The Vulnerability and Management to the Blue Carbon

International Journal of Lakes and Rivers.

ISSN 0973-4570 Volume 14, Number 1 (2021), pp. 43-70

© Research India Publications

http://www.ripublication.com/ijlr.htm

The Vulnerability and Management to the Blue

Carbon Ecosystem: Coastal Odisha

Siba Prasad Mishra, Kamal Kumar Barik, Sanjeeb Kumar Pattanaik

Centurion University of Technology and management, BBSR, Jatni, India.

Abstract

The buffer zone in tropical coasts of Odisha extends 25km inland with dense

population and a number of urban areas. The fragile vulnerable coast struggles

against disastrous floods, deforestations, droughts, storms, salinity intrusion,

erosion/accretion and biodiversity losses. The vast mangroves towards north

and mangrove associates in south have covered under littoral and swamp

forests as coastal vegetation’s. The blue carbon ecosystem defenses the coast

deterioration, deformations, atmospheric carbon emissions, and biodiversity

losses. Collection of pollen grain, radio carbon records and chemical study of

water along with field visits are part of the study. The GIS studies are made to

ascertain the extent of vulnerability to coast and vegetation. Variations in

heavy metals and nonmetals of water sample of Chilika lagoon, the largest

water bodies of along East coast is found by using XRF spectrometer.

Investigations has been made about recent deformations, and vegetation

losses along the Odisha coast under changing ISM, cyclonic storms, strong

wind and high tides. The major loss of casuarina/coconut plants as storm

impacts are observed during recent storm passes. Plants selection for

afforestation from mangroves or its associates in coastal buffer zone under

influencing climate is reflected. Shift in slamming targets southerly (2013-20)

devastated coastal forests in south but less towards northern coast. The 21st

century coast lines changes are due to storm surges, littoral drift and high tides

gradual loss vegetation by impinging the fluvial regime. The afforestation of

casuarina and acacia needs to be disheartened but salt tolerant mixed

vegetation needs prioritization as they are proved less resisting to strong winds

of cyclonic storms.

Keywords: Odisha coast, mangroves, erosion, afforestation, Chilika,

Mahanadi estuary, Indian summer monsoon.

44 Siba Prasad Mishra, Kamal Kumar Barik, Sanjeeb Kumar Pattanaik

INTRODUCTION:

The main land behind Odisha beach profile (Lat. 17°49' N to 22°34' N and Long.

81°27' E to 87°24' E) with coastal area (21887km2) and population (8975581people)

are as per 2011 Census. The coastal stretch has its unique tidal mangroves, the salt-

tolerant vegetation, brackish water fauna, and sand dune ecosystem, the transitional

zone between marine and terrestrial vegetation. They are enclosed between the Bay of

Bengal (BoB) and lower deltaic plains of the major deltas of the rivers the

Subarnarekha, the Budhabalanga, the Baitarani, the Bramhani, the Mahanadi, and the

Rushikulya (Fig 1). The estuarine landforms have sand dunes, mudflats, swamps,

saltpans and wetlands adjacent to the coast. The fast retreating coast and deteriorating

ecosystem has made the scientists, coast managers, and economists worried about its

sustainability Kumar R et. al 2016[1], Kumar A. et al., 2017[2]. Odisha coast, by

virtue of its topography and geographic location is susceptible to uncertain disastrous

climates and multiple hazards like floods, cyclones, droughts and high tidal waves,

Mukhopadhyay, et al., (2016)[3]. Odisha has 251km2 mangrove forest covered (5.05%

of the country) comprising of dense, moderate and open mangroves are 81km2,

94km2,and 76km2 respectively. The Kendrapara district houses lion’s share of 192km2

mangrove forests and anastomosed drainage system nearshore. Increase of 8Km2

mangrove cover (2017 to 2019) Forest survey of India (ISFR) 2019[4] indicates about

coastal potentiality for mangrove growth.

Mangroves and its associate (casuarina, palm, coconut and Cashew etc.) are

substantial carbon sinks and green corridor to coast and act as barricade against storm,

high tides and surge impacts. Coastal wetlands in Odisha are in light/dark toned silt

and clay, clean/muddy soils and drains are regularly inundated by sea water under

identical hydrologic regime. They are potentially prolific ecosystems and have

emerged biological significance.

Fig 1: The index map of Odisha Coast and features in buffer zone: the study area

The Vulnerability and Management to the Blue Carbon Ecosystem: Coastal Odisha 45

The productive ecosystem delivers food, medicine, honey, wood, genetic, and

ornamental resources. Despite of wastes, climate regulations and brackish water in

creeks, the coasts are tourism hot spots, recreation verandah, and wet land education

(Wetland Atlas 2010[5]). The complex root system of mangroves dissipates wave

energy, lower inflow velocity, and protect coast during natural/anthropogenic

disasters. The wetlands are fertile nesting/ nurture ground for brackish water

biodiversity and microbial taxa influenced by bio-geo-hydrographical and ecological

indices. It is pertinent to study this wetland ecosystem which is a great carbon sink

(Swain, B. K. 2017[6], Mishra, S. P. 2018[7]).

REVIEW OF LITERATURE:

India had 4975km2 mangrove concealment including 1124Km2 (22.593%) along east

coast (EC) of India in 2019. West Bengal houses 42.45% of mangrove forests

(Sundarban), trailed by Gujarat 23.66% and Andaman & Nicobar Islands

12.39%. (Forest survey India, 2019[4], Ravisankar et al., 2004[8]). The ecologically

significant area of Bhitarkanika Sanctuary is 145km2 out of total 672km2 as a national

park in 1998 within a biosphere reserve of 3000km2 consisting of Wildlife Sanctuary,

National Park and the Gahirmatha Marine Wildlife Sanctuary,

http://odishawildlife.org/bhitarakanika.html , The 2nd Ramsar wet land of Odisha had

7653 (84.5%) old and matured mangrove trees during 2008, (Upadhey et al., 2008[9]).

The variation dynamics of mangrove area can be well studied by GIS tool which can

assist coastal managers and the policy makers to plan efficiently for future (Pattanaik

et al., 2010[10]). The salt tolerant crops are either salt excluders or salt secretors or salt

accumulators grow in brackish water (Ong and Gong, 2013[11]). The mangroves in

northern coastal Odisha are comparatively short heighted that epitomizes both

estuarine and riverine ecosystem conducive for mangrove habitats and species

(Upadhyay et al 2014[9]). Mangroves develop in soil with salinity from 0 to 90ppt.

(Red mangroves 60-65ppt. Black & White > 90ppt). The water salinities is >40ppt in

the bays and mud flats https://www.nhmi.org/mangroves/phy .

The Indian coast comprises of 43% (sandy beach), 36% (muddy flats), 11% (rocky),

and (10% marshy) with 97 estuaries (major) and 34 coastal lagoons. Odisha coast

suffers from 199km of erosion, 205km accretion, and 32.1km stable except estuaries

and ports etc. (CPDAC report-2017[12]). About 59.18 km2 of mangrove forests was

deteriorated in India between 1972 to 1982 NRSA (The National Remote Sensing

Agency[13], Nayak et al., 2001[14]). India has lost 40% of mangrove vegetation during

20th century from anthropogenic and natural causes. The east coast (EC) of India has

gained 54km2 mangrove area from 2017 to 2019 (Sahu et al., 2015[15], ISFR 2019[4]).

The study of coastal vegetation have grown importance as they were depleted from

1960’s mainly due to population growth, new ports (Paradip, Dhamra, and Gopalpur),

escalated aqua culture, LU/LC changes, refugees settlement, deforestation, creeks,

without EIA (environmental impact assessment) (Mohanty, 2017[16]).

The Carbon stockpile quantity from plants and in soils in north coastal mangrove

areas of Odisha have potentiality of carbon sequestration and are within 3.4–4.1Tg C

http://odishawildlife.org/bhitarakanika.html

https://www.nhmi.org/mangroves/phy


that combat the climatic extremes (Banerjee et al, 2020[17], Mitra A 2020[18]).

Luxuriant mangrove ecosystem eliminates construction of sea wall, increases

sequestration, protect beach from erosion, coastal flooding and protect the brackish

water habitats (estuarine crocodiles, Asian water monitors, fiddler crab, fin fishes,

mudskipper and Irrawaddy dolphins (Ravishankar et al., 2004[8], Moritsch et al

2021[19]).

STUDY AREA:

There is significant difference in the length of coast line of Odisha (480.4km (2011)

& 549.5km (2016) as the coast is fragile, dynamic and ever changing as per NCSCM -

2011 and the NASC -2016 GIS study reports, (Table 1 &Fig 2&3).

Table 2: The major rivers, area, length, coastal changes (2011-2016) with important

wetlands within the district

District

(Odisha)

Major Rivers falling

BoB

Coast length

2011/ 2016

Erosion

2011/ 2016

Deposition

2011 /2016

Stable coast

2011/ 2016

Imp wetlands;

Characteristics

km km km km

Balasore Kantiachara,Nunia,

Kamachara,

Khandita,

urhabalanga

Panchpara, Dubdubi

Hans-kara,

Subarnarekha R.

87.96/92.14 23.59/21.6 14.25/52.30 50.12/18.24

shift coast ≈3-

5km in low

tides; Calm

Talasari beach;

eposition

Bhadrak Dhamra Gamai,

Baitarani, Salandi,

Gamei, Kansbans,

Mantei, Kochila,

Genguti,R

52.61/59.88 11.48/13.96 2.81/42.18 38.32/4.14

APJK Island;

Tidal flat 2-5km,

erosion

Dhamara

Kendra-

para

Brahmani, Hansua,

Bans-garh Maipura, 83.55/135.82 35.68/48.96 5.30/32.60 42.57/54.26

B.kanika;Erosio

n, Gahiramatha

Jagsingh-

Pur

Devi,Jatadharmuhan

, Biti-kolia

Balijhori, Mahanadi 58.95/58.72 30.98/34.22 11.09/15.26 16.88/09.24

Hukitala

bay,loss spit;

Barunei Est

uary lateral shift

Puri Chilika TI,

Mangala, Suna

munhi, Bhargavi, K-

badra,

Prachi/Kadua River

136.48/140.04 55.25/21.40 29.22/109.46 51.01/09.18

Lateral channels,

erosion; loss of

casuarina plants.

Ganjam Rushikulya, Bahuda 60.85/62.90 19.71/14.06 24.95/30.38 16.19/18.46

Gpl- erosion, TI

shift, GPL port

Note: Stable coast includes Jetties, ports and coastal structures: Ramesh R. et al, 2011[20], Kankara et

al 2018[21].


Fig 3: The political map of coastal area with its 25km buffer zone

REASON FOR STUDY:

The mangrove conservation boosts economic status of the coastal inhabitants,

generates employment, tourism, and abates the impacts of vulnerable events,

Bahinipati et al 2012[22]. Bhomia et al 2016[23]. Coastal vegetation and wildlife are

sturdy against extreme weather, erosion, strong winds, storm surges, sand mining, and

anthropogenic stresses. The cyclonic storms 1970, 1971, 1982, 1999, 2013, 2014, and

2019 had shattered the Odisha coastal ecosystem (Mishra S. P. 2020[24]). The VSCS,

Amphan had damaged 24.55% of mangroves (136.77km2) of coastal India and

Bangladesh (28th May 2020, Mongabay series[25]) (Fig 4). The Balukhand coastal

forest, and wildlife sanctuary at Puri was completely devastated in the ESCS Fani,

2019.

Fig 3: The change in Mangrove area between 1999 and 2019

Considering the vulnerability of the coast, storm slam, and anthropogenic activities

0

500000

1000000

1500000

2000000

2500000

Are

a in

Ha

Coastal states if India

Change in Mangrove areas along Indian coasts between years 1999 (series 2) & 2019

(series 1)

Series2 Series1


Along Odisha coast, the study is conducted for the coastal buffer zone (3-5km, 5-

10km and 10-15km) during 30-40years. The status of the coastal interface (aggrading

or protruding), the mangrove area changes, assessment of threats to mangroves, and

its associates ecosystem has been searched. The holistic management of the declining

coastal biodiversity, poaching activities, increasing growth of coastal afforestation,

and to search the dominant factors i.e. anthropogenic or natural Ravishankar et al

2004[8] and Forest survey of India 2019 (MoEF&CC[4]).

METHODOLOGY

Present methodology envisages collection of data from past literatures like pollen

studies, carbon dating records, field visits, GIS methodologies to explore the 25km

buffer zones of Odisha coast. The historic records from the Holocene epoch

(13800YBP) were arranged chronologically and its effect on the coastline has been

correlated. SWOT analysis is done and management action plan has been chalked for

the sustainability of the coast like mangrove and/or its associate covers. The rapid

changes in length of coastline due to erosion and accretion have been observed from

the 2004 Tsunami. The effects of cyclones, Indian summer monsoon rainfall (ISM) on

the coastline changes of Odisha is investigated.

Luxuriant mangrove growth is found along the coastal buffer zone beyond the Devi

estuary whereas mangrove associates or mixed inland vegetation in the southern

fringe up to the Bahuda estuary. The two major wet land sources in the northern and

the southern coasts are Chilika and Bhitarkanika with varieties of plants are discussed.

The field visit and comparative study is done.

The study of the elemental differences during high tide creek flows has been done by

using 1 PANalytical B. V., Epsilon, Netherland XRF Spectrometer, using software

EPSILON 3 to get the concentration of elements. The XRF is used to find the

quantity the metals, oxides, nonmetals, metalloids and rare earth elements

Mishra S. P. et al, 2017[26].

The islands in the coast:

The coast has many idyllic islands within its depositional and retreated coasts.

Bhitarkanika has 14 islands where as Chilika lagoon houses small to large islands

(203km2). These major islands are Outer APJ Kalam Island (263.13Ac.), Coconut

Island (97.50 Ac.), Shorts Island (41.25 Ac.), Long Wheeler (52.50 Ac.), Small

Wheeler (10.63 Ac.), Kanika Sands (Udabali), Kalibhanja Dian, Nadiabali Island in

northern fringe whereas Sanakudi, Kalijai, Parikuda, Nuapada, Nalaban etc are within

Chilika. The northern coasts are having luxuriant mangrove growth whereas

mangrove/mixed vegetation are found in the islands of southern coast,

www.Wildlife.odisha.gov.in/webportal/;Mangroves.aspx&https://www. The net

littoral drift along Odisha is northerly. The sediment carried in floods gets deposited

in the N-ly fringe and forms spits. The barrier spits are continuously under

deformation and islands formation ahead of the river outfalls (Manimurali et al.,

2013[27]).

http://www.wildlife.odisha.gov.in/webportal/;Mangroves.aspx&https:/www


The shoreline change:

Considering district wise, the Odisha coast comprises of length of 480.4km (Ramesh

et al., 2012[20]) and latest study shows surge of coast line to 549.5km (Kankara et al.,

2018[21]). The major erosion is occurring at places like Pentha, Satabhaya, Kahnupur,

Habilikhuti, Ekakula spit, Konark to Ramachandi, Penthakata Puri and Gopalpur.

About 63 km has been eroded at Satbhaya, Pentha Hukitala Bay and Devi estuary

(Barik et al., 2019[28]). Change in beach profile was prominent from 2004 tsunami.

The RSLR and aeolian forces have eroded 153.8km (28 %) of Odisha’s total coast

from 1999 to 2016 (Kankara et. al. 2018[21]). The Odisha coast has lost 196 km (46%)

by erosion, gained 156km (36%) by deposition, and 78 km (18%) are stable including

ports, Jetti’s and structures. The coasts of Puri and Kendrapara have lost 80km and 41

km respectively whereas Bhadrak has gained 37km (Roy et. al., 2018[29]).

Tidal influence along Coast:

Present Odisha coast is of Holocene origin where the extreme north and south are of

Post-Tertiary Period. The South Mahanadi delta (SMD) was formed during mid

Holocene period (4.2KYBP) when RSLR rose by 7 to 8m higher than present

coast (Naidu 1968[30]) and now protruding @≈9.1km/ 000’ years (Somanna et al

2016[31]). The coast line from the Bahuda to the Mahanadi mouth is micro tidal (≤ 2m

amplitude) with high wave energy and rest meso tidal (2-4m high) towards north.

The Bandar area near Devi river mouth, the waves height are ≈2m during spring tides

and 0.5m in neap tidal and average 1.5m in creeks of Bhitarkanika. The coast has 300-

500m long beach with sand and sand dunes. All the rivers before debouching take a

northern turn forming lateral channel, (Mishra S. P. 2016[32]) (Fig 4)..

Fig 4: The status of coastal wetlands along Odisha coast


The Vegetative Cover:

The vegetation along Odisha coast is largely of littoral, salt bush and tidal mangrove

or mixed forests types. The mangroves are dense at Kalibhanjadian (Dhamara

mouth), Bhitarkanika, Nasi, Jatadhar and Saharabedi. And the rest coast with the

mixed vegetation. The coasts Konark to Prayagi have tidal scrub jungles. Commonly

found Mangrove plants along Odisha coast are Bruguiera (Karika), Avicennia (Bani),

Rhizophora (Rai), Exocaria (Guan), Hental (Phoenix paludosa), Sindhuka (Kandelia

candel), Kaliachua (Bruguiera parviflora), Bandari (Bruguiera gymnorrhiza), Garani

(Ceriops decandra), Keruan (Sonneratia apetala) Orua (Sonneratia caseolaris),

Bonarua (Aegialitis rotundifolia), Sisuma (Xylocarpus granatum) etc. (Fig 5 a). Red

Mangroves are (Rhizophora apiculata, R. mangle, R. mucronata) Orange Mangrove

(Bruguiera cylindrica, B. gymnorrhiza, B. parviflora), Black Mangrove (Avicennia

alba, A. germinans, A. marina, A. officinalis) and White Mangrove (Laguncularia

racemose) are less in Odisha coast (Ghosh D., 2011[33], Panda et al., 2016[34]) (Fig 5

a-d).

The Chilika coast has first time developed ≈1.0km2 with, mangroves (rai, bani, garani

and sinduka etc under ICZMP) in the swanky patches of Chilika by 2020. The

mangrove associates like Casurina (Casuarina equisetifolia L, and locally Jhaun),

coconut trees, and cashew plants are present in south Odisha coast. Casuarina plants

of Australian origin were started during early 20th century to protect storms, wind and

waves.

Fig 5: The mangroves, the mud flats, mangrove plantation (Chilika) & erosion

(Pentha)


The brackish water Fauna

The larger brackish water habitats are crocodiles, dolphins, and many predator

communities. The mangroves have plenty of faunal species like Dog faced water

snake, Olive Ridley Sea Turtles, blue blooded horse shoe crabs, 14 numbers

amphibian species (new Fejervarya cancrivora and Euphlyctis hexa-dactylus) and

many marine species. The mudflats along the coast and adjoining the river estuaries

like Lesser Sand Plover, Little Stint, Red Shank, Green Shank, Whimbrels, Kentish

Plover during low tides The Black-shouldered, Brahminy Kites, Black and Short-toed

Serpent Eagles are found near the estuaries and lagoons. Many migratory birds of

different varieties are found in water bodies, islands and the mangroves (Ghosh D.,

2011[33], Panda et al., 2016[34]) (Fig 5).

Irrawaddy dolphin, the focus of coastal wet lands like Chilika and Bhitarkanika are

the major attraction. Barik S. S., The Hindu; 10, Apr. 2021 has reported the number

of Dolphins (3 types; Irrawaddy, bottle-nose and humpback dolphins) are 544

numbers in 2021 rising from 233in 2020. Irrawaddy variety is 162 in 2021 which was

146 numbers in last year. The Rajnagar mangroves is housing humpback and

bottlenose dolphins 281 and 54 numbers of surged from only 02 and 23 numbers in

FY 2020 which are brackish water species..

Soils of coastal Odisha

The soils along south coast are saline, brackish, sandy, fluvial, aeolian or lacustrine.

From the Mahanadi to the Dhamara mouth, soil is depositional, estuarine that have

formed mudflats, creeks and swamps. The soils are either Aridisols (saline alkali soils

Fig 6 (a): The XRF Spectrometer (b) Devi R estuary (c ) The lagoon Chilika (d) The

Mahanadi delta


rich in Ca++, Mg++ & organic matter) or Entisols (Alluvium, deficient in nitrogen,

phosphoric acid and humus). The northern most coasts are sandy, silty, and muddy

with low wave energy.

The coastal wetlands are classified as the north coastal plain (within the Subarnarekha

to the Baitarani estuaries) with salt tolerant species of mangroves. The middle coastal

plain (northern) is from the Baitarani to the Devi estuary with dense mangroves, and

south coastal plains from Astarang to the Bahuda are of mangrove associates and

mixed forests. The buffer zones along Odisha coast are of three categories 0-05km,

05-10km and 10-15km (Fig 6 a-d).

Natural scenic geo-bio-hydro landscapes

Long term Sediment deposition by the rivers of Odisha has developed mudflats,

lagoons, lakes, salt pans, mangrove forests, swamp forests like Bhitarkanika, Hukitala

(bay), Atharbanki, Talasari, and the lagoons Chilika. The drainage channels allow

tidal backwaters that penetrate subterranean inlands has scenic geo-bio-hydro

landscapes along the coast (Table 2)

Table 2: The natural scenic geo-bio-hydro landscapes along the Odisha coast

# Natural

events

Item type District Location River/lake/Area

of mangroves

Exclusivity

1 Talseri–

daipur

Dagara beach

sandy

beach

Balasore 5km Digha

(South)

Subarnarekha

R.

mudflats/red

crabs

2 Subarnarekha Intertidal

mudflat

Balasore 500m wide

river mouth

Subarnrekha R.

(7.76km2)

Dune

vegetation

3 Chandipur Intertidal

mudflat

Balasore 1-4km

beach

Budhabalnga R.

(1.35km2)

rare horse-shoe

& more Red

Crabs

4 Karanjamal dense

mangrove

Bhadrak North of

Dhamara

Kasia river

(29.35km2)

Jetti,

aquaculture,

salt pans,

horseshoe

crabs

5 Barunei Beach/

mangrove

Kendrapada South of

Gahiramatha

Hansua R; dists.

of Bramhani

dense

mangrove;

Olive Ridley

nests

6 Bhitar kanika Mangrove

/creek

Rajnagar/

Kendrapada

Rajkanika &

Rajnagar

Gupti R. mouth

(149.87km2)

Mangrooves,

Hental forest,

crocodiles

7 Jambu

Dweep

sand bar,

mangroves

K-drapada Within

Hukitola

Gobari R., isty.

Mahanadi R.

halophytes,

dense


# Natural

events

Item type District Location River/lake/Area

of mangroves

Exclusivity

Bay mangroves;

finfishes

8 Paradip;

Bhitar

Kharinasi

Estuarine, J-singhpur Mahanadi

mouth

Atharbanki

51.24km2

mangrove,

swamps, creeks

9 Nuagaon

Mankada

Khia

Erosion;

beach,

Bandar

lagoon

J-singhpur Devi River

mouth

(3.46km2)

Jatadhar lateral

channel,

swamps

Turtle nesting,

beach,

mangrove,

mudflats

10 Balukhanda

–

Ramachandi

beach

&dunes

Puri K-bhadra

estuary

Lateral channel

( Ramachandi)

Turtles; crabs;

Deer sanctuary,

casuarina,

11 Sar & Samag lost lakes

& swamps

Puri Bhargovi R.

branches

lakes converted

swamps

Encroachment,

paddy farms

12 Chilika Lagoon;

swamps

Puri Daya R.

estuary

Lateral channel,

beach/ dunes

Lagoons;

swamps; guest

birds ; Dolphin;

13 Huma/Ganja

Beach

saltpan;

spits;

swamp,

lakes

Ganjam R-kulya

estuary,

Lateralchannels;

lake Tampara

Tortoise nests;

Salt pan,

dunes; fishing

14 Gopalpur Backwater Ganjam South of R.

Rushikulya

Lateral channel,

golden beach

Haripur creek;

Coral boulders

15 Bahuda Estuary Ganjam Bahuda R. Lateral channel ichthyofaunal

diver.

Source modified: Ravisankar et al 2004[8], Saravanan et al.,2013[35], Behera et al

2013[36],National Wetland Atlas[5], 2010

Change in Climate:

The coasts enjoy savanna tropical climate vulnerable to BoB cyclones, floods,

droughts, heatwaves and coastal erosion. The mean normal optimal temperatures of

the coastal district are 26.80C and 13.90C, highest maximum reached 37.80C. Climate

allied extreme events are becoming increasingly severe in frequency and intense after

1990 onwards along Odisha coast, (Sahoo et al., 2020[37], UNISDR Report 1998–

2017[38] and IPCC 5th AR[39]). There is 100C difference in maximum temperatures

between western and coastal Odisha. The exotic mangrove species migrate to low

temperate zone in north even under 20C rise in temperature, Bennett, et al, 2020[40].


Fig 7: Coastal Changes: (a) The erosion of tidal inlet in Chilika (b) Sand ridge at

Sankreswar 5km from BoB near Puri (c) The join of Kharasrota & Brahmani R (d)

The submergence of mangroves during full tide.

Fresh water forests along Chilika coast was identified during pre-Holocene (13.5-

9.5KYBP) (Khandelwal et al., 2008[41]). Mangrove forests started along the

anastomosed drainage channels of Southern coast with transgression of the BoB,

(Ramasubramanian, et al., 2006[42]). The mangrove forestation along Chilika coast

was established from Pollen analysis, Radio carbon dating and soil core analysis

(9500YBP to 6500YBP) with partial loss during 3100-2250BP due to optimal

minimum RSLR (Farooqui et al., 200[431], Barui et al., 2011[44] and Gawali et al.,

2019[45]). (Fig 7a-d),

Rainfall Changes along coast:

The coastal Odisha receives 80% of SW monsoon rainfall (JJASO months). The

Odisha coast catches high rainfall w.r.t. interior Odisha due to positioning of ITCZ

and low pressure areas, trough lines, and cyclones. The Isohyet map of Odisha reports

that there is spatial variability of rainfall from south to north.


Fig 8 District wise normal rainfall in Coastal Odisha

The average rainfall of the coastal districts are Ganjam (1306.3mm), Puri

(1535.7mm), Jagatsinghpur (1513.9mm), Khurdha (1455.2mm), Kendrapara

(1529.1mm), Bhadrak (1493.4mm), and Balasore (1748.3mm), which is gradually

increasing from south to north in 21st century (Fig 8).The trend in heavy rainfall days

are increasing in Balasore, Puri, and Khordha districts and decreasing trend in

Ganjam, J-Pur, and Bhadrak districts s (Mohapatra et al., 2003[46], Guhathakurta et al.,

2020[47]).

The slamming storms:

Present 549.50 km coastal stretch of Odisha (17% of India) had landfall by 97 CS

(1891-2020) out of 279 and 20 from (1970-2020) with increased frequency, and

intensity formed in BoB (Mishra. et al, 2020[24]). All storms have not identical

devastation but some major cyclones along Odisha from 1980-2020 are: (Table 4)

Table 4: Recorded major Severe Cyclonic storms that hit Odisha coast from 1980 to

2020

Year Date Place of fall Type Wind

speed

Deaths/damages Impact

Odisha

20th century major severe storms affected Odisha coast

1982 1-4th June PDP-CBL >SCS >109kmph 245died, heavy

loss

North

Odisha


1985 16th Oct Balasore >SCS >109kmph 84died, heavy loss North

Odisha

1989 23-27 May Balasore >VSCS >119kmph 24died, heavy loss North

Odisha

1995 7-10 Nov Gopalpur >SCS 111kmph 96died, heavy loss South

Odisha

1999 17 to 21Oct Gopalpur >VSCS 180kmph 147died, heavy

loss

South

Odisha

1999 29-30 Oct Paradip SC 300kmph 9885died, coast

lost

Central

Odisha

21st Century cyclonic storms

2013 12th Oct, Phailin Gopalpur ESCS 240kmph 44died, Heavy

loss

South

Odisha

2014 12th Oct Hudhud VSK ESCS 185kmph 02died, heavy loss South

Odisha

2018 21st Sept (Daye) Gopalpur CS 65-75kmph Heavy rain South

Odisha

2018 9th Oct (Titili) GPL -Palasa VSCS 150kmph 85died, landslide South

Odisha,

2019 3rd May (Fani) Puri ESCS 215kmph 89died, heavy loss EC & BD

2020 18th May,

Amphan

Bakkhal,

WB

VSCS 155kmph 128died; heavy

loss

Coastal

Odisha

Abbreviation: Depression(<49Kmph) Deep Depression <61Kmph), Cyclonic Storm (CS),

<88Kmph), Severe (SCS) ( <118Kmph) Very severe (VSCS) ( <167Kmph) Extremely Severe

(ESCS) ( 221Kmph),GPL: Gopalpur, BLS: Balasore, PRI, Puri, PDP: Paradip, CBL:

Chandabali, BDK: Bhadrak,,EC: East coast, WB: West Bengal, BD: Bangladesh

Source modified: wikipedia.org/wiki/, Chhitebabu et al, 2004[48], Mishra 2014[49],

2020[24]

Mangroves of Odisha had acted as natural blockade not only during super cyclone

(1999) but also saved the beach buffer zone during Amphan in 2020 but the mangrove

associates were shattered during the cyclones Phailin, Hudhud, Titili, & Fani etc..

X-Ray spectroscopic study

XRF spectroscopy is the technique of detecting major elemental particles having

wavelengths (λ) within the X-ray electromagnetic spectral range. It quantifies the

elements and compounds present in the solid or liquid study samples. The difference

in type of elements obtained within the buffer zone and peripheries of the

Bhitarkanika and the Chilika lagoon, it is expected that there must be some elemental


concentration difference in the water qualities of the tidal water during high tides

Table 3.

Table 3: The elements found of the Chilika and Bhitarkanika tidal water from outskirt

of brackish waterbody.

Element Unit Sample

Chilika

Sample

B-knika

excess

/less(%)

Impact of various elementson

mangrove plants

Phosphorus(P) ppm 600.5 607.9

1.22

If P‐deficient: low leaf water potential,

stomatal conductance, photosynthetic

C-assimilation rates, & less conductive

xylem,

Sulphur (S) ppm 229.1 409.7 44.08 S- oxidizing bacteria in Bhitarkanika

Chlorine ion (Cl-) % 0.210 0.838 74.94 Essential for mangrove growth;

Salinity better ranges 3-27ppt, Fellor

C., Smithsonian Bromine (Br-) ppm 5.3 24.5 78.37

Calcium(Ca) ppm 249.1 363.0 31.38 K+, Ca++ and Mg++ are the primary

productivity Potassium (K) ppm trace 170.2

Iron (Fe) ppm 21.0 9.8 -114.29

Less FeS2 in B-kanika & high in

Chilika

Stannum (Sn) ppm 55.3 54.6 -1.28 The role of heavy metals on mangrove

growth are scanty in literature and

need further research Europium (Eu) ppm 00.7 27.5 97.45

Erbium (Er) ppm 64.0 Nil

Silicon (Si) ppm 420.9 208.3

Gadolinium (Gd) ppm Nil 30.9

Terbium (Tb) ppm Nil 34.0

Source: Lovelock et al., 2006[50] and 2009[51]; Jian et al., 2017[52], Cohen et al, 1999[53],

Nitrates and Phosphates are essential for mangrove growth. P and Fe are limiting

whereas S is important element for the biogeochemical cycle. Sediments in mangrove

areas are ordinarily anaerobic, with organic matter (OM), iron sulphides (FeS2), and

sulphate ions, are common. Iron dissolved in water. They limit initial growth of

mangroves in estuarine environment (Hinokidani et al., 2019[54]). Sulphur oxidising

bacteria’s like photoautotrophs, heterotrophs and chemolithotrophs are the key driving

dynamism of the mangrove biome to oxidize the sulphides (toxic) formed by sulphur

reducing bacteria for Sulphur transformations (Behera et al., 2013[55]). Mangroves

cannot grow, as freshwater is the physiographic need for mangroves whereas salinity

(Cl-), is an ecological requirement (Wang et al., 2011[56])


RSLR fluctuations

Fig 6: Holocene sea level changes along east coast India. (Modified after: Loveson et

al 2015 [57]).

The Odisha coast is affected by Indian summer monsoon (ISM) due to positioning of

Inter Tropical convergence zone (ITCZ), El-Niño southerly Oscillation (ENSO),

Indian Ocean dipole (IOD). Speleothem records and proxies from nearby Gupteswar

caves, Koraput, reveal about variation in rainfall events in last 2000KYBP (Yadav et

al., 2006[58]). From 1950-1550YBP there was excess rainfall under favourable ISM

and were weak from 1550-1300YBP with less rainfall. Later 1300 to 800YBP, Odisha

coast witnessed strong monsoon and very high rainfall. Later during Little Ice Age

(LIA) (700-200YBP), the rainfall was scanty. There was regression of coast seawards

with loss of coastal vegetation. For last 150 years (1850-1920AD) there was weak

rainfall when Odisha faced two spells of major famines. From 1920 to 1990 the ISM

was steady, but from 1990 to 1996AD, the ISM was very weak. The SW monsoon has

been active after and revival of ISM in 21st century, (Guhathakurta et al 2008[47],

Naidu et al, 2020[30], Banerjee et al., 2020[17]) (Fig 6).

Arid episodes have been established during 1500YBP, 1100 YBP, 850YBP, 500YBP,

and 130YBP. The ISM is projected to repeat to be strong in future consequent upon

global warming. Later there was increase of Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM), during

≈ 6400 to 5300YBP and 3300-3000 YBP (IPCC AR-4[59], Gawali et al.,2019[45],

Loveson et al 2020[57], Baneerji et al 2020[17], Achyutan et al., 2014[60]).


The Proxies of retreating coast:

The Chilika lagoon was a vast estuarine low land till early Holocene. The pollen

records/carbon dating of the soil cores along coastal creeks (Buxi Kania, East Kania,

Bali jore, Puhani jore, Mishra Bagicha, Musa nai and Sunamunhi R.) was with

mangrove forests but since last 300 to 500YBP were converted to mix inland forests.

(Khandelwal, et al 2008[41]). The 2nd barrier spit is parallel to present OC coast (at

≈3-5km) connected by Dahikhia channel, are 500yrs old found from radio carbon

dating of core sample data at Satapada the penultimate strandline. The delineation of

ancient shoreline at Chandbali in Brahmani-Baitarni delta was found to be formed

during the last global rise of MSL during 6.0KYBP. (Mallick el al., 1972[61], Niyogi

(1971)[62].

The east coast of north Odisha has protruded ≈30–35 km seawards during Holocene.

The present Balasore town was within sea then, (Kunte et al., 2006[63], Barman et al,

2015[64]). The monuments like Bhabakundaleswar temple (Chilika), Harachandi

temple (Brahmagiri), Jagannath temple (Puri), Ramachandi temple, Konark temple

along south Odisha coast were of 1000YBP old and legend say, they were on the

shore line over sand dunes. But within last millennium the shore line has retreated by

2 to 3km from those temples which indicate transgression of BoB seawards.

Prediction coastal inundation:

Climate central has predicted sea level rise (SLR) and prepared future coastal

inundation maps using Coastal DEM model. The Regional SLR shall be about 0.6m

to 2.1m along Odisha coast as per their prediction (Fig 7).The central and the north

Odisha shall be worst affected to 21st century in long stretches of low lying buffer

zone. The present ecosystems shall be partly or permanently inundated like Chandipur

beach, Bhitarkanika, Gahiramatha, coastal Islands (Kanika, and APJA Kalam ),

Ekakula spit, Hukitala area, Balukhand Biota, Ramchandi beach, and NW swamps of

the Chilika lagoon.

Fig 7: Coastal Inundation map of coastal Odisha till 2050 (Modified after: Climate

modified: central, USA)


The coastline of Puri, Bhadrak and Balasore district is under accretion where coastline

/beach is developing and face less inundation if present natural processes continue.

The northern coast of Puri and coast line of Jagatsinghpur from the Kushabhadra to

the Dhamara estuaries shall be under high erosion. There shall have mixed effects

along Ganjam, and southern Puri coast https://www.climatecentral.org/news/report-

flooded-future-global-vulnerability-to-sea-level-rise-worse-than-previously-

understood (Fig 7)

Coastal features

The pollen grains and radio carbon dating data from Solari hills and soil cores from

Chilika reveals about presence of dense mangrove forests till little Ice age. There was

radical waning in those mangrove forests during 750 to 600YBP and concurrent surge

in fresh water taxa due to recession in RSLR along Chilika coast Khandelwal et al.,

2008[41], Kohli et. al., 2018[65] (Fig 8a-c).

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig 8: North odisha: (a) Talasari Udayapur, (b) Chandipur sea beach, (c) Bhitarkanika

mangroves

https://www.climatecentral.org/news/report-flooded-future-global-vulnerability-to-sea-level-rise-worse-than-previously-understood




Dynamism and evolution of Ekakula spit (Hukitala bay)

Hukitala Bay is back of Jambu Island in Kendrapara and Ekakula spit is land stretch

used as connectivity during low tides that shifts the Maipura river mouth. The barrier

spit had increased by 2710m from 1970-2008 whereas washed out by 2431m during

2009 with variation of tidal height ranging from 1.098 (2000) to 1.9m (2005) Murali

et al., 2013[27]. A small restricted lagoon is under formation near the Devi R. mouth of

depth 1 to 10m between Bandar and Boruan (Ravisankar et al. 2004[8]) as immediate

impact of loss of barrier spit of Hukitala.

Fig 9: The changes in the Ekakula barrier spit of the Hukitala Bay of the Mahanadi

Estuary (Google)

Discussion:

The losses to the coast and salinity ingress are the major threat to the coastal buffer

zone. The sea is transgressing land ward during high tides and intensified storms

passing. The influx of saline water has made the fresh water aquifers vulnerable and

makes it unfit portability.

MAPs (Management Action Plans) is initiated from 2000-01 to conserve the coastal

forests at seven locations, like the Chilika, Balukhand, Hukitala area, Bhitarkanika,

Devi-Kadua mixed mangroves, Dhamara and Subarnarekha estuaries under ICZM

projects (CRZ-I -1991).

Some coastal forest areas were encroached illegally for unsustainable use like prawn

gherries, aquaculture ponds, new un-surveyed islands/mudflats etc. The areas after

eviction must be retrieved with flora and faunal biodiversity and preserve the coastal

resources. Invoking of alternate livelihood for coast users and rising proper

awareness, among the coast dwellers is needed.

From 6000YBP, the mangrove forests continued up to 1400YBP but started declining

during LIA period and substituted by inland and bordering vegetation as confirmed

from pollen grain analysis of Solari hill of Eastern Ghats belt (EGB) area, (Kohali D


et al., 2019[65], Khanedelwal et al 2008[41]).Gradually the aridity, human activities and

agriculture substituted the mangrove associates by local vegetation.

The SWOT analysis

Fig 10: The SWOT analysis of the vulnerability and loss of mangroves along

Odisha coast

SWOT Analysis, a simple tool to analyze organizational strength, weakness/flaws,

opportunities, and the threats. On compilation and analysis of the facts and figures

responsible for sustainability alternations in the coastal buffer zone, the

meteorological, sun-earth geometry and anthropogenic stresses are the major grounds

are in (Fig 10).

The strategic planning:

The natural forcing along with anthropogenic developments like ports, Jetties, and sea

SWOT Analysis

Strength:

Mangrove Plantation

• Fishing & Aquaculture

Time tested adaptations

Mass livelyhood

• Eco-Tourism

• PlantationsWeakness

Storm Surges

Shore advanced inland

• Flood & Tidal Inundations

Salinity ingress, Regional Sea Level R, Public awarenessise

• Coastal erosion, • Migration of Sand dunes. • Popln. Pres. & LU change, • Coastal encroachments

• Loss of Mangroves

• Loss of Habitat &

Bio-DiversityOppertunities

Coastal afforestation

Climate Change, Drinking water facilities

More saline embankments

Hazard warning, Public awareness, More Cyclone centers,

Sea walls (Geo tubes, gabions, Geofilters)

Threats

Climate anomalies

RSLR,Floods

Over expection of stakeholders

Unstable coast

Coastline loss

Vegetation loss

Salinity intrusion

Lateral channel formation


walls along the coast, and development of tourism are major responsible attributes to

demolish the mangrove flora and fauna. Development of townships (Berhampur to

Balasore) also causes huge vegetation loss along the coastal buffer zone. CRZ

regulations are the only priorities for future prospect.

The MAP should assess impact of vulnerability and to impart the appropriate

ameliorating measures by prioritizing the short term, infrastructural and long term soft

SOP’s. Acceptable economic action plans are to be implemented by PPP (public–

private partnership) mode for the coastal sustenance. GIS/RS based LU/LC maps are

to be reserved for future. Exact identification and valuation of vulnerability of

disasters (floods, droughts and high waves, storm surges) well in advance and create

awareness among the affected community is to be planned. It is essential to identify

the key persons, preparedness, prevention and mobilization of resources to have

proper rehabilitation, renovation and developmental reconstruction.

Some salt tolerant specific plants are to be encouraged. The casuarina, Babul (Acacia

nilotica) and coconut trees are proved less resisting to gusty wind during cyclone.

Location with prop roots like Kia-Ketaki, Karanja, Neem, Baula, Korila,

Jamu,Chatian, Arjun, Khaira, Mahyoni, , Harida, Bahada, Ashok, Shisu, and Dimiri

(Local names) are to be planted in buffer zone (distance wise) from the coast line,

topography, existence of creeks and mud flats (Das et al., 2014[66], The Hindu, 19th

may 2019).

The wise use of wetlands for future policy decisions, capacity networks, and

technology transfer can be maintained as per Ramsar Convention. The sustainable

coastal ecosystem can be possible by avoiding tidal inlet or creek dredging, sand

mining, anthropogenic exploitation, its flora, and fauna. The hard measures are geo-

synthetic and concrete sea walls, groins. Allow the nature to protect its own resources.

The coastal mangroves can be saved by recouping its lost vegetation by sorting

coastal features like beach, sand dunes, islands, spits, barrier islands by planting salt

and storm resistant local plantations, The mud flats, back water inundated areas,

slushy soil, mangrove swamps, and estuaries, to be afforested by mangroves or its

associates. The salt pans in the Dhamra R., Bhadrak mouth and Huma in Ganjam are

to be suitably planted, along with the northern coast and west banks of Chilika, Bhatt

et al., 2011[67].

The projected sea level rise can enhance and accumulate carbon gains ranging from

0.16-0.46 Tg C and have prospect for upcoming refurbishment to augment blue

carbon (Duarte et al 2021).

Regular data mining and analysis are also essential. The field survey, strategic

planning has become pertinent to build records. GIS database approaches are best for

the integrated coastal management with effectual governance. Safeguard of the

coastal resources and creating awareness among local villagers for conserving

biodiversity of the wetland ecosystems is obligatory. The afforestation of casuarina

and acacia needs to be disheartened but salt tolerant mixed vegetation needs

prioritization.


Conclusion:

The loss of coasts, forests, wetlands, and the genetic pool is leading to environmental

and ecological teething troubles. The causes are shore line vicissitudes, sand

bar/barrier spits creation, littoral drift, sand mining. Less sediment influx from inland

drainages have impact on the socio-economic paybacks to its stake holders. Loss of

coastal fabric due to natural/ anthropogenic stresses have bearings on agriculture,

salinity ingress, aqua culture, vegetation and stake holder’s revenue source.

Wetland ecosystems are fragile but interactive, confined within the coastal buffer

zone. The unplanned sprawls of towns and rising settlements have occupied the

wetlands. Well planned management of wetlands in coastal areas, flourishing of the

coastal forest are to be encouraged confirming the provisions of CRZ plan of 1991of

GOI. There is necessity to have management plans by creating data base, capacity

building, weed control, upgrading eco-tourism, defense to marine species along the

coast.

Abbreviations:

MoEF&CC: Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change Government of

India; YBP: Years before present; BoB: Bay of Bengal; EC: East coast; GoI:

Government of India; GoO: Government of Odisha, IMD: India Meteorological

Department; NCSCM: National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management; NRSA:

The National Remote Sensing Agency NCCR: National Centre for Coastal Research,

Chennai; CPDAC: Coastal Protection and Development. Advisory Committee;

NRSA: National Remote Sensing Agency; RSLR: Regional sea level rise; NASC:

National Assessment of Shoreline changes; JS-Pur: Jagatsinghpur Dist.; K-Bhadra:

Kushabhadra River, S-rekha: Subarnarekha River; EGB: Eastern Ghats Belt. XRF:

X-Ray fluorescent spectrometer

Acknowledgement:

My sincere gratitude to the W.R. Department of Odisha, Mr K C Sethi and Dr. Siba

Prasad Parida, other allied Departments and persons for use of their publications for

the study.

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