WUSB Networks 38319.7 Projected Development of UMA-based Convergent Networks 38419.8 Projected Development of IMS-based Convergent Networks 38519.9 Evaluation Criteria for Fixed-Mobile Convergence Solutions 386

20 Fixed-Mobile Convergence Implementation: Status, Trends, and Issues 390

20.1 Benefits of Fixed-Mobile Convergence 39020.2 Trends in Fixed and Mobile Wireless Communications 39120.3 Trends in Fixed-Mobile Convergence 39320.4 3GPP Long Term Evolution, 3GPP2 Ultra Mobile Broadband,

and NGMN 39420.5 World Wide Web 2.0 and Service Oriented Architecture 39620.6 General Issues in Fixed-Mobile Convergence 39720.7 Issues in UMA-based Convergence Implementation 39720.8 Issues in IMS-based Convergence Implementation 39820.9 Conclusions 398

References 400Index 405

Disclaimer

Product and service information contained in this book are primarily based on techni-cal reports and documentation, including publicly available information received fromsources believed to be reliable. However, neither the author nor the publisher guaranteesthe total accuracy and completeness of information published herein. Neither the authornor the publisher shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising outof use of this information. Any mention of products, suppliers, and service providers inthis book is done where necessary for the sake of scientific accuracy or for backgroundinformation to provide an example of a technology for illustrative or clarification pur-poses. No information provided in this book is intended to be or shall be construed tobe as either positive or negative endorsement, certification, approval, recommendationor rejection of any product, supplier, application, or service.

How the Book is Organized

The book consists of six major parts organized into 20 chapters. The first part describesthe fundamental concepts of wireless communication and networking along with theconcepts of network and service management. The second part is focused on one of theentities of convergence, cellular mobile radio networks with their network and servicemanagement capabilities. The third part presents the other side of the convergence equa-tion, the fixed wireless technologies that span from local area networks, to personal areanetworks, to near-field sensor networks, and metropolitan access networks. The fourthpart introduces all the elements of fixed-mobile convergence analyzing the particulararchitectural solutions, products, and services that result from the integration betweeneach form of fixed wireless network and mobile cellular network. Several convergentimplementations case studies are analyzed. The fifth part is dedicated to an in-depth anal-ysis of two major standardized sets of solutions and specifications that provide a totalapproach to convergence, namely, the Unlicensed Mobile Access (UMA) and IP-basedMultimedia Subsystem (IMS) with particular references to signaling using the SessionInitiation Protocol (SIP). The sixth part provides an overall analysis of convergent ser-vices, quality of service, service providers, industry trends, economics of convergence,and evaluation criteria for fixed-mobile solutions/products as well as issues regardingdesign, development, and implementation of fixed-mobile convergence.

The organization of this book is simple. First, we introduce the palette of individualwireless technologies with a magnifying glass to show what is important and relevantto convergence, i.e., architectures, standards, management capabilities, and quality ofservices. Then we look at the individual approaches taken for converging pairs of fixedwireless and cellular mobile networks. Next, we provide a more in-depth look at theglobal convergent solutions offered by UMA and IMS. Finally, we analyze the marketingprojection of convergent solutions, keeping an eye on the real issues when implementingthese solutions.

Part I. Wireless Communications: Networking and Management

Chapter 1 is an overview of the world of wireless communications as supported throughvarious architectures with a diverse set of components and spectrum allocations.

Chapter 2 presents the overall concept of open network management systems, man-agement platforms, layered communication architectures, management protocols, and

How the Book is Organized xvii

specific management requirements for wireless communications along with networkmanagement products.

Chapter 3 presents the service management concept and its components, classes of ser-vices, quality of service, and service level agreements/specifications along with specificservice management products.

Part II. Cellular Mobile Radio Networking and Management

Chapter 4 provides an overview of cellular mobile radio networking architectures, andradio link access methods. Identification of spectrum allocation for specific technologies,standards organizations, and overall generational evolution steps are all intended toprovide a common view of the primary entity of the fixed-mobile convergence equation.

Chapter 5 investigates specific aspects of cellular mobile networks and service man-agement with focus on GSM/GPRS classes of services and GPRS service profiles.

Part III. Fixed Wireless Technologies: Networking and Management

Chapter 6 analyzes the wireless local area network environment from architecture to spe-cific standards implementation with a special focus on challenges raised by transmittingvoice over wireless LANs, a key requirement for convergence.

Chapter 7 analyzes the wireless personal area network environment from architecturesto major standards implementations (Bluetooth and ZigBee) including analysis of QOSin wireless PAN environment.

Chapter 8 analyzes the evolution of wireless metropolitan access solutions with focuson WiMAX architecture, solutions, standards, and products.

Chapter 9 is dedicated to the analysis of near-field sensor networks from architecturesto major standard implementations (RF Identification, Near Field Communications andUltra Wide Band) along with network and service management capabilities.

Part IV. Fixed Wireless Cellular Mobile Networks Convergenceand Integration

Chapter 10 provides an overview of the fixed-mobile concept that includes terminology,architectural components, interfaces, and protocols, including the overall requirements,solutions, and technical forums created to advance fixed-mobile convergent concepts.

Chapter 11 presents the specific architectural solutions, applications, products, andservices created as part of the technical effort to provide convergence between wirelessLANs (IEEE 802.11 a/b/g/n and WLAN Mesh) and cellular mobile networks. Severalconvergent implementations case studies are analyzed.

Chapter 12 presents the specific architectural solutions, applications, products, andservices born out of the convergence between wireless PANs (Bluetooth and ZigBee)

xviii How the Book is Organized

and cellular mobile networks. Several convergent implementations case studies areanalyzed.

Chapter 13 presents the specific architectural solutions, applications, products, andservices aimed at incorporating wireless metropolitan access, represented by WiMAXtechnology, into wide area cellular mobile networks. Several convergent implementationscase studies are analyzed.

Chapter 14 presents the specific architectural solutions, applications, products, andservices created as part of the technical effort to extend fixed-mobile convergence toincorporate the convergence between wireless near-field sensor networks (RFID, NFC,UWB) and cellular mobile networks. Several convergent implementations case studiesare analyzed.

Part V. Fixed Wireless Cellular Mobile Convergence: StandardizedNetworking Solutions

Chapter 15 is a comprehensive presentation of the Unlicensed Mobile Access (UMA)set of standard specifications. It includes an overview of UMA evolution, driving forces,and specific architectures to incorporate the convergence aspects in a unique approachthat spans wireless LANs, PANs, WiMAX, and sensor networks. Details about UMAnetwork design, the UMA Network Controller, signaling protocols for voice and datacommunications, and interoperability parameters in UMA operations are supplementedby UMA-based fixed-mobile convergence solutions and products.

Chapter 16 is a comprehensive analysis of the signaling protocol of choice for IMS-based networks, namely, the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP). Details about SIP devel-opment, acceptance, applicability and actual standards include SIP message formats,fields, optional parameters and specific implementation of this protocol in voice over IPoperations and IMS-based network design and operations.

Chapter 17 is a comprehensive presentation of the IP-based Multimedia Subsystem(IMS) set of standard specifications. It includes an overview of IMS evolution, drivingforces, high-level conceptual architecture, specific architectural components, sub mod-ules, functions, and the all-important stepping-stones for convergence not only within thewireless world but also between wired and wireless networks. Details about standards,proposed amendments, signaling specifications, and interoperability parameters in IMSoperations are supplemented by analysis of partial implementations of IMS-based fixed-mobile convergence products and services.

Part VI. Fixed-Mobile Convergence Services, Industry Trends, andImplementation Issues

Chapter 18 looks into Quality of Service (QOS) aspects of fixed wireless cellular mobilenetworking solutions from the perspective of both voice and data parameters, and associ-ated QOS metrics. Integrated/Differentiated Services, Multi-Protocol Label Switching,

How the Book is Organized xix

and Policy-based Management are also analyzed. Specific services and service providersof convergent solutions in both UMA-based and IMS-based networks are identified andanalyzed.

Chapter 19 provides the economic perspective of fixed-mobile convergence startingwith the driving forces and opponents of convergence, This is followed by diagramsdepicting projected growth of various convergent applications in the domain of wirelessLANs, PANs, WiMAX, and sensor networks along with the growth of the telecommu-nications industry in general, and the mobile communications sector in particular. Acomprehensive set of evaluation criteria was developed to analyze and qualify fixed-mobile convergent solutions and products.

Chapter 20 is a summary of benefits of fixed-mobile convergence followed by ananalysis of the state of implementations and trends in fixed-mobile convergence. Adetailed list of issues confronting fixed-mobile convergence implementation in bothUMA-based and IMS-based versions concludes this chapter.

List of Figures

Chapter 1

1.1 Telecommunications Network Model page 41.2 Data Communications Network Model 41.3 Data Transmission Procedures 61.4 Connection-oriented and Connectionless Transmission Services 61.5 OSI Layered Communications Stack 71.6 OSI Protocol Data Units Layer by Layer 91.7 Wireless Communications Model 101.8 Wireless Communications Classification 121.9 Wireless Communications Architecture 15

1.10 Wireless Communications Architectural Components 161.11 An Overall View of Data Communications Networks 181.12 Communications Media and Transmission Rates 201.13 Wireless Communications at a Glance 23

Chapter 2

2.1 Basic Manager-Agent Management Model page 262.2 Network Management Topology Frameworks 262.3 Open Management Systems Conceptual Architecture 272.4 Models of the Wireless Manager-Agent Paradigm 282.5 Management Systems Domains 302.6 Management Systems Evolution 322.7 Management Platforms Frameworks 342.8 Management Platforms Architectural Model 352.9 Management Platform Core Operations and Services 35

2.10 Internet TCP/IP-based Communications Stack 362.11 SNMP-based Protocol Communication Stack 372.12 SNMP-based Manager-Agent Paradigm 382.13 Internet Management Layered Architecture and Standards 382.14 SNMP-based Manager-Agent Services 392.15 Enterprise Network SNMP-based Management Architecture 40

List of Figures xxi

2.16 OSI Management Layered Architecture and Standards 412.17 OSI-based Manager-Agent Relationship 422.18 OSI CMISE/CMIP-based Manager-Agent Services 422.19 TMN OSI-based Network Management Architecture 442.20 Network Management Functions Decomposition 44

Chapter 3

3.1 Communication Service Conceptual Model page 483.2 Communication Service Components 483.3 Communications Quality of Service Parameters 503.4 QOS Mapping with Layered Communications 523.5 SLA Management Model 523.6 Service Life Cycles 533.7 Service Management Processes 553.8 Service Management and TMN Layered Architecture 563.9 Telecommunications Operations Map 57

3.10 End-to-End QOS-based Service Level Management 59

Chapter 4

4.1 Cell-based Mobile Radio Communications Concept page 644.2 Cellular Mobile Communications Access Methods 654.3 PCS/PCN Network Architecture and Components 664.4 Cellular Spectrum Allocations in the US 684.5 PCS Spectrum Allocations in the US 694.6 IMT-2000 Worldwide Spectrum Allocations 694.7 Handoffs/Handovers between Mobile Cells and Carriers 704.8 Cellular Mobile Networks Classification 724.9 Core GSM/GPRS Network Architecture and Components 74

4.10 Cellular Mobile Networking-related Standards Organizations 754.11 Types of Standards and Standards Processes 764.12 PCS Standards and Standards Organizations 774.13 Cellular Mobile Networks Evolution 814.14 3G Migration Path of Current Wireless Mobile Systems 824.15 UMTS Architectural Components and Interfaces 874.16 A Simplified View of the UMTS Architecture and Interfaces 884.17 UMTS Layered Communication Stacks for Data Communications 894.18 Internet Protocol (IP) Data Unit Structure 904.19 Mobile IP Datagram Flow 914.20 Mobile IP Header Registration Request Format 924.21 Common Channel Signaling SS7 Network Architecture 94

xxii List of Figures

4.22 SS#7 Communication Stack for PSTN and Cellular Mobile Networks 954.23 Cellular Mobile and PSTN Signaling Network 96

Chapter 5

5.1 TeMIP Management Platform Architecture page 1045.2 Vodaphone/Mannesmann Mobile Network TeMIP-based TMN 1055.3 Siemens Mobile Integrator TeMIP-based Management Solution 1055.4 QOS in UMTS Networks 1075.5 End-to-End QOS in Wireless Networks 1075.6 GSM/GPRS/EDGE Data Networking 1105.7 Micromuse NetCool SLM Application Suite 1175.8 Micromuse Netcool/Omnibus Architecture 117

Chapter 6

6.1 Wireless LAN Architecture page 1226.2 Wireless Systems Controller Architecture 1356.3 WLAN 802.11 MAC Frame Format 1406.4 Logical Link Control Frame Format 1406.5 WLAN Layered Communication Stack for Data Communications 1416.6 Voice over WLAN Network Architecture 144

Chapter 7

7.1 A Residential Network Infrastructure page 1507.2 Wireless Personal Area Network Architecture 1507.3 Bluetooth Wireless Personal Area Network Architecture 1537.4 Bluetooth Protocol Stack 1547.5 ZigBee Network Architecture 1617.6 ZigBee Framing Protocol Architecture 1637.7 Power Line Communications-based PAN 167

Chapter 8

8.1 LMDS Broadband Access Network Architecture page 1738.2 MMDS Broadband Access Network Architecture 1748.3 Free Space Optics Wireless Access Network Architecture 1768.4 WiMAX Broadband Access Network Architecture 1788.5 WiMAX Protocol Architecture 182

List of Figures xxiii

Chapter 9

9.1 A High Level Passive RFID Networking Architecture page 1929.2 Ultra-Wide Band Architecture 203

Chapter 10

10.1 A High-level Depiction of the Convergence Concept page 21210.2 Fixed-Mobile Convergent Network Architecture 21210.3 Fixed-Mobile Convergent Network Components and Technologies 21310.4 Fixed-Mobile Convergent Network Interfaces and Protocols 21410.5 Media Independent Handover Service Architecture 21610.6 Media Independent Handover Protocol Architecture 217

Chapter 11

11.1 WLAN Convergent Network Architecture page 22111.2 IEEE 802.11n-based WLAN Architecture 22211.3 Wireless LAN and Mobile GSM/CDMA Networks Convergence 22411.4 Siemens WLAN Cellular Fixed-Mobile Convergence Architecture 22611.5 Wireless LAN Mesh Network Architecture 22811.6 Motorola Canopy HotZone Duo Mesh Network Architecture 23011.7 Siemens HiPath Wireless Network Architecture 23411.8 QOS in a WLAN Cellular Mobile Convergent Architecture 23611.9 WLAN/Cellular Mobile Convergent Network QOS 236

Chapter 12

12.1 Bluetooth Networking Architecture page 23912.2 Bluetooth Cellular Mobile Convergent Network Architecture 24212.3 Bluetooth-based Synchronization Network Architecture 24312.4 Bluetooth and Cellular Network Convergence Case Study 24412.5 ZigBee Protocol Stack Architecture 24512.6 Networking Case Study: ZigBee-based Electrical Power Management 24812.7 ZigBee, Wi-Fi, GSM Convergent Network Architecture 24912.8 AirBee ZigBee Network Management System 25212.9 PLC-based PAN/WPAN Network Management Architecture 253

Chapter 13

13.1 WiMAX Cellular Mobile Convergent Network Architecture page 25913.2 WiMAX and Ultra Wide Band Convergent Network Architecture 261

xxiv List of Figures

13.3 WiMAX and EPON Networks Convergence 26213.4 WiMAX, Wi-Fi, and RFID Convergent Network 26413.5 WiMAX and Wi-Fi Mesh Convergent Network Architecture 26513.6 FCC 700 MHz Auction Frequency Allocations 269

Chapter 14

14.1 RFID EPCglobal Code Structure page 27114.2 UHF RFID ISO 18000 Part 7 Code Structure 27314.3 RFID and Cellular Mobile Convergent Network Architecture 27614.4 RFID-based Health Care Service Network Architecture 27714.5 IBM’s Secure Trade Lane 27814.6 EPCglobal Standard Architecture and IBM’s EPCIS 28014.7 NFC and Cellular Mobile Networks Convergent Architecture 28214.8 High-level Wireless Ad-hoc and Sensor Networks Architecture 285

Chapter 15

15.1 High-level UMA-based Network Architecture page 29015.2 UMA-based WLAN and GSM/CDMA Convergent Network

Architecture 29215.3 Discovery and Registration in UMA Networks 29415.4 UMAN Signaling Protocol Architecture for Voice Communication 29815.5 UMAN Signaling Protocol Architecture for Data Communications 29815.6 UMA/GAN Mobile Stations Lower Layers Protocol Stack 299

Chapter 16

16.1 Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) System Components page 30416.2 SIP Basic Functional Model 30416.3 SIP-based Session Establishment 30416.4 SIP-based Signaling Messages in VoIP 30716.5 SIP Message Format, Fields, and Options 30816.6 H.323 Family of Standards and Protocol Stacks 31416.7 Session Controller Gateway Architecture 31616.8 SIP-based Mobile Hosts Interoperability in Wireless Networks 31716.9 SIP-based VoIP Network Architecture 318

16.10 Electronic Number Mapping (ENUM) Network Architecture 321

List of Figures xxv

Chapter 17

17.1 Global Telecommunications Network page 32517.2 A Simplified View of Telecommunications Networks 32617.3 A High-level IMS Architectural Framework 32617.4 A High-level IMS Architecture 32817.5 IMS Reference Architecture 32917.6 IMS Reference Points and Interfaces 33717.7 Softswitch Layered Architecture 34317.8 Media Gateway Controller (Softswitch) Architecture 34417.9 ETSI TISPAN High-level Architecture 347

17.10 CAMEL/IMS Network Architecture 350

Chapter 18

18.1 TMN Layered Architecture page 35618.2 Management of Fixed-Mobile Convergent Networks 35618.3 End-to-End QOS in Wireless Networks 35718.4 QOS in Fixed-Mobile Convergent Networks 35818.5 Differentiated Services Architectural Model 36118.6 Differentiated Services Fields Definition 36218.7 Multi-Protocol Label Switching Architecture 36418.8 MPLS Labeling Header Layout 36418.9 Policy-based Management Architecture 366

18.10 COPS Protocol Framing Layout 36818.11 UMA/GAN Convergent Architecture 37018.12 QOS in UMA/GAN Network 37118.13 Signaling and Application Flows in IMS Networks 37318.14 End-to-End QOS Framework for IMS 37318.15 QOS in the IMS Network Architecture 375

Chapter 20

20.1 Fixed and Mobile Networks Development: Evolution and Trends page 39120.2 Fixed-Mobile Convergence Development: Evolution and Trends 394

List of Tables

Chapter 1

1.1 OSI Layers Main Functions and Services page 81.2 Relationships between Frequencies and Wavelengths 20

Chapter 2

2.1 Open Management Systems Components Descriptions page 282.2 SNMP-based Management Evaluation 392.3 OSI-based Management Evaluation 43

Chapter 3

3.1 Service Management Layer Functions and Activities page 58

Chapter 4

4.1 GSM Frequency Bands and Channel Numbering page 774.2 Comparisons of Cellular Mobile PCS with other Wireless Technologies 834.3 GSM Basic Technical Features 844.4 GSM Strengths and Weaknesses 844.5 CDMA Main Features 854.6 CDMA Strengths and Weaknesses 864.7 Cross-reference between 3GPP and 3GPP2 Terminology 894.8 Leading Cellular Smart Handset Technical Specifications 984.9 Leading Cellular Smart Handset Performance Test Results 99

Chapter 5

5.1 Cellular Mobile Service Providers in the USA page 1025.2 UMTS QOS Traffic Classes 1085.3 UMTS Traffic Class Attributes 108

List of Tables xxvii

5.4 USA/Worldwide Cellular Telephony Data Service Performance 1115.5 GSM GPRS Classes of Services 1125.6 GPRS Multislot Classes 1135.7 GPRS Delay Classes 1145.8 GPRS Reliability Classes 1145.9 GPRS Throughput Classes of Services 115

Chapter 6

6.1 Comparisons of the Main WLAN Networking Solutions page 1236.2 IEEE WLAN Spectrum Allocation and other Features 1296.3 WLAN Security Standards Evolution 1316.4 WLAN Adapters for PCs and Laptops 1336.5 WLAN Access Points Evaluation 1386.6 Voice over Wireless LAN Products Evaluation 1466.7 Voice over Wireless LAN Quality of Service 1486.8 Wi-Fi Multimedia QOS Specifications 148

Chapter 7

7.1 PAN and WPAN Comparative Infrastructures page 1517.2 WPAN Technologies Evaluation 1527.3 ZigBee Frequency Allocation 1627.4 Bluetooth and ZigBee Comparison 1677.5 WPAN Applications and Performance Metrics 170

Chapter 8

8.1 Wireless Metropolitan Access Technologies Comparison page 1798.2 Mobile WiMAX and 3G Cellular Mobile Technologies Comparison 1858.3 WiMAX QOS Classes and Applications 1898.4 WiMAX Forum Applications Classes and QOS Parameters 189

Chapter 9

9.1 RFID Range of Frequencies page 1929.2 RFID Classes and Typical RFID Applications 197

xxviii List of Tables

Chapter 13

13.1 Comparison of WiMAX with other 4G Frontrunners page 268

Chapter 14

14.1 Bar Code System and RFID Technologies Comparison page 27114.2 RFID Tags Classification 271

Chapter 16

16.1 ITU-T H.323 and IETF SIP Signaling/Call Control Comparison page 315

Chapter 17

17.1 IMS Reference Points and Interface Descriptions page 338

Chapter 18

18.1 Internet Applications and DiffServ Class Attributes page 36318.2 IntServices and DiffServices Comparative Analysis 36318.3 UMTS QOS Traffic Classes 375

Preface

The past two decades have marked an unprecedented growth in size and sophisticationof almost every aspect of telecommunications. Two major achievements stand out inthis development. First, the Internet network, the quintessence of data communicationsand public/private access to information. Second, Cellular Mobile Radio wireless com-munication, the untethered jewel of voice communication beyond borders that openedanother door to worldwide conversation. As a result, today, there are hundreds of millionsof users with continuous access to the Internet and over three billion users of cell phones.

Cellular mobile communications has moved in a decade through three generations.The first generation was marked by the need to build a large physical/geographical pres-ence. The second generation has moved from analog formats to digital communicationsand added features that allow decent data services running along with voice communi-cations. More recent advancements have led to the third generation of cellular mobiletransmission with a focus on providing data services in the class of broadband commu-nications.

In the same span of time, a similar growth has taken place in the wireless expan-sion of well-established networking technologies, commonly known as “fixed wireless”.The most popular customer premises technology, the Local Area Network, has becomeWireless LAN, matching its data rate with wired frontrunners. This metamorphosis hascontinued by adopting voice communication over a traditional data dedicated technol-ogy. Identical phenomena took place in the Wireless Personal Area Network thanksto the Bluetooth, ZigBee, and other technologies. On the same token, the Near-FieldSensor Networks, once liberated from the limitations of infrared and laser barcode-liketechnologies, found their own voice in the form of Radio Frequency ID, Near FieldCommunications, and Ultra Wide Band USB technologies. After some shaky attemptsto provide wireless Metropolitan Area Network solutions, WiMAX technology has beenaccepted as the standard technology that brings wireless broadband access to the homeand small businesses. The story of fixed wireless technologies does not end here becausevarious levels of mobility have been added making the initial name “fixed wireless”somehow a misnomer.

Consequently, it was just a matter of time in the chase of ideal communication “any-time, anywhere, any technology”, to realize the need of transparent communicationsfor any form of media, be that data, voice, or video. Hence, the need for interoperabil-ity between cellular mobile radio networks of latest generations and any form of fixed

xxx Preface

wireless networks, i.e., Fixed-Mobile Convergence, the very subject of this practicalbook. Similarly, the obvious outcome of convergent solutions has become the use ofone handset/cell phone and one portable number that works across any wireless net-work capable of transmitting digital information at the highest possible/available datarate.

Acknowledgments

First and foremost, I would like to thank my friend and colleague Gene Geer. His helpin reviewing and editing the entire book, his comments and questions, and his utmostgrace and diligence in improving the material made his contributions invaluable. Thankyou Gene.

And, I thank three field colleagues who reviewed my initial proposal and who providedvaluable feedback and guidance in writing this book: Dr. Petre Dini, Cisco Systems, atireless promoter of technical conferences that always provided excellent sources andopportunities to exchange information; Dr. Michael Kincaid, MSK and Associates, whointroduced me to the world of wireless communications almost two decades ago; andVictor Arabagian, Lucent/Alcatel, an engineer, who is confronting the reality of businessconstraints in the wired and wireless worlds.

I would like to express my gratitude and thanks to the management, editors, andcontributors to technical magazines such as IEEE Communications, IEEE Network,Business Communications Review, Wireless Week, Wireless Design and Development,Network World, Telecommunications, and Telephony for the interesting and informativearticles they have published on the theory, practice, product features, and real case studiesrelated to fixed-mobile convergence.

And I thank, without naming, the staff of all companies that provided technical infor-mation and documentation of the many products and networking solutions I describe inthe book. I thank the organizers of CEBIT exhibitions in Germany, an excellent sourceof products, information, and demonstrations. My heart goes to my friends Dieter andMarianne Eisenburger as well as Carmen Soare and Dan Pupeza for their utmost hospi-tality over several years while I attended the CEBIT exhibitions. I feel fortunate and Iwish everyone could have friends like them.

Exactly one year ago, a gentleman from Cambridge University Press, Mr. Phil Mey-ers, approached me with a proposal to write a book that would capture the amazingdevelopments taking place in the world of wireless communications in general, and inthe realm of fixed cellular mobile networks convergence in particular. The goal of thisconvergence is straightforward: Transparent communications across all wireless tech-nologies having as the centerpiece multi-mode cell phones or handsets. This goal is nolonger just a dream; it has captured the imaginations of the technical community andthe prospective customers who are discovering the true meaning of communications“anytime, anywhere” regardless of the wireless technology used.

xxxii Acknowledgments

Here I am after one year, writing, drawing, thinking, reading, correcting material,teaching and consulting, working almost every day to build the content of this book.And, as in any of my other achievements, I could not have succeeded without the directsupport, understanding, and encouragement from my wife Veronica. Thank you verymuch Vera.

Joseph GhetieFort Lee, December 30, 2007

Acronyms

A

Abstract Syntax Notation 1 (ASN.1)Access Modules (AM)Access Point (AP)Access Tandem (AT)Accounting Management (AM)Action Request System (ARS)Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation (ADPCM)Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)Advanced Mobile Phone Systems (AMPS)Advances to IMS (A-IMS)Amplitude Modulation (AM)AOL Instant Messaging (AIM)Application Header (AH)Application PDU (A-PDU)Applications Programming Interfaces (API)Applications Server (AS)Association Control Service Element (ACSE)Assured Forwarding (AF)Asynchronous Transmission Mode (ATM)Authentication, Authorization, Access (AAA)Automatic Call Distribution (ACD)Automatic Number Identification (ANI)Average Return Per Unit (ARPU)

B

Base Station (BS)Base Station Controller (BSC)Base Station Subsystem (BSS)Base Station Subsystem Management Application Part (BSSMAP)Base Station Subsystem Protocol (BSSP)

xxxiv Acronyms

Base Transceiver Station (BTS)Basic Encoding Rules (BER)Basic Trading Areas (BTA)Best Effort (BE)Beyond Third Generation (B3G)Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)Bit Error Rate (BER)Bluetooth Access Points (BAP)Bluetooth Network Encapsulation Protocol (BNEP)Border Gateway Control Function (BGCF)Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)Breakout Gateway Control Function (BGCF)Broadband Access Server (BAS)Broadband Networks Access Group (BRAN)Broadband Radio Access Network (BRAN)Business Management Layer (BML)

C

Cable Television (CATV)Call Control (CC)Call Session Control Function (CSCF)CAMEL Applications Part (CAP)Capital Expenditures (CAPEX)Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)CDMA 1xRTT One Carrier Radio Transmission TechnologyCellular Data Packet Data (CDPD)Central Office (CO)Centro de Tecnologia de la Comunicationes (CETECOM)Channel Service Unit/Data Service Unit (CSU/DSU)Class Based Queuing (CBQ)Class 1 Generation 2 (C1G2)Class of Service (COS)Cluster Controllers (CC)Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)Coding Scheme (CS)Command Line Interface (CLI)Commercial off-the-Shelf (COTS)Common Channel Signaling (CCS)Common Management Information Protocol (CMIP)Common Management Information Service Element (CMISE)Common Object Request Broker Architecture (CORBA)Common Open Policy Service (COPS)

Acronyms xxxv

Complementary Code Keying (CKK)Complex Instruction Set Computers (CISC)Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR)Computer Telephony Integration (CTI)Configuration Management (CM)Connectionless Network Protocol (CLNP)Control and Provisioning of Wireless Access Points (CAPWAP)Convolutional Coding (CC)Core Network (CN)Custom Local Area Signaling Services (CLASS)Customer Network Management (CNM)Customer Premises Equipment (CPE)Customer Premises Network (CPN)Customer Service Management (CSM)Customized Applications for Mobile (Networks) Enhanced Logic (CAMEL)

D

Data Communications Network (DCN)Data Exchange Format (DEF)Data Link Connection Identifier (DLCI)Denial of Service (DoS)Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM)Destination Address (DA)Destination Service Access Point (DSAP)Detect and Avoid (DAA)Device Wire Adapter (DWA)Device Wireless Bridge (DWB)Differential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (DQPSK)Differentiated Services (Diff Services)Differentiated Services Code Point (DSCP)Digest Authentication (DA)Digital Advanced Mobile Phone Systems (D-AMPS)Digital Encryption System (DES)Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunication (DECT)Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)Directory Name Services (DNS)Discreet Multitone (DMT)Domain Name System (DNS)Downlink (DL)Dual-Mode Headset (DMH)Dynamic Host Control Protocol (DHCP)

xxxvi Acronyms

E

Electronic Number Mapping (ENUM)Electronic Product Code (EPC)Electronic Product Code Information System (EPCIS)Element Management Layer (EML)Element Management System (EMS)Enhanced Data for GSM Evolution (EDGE)Enhanced Data Rate (EDR)Enhanced UTRAN (E-UTRAN)Enhanced Version, Data Only, Data and Voice (EV-DO, EV-DV)Enhanced Wireless Consortium (EWC)Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM)Ethernet Passive Optical Network (EPON)European Computer Manufacturers Association (ECMA)European Telecommunications Standard Institute (ETSI)Expedite Forwarding (EF)Extended Markup Language (XML)Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP)Extensible Authentication Protocol over LAN (EAPOL)

F

Fault Management (FM)Federal Communications Commission (FCC)Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)Fiber to the Curve (FTTC)Fiber to the Home (FTTH)Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA)First In First Out (FIFO)Fixed-Mobile Convergence (FMC)Fixed-Mobile Convergence Alliance (FMC Alliance)Forwarding Equivalence Class (FEC)Frame Relay (FR)Free Space Optics (FSO)Frequency Division Duplex (FDD)Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)Frequency Modulation (FM)Front End Processors (FEP)Functional Modules (FM)

Acronyms xxxvii

G

Gateway (GW)Gateway GPRS Support Nodes (GGSN)Gateway Mobile Switching Centers (GMSC)Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK)General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)Generic Access Network (GAN)Generic Access Network Controller (GANC)Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO)Global Information Infrastructure (GII)Global Multi-Service Interoperability (GMI)Global Positioning Satellite (GPS)Global Systems for Mobile (GSM) TelecommunicationsGPRS Support Network (GSN)GPRS Tunneling Protocols (GTP)Graphical User Interface (GUI)GSM Applications (GSMA)GSM Interworking Profile (GIP)GSM/GPRS EDGE Radio Access Network (GERAN)Guaranteed Time Slot (GTS)Guideline for the Definition of Managed Objects (GDMO)

H

High Definition Television (HDTV)High Frequency (HF)High Speed Circuit Switched Data (HSCSD)High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA)High Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA)Home Location Register (HLR)Home Subscriber Server (HSS)Host Wire Adapter (HWA)Hub Earth Station (HES)Hybrid Fiber Coax (HFC)Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

I

Improved Mobile Telephone System (IMTS)IMS Media Gateways (IMS MGW)

xxxviii Acronyms

Industrial Scientific Medical (ISM)Initial User Assignment (IUA)Instant Messaging (IM)Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)Integrated Access Device (IAD)Integrated and Differentiated Services (Int/Diff Services)Integrated Go-to-Market Network IP Telephony Experience (IGNITE)Integrated Optical Network (ION)Integrated Services (IntServices)Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)Intelligent Network Application Part (INAP)Interactive Voice Response (IVR)International Telecommunication Union Radio Communication Sector (ITU-R)International Telecommunication Union Telecommunications Sector (ITU-T)Internet Assigned Number Authority (IANA)Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)Internet Header Length (IHL)Internet Nodal Processors (INP)Internet Protocol (IP)Internet Protocol over ATM (IP over ATM)Internet Service Provider (ISP)International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI)International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)International Mobile Telecommunications 2000 (IMT-2000)International Organization for Standardization (ISO)Interrogating Call Session Control Function (I-CSCF)Inter-System Handover (ISH)Interworking Profile (IP)IP-based Multimedia Subsystems (IMS)IP-based Multimedia Subsystem Alliance (IMS Alliance)IP Multimedia Service Control (ISC)IP Multimedia Service Switching Function (IM-SSF)ISDN User Part (ISUP)

J

Japanese Total Access Communications System (JTACS)

K

Key-Value Pair (KVP)

Acronyms xxxix

L

Label Distribution Protocol (LDP)Label Edge Routers (LER)Label Switching Paths (LSP)Label Switching Routers (LSR)Light Emitting Diode (LED)Lightweight Directory Protocol (LDAP)Lightweight Extensible Authentication Protocol (LEAP)Line of Sight (LOS)Link Header (LH)Link Trailer (LT)Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)Local Area Network (LAN)Local Multipoint Distributed Service (LMDS)Logical Link Control (LLC)Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (LLCAP)Long-Term Evolution (LTE)Low Earth Orbit (LEO)Low Frequency (LF)

M

Machine-to-Machine (M2M)Major Trading Areas (MTA)Management Application Platform (MAP)Management Applications Programming Interface (MAPI)Management Information Base (MIB)Management Information Library (MIL)Management Platform External Interface (MPEI)Manager of Managers (MOM)Master Station (MS)Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU)Mean Opinion Score (MOS)Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF)Mean Time To Provision (MTTP)Mean Time To Repair (MTTR)Mean Time To Report (MTTR)Media Access Control (MAC)Media Gateway (MGW, MG)Media Gateway Controller (MGC)Media Gateway Control Function (MGCF)

xl Acronyms

Media Gateway Control Protocol (MGCP)Media Independent Handover (MIH)Media Resource Control Function (MRCF)Message Transfer Part (MTP)Microprocessor Control Units (MCU)Middle Earth Orbit (MEO)Mobile Ad-hoc Networks (MANET)Mobile Application Part (MAP)Mobile Commerce (M-Commerce)Mobile Core Network (MCN)Mobile Internet Protocol (Mobile IP)Mobile Multi-hop Relay (MMR)Mobile Satellite Services (MSS)Mobile Station (MS)Mobile Switching Center (MSC)Mobile Telephone System (MTS)Mobile-to-Mobile (Mo2Mo)Mobile User (MU)Mobile Virtual Network Operator (MVNO)Mobility Management (MM)Motion Picture Expert Group (MPEG)Multi-Band OFDM Alliance (MBOA)Multi-Band Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (MB-OFDM)Multi-channel Multipoint Distributed Service (MMDS)Multimedia Message Service (MMS)Multi-Mode Headset (MMH)Multiparty Multimedia Session Control (MMUSIC)Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO)Multipoint Control Unit (MCU)Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS)

N

Naming Authority Pointer (NAPTR)Narrowband AMPS (N-AMPS)National Television Standards Committee (NTSC)Near Field Communications (NFC)Near Field Communications Forum (NFC Forum)Near-Field Sensor Networks (NFSN)Network Access Point (NAP)Network Address Translation (NAT)Network Element (NE)Network Element Layer (NEL)

Acronyms xli

Network Header (NH)Network Interface (NI)Network Management Center (NMC)Network Management Forum (NMF)Network Management Layer (NML)Network Monitoring and Analysis (NMA)Network Operation Center (NOC)Network Protocol Data Unit (N-PDU)Network Provider (NP)Network Subsystem (NS)Next Generation Infrastructure (NGI)Next Generation Mobile Network (NGMN)Next Generation Network (NGN)New Generation Operation Systems and Software (NGOSS)New Generation of Wireless Networks (NGWN)Next Generation of Wireless Networks (NGWN)Non-Line-of-Sight (NLOS)

O

Object Exchange (OBEX)Object Name Service (ONS)Object Request Broker (ORB)Open Data Base Connectivity (ODBC)Open Handset Alliance (OHA)Open Mobile Alliance (OMA)Open Service Access (OSA)Open Service Access Service Capability Server (OSA-SCS)Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)Open Software Foundation (OSF)Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)Operating Expenditures (OPEX)Operating System (OS)Operations Management Center (OMC)Operations Systems Support (OSS)Operators’ Harmonization Group (OHG)Optical Line Terminal (OLT)Optical Network Unit (ONU)Optical Transceiver (OT)Optical Transport Network (OTN)Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)

xlii Acronyms

P

Packet Binary Convolutional Coding (PBCC)Packet Data Gateway (PDG)Packet Encoding Rules (PER)Packet Switched Data Network (PSDN)Packet Switched Network (PSN)Packet over SONET (PoS)Passive Optical Network (PON)Peer-to Peer (P2P)Perceptual Evaluation of Speech Quality (PESQ)Performance Management (PM)Per-Hop-Behavior (PHB)Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)Personal Area Network (PAN)Personal Communications Network (PCN)Personal Communications Service (PCS)Personal Computer (PC)Personal Computer Memory Card International Association (PCMCIA)Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)Personal Earth Station (PES)Personal Handyphone Service (PHS)Phase Modulation (PM)Phase Shift Modulation (PSM)Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS)Point of Presence (POP)Point-of-Sale (PoS)Point to Multipoint (PMP)Point-to-Point (PTP)Policy-based Management (PBM)Policy Decision Function (PDF)Policy Enforcement Point (PEP)Policy Information Base (PIB)Policy Management Tool (PMT)Policy Repository (PR)Power Line Communications (PLC)Power Line Networking (PLN)Power-over-Ethernet (PoE)Presentation Layer (P-PDU)Presentation Modules (PM)Private Branch Exchanges (PBX)Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)Protocol Data Unit (PDU)Proxy Call Session Control Function (P-CSCF)

Acronyms xliii

Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN)Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)Push-to-Talk over Cellular (PoC)

Q

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)Quality of Service (QOS)Quaternary Phase Shift Modulation (QPSM)

R

Radio Access Network (RAN)Radio Frequency (RF)Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)Radio Link Control (RLC)Radio Network Controller (RNC)Radio Network Subsystem (RNS)Random Early Detection/Discard (RED)Real-Time (Transport) Protocol (RTP)Real-Time Control Protocol (RTCP)Real-Time Streaming Protocol (RTSP)Record Type Definition (RTD)Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RISC)Regional Bell Operating Company (RBOC)Registration Administration and Status (RAS)Relational Data Base Management System (RDBMS)Remote Access Dial-In User Service (RADIUS)Remote Access Servers (RAS)Remote Monitoring (RMON)Remote Operations Service Element (ROSE)Request for Comments (RFC)Request for Information (RFI)Request for Proposal (RFP)Research in Motion (RIM)Reservation Protocol (RSVP)Residential Gateway (RG)Resilient Packet Ring (RPR)Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP)Response Time Reporter (RTR)Return on Investment (ROI)

xliv Acronyms

S

Satellite Broadband Access (SBA)Scalable-Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (S-OFDM)Seamless Converged Communications Across Networks (SCCAN)Secure Trade Lane (STL)Security Management (SM)Service Access Point (SAP)Service Assurance (SA)Service Billing (SB)Service Capability Interaction Manager (SCIM)Service Capability Features (SCF)Service Capability Server (SCS)Service Control Point (SCP)Service Delivery Platform (SDP)Service Discovery Protocol (SDP)Service Fulfillment (SF)Service Level Agreements (SLA)Service Level Management (SLM)Service Level Specifications (SLS)Service Management Layer (SML)Service Management System (SMS)Service Oriented Architecture (SOA)Service Provider (SP)Serving Call Session Control Function (S-CSCF)Serving GPRS Support Nodes (SGSN)Session Announcement Protocol (SAP)Session Border Controller (SBC)Session Description Protocol (SDP)Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)Session Initiation Protocol Forum (SIP Forum)Session Layer (S-PDU)Set-Top-Box (STB)Short Message Service (SMS)Signaling Connection and Control Part (SCCP)Signaling Engineering Administration System (SEAS)Signaling Gateway (SGW)Signaling Switching Point (SSP)Signaling System Number 7 (SS7 or SS#7)Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)Signal Transfer Points (STP)Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)

Acronyms xlv

Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP)SIP for Instant Messaging and Presence Leveraging Extensions (SIMPLE)SIP Proxies (SIP-P)SIP Registrar (SIP-R)SIP User Agent (SIP-UA),Small Office Home Office (SOHO)Software Defined Radio (SDR)Software Defined Networking (SDN)Source Address (SA)Source Service Access Point (SSAP)Special Interest Group (SIG)Spectral Voice Priority (SVP)Static Random Access Memory (SRAM)Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)Structure of Management Information (SMI)Subscriber Module (SM)Subscriber Station (SS)Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)System Architecture Evolution (SAE)System Management Application Service Elements (SMASE)System on Chip (SoC)

T

Tamper Resistant Embedded Controller (TREC)Task Group (TG)Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA)Telecommunications and Internet Converged Services and Protocols for Advanced Net-

working (TISPAN)Telecommunications Management Information Platform (TeMIP)Telecommunications Management Network (TMN)Telecommunications Operations Map (TOM)Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP)Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI)Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP)Third Generation Partnership Project 2 (3GPP2)Time Division Duplex (TDD)Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)Time Division Synchronous CDMA (TD-SCDMA)Time-To-Live (TTL)Total Access Communications System (TACS)Traffic Conditioning Agreements (TCAs)

xlvi Acronyms

Transaction Capabilities User Part (TCAP)Transaction Language 1 (TL1)Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)Transport Layer Protocol Data Unit (T-PDU)Transport Layer Security (TLS)Triple Digital Encryption System (Triple DES)Trunk Information Record Keeping System (TIRKS)Type-of-Service (TOS)

U

Ultra Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (UDWDM)Ultra-High Frequency (UHF)Ultra Mobile Broadband (UMB)Ultra Wide Band (UWB)Unlicensed Mobile Access (UMA)Unlicensed Mobile Access Consortium (UMAC)Unlicensed Mobile Access/Generic Access Network Consortium (UMAC)Unlicensed Mobile Access Network (UMAN)UMA Network Controller (UNC)UMA Radio Link Control (URLC)Unlicensed National Information Infrastructure (UNII)Unified Protocol (UP)Universal Mobile Telecommunications Systems (UMTS)Universal Product Code (UPC)Universal Resource Identifier (URI)Universal/Uniform Resource Locator (URL)Universal Serial Bus (USB)Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN)Uplink (UL)User Agent (UA)User Datagram Protocol (UDP)User Equipment (UE)

V

Very High Frequency (VHF)Very Small Aperture Terminals (VSAT)Video over Internet Protocol (IPTV)Virtual Circuit Identifier (VCI)Virtual Path Identifier (VPI)Virtual Private Network (VPN)

Acronyms xlvii

Visiting Location Register (VLR)Voice Call Continuity (VCC)Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)Voice over Wireless Local Area Network (VoWLAN)

W

Weighted Fair Queuing (WFQ)Weighted Random Early Detection/Discard (WRED)Wide Area Network (WAN)Wideband CDMA (W-CDMA)Wi-Fi Multimedia (WMM)Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA)Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)Wireless Access Gateway (WAG)Wireless Application Protocol (WAP)Wireless Ethernet Compatibility Alliance (WECA)Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi)Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)Wireless Local Loop (WLL)Wireless Mesh Network (WMN)Wireless Metropolitan Area Exchange (WiMAX)Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (WMAN)Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN)Wireless Terminal (WT)Wireless Universal Serial Bus (WUSB)Wireless USB (WUSB)Wireless Wide Area Networks (WWAN)Working Group (WG)Work Station (WS)

Z

ZigBee Applications Objects (ZAO)ZigBee Coordinator (ZC)ZigBee Device Objects (ZDO)ZigBee End Nodes (ZN)ZigBee Gateway (ZGW)ZigBee Network Management System (ZNMS)ZigBee Routers (ZR)Zero Generation (0G)First Generation (1G)

xlviii Acronyms

Second Generation (2G)Third Generation (3G)3G Partnership Project (3GPP)3G Partnership Project 2 (3GPP2)

Part I

Wireless Communications:Networking and Management

1 Wireless Communicationsand Networking

1.1 Communications Networks

Communications by voice and physical signaling are common means of interactionbetween human beings. In the simplest forms, there is an emitting entity of informationand a receiving entity of information. As the sources move apart the need for telecom-munications appears self-evident. This simple model of communications becomes morecomplex when the information transmitted is not just sound, speech, or music, but fullmotion video images or various forms of data such as text, shared files, facsimile, graph-ics, still images, computer animation or instrumentation measurements. This informa-tion can be transmitted using electrical or optical signals, the native analog informationundergoing numerous conversions and switching to accommodate various communi-cations technologies. Telecommunications can take place over various media be thattwisted copper pairs, coaxial cable, fiber optic, or wireless radio, microwave, satel-lite, and infrared links. Communication can be limited to a small group of people orextended to departments, compounds, or campuses and covering whole metropolitanareas, regions, countries, or continents. Hence, a shared infrastructure is needed, i.e., acommunications network.

Communications networks can be classified in many ways, as there are distinct tech-nologies and network equipment needed for voice communications, data/computer com-munications, and video communications. Among these types of communications, datacommunications, by the virtue of digitization of any type of information, has becomethe convergent system. Classification can also be done corresponding to the kind ofmedia used, i.e. wired and wireless communications or by the underlying technologiessuch as circuit-switched networks (traditional voice communications), packet-switchednetworks (essentially data communications), broadcast networks (direct video broad-cast, cable TV), or message switched networks (store-and-forward electronic mail, voicemail, web serving). Networks classification can go even further, looking at geographicalcoverage, from wide area networks, to metropolitan area, local area, and to personal areanetworks.

A typical telecommunications network, historically focused on voice processing andvoice communications, is presented in Figure 1.1. The network, a symmetric infras-tructure that connects Customer Premises Equipment (CPE) as the source and destina-tion of information (telephones), consists of four major systems: access, transmission,switching, and signaling. The access systems are part of the local loop and consist of

4 Fixed-Mobile Wireless Networks Convergence

Customer PremisesEquipment (CPE)(source/destination)

Access Systems(media)

SwitchingSystems

Customer PremisesEquipment (CPE)(source/destination)

Signaling Systems

Access Systems(media)

SwitchingSystems

Transmission Systems(media)

Public Telephone Network

Local Loop Local LoopCentral Office Central OfficeInter-Office Facility

Figure 1.1 Telecommunications Network Model

copper-based twisted pair media or a combination of fiber optic and twisted pairs. Theswitching systems are part of the Central Office equipment connected on one end tothe local loop lines and on the other end to the trunks that are part of the transmissionsystems. Last, but not least, signaling systems provide call control facilities for the wholenetwork through a specialized overlay network. Currently, the same infrastructure is usedto support not only voice but also data communications and other multimedia services.

A typical data communications network with clear roots in computer communicationsnetworks is presented in Figure 1.2.

Customer Premises Equipment

Information Source(sender/receiver)

Transmission Systems(media, signals, noise)

Customer Premises Equipment

Information Destination(receiver/sender)

Data - SignalConverter

AccessSystem

AccessSystem

Signal - DataConverter

RouterSwitches

RouterSwitches

RouterSwitches

Circuit Link

Path

NodesNodes

RouterSwitches

ControlInformation

Public Data Network

Figure 1.2 Data Communications Network Model

The data communications network model is a symmetric infrastructure that connectsCustomer Premises Equipment (CPE), as source and destination of information (desk-top computer, laptop, server, fax machine, or instrumentation). It consists of four majorsystems: conversion, access, transmission, and control systems. The conversion sys-tems (modems, coders/decoders, multiplexers) provide data-signal and signal-data con-version to accommodate the existent local loop infrastructure that was initially designed

Wireless Communications and Networking 5

for voice communication. The access systems are mostly part of the same local loop usedin telecommunications and consist of copper-based twisted pair media or a combinationof fiber optic and twisted pairs. Security functions, service access, and billing compo-nents might be built into access systems. In many instances the access and conversionsystems components and functions are bundled in real networking products. There are nocircuit-switching systems involved since the information is packetized and the packetsare routed as part of the transmission systems, a vast network of interconnected nodes,essentially packet routers. Depending on the transmission procedures adopted, a dedi-cated system may establish, control, and terminate the connection between the senderand receiver of information. Currently, to minimize cost, the same infrastructure is usedto support not only data but also digitized and packetized voice and other multimediaservices.

Both voice and data communications networks have evolved as part of the overalltechnical progress in telecommunications with the invention of alternative technologies,implementation of various architectural designs, and multiple service offerings. Theultimate goal of this evolution is the integration of voice and data, a multidimensionalconcept that combines IT infrastructures, networks, applications, user interfaces, andmanagement aimed at supporting all forms of information media on all forms of net-works. A narrower view of this integration is aimed at supporting voice and video overpacket-based Internet networks.

1.2 Communications Architectures and Protocols

Communication between various network components requires a common understandingbetween sender and receiver regarding the transmission procedures, the types of signalscarrying the useful information, and the format of the data transmitted. There are fourmajor aspects involved in communications services: communication interfaces, com-munication protocols, layered communication stacks, and information models. Com-munication interfaces are connection points between network components designedaccording to standard or proprietary specifications. An interface is defined by mechan-ical, electrical, and functional characteristics that allow communication to take placebetween adjacent network devices. Communication protocols are formal descriptionsof data unit formats and transmission rules for message exchange between networkentities. Communication protocols are organized in multiple layered communicationstacks where each layer provides services to the layer above. The information mod-els are collections of abstracted managed object definitions and attributes for deviceshaving common characteristics. Currently, there are many communications architecturesand protocols in use.

The transmission procedures used to provide connectivity between network devicesmay include three distinct phases, as indicated in Figure 1.3. The first is the establishmentphase which arises as a result of an inquiry about the availability and ability of thecorresponding party to exchange information. Affirmative responses open the next phaseof data transfer that takes place by continuous acknowledgement of data received and

6 Fixed-Mobile Wireless Networks Convergence

Information Source(sender/receiver)

Transmission Systems(media, signals)

Information Destination(receiver/sender)

Inquiry about the availability and ability of the corresponding party to exchange information

Affirmative or negative response

Information exchange in the form of configuration set-up, requests, actual data transfer

Acknowledgment of data received or missed (ACK/NAK)

Information exchange in the form of replies to requests, actual data transfer

Acknowledgment of data received or missed (ACK/NAK)

Informing the partner about completion of information exchange

Confirmation on finishing the conversation

a. Establishment

b. Data transfer

c. Termination

Figure 1.3 Data Transmission Procedures

its accuracy. At the completion of information exchange, the termination phase ofconnection is initiated.

Depending on the procedure adopted for connectivity, we may have two types ofcommunication services, as indicated in Figure 1.4.

Connection-oriented Service Connectionless Service

Time

ConnectionEstablishment

phase

Data Transferphase

ConnectionReleasephase

AA BB BBAA

Connection Request

Connection Confirm

Data /Acknowledgment

Data /Acknowledgment

Disconnect Request

Disconnect Confirm

Data

Data

Data

Data

Network Network

Figure 1.4 Connection-oriented and Connectionless Transmission Services

The first, connection-oriented layer service implies the requirement to establish alayer connection between the parties prior to the information exchange. At the end ofdata transfer, the layer connection will be terminated. This type of transmission gives full

Wireless Communications and Networking 7

assurance about the ability of both communicating parties to exchange information withfull control of every aspect of data transfer. Examples: phone calls, X.25 packet networks,Internet Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). The second, connectionless layer serviceassumes that no association between the transmitting parties takes place prior to actualdata transfer, i.e. no connection establishment or connection termination takes place. Thistype of transmission does not give either party a guarantee that they are able to exchangeinformation or, as a matter of fact, the data transfer has been successfully completed.Examples are the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Connectionless Network Protocol(CLNP) and Internet User Datagram Protocol (UDP).

Multiple layer protocols are aggregated into communication stacks. The communi-cation between two applications across recognized interfaces takes place through iden-tical peer protocol stacks as indicated in Figure 1.5. There is no direct communicationbetween layers, except the physical layer. Peer relationships are established betweencorresponding layers via dedicated protocols/services. In the most common layeredcommunication architecture, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) standards, the Physical, Data Link, and NetworkLayers are grouped and known as lower layers; the Transport, Session, Presentation, andApplication Layers are also grouped and known as upper layers [1].

Application X Application Y

apparent links

real link

Application

Presentation

Session

Transport

Network

Data Link

Physical

Application

Presentation

Session

Transport

Network

Data Link

Physical

Figure 1.5 OSI Layered Communications Stack

The OSI Reference Model of seven layered communications architecture is an abstractconcept of data communication that divides the functions required to exchange infor-mation into well-defined layers, services, access points, and standard protocols. Thereare numerous partial implementations and variations of the OSI architectural model.Some of these configurations pose serious interconnectivity and interoperability prob-lems. A simplified view of OSI layer functions and services is given in Table 1.1. Inmost instances, the functions performed at the Data Link Layer are implemented in thehardware while the Network Layer functions and those associated with upper layers areimplemented in software.

The basic format of information exchanged, which allows the communicating partiesto understand and interpret the transmitted information, is the Protocol Data Unit (PDU).

8 Fixed-Mobile Wireless Networks Convergence

Table 1.1 OSI Layers Main Functions and Services

OSI Layer Main Functions and Services

Application Provides means of application processes to access the OSI layered environment.Presentation Provides data format structure and representation according to an agreed syntax.Session Provides establishment and control of the dialog between applications in end

systems.Transport End-to-end reliable mechanism for information exchange between processes or

systems.Network Addressing, routing, and relaying of information transmitted across the

networks.Data Link Data transfer flow control, error detection and correction mechanism, data

recovery.Physical Functional, electrical, mechanical, and procedural interfaces to the

communications media.

The seed of any PDU is the actual user/business/application/service information.This seed is augmented with a succession of distinct data fields specific to each layer toperform specific functions and services such as synchronization, addressing, sequencing,flow control, and error detection. More than that, the PDU can be changed at the samelayer as the message passes different network interfaces. Each OSI layer is defined by apeer-to-peer protocol that operates across an apparent link (distinct PDUs for each layer)and by the services provided to the next higher layer. A header is appended to the userdata or to the next lower layer PDU by encapsulation. The construct of OSI ProtocolData Units layer by layer is given in Figure 1.6.

In the message exchange between two end-systems represented by Application X(sender) and Application Y (receiver), User Data is encapsulated by the ApplicationHeader (AH) to create an Application PDU (A-PDU). Similarly, operations take place atthe Presentation Layer (P-PDU), Session Layer (S-PDU), and Transport Layer (T-PDU).The next encapsulation, at the Network Layer, results in a Network PDU (N-PDU) thatcontains in the Network Header (NH) critical information that allows routing of packetsbetween network nodes. The last encapsulation takes place at the Data Link Layer wherea Link Header (LH) and a Link Trailer (LT) are added before the Data Link PDU(DL-PDU) is delivered to the Physical Layer. This is the PDU that is carried across thephysical link connecting the two nodes using various types of physical signals.

At the other end of this link, the reverse process of deconstructing the message takesplace as the message is passed through successive layers. Each layer removes the corre-sponding header and analyzes the remaining content before passing the resulting PDUto the layer above. This continues until the PDU reaches the Application Layer. Once theheader of the A-PDU is removed, the pure user information is delivered to ApplicationY. A similar operation of constructing and deconstructing takes place when ApplicationY becomes the sender and Application X the receiver. In reality, multiple nodes might beused as the message crosses the network and this process of partial deconstructing andconstructing the PDU might be repeated in many nodes. Therefore, each end-system or

Wireless Communications and Networking 9

Application Y

AH

N - PDULH

DL - PDU (Data Link Layer Protocol Data Unit)

LT

P - PDU

S - PDU

T - PDU

A - PDUPH

SH

TH

NH

AH User Data

N - PDU

DL - PDU (Data Link Layer Protocol Data Unit)

LTLH

P - PDU

S - PDU

T - PDU

A - PDUPH

SH

TH

NH

Constructing outgoing PDUs Deconstructing incoming PDUs

A-PDU

P-PDU

S-PDU

T-PDU

N-PDU

A-PDU

P-PDU

S-PDU

T-PDU

N-PDU

(computed and added) (processed and removed)

One-hop network

Application

Presentation

Session

Transport

Network

Data Link

Physical

Application

Presentation

Session

Transport

Network

Data Link

Physical

Application X

User Data

Figure 1.6 OSI Protocol Data Units Layer by Layer

intermediary node should have the same understanding of this process and the functionsand information embedded in PDU headers.

1.3 Wireless Communications

Wireless communications, as the name indicates, is communication using wireless con-nectivity means between network components (as opposed to wired) to transmit informa-tion. Wireless networks can provide network access to phones, computers, applications,databases, and the Internet, within buildings, between buildings, within campuses, andbetween remote locations, giving the users the ability to move, roam, or work virtuallyfrom any location.

There are four main means used for wireless communications: radio-based,microwave-based, satellite-based, and free space optics infrared-based. Each of thesemeans is based on distinct communications technologies, network elements, and distinctfrequency spectrums for communications. The oldest wireless applications are thoseusing radio waves for broadcasting and individual reception. Radio Frequency (RF)-based technologies have evolved from analog systems to digital systems and from voiceto data communications. Two major areas of development took place. The first was thehighly popular cellular mobile radio networking and services, initially geared to sup-port voice communications. The second was radio-based fixed wireless technologies,such as Wireless Local/Personal/Metropolitan Area Networks WLAN, WPAN, WMAN,and near-field sensor networks, initially geared to support data communications. The

10 Fixed-Mobile Wireless Networks Convergence

• WirelessPC card

• Cell phone• Wireless

desktop

WirelessSource

WirelessTransmission(RF waves)

ConversionSystems

• WirelessPC card

• Cell phone• Wireless

desktop

• Base Transmission Station• Base Station Controller• Wireless Switching Center• Network Management

ConversionSystems

WirelessTarget

Figure 1.7 Wireless Communications Model

relationship between cellular mobile radio and fixed wireless networks will be examinedas part of Fixed Mobile Convergence (FMC), the very subject of this book. However,there is a plethora of other radio-based communications technologies and networks suchas paging, push to talk, two-way radio communications, air-to-ground, Global Position-ing Satellite (GPS), and cordless telephony that support niche applications born out ofspecific needs. These will be less examined in this book.

A high level model of wireless communications is very similar with the general modelof communications, as indicated in Figure 1.7. This kind of communications can be lim-ited to point-to-point exchange of information or just one instance of point-to-multipointcommunications. It also can be a one-way communications (broadcast) or a two-waycommunications when the roles of transmitter and receiver are alternated, hence thename of transceivers. Specialized metallic devices, antennas, with the correspondingelectronics, are used for transmitter and receiver. Conversion systems are needed to takethe native information, be that voice, data, or image, and convert it into electromagneticsignals that spread out from antennas and propagate through space at the speed of light.A receiving antenna, similar to the transmitting antenna, intercepts the electromagneticwaves and converts them back into electrical signals that are decoded so the native infor-mation is delivered to the receiving party, a radio set, a cellular phone, or a televisionset.

Critical to the success of wireless communications are the RF antennas. There are manytypes, shapes, and sizes of antennas depending on the application provided, physicaldesign, and ability to enhance the performance by concentration of RF wave energy.Further, there are two basic types: omnidirectional antennas, radiating signals in alldirections, and directional antennas, radiating signals in a narrow direction or controlledpattern. Depending on their ability to concentrate the energy, there are active antennas andpassive antennas. There are antennas with diversity gain that control radio signal fading.Antenna shapes include simple vertical antennas, folded dipole, parabolic, collinear, logperiodic, or Yagi, panel or horn. There are striking differences between source antennas,truly towers in the sky, or hub earth stations, and target antennas, simple vertical

Wireless Communications and Networking 11

polarizing sticks or plate-size satellite dishes. Last but not least, there are Multiple InputMultiple Output (MIMO) antennas for truly user dense wireless communications.

Key to wireless communications are the conversion systems; they use various tech-niques to convert the native information into electromagnetic signals. These techniquesare based on modulation processes, where the characteristics of the native signal, originat-ing from say a microphone or a video camera are changed to a suitable carrier signal, i.e.,amplitude, frequency, and phase. The frequency of the carrier signal is higher than thatof the native signal. Consequently, three fundamental types of modulation techniques areused: Amplitude Modulation (AM), Frequency Modulation (FM), and Phase Mod-ulation (PM). However, there are many other fine-grained modulation techniques usedwhich are variations and combinations of these basic modulation techniques.

In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier is changed according to thevariations in amplitude of the native signal, e.g. voice, while the frequency of the carrierremains constant. In frequency modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal remainsconstant while its frequency is changed according to the rhythm of the change in ampli-tude of the modulating signal. Special electronic components generate the carrier signal,a constant amplitude and frequency succession of sine waves, and control the processof modulation. On the receiving side, the radio waves are detected and demodulated toextract the original signal. Given the nature of the shared transmission environment, theearth atmosphere, we can expect natural attenuation of the transmitted signal’s strengthsand interference in the form of noise from other transmission sources or just from thevery existence of cosmic and solar emitted rays. It is not the intent of this book to gointo the details of antenna design, modulation techniques, RF equipment componentsand characteristics, physics of propagation, path loss, or radio link budget although theywill be mentioned whenever it is necessary for the sake of clarity.

1.4 Wireless Communications Classification

The large variety of wireless networks introduced in the previous section can be classifiedusing three major criteria: geographical coverage, level of mobility, and spectrum allo-cation. Figure 1.8 depicts the variety of wireless communications systems. Dependingon the area of coverage, there are five main types of wireless networks as follows:

� Wireless Wide Area Networks (WWAN): These networks provide direct networkconnectivity to large areas including disparate, remote sites. Top on the list of WWANsis the large family of mobile radio cellular networks spanning three solid generations(1G, 2G, 3G) with various mobile technology and service implementations (AMPS,GSM, CDMA). They suppo