The social causes of husband-wife violence. - UNH IT

The John K. Fesler Memorial Fund provided

assistance in the publication of this volume, for which the University of Minnesota Press is grateful.

The Social Causes of Husband-Wife Violence Murray A. Straus

and Gerald T . Hotaling

Editors

UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA PRESS OMINNEAPOLIS

1786

Copyright a 1980 by the Vniverrity of Minnesota All rights reserved. Published by the University of Minnesota Press, 2037 University Avenue Southeast, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55414

~ i b r a r y of Congress Caralosng in Publication Data

Srraus, Murray Arnold. 1926- The social causes of husbandwife violence.

Bibliogiaphy: p. Includes indexes. 1. Conjugal vioience-Social aspecrr-Unired States-

Addresses, essays, lectures. I . Horaling, Gerald T., joint aurhor. 11. Tide. HQ809.3.U5S88 306.8'7 79-27071 ISBN 0-8166-0886-5 ISBN 0-81664955-1 pbk.

The University of Minnesota is an equal-opporurnity educator and employer.

Foreword

D e s p i t e t h e l i p s e r v i c e r i t u a l i s t i c a l l p p a i d t o t h e need t o i n t e g r a t e s o c i o l o g i c a l t h e o r y and e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h , t o o o f t e n r e s e a r c h on t h e c a u s e s and c o n s e q u e n c e s of s o c i a l problems l a c k s t h D o r e t i C a 1 gu idance . Much t h e o r i z i n g i n s u c h a r e a s , on t h e o t h e r hand. p r o c e e 9 s i n b l i s s f u l i g n o r a n c e o f s c i e n t i f i c a a t a . The v i r t u e of t h i s book is t h a t it a v o i d s t h e s e p i t f a l l s . I t p r e s e n t s r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s v i t h i n a f i r m l y h e l d t h e o r e t i c a l framework, a t t h e same t i m e t h a t some of t h e e m p i r i c a l f i n d i r g s r i f i n s e x i s t i n o t h e o r i e s . These f i n d i n a s . t o borrow R o b e r t K. - . n e r t o n ' s f o r m u l a t i o n . h e l p t o i n i t i a r e , r e f o r n u l a t e , d e f l e c t . a n d c l a r i f y t h e o r i e s , r a t h e r t h a n s i m p l y t e s t i n g them; and t h u s c o n t r i b u t e n o t o n l y t o e m p i r i c a l knowledge b u t a l s o t o t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n of t h a t h e o r e t i c a l p r o p o s i t i o n s i n t h e a r e a o f f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s and i n t h e g e n e r a l f i e l d of s o c i a l c o n f l i c t a n d v i o l e n c e .

what I l i k e p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e approach of f l u r r a y S t r a u s and h i s a s s o c i a t e s is t h e i r commitment t o an i r o n i c p e r s p e c t i v e . They have a f i n e s e n s e o f t h e i n c o n g r u i t i e s between t h e p u b l i c image of an i n s t i t u t i o n , :n t h i s c a s e t h e f a m i l y , and t h e u n d e r l y i n g r e a l i t y . J u s t a s m e d i c a l r e s e a r c h h a s shown t h a t h o s p i t a l s , which a r e supposed t o make p e o p l e wel l , may make them s i c k and produce i a t r o g e n i c d i s e a s e s , s o t h e a u t h o r s show t h a t f a m i l y l i v i n g , s u p p o s e d l y p r e d i c a t e d on c o n s e n s u s , i n t e g r a t i o n . a3d harmony, may l e a d t o f o r m s o f c o n f l i c t and v;olence r a r e l y found o u t s i d e t h e f a m i l y c o n t e x t . The v e r y f e a t u r e s o f f a m i l y l i f e t h a t c o n t r i b n t a t o i n t i m a c y , i t t u r n s o u t , a l s o f a c i l i t a t e h i g h d e g r e e s of v i o l m c e between s p o u s e s .

Murray S t r a u s a n d h i s a s s o c i a t e s a r e f i n e l y a t t u n e a t o t h e need t o a t t e n d t o t h e u n a n t i c i p a t e d a s well a s t h e a n t i c i p a t e d c o n s e q u e n c e s o r s o c i a l a c t i o n s . They a r e aware t h a t a l t h o u g h e v i l i n t e n t s may l e a d t o d e s i r a b l e conseqnences , good i n t e n t i o n s may l e a d t o u n d e s i r a b l e ones.

we l e a r n h e r e , f o r example, t h a t more e g a l i t a r i a n r e l a t i o n s b e t v e e n husbands and u i v e s may h a v e t h e i r o n i c consequence o r i t c r e a s i n g r a t h e r t h a n d e c r e a s i n g c o n f l i c t b e t v e e n them, a t l e a s t i n t h e s h o r t r u r . The a u t h o r s ' o r i e n t a t i o n t o t h e i r o n i c p e r s p e c t i v e on human a f f a i r s y i e l d s s i g n i f i c a n t i n s i g h t s t h a t c o u l d p r o b a b l y c o u l d n o t have been r e a c h e d w i t h o u t t h i s s t a n c e .

ThrOnghcUt t h i s book, t h e a u t h o r s eschew what Georg S i a m e l o n c e c a l l e d t h e " f a l l a c y cf s e p a r a t e n e s s . " That is, t h e y n e v e r succumb t o t h e t e m p t a t i o n t o r e g + r d f a m i l y conflicts i n terms of t h e p e r s o n a l i t i e s c f husbands and v i v e s . They a r e s u c c ~ s s f u l a t conveying t h e i d e a t h a t f a m i l y c o n f l i c t s , a s a l l t y p e s of i r t e r a c t i o n s w i t h i n t h e f a m i l y , c a n n o t be u n d e r s t o o d w i t h o u t t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t t h e y t e n d t o d e r i v e i r o m s o c i a l s r r u c t u r e s a n d c u l t u r a l norms. The h i g h i n c i d e n c e of c o n f l i c t and v i o l e n c e i n conzemporary f a m i l i e s , t h e y a r g u e p e r s u a s i v e l y , o u s r b ? n n d e r s t o o d i n t e r m s of f u r d a n e n t a l c o 2 t r a d i c t i 3 ; s b u i l ; i n t o t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f f a m i l y l i f e . They a r g u e , f o r example, t h a t when t h e r e s o u r c e s o f a s p o u s e a r e low--when t h a t s p o u s e has , f o r example. a low s t a t u s p o s i t i o n i n t h e o c c o p a t i o n a l world--the c h a n c e s a r e h i g h e r t h a t h e o r s h e w i l l r e s o r t t o v i o l e n c e i n m a r i t a l q u a r r e l s . They draw a t t e n t i o n t o t h e i n t e r f a m i l i a l c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h e d e p r i v a t l o n o f v a l u e d s t a t u s p o s i t i o n w i t h a t t e n d a n t l o s s e s o f e g o i d e n t i t y and s y m b o l i c r e i n f o r c e m e n t of s e l f - w o r t h . Bence, t h e I r o n i c t i n d i n g t h a t w o r k i n g - c l a s s husbands , r h o t e n d t o c l i n g t o an i d e o l o g y of male dominance more d e t e r m i n e d l y t h a n middle c l a s s husbands. i n f a c t p o s s e s s f e w e r r e s o u r c e s f o r e x e r c i s i n g power i n t h e f a m i l y and t h u s r e s o r t t o v i o l e n c e more f r e q u e n t l y t o compensate.

An i r o n i c p e r s p e c t i v e , a l e r t t o t h e a m b i v a l e n c e o f homan r e l a t i o n s h i p s , e s p e c i a l l y i n i n t i m a t s s e t t i n g s , h a s borne c o n s i d e r a b l e f r u i t i n t h i s work. Aware t h a t ( t o borrow from B r o n i s l a w n a l i n o u s k i ) a g g r e s s i o n l i k e c h a r i t y b e g i n s a t home, t h e y h a v e documented w i t h i n s t r u c t i v e t h o r o u g h n e s s t h a t , c c n t r a r y t o t h e p r e v a i l i n g image, f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s a r e t h e b r e e a i n g ground of b o t h l o v e ana h o s t z l i t y , of s e l f l e s s d e v o t i o r and o f d e s t r u c t i v e v i o l e n c e . what is more, t h e y h a v e shown t h a t t o d e c r e a s e r h e l e v e l of v i o l e n c e i n f a m i l y s e t t i n g s i x v o l v e s more t h a n c o u n s e l i n g a n d t h e r a p y . It i n v o l v e s E O less t h a n a r e s t r u c t u r i n g of r e l a r i o n s between men and women, which, i n i t s t u r n , i s l a r g e l y d e p e n d e n t on a i u n d a m e n t a l r e s t r n c t u r i r g o f t h e a l l o c a t i o n of power and s t a t u s i n t h e s o c i e t y a t l a r g e . I hope t h a t t h e i r s e m l n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n w i l l f i n d an e c h o among s c h o l a r l y i n v e s t i g + t o r s and s c c i a l p r s c t l t i o n e r s a l i k e .

S t o n y Brook. N.I. Lewis A. Coser

Acknowledgments

T h i s book is a p r o d u c t o f t h e Family V i o l e n c e R e s e a r c h Program a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f New Sampshire . The program began a s a r e s u l t o f t h e s t i m u l u s p r o v i d e d by t h e 1970 a n n u a l m e e t i n g of t h e B a t i o r a l C o u n c i l O L Pamilp R e l a t i o n s . The theme of t h a t c o n f e r e r c e was "Vio lence And The Family." P r e p a r i n g a p a p e r t o r t h e c o n f e r e n c e ( S t r a u s , 1971) and t h e d i s c u s s i o n t h a t f o l l o w e d . made u s s e e b o t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l a n d t h e p r a c t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e o f r e s e a r c h on p h y s i c a l ViOlSnce i n f a m i l i e s . R E a r e now e v e n more convinced t h a t s u c h r e s e a r c h w i l l i n c r e a s e o u r g e l e r a 1 undsrs;anding of t h b human f a m i l y and w i l l p r o v i d e knowledge t h a r w i l l r s d u c ~ a S o u r c e o f v a s t human misery.

The P a a i l y VLolence R e s e a r c h Program a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s what can b e accompl i rhed when a g r o u p o f g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s a n d f a c u l t y f o c u s on a s i n g l e t o p i c o r e s even a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t p e r i o d of t ime . u r hope it c o n f i r m s t h e f a i t h i r o u r work Shown i n t h e f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t p r o v i d e d by +.he U n i v e r s i t y o r new Hampshire a n d by t h e N a t i o n a l I n s t t t u t e of n e n t a l H e a l t h ( g r a n t s number nH27557. nR13050. and ME15161). A list of p u b l i c a t i o n s from t h e P a e i l y V i o l e n c e Research i s a v a i l a b l e o n r e q u e s t .

we a l s o want t o e x p r e s s o u r a p p r e c i a t i o n t o t h e anonymous r e f e r e e s who r e v i e w e d t h e book. and '0 many c o l l e a g u e s , b o t h a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y of New Sampshire ana e l s e w h e r e , whose comments, criticisms, a n d s u g g a s t i o n s h a v e been i m p o r t a n t t o t h e development of t h e Fami ly v i o l e n c e R e s e a r c h Program i n g e n e r a l and /or t h e s p e c i f i c c h a p t e r s i n t h i s book. A S p e c i a l t h a n k s t o S i e g l i n d e F i z z f o r h e r C o n s c i e n t i o o s t y p i n g o f t h i s m a n u s c r i p t a n d f o r h e r p a t i e n c e a c d good n a t u r e t h r o u g h o u t t h i s p r o j e c t .

Durham. New Hampshlre n u r r a y E . S k r a u s G e r a l d T. E o t a l i n g

vii

Contents

FOREWORD by L e v i s L. C o s e r

ACKBOYLEDGBENTS

Ex: L eBisu C u l t u r e , S o c i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n , a n d I r o n p i n r h e S t u d y

o f P a m i l y V i o l e n c e , by G e r a l d 1. B o t a l i n g a n d K u r r a y A. s t r a u s

Ui fe -Bea t ing : Bow Common a n d Why? bp t l u r r a p 8. S t r a u s

The f i a r r i a g e L l c e n s e a s a B i t t i n g L i c e n s e : E v i d e n c e f rom P o p u l e r C u l t u r e . Law, a n d S o c i a l S c i e n c e . by l u r r a p A. s t r a u r

V l o l e n c e a n d t h e S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e as R e f l e c t e d i n C h i l d r e n ' s Books from 1 8 5 0 t o 1 9 7 0 . by n a r t h a D. uuggzns and B u r r a y A. s t r a u s

A C u l t u r a l - C o n s i s t e n c y T h e o r y o f F a m i l y V i o l e n c e i r l e x i c a n - A m e r i c a n a n d J e w i s h - E t h n i c Groups , by J o s e p h C. C a r r o l l

P a r t 111. S o c i a l Q s p i z a t i o n a n d Pq!&&y SL_a&ezE: ---- ---- S e x u a l I n e q u a l i t y a n d Wife B e a t i n g ,

by l u r r a y A. S t r a u s

stress and P a m i l y V i o l e n c e , by K e i t h n. F a r r i n g t o n

The P a r a d o x i c a l N a t u r e o f P a m i l y R e l a t i o n s h i p s a c d F a m i l y c o n f l i c t . by J o y c e E. P o s s

A t t r i b u t i o n P r o c e s s e s i n Eusbaxd-Wife V i o l e n c e , by G e r a l d T. B o t a l i n g

Part IV. The InterDlax of culture a& Sccial Q.;q=gizgtior --- -- -- 10. "And we Eaven't Bad Iry Problems Sincen: Conjugal

Violerce and the Politics of marriage, by Ralph LaRossa

11. Uife-Employment, narltal Equality, and Husband-Rife Violence, by Bruce u. Brovn

12. Resources. POVBI, and Susband-Wife VioleLce, by Craig M. Lllen and Burray 1. Straus

13. A Soc~ologlcal Perspective on the Preventian of II~E-Beatl~g by Hurray E . Straus

BEPEREBCES

ADTBOR INDEX

SUBJECT INDEX

ABOUT TAE AUTHORS

Part I Overview

Chapter 1

Culture, Social Organization, and Irony in the Study of Family Violence

Gerald T. Hotaling and Murray A. Straus

That a c t s of p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e a r e common--even t y p i c a l - - o i American D a r r i a g E s h a s been w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d ( s e e C h a p t e r 2 and S t r a u s , G e l l e s , and S r e i n n e t z , 1979). Yhar is n o t known i s why v i o l e n c e o c c u r s , o r what t o d o a b o u t it. The p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h i s book is s imple : t h a t p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c s between husbands and wives i s s o c i a l l y p a t t e r n e d . $1

The c h a p t e r s a r e d e l i b e r a t e l y d i v e r s e . b u t a l l s h a r e t h e p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t v i o l e n c e grows o u t o f t h e n c t u r e o f s o c i a l a r rangements . I n p a r t . t h e d i v e r s i t y i s i n e v i t a b l e b e c a u s e t h e a u t h o r s a r e d i f f e r e n t . T h e mejor d i f f e r e r c e s , however, a r e b u i l t i n t o t h e p l a n o f t h e book--to p r e s e n t major d i f f e r e n c e s i n vieupoin;. l o s t of t h e c h a p t e r s p r e s e n t t h w r i e s t o e x p l a i n t h e p r e v a l e n c e of v i o l e n c e i n t h e f a m l y . S i n c e t h e s o c i a l c a u s e s o f husband-wife v i o l e n c e a r e d l v e r s e a n d complex, t h e d i f f e r e n t c h a p t e r s s e e k t o show how d i f f e r e n t s e t s o f t h e s e f a c t o r s might o p e r a t e t o p roduce v i o l e n c e .

The c h a p t e r s a l s o d i f f e r because. no m a t t e r how c o g e n t t h e t h e o r y , i t must be s u p p o r t e d by e m p i r i c a l ev idence . Consequent ly , f i v e of t h e c h a p t e r s r e p o r t s u c h d a t a . Aere a l s o d e l i b e r a t e d i v e r s i t y e x i s t s . i l l u s t r a t i n g s u c h a i f f e r e n ? methoas a s c a s e s t u d i e s , c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s o f p o p u l a r l i t e r a t u r e , b r i e f q u e s t i o n n a i r e s t u d i e s , and a s u r v e y of a n a t i o n a l l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a m p l e of c o u p l e s . Each of r h e s e t h e o r i e s , and e a c h of t b e s e methcds, h a s l i m i t ~ t i o h s and advantages . T c g e t h e r , t h e y h e l p u n r a v e l t h e paradox of m a r i t a l v i o l e n c e .

Ch.1. S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e and I r o n y P a g e 4

MRRITAL VIOLENCE A N D THE SOCIAL STRUCTUSE

Any a t t e m p t t o u n d e r s t a n d uhg p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c s o c c u r s s o o f t e n i n American m a r r i a g e s must t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e way s o c i e t y S t r u c t u r e s t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of husbands and wives. O f c o u r s e , a p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t .simple is r e c e s s a r i l y d e c e p t i v e . Our i n t e n t i o n i s n o t t o c o n v r n c e t h e r e a d e r t h a t t h e a s p e c t s of s o c i a l p a t t e r n i n g t o v h i c h t h i s book g i v e s a t t e n t l o n a r e t h e o n l y c a u s e s o f m a r i t a l v i o l s n c s . We acknowledge t h e c o m p l e x i t y of m a r r i e d l i f e , b u t t e m p o r a r i l y nar row o u r f o c u s s o t h a t we c a n g a i n a c l e a r e r u n d e r s t a r d i n g o f t h a t p a r t o f t h e complex v h c l e o f h u s b a n d / v i f e c o r f l i c t t h a t is c r e a t e d by t h e v e r y n a t u r e o f o u r s o c i e t y .

P h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e among f a m i l y members u s u a l l y is c o n s i d e r e d an i n f r e g u s n t o c c u r r e n c e ; when v i o l e n c e d o e s e r u p t , t h e husband o r w i f e who r e s o r t s t o it is t h o u g h t t o b e d a f e c t i v e o r abnormal. N e i t h e r v i e u seems t o h e c o r r e c t . R a r s a n d r i o t s a s i d e , p h y s i c a l a g g r e s s i o n o c c u r s more o f t e n among f a m i l y members t h a n among any o t h e r s . n o r e o v e r , t h e f a m i l y is t h e predominant s e t t i n g f o r e v e r y form o f p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e from s l a p s t o t o r t u r e and murder. I n f a c t , some form of p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e i n t h e l i f e c y c l e of f z m i l y members is s o l i k e l y t h a t it can b e s a i d t o be a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l ( s e e t h e s e c t i o n on "Family S c c i a l i z a t i o n i n Vio lence" i n C h a p t e r 2) . I f t h i s i s i n d e e d t h e c a s e , t h e n v i o l e n c e is a s t y p i c a l o f f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s a s i s l s r e .

The a v a i l a b l e e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t , w i t h r a r e e x c e p t i o n s , f a m i l y members u s i n g v i o l e n c e a r e n o t m e n t a l l y ill. I n s t e a d . v i o l e n t a c t s by o n e f a m i l y member a g a i n s r a n o t h e r a r e t h e r e s u l t o f s o c i a l l y l e a r n e d and s o c i a l l y p a t t e r n e d b e h a v i o r .

The a s p e c t s o f c a u s a t i o n t h i s book d e s c r i b e s a r e what s o c 1 0 1 o g i S t s r e f e r t o a s " s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . " T h e c o c c e p t of s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e is a l m o s t a s e l u s i v e a s it i s i m p o r t a n t f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g how s o c i e t y works a n d how s o c i a l l i f e a f f e c t s o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p s . A r e c e n t volume (Blzu , 1975) g i v e s ample t e s t i m o n y t o t h e v i d e v a r i e t y o f ways i n v h i c h t h e c o n c e p t is used. But a m i d s t t h i s d i v e r s i t y of d e f i n i t i o n , a g a n s r a l i h t e r p r e t a t i o n e x i s t s , a s s t a t e d i n t h e program o f t h e 1974 m e e t i n g of t h e American S o c i o l o g i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n :

Whatever t h ~ s p ~ c i f i c o r i e n t a t i o n , t h e s t r u c t u r a l approach i s d e s i g n e d t o e x p l a i n , no: t h e b e h a v i o r o f i n d i v i d u a l s , b u t t h e s t r u c t u r e of r e l a t i o n s among g r o u p s and i n d i v i d u a l s t h a t f i n a s e x p r e s s i o n i n t h i s b e h a p i o r . (Blau, 1975:2)

o u r s p e c i f l c approach t o s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e c o n t a i r s two main e l e m e n t s . F i r s t , we u s e t h e t e r m t o mean t h o s e a s p e c t s of s o c i e t y t h a t a r e r e l a t l v e l y e n d u r i n g and t h a t t r a n s c e c d

Ch.1. S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e and I r o n y Page 5

t h e i n d i v i d u a l and t h e p a r t i c u l a r moment. Rot t h a t s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e is f i x e d : i n d e e d , it c o n s t a n t l y changes. But compared v i t h o t h e r f a c t o r s b e i n g enamired , it is r e l a t r v e l y s t a b l e . Second. we i d e n t i f y t u o d i f f e r e n t b u t i n t e r r e l a t e d p r o c e s s e s o f s o c i a l p a t t e r n i n g : c u l t u r e and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . I n r e a l i t y , c u l t u r e and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n c a n n o t be s e p a r a t e d . b u t f o r a r a l y t i c a l p o r p o s e s i t is a n i m p o r t a n t d i s t i n c t i o n .

The f o l l o w i n g two s e c t i o r s s u n m e r i z e t h e c o n c e p t s o f c u l t u r e a n d o f s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . These w i l l b e f a m i l i a r t o many r e a d e r s o f t h i s book, e s p e c i a l l y s o c i o l o g i s t s , and c a n be s k i p p e d over . Rowever, ue want t o a d d r e s s t h 3 s e i n o t h e r p r o f e s s i c n s c o n c e r n e d w i t h f a m i l y v i o l e n c e , s u c h a s p s y c h o l o g i s t s , s o c i a l workers , p s y c h i a t r i s t s , p o l i c e O f f i c e r s , a n d lawyers . These s e c t i o n s s i l l h e l p a l e r t them t o t h e s e c r u c i a l a s p e c t s o f t h e s o c i o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e . T h i s is p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a r t b e c a u s e it c o n t r a s t s s h a r p l y with t h e more u s u a l p s y c h c l o g i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r r i o l s n c e .

The Concept of C u l t u r e

when w e d e s c r i b e " c u l t u r a l in f luence1 ' we a r e r e a l l y t a l k i n g a b o u t c a u s e s . The q u e s t i o n a d d r e s s e d i n P a r t I1 o f t h i s book i s t h e e x t e n t t o which c u l t u r e c a u s e s v i o l e n c e between f a m i l y members. B e f o r e t h a t q u e s t i o n can b e answered, o n e must f irst b e c l e a r a b o u t v h a t c u l t u r e i s .

The t e r m c u l t u r e means someth ing r o u g h l y s i a i l a r t o s o c i a l h e r e d i t y , t h a t is, t h e t o t a l l e g a c y of p a s t human b e h a v i o r e f f e c t i v e i n t h e p r e s e n t o r v h a t i s a v a i l a b l e t o b e l e a r n e d from o t h e r s (Wi l l i ams , 1970). Tha t c o n c e p t c o v e r s a v a s t domain, r a n g i n g f rom how t o h o l d a spoon o r s a y t h e old f a t h e r t o t h e c o m ~ l e z i t i e s o f m a t r i x a l o e b r a . Thus a ~ - ~~ ~~ ~~~ . . ~~~~~

m r e a t d e a l o f t h e c u l t u r e o f a s o c i e f v i s n o t o f d i rec t 2 - -

l n t e r e s t t o t h o s e concOrned w i t h understanding t h e famr ly .

The a s p e c t of c u l t u r e o f d i r e c t i n t e r e s t is what a r e c a l l e d s o c i a l norms. A s o c i a l norm p r e s c r i b e s t h e c o r r e c t t h i n g t o do *her i n t e r a c t i c g v i t h a n o t h e r person . To b e c u l t u r a l norms, t h e s e norms must b e p r e s c r i p t i o n s s h a r e d by t h e s o c i e t y c r s e c t o r o f a s o c i e t y i n which t h e b ~ h a v i o r t a k e s p l a c e . They a l s o n u s t b c r u l e s o f b e h a v i o r t h a t a r e l e a r n e d from o t h e r s .

C u l t u r a l norms i n l a r g e p a r t a c c o u n t f o r d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e f a m i l y p a t t e r n s o f p e o p l e i n d i f f e r e n t s o c i e t i e s a n d i n d i f f e r e n t s u b g r o u p s w i t h i n one s o c i e t y ( f o r example, d i f f e r e n c e s between s o c i a l c l a s s e s o r b e t v e e n g r o u p s such a s Prench-speak ing a n d E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g C a n a d i a n s ) .

C u l t u r a l norms r e g u l a t e a l m o s t a l l a s p e c t s of f a m i l y l i f e . They p r o v i d e a b l u e p r i n t of t h e b e h a v i o r a p p r o p r i a t e f o r husbands, wives, c h i l d r e n , g r a n d f a t h e r s ; i n f a c t , f o r

Ch.1. S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e a n d I r o n y P a g e 6

e a c h o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h i n a f a m i l y . Thus. t h e c u l t u r e c o n t a i n s norms s p e c i f y i n g how m a r r i a g e s a r e t o b e a r r a n g e d (and, i f n e c e s s a r y . d i s s o l v e d ) , who f s L O b e r e g a r d e d a s a member o f t h e f a m i l y . what a c t i v i t i e s a husband s h o u l d c a r r y o u t i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e r i f e and v i c e v e r s a , how c h i l d r e n s h o u l d b e b r o u g h t uo, a r d s o on.

I f t h s i d e a of c u l t u r a l n o r m s a s c a u s e s of f a m i l y b e h a v i o r were t a k s n l i b e r a l l y , a l l f a m i l i e s w i t h i n a g i v e r s o c i e t y would b e e x p e c t e d t o a c t i n t h e same w3y. O b v i o u s l y , t h a t is n o t t h e case: e v e r y f a m i l y is i n some ways u r i q u e . T h e r e f o r e . e v e n t h o o g h c u l t u r e d o e s , on t h e a v e r a g e , d e f i n e what f a m i l y l i f e is l i k e , i t c a n n o t t e l l t h e w h a l e s t o r y . Ue must r o u n d o u t t h e s t o r y somewhat by c o n s i d ~ r i n g what s o c i o l o g i s t s c a l l s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n .

S o c i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n a l I n f l u e n c e s

S o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n r e f e r s t o t h e p a t t e - n o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s amcng i n d i v i d u a l s a n d among groups--how t h e p a r t s a r e r e l a t e d t o e a c h o t h e r a n d t o t h e whole. Some a s p e c t s o f s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n are d i c t a t e d by t h e c u l t u r e , many are n o t . Whether o r n o t it is p r e s c r i b e d hy c u l t u r e . e a c h a s p e c t o f s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n h a s c o n s e q u e n c e s t h a t are d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e c u l t u r a l i n f l u e n c e s . F o r example, a f a m i l y m i g h t c o n t a i n o r e , two , t h r e e , f o u r , o r e i g h t c h i l d r e n . C u l t u r a l " r u l e s " s p e c i f y how many c h i l d r e n o n e s h o u l d have: t h e m i d d l e - c l a s s r u l e s o f t h e r e c e n t p a s t t e n d e d t o s p e c i f y t w o o r t h r e e c h i l d r e n . AnyonE who had r o c h i l d r e n was u n d e r c o n s i d e r a b l e c u l t u r a l p r e s s u r e . The p r e s s u r e i s o f t e n s u b t l e . b u t may b e e x p r e s s e d openly: "Why d o n q t you hzve a n y c h i l d r s n ? " o r "Kow c o n s you have s i x c h i l d r e n ? ' But s u b t l e o r c o t , s o c i a l p r P s s u r e s t o conform d o e x i s t a n d most of US f o l l o ~ t h e r u l e s of t h e c u l t u r e .

Now t h e number o f c h i l d r e n i n a f a m i l y i s an i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t of its s o c i g l o r g a n i z a t i o n and makes a d i f f e r e n c e t o what g o e s on i n t h a t f a m i l y , n o m a t t e r whe ther t h e p a r e n t s h a d t h a t number o f c h l l d r e n b e c a u s s o f c u l t u r a l r u l e s , h i o l o g i c a l limirs on f e r t i l i t y , o r c o n t r a c e p t i v e f a i l u r e . To t a k e a s i m p l e example, if t h e f a m i l y e a t s t h e e v e n i n g meal t o g e t h e r , t h e number o f c h i l d r e n p r e s e n t r i l l i n f l u e n c e how l o n g a n y o n e c h i l d c a n , o r t h e a v e r a g e , t a l k a t t h e d i n n e r t a b l e . Rssume t h a t e a c h c h i l d g e t s a r e q u a l c h a n c e a n d t h a t t h e mea l l as t s 30 minu tes . I f t h e r e a r e two c h i l d r e n , e a c h c h i l d c a n t a l k f o r t e n m i n u t e s ( a l l o w i n g t e n m i n u t e s f o r t h e p a r e r t s t o s a y s o m e t h i n g ) . But i f t h e r f a r e f o u r c h i l d r e n , e a c h c h i l d * s l i m i t i s c u t t o f i r e minu tes .


TEE SOCIIL STRUCTURAL CAUSES OP BUSBABD-RIFE VIOLENCE

The p r e c e d i n g two s e c t i o n s p r e f a c e t h e s h a r e d i d e a s o f t h e a u t h o r s o f t h i s volume. T h i s is n o t t o s l y t h a t t h e y a r e i n c o m p l e t e agreement a s t o t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r a l c a u s e s Of husband-wife v i o l e n c e , b u t a l l f o c u s on t h e c u l t u r a l and O r g a n i z a t i o n a l f e a t u r e s cf Bm-rican m a r r i a g s s a . d t h e i r r e l a t l o n t o c o n f l i c t and v t o l c n c e .

Each c h a p t e r i n t h i s book. whether it is a d e d u c t i o n from a n e x i s t i n g t h e o r y , a c a s e s t u d y , o r a s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s , a t t e m p t s t o c l a r i f y some a s p e c t o f t h e s o c i a l c a u s e s O f husband-wife v i o l e n c e . The c h a p t e r s a r e d e l i b e r a t e l y d i v e r s e i n a p p r o a c h b e c a u s e r e b e l i e v e t h a t c a s e s t u d i e s , s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s e s , and t h e o r e t i c a l d e d u c t i o n a l l a r e n e c e s s a r y i n t h e s e a r c h f o r an e x p l a n a t i o n of m a r i t a l v i o l e n c e .

One o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n r e s e a r c h on f a n i l y v i o l e n c e h a s been t o o heavy an emphas i s on f a c t - g a t h e r i n g r e l a t i v e t o t e s t i n g c a u s a l t h e o r i e s . S i n c e t h i s is p a r t l y b e c a u s e PrOmiSiPg t h e o r i e s have n o t been f o r m u l a t e d , h a l f of t h e c h a p t e r s a t t e m p t t o f i l l t h a t void. 3 u t i n no c a s e i s t h e p u r p o s e o f any c h a p t e r t o set f o r t h a n i n t e g r a t e a o r c o m p l e t e s x p l a n a t i o n of husbacd-wife v i o l e n c e . T h a t t a s k i s a t t h e p r e s e n % s t a g e o f o u r knowledge c l e a r l y beyond what Can be accompl i shed , e v e n though p r e l i m i n a r r s t e p s have been t a k e n ( G e l l e s and S t r a u s , 1979).

w i t h t h l s g e n e r a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g , t h e a u t h o r s of t h e v a r i o u s c h a p t e r s s p a r e t h e r e a d e r a r e p e t i t i o u s d i s c l a i m e r a b o u t t h e p a r t i a l n a t u r e of t h e t h e o r y examinea and , i n t h e Case of t h e s t r i c t l y t h e o r e t i c a l c h a p t e r s , do n o t r e p e a t t h a t t h e c o n c l u s i o n s a r e i n t e n d e d t o s t i m u l a f s e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h . n o t t o s u b s t i t u t e f a r s u c h d a t a . Thlrs . for - ~ - -.-- ~ --.-. .-... -.. example. i n t h e f i r s t two c h a p t e r s we t r y t o show t h a t some f a c t o r i n t h e f a m i l y sys tem c o t o n l y p r o d u c e s a h igh l e v e l o f a g g r e s s i o n , b u t a l s o makes wives t h e most f r e q u e n t v i c t i m s o f t h a t a g g r e s s i o n . The t h i r d c h a p t e r , a l t h o u g h a d m i t t i n g t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l f e a t u r e s of f a m i l y l i f e t h a t contribute t o t h i s h i g h l e v e l of a g g r e s s i o n , examines t h r o u g h p o p u l a r c u l t u r e a n d o t h e r m a t e z i a l s t h e p r e v a i l i n g s e x i s t a t t i t u d e s a b o u t t h e r o l e o f v i o l e n c e i n t h e f a a i l v system. The r e s u l t i s t o make e x p l i c i t t h e i m p l i c i t s e t ii c u l t u r a l norms and v a l u e s + h a t l e g i t i m a t e , and a t t i m e s encourage . v i o l e n c e b e t v e e n h u s b a n d s and wives.

Converse ly , P a r r i n g t o n ( C h a p t e r 7) and H o t a l i n g (Chapte r 9) bo th r e c o g n i z e t h e e x r s t s n c e o f c u l t u r a l norms, b u t f o c u s on t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l f e a t u r e s of m a r r i e d l i f e t h a t c o n t r i b u t e t o v i o l e n c e . P a r r i n g t o n p r e s e n t s a t h e o r y o f i n t r a f a m i l y v i o l e n c e based on t h e n o t i o n of optimum Stress l e v e l . H e d e f i n e s stress a s a n imbalance between t h e demands w i t h which an i n d i v i d u a l o r f a m i l y is f a c e d and t h e

Ch.1. S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e and I r o n y Page 8

c a p a b i l i t y o f r e s p o n d i n g a p p r o p r i a t e l y t o them. Be a r g u e s t h a t a l l i n d i v i d u a l s a n d f a a i l i e s d e r r l o p p e r s o r a l and u n i q u e optimum stress l e v e l s a t which t h e y f u n c t i o n most c o m f o r t a b l y . S i m i l a r l g . H o t a l i n g s p e c i f i e s t h e p a r t i c u l a r c o m b i n a t i o n s of f a m i l y r u l e s End f a m i l y s t r u c t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which produce a h i g h p r o b a t i l i t y t h a t a f a m i l y member w i l l a t t r i b u t e m a l e v o l e n t i n t e n t t o t h e r u l e v i o l a t i o n s o f o t h e r f a o i l y members.

The R i s t o r y of t h e S t u d y o f Fami ly V i o l e n c e

DeScribir .g a " h i s t o r y " o f t h e s o c i o l o g i c a l s t u d y of i n t r a f a m i l y v i o l e n c e may b e premaure; it h a s b e e r a v e r y s h o r t t i m e s i n c e s o c i o l o g i s t s f irst t u r n e a 2 c r i t i c a l e y e on t h e phenomenon. But t h e p e r i o d h a s been l o n g enough t o p o i n t o u t some d i f f e r e n c e s between " e a r l i e r " work and t h e p r e s e n t volume. P r e v i o u s e f f o r t s r e r e aimed a t e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e p r e v a l e n c e , t h e c o r r e l a t e s . and, most i m p o r t a n t , t h e s o c i a l l y p a t t e r n e d n a t u r e o f f a m i l y v i o l e n c e ( S t e i n m e t z and S t r a u s , 197'4; Gelles, 1974). I n t r a f a m i l y v i o l e n c e was e s t a b l i s h e d a s a widespread phenomenon, a p p e a r i n g i n many f o r m s b e s i d e s t h e mars s p e c t a c u l a r c r i m e s of murder and c h i l d abuse. S t u d l e s o f husbands and wives r e v e a l e d v a r y i n g , b u t s u h s t a n t i a l , a a o u n t s o f s p o u s a l v i o l e n c e .

The most a c c u r a t e measure, t o d a t e . of t h e e x t o n t o f husband-wife v i o l e n c e comes from t h e a n a l y s i s o f d a t a from t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sample o f American f a m i l i e s p r e s e n t e d i n C h a p t e r 2. S t r a u s f i n d s t h a t , d u r i n g t h e s u r v e y y e a r , one o f e v e r y s i x c o u p l e s (16 p e r c e n t ) r e p o r t e d v i o l e n c e between spouses . If t h e r e f e r e n c e p e r i o d is t h e d u r a t i o n of t h e m a r r i a g e , t h e f i g u r e i s between one o f f o u r and one of t h r e e c o u p l e s (27.8 p e r c e n t ) . S t r a u s warns, however, t h a t t h e s e f i g u r e s a r e p r o b a b l y a f f e c t e d by s u b s t a n t i a l u n d e r r e p o r t i n g . It is a l m o s t c e r t a i n t h a t n o t e v e r y o n s " t o l d a l l . ' P i l o t s t u d i e s and i n f o r m a l e v i d e n c e (where some o f t h e f a c t o r s l e a d i r g t o u n d e r r e p o r t i c g were l e s s ) i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s e f i g u r e s c o u l d e a s i l y b e t w i c e a s l a r g s .

P r e v i o u s work on i n t r a f a m i l y v i o l e n c e a l s o h a s n e g a t e d t h e c o m f o r t a b l e n o t i o 2 t h a t f a m i l y v i o l a n c e can be e x p l a i n e a S o l E l y hy psychopa tho logy . T h e s h e e r amouc?. e s w e l l a s t h e ~~~~~~~~d var ia t :=c i? r l r e s a t l r t r i t a e i l y V I D ~ F P C E among various S D c l a l q roups , bol:?s ar expla2a: ioc a? .chcre l r r ?he a b n o r m a l i t i e s o f i n d i v i d u a l members.

B e s i d e s e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f v i o l e n c e i n t h e home a n d t h e e x t e n t of ' s o c i o l o g i c a l c a u s e s , e a r l i e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s a l s o have p a i d a t t e n t i o n t o +he p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l f a c t o r s r e l a t e d t o f a m i l y v i o l e n c e . F o r exlmple. some of t h e f a c t o r s found t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t r a t e s o f f a m i l y v i o l e n c e were s u b c u l t u r a l norms (Coser , 1967; Wolfgang and P e r r a c u t i . 1971) , s o c i a l c l a s s (Levinger . 1966; Kohn. 1969). a n d a h u s b a n d ' s l a c k of t h s


" r e s o u r c e s " n e c e s s a r y t o l e g i t i m a t e h i s p o s i t L o n as f a m i l y head (Goode, 1971: O'Brien, 1971).

ThesP writers p o i n t t o f a c t o r s t h a t may make c e r t a i n c o u p l e s more o r less l i k e l y t o engag5 i n p h y s i c a l a g g r e s s i o n ; t h e p r e s e n t volume f o c u s e s a t t e n t i o n on t h e n a t u r e of m a r r i e d l i f e i + s e l f . Ths o r i e c t i r g q u ? s t i c c becomes: v h a t c u l t u r a l and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o r a l p r o c e s s e s make t h e m a r i t a l dyad a p o t e n t i a l l y v i o l e n t s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p ?

B few s o c i o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t o r s a s w e l l h a v e r e c o g n i z e d c e r t a i n i n c o n g r u i t i e s i n marr iage. For example, Cuber ar,d H a r o f f ' s s t u d y (1965) o f m i d d l e - c l a s s m a r r i a g e s r e v e a l s a t y p e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a rguments and f i g h t s . The " c o n f l i c t - h a b i t u a t e d " m a r r i a g e b a s i c a l l y r e l i e s o r h o s t i l i t y t o b i n d t h e c o u p l e t o g e t h e r a n d t o l e n d s t a b i l i t y t o t h e mar r iage .

Aicks and P l a t t (1970) . i n a r e v i e w o f s t u d i e s o f m a r i t a l h a p p i n e s s , f i n d t h a t low h a p p i n e s s o f t e n may b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m a r i t a l s t a b i l i t y . S i m i l a r f i n d i n g s t h a t a p p e a r c o n t r a r y t o common s e n s e a r e t h o s e of Blood and R o l f e (1960) and P i t e o (1961). who s t a t e d t h a t m a r r i a g e s o v e r t i m e e x p e r i e n c e a d = g & i n companionsh ip , a f f e c t i o n , and common v a l u e s and b e l i e f s : a s c o u p l e s become more f a m i l i a r v i t h each o t h e r , t h e y become more e s t r a n g e d . L a s t l y , s immel ' s (1950) c l a s s l c a n a l y s i s of t h e m a r i t a l dyaa s e e s t h e two-person bond a s t h e most i m t i m a t e and , a t t h e same time, t h e most u n s t a b l e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p .

Rere iC l ies t h e i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n of l o g i c a l l y o r g a r l z e l , p r o b r r q :heore-zeal z r d ssp1 : ica l s n a l y s ? s : r t a y a r s r p p r c a l l y courrer :?tur i :ve, :hat IS, tt.ay r o v s a l t h e existence o t p h e ~ o m e n 2 a i d r e l a t r o n s h - p s con 'razy t 3 zaaa?r s e n s e .

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The c h a p t e r s c o n t a i n e d i n t h i s volume m p h a s i z e l a r g e p a r t t h e i r o n i c n a t u r e of m a r r i e d l i f e a n d v i o l e n t The i n t r i g u i n g q u e s t i o n , which a l l t h e s n c h a p t e r s a a d r e r is why t h e s o c i a l g r o u p t h a t s o c i e t y most c f t e n l c o k s t o 1 warmth, i n t i m a c y , he lp , and l o v e . is a l s o c h a r a c t e r i z e d c r u e l t y a n d v i o l e n c e . It i s t o a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h i s a o t h e r ~ r o n i e s a b o u t husbard-wi fe v i o l e n c e t h a t ue ccw t u r n

IRCNP A N D PABILY VIOLENCE

The r e c o g n i t i o n a n d s t u d y of f a m i l y v i o l e n c e hz b l u r r e d a p p a r e n t l y s i m p l e i d e a s a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i between t h e r a m i l y and dev iance . Once we r e c o g n i z e t h a f a m i l i e s a r e n o t e a s i l y c l a s s i f i e d a s e i t h e r normal o abnormal , h e a l t h y o r s i c k , t h e p i c t u r e becomes c o m p l i c a t e d These c o m p l i c a t i o n s , though , l e a d t o a f u l l e r a p p r e c i a t i o Of t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f f a m i l y l i fe . A s David n a t z a h a s a r g u e i n h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e o r i e s of d e v i a n c e and t h e i h a n d l i n g o f t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between c o n v e n t i o n a l and a ~ v i a n , phenomena:

o n c e t h e d i s t i n c t i c n hetween good and e v i l is made p r o b l e m a t i c , o n c e t h e i r i n t e r p e n e t r a t i o n is s t r e s s e d , a s i m i l a r i n s i g h t map d e v e l o p w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e r e l a t i o n s between phenomena and t h e i r p u r p o r t e a c a u s e s . (1969:69)

It we a c c e p t t h e n o c i o n t h a t t h e f a m i l y is a s o c i a l g r o u p c a p a b l e o f g e n e r a t i n g c o n f l i c t a n d v i o l s n c e j u s t a s e a s i l y a s i n t l n a c y a n d l o v e , we c a n a c c e p t t h e i d e a of i r o n y i n t h e r e l a t i o n o f t a m i l y l i f e t o v i o l e n c e .

What d o we mean by i r o n y ? n o s t s i m p l y , i r o n y r P f e r s t o a p o i n t of view, t h e a b i l i t y t o see Phenomena r e l a t e d t o one a n o t h e r i n c u r i o u s ways. As f i a t z a no tes :

... i r o n y r e f e r s t o t h e complicated--and s u p r i s i n g - - r e l a t i o n s between good and e v i l phenomena i n sequer.ce. I r o n y is a s t a t e o f a f f a i r s o r a r e s u l t o p p o s i t e t o , and a s i f i n mockery of. t h e a p p r o p r i a t e r e s u l t . (1969:691

I n a s o c i o l o g i c a l s e n s e , i r o n y i s a p o i n t of view t h a t r e c o g n i z e s t h e c o e x i s t e n c e o f i n c o n g r u i t i e s i n t h e c u l t u r e a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n of s o c i a l l i f e . Thus, t h e m a r i t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p i s o r g a n i z e d a c c o r d i n g t o c e r t a i n c u l t u r a l v a l u e s t h a t e r e i n t e n d e d t o maximize l o v e , s u p p o r t , and happiness . Xouever. b e c a u s e of t h i s v e r y s a n e mode o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a n 6 b e c a u s e o f t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e s s s a n e c u l t u r a l v a l u e s , c o n f l i c t and v i o l e n c e c o e x i s t wi th t h e s e more ben ign a s p e c t s of m a r r i e d l i f e . Again, a s NatZa t e l l s u s , "a key e l e m e n t o f i r o n y is l a t s n c y " (p. 70) . Q u a l i t i e s i n h e r e n t i n s o c i a l norms end s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , d e s p i t e

Ch.1. S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e and I r o n y Page 1 1

t h e i r h i d d e n n a t u r e , l e a d t c u n e x p a c t e d Z e s u L t s i c t h e f a m i l y s e t t i n g . + Z

I r o n y a l s o p o i n t s t o t h e e x i s t e c c * of pa ' t e rn ing i n r e l a t i o n s h i p s where no p a t t e r n i n g is obvious. F o r example, Re inhold Niebuhr h a s d e f i c e d i r o n y a s "appnrent . ly f o r ? n F r o u s i r c o n g r u i t i e s i n l i f e r h i c h a r e d i s c o v e r e 9 , cpon c l o s e r e x a m i n a t i o n , t o b e n o t merely f o r t u i t o u s ' l 1 9 5 2 : v i i i ) . The i n c o n g r u i t i e s s u r r o u n d i n g husband-v i fe v i o l e n c e are i r o n i c i n N i e b u h r ' s s e n s e cf t h e word, f o r t h e s x i s t i n g e v i d e n c s S u p p o r t s t h e claim t h a t h u s b a n d - v i f r v i o l e n c e i s n o t t h e r e s u l t of rardom e v e n t s , b u t is p a t t e r n e d i n t o t h e v e r y s t r u c t u r e of m a r i t a l and f a m i l y r e l a t i o c s .

Before we s p e c i f y t h e i r o n i e s a p p a r e n t i n husbacd-wife u i o l e n c e , i t would b e u s e f u l t o p o i n t o u t why t h e r e is s u c h a r s s i s t a n c e t o v i e w i n g husband-wife v i o l e n c e a s a p a t t e r n e d a s p e c t c f m a r r i e d l i fe .

T h e Eyth o f P a m ~ l y Nonvio lence

The f a m i l y is u s u a l l y t h o u g h t t o he a g r o u p committed t o n o n v i o l e n c e between i ts members. Fami ly msmbers a r e supposed t o m a i n t a i n b e n e v o l e n t a n d l o v i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s . From r h a t is known a b o u t t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f f a m i l y v i o l e n c e i n American s o c i e t y , t h e r e seems t o be a d i s c r e p a n c y between t h e i d e a l i z e d p i c t u r e o f t h e f a m i l y and r h a t a c t u a l l y g o e s on [ S t e i n m e t e and S t r a u r , 1974: Chapte r 1; s t r a u s , 1974b). T h i s i d e a l i z a t i o n is a u s e f u l , p e r h a p s n e c e s s a r y s o c i a l myth. Its u s e f u l n e s s d e r i v e s from t h e f a m i l y ' s p o s i t i o n a s a t r e m e n d o u s l y i m p o r t a n t s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n . E l a b o r a t e p r e c a u t i o n s a r e t a k e n t o s t r e n g t h e n and s u p p o r t it. I n P e s t e r n C o u n t r i e s , o n e o f t h e s e s u p p o r t i v e d e v i c e s i s t h e myth o f f a m i l i a l l o v e a n d g e c t l e n e s s . The i d e a l e x o u r a g e s p e o p l e t o marry a n d s t a y m a r r i e d d e s p i t e t h e s t r e s s e s and s t r a i n s of f a m i l y l i f e ( P e r r e i r a , 1963) . Thus f r o n t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f p r e s e r v i n g t h e i n t e g r i t y o f a c r u c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n . s u c h a mgthology is h i g h l y u s c f u l .

T h i s myth is t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h c u l t u r a l norms and v a l u e s a s r e f l e c t e d i n l i t e r a t u r e , motion p i c t u r e s . and t e l e v i s i o n . F o r example, Buggins a n d S t r a u s ( C h a p t e r 4) f i n d t h e myth c r f a m i l y n o n v i o l e n c e a p e r v a s i v e theme of c h i l d r e n , ~ l i t e r a t u r e between 1850 and 1970. U h l l e .the a u t h o r s f i n d t h a t t h e t y p i c a l c h i l d r e n ' s c l a s s i c bock is marked by a number o f v i o l e n t a c t s , i n c l u d i n g k i l l i n g s , a l a o s t no i n t r a f a a i l y f a a i l p v i o l e n c e is d e p i c t e d . T h i s seems r e m a r k a h l e i n l l g h t of t h e f a c t t h a t i n s o c i e t y g e n e r a l l y , p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e b e t v s e n f a m i l y members is more common t h a n be:weer any o t h e r a g g r e s s o r - v i c t i m r e l a t i o n s h i p .

AS t h e myth of f a m i l y n o n v i o l e n c e makes c l e a r , a s e t of c u l t u r a l norms p r o m u l g a t e s an image of t h e f a m i l y a s a p l a c e of l o s e a n d g e n t l e n e s s . B t t h e s a n e time, a s a l r e a d y

Ch.1. S o c i a l s t r u c t u r e and I r o n y Page 12

mentioned, a s e t o f norms e x i s t s t h a t l e g i t r m a t e s , axd a t times e n c o u r a g e s , t h e u s e o f v i o l e n c e on f e n i l y members. T h i s i s an e x c e l l e n t example o f a c u l t u r a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n . C u l t u r a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s a r e found i? most , p e r h a p s al: s o c i e t i e s . They a r e by n o means e n t i r e l y u n a e s i r a b l e . I n f a c t . c u l t u r a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s h e l p p r e v e n t s c c i e t i e s from s t a g n a t i n g , open p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r s o c i a l change , a r d a l l o w f o r a measure of i n d i v i d u a l iutonomy. w i t h o u t them, we n i g h t be s l a v e s t o t h e d i c t a t e s o f c u l t u r e . Each i n d i v i d u a l a n d e a c h f a m i l y must m a n i p u l a t e many, o f t e n c o n f l i c t i n g , norms and v a l u e s t o work o u t a s t r a t e g y a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e i r Own CirCUmStanC'3s and a s p i r a t i o n s . The p r o c e s s o f s e l e c t i r g f rom and r e c o n c i l l n g t h e d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s o f a c u l t u r e is one o f t h e r e a s o n s why, d e s p i t e c u l t u r a l n o r a s , f a m i l i e s d i f f e r .

The c h o i c e of norms f o r g u i d i n g o n e ' s l i f e l e a d s t o d i v e r s i t y , b u t t h e r e i s no g u a r a n t e e t h a t one w i l l r e c o g n i z e a l l of t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h a t c h o i c e . C e r t a i n unsxpec ted r e s u L t S . 01 l a t e n t f e a t u r e s o f t h e s e c h o i c e s . make i n d i v i d u a l and f a m i l y l i f e a c o m p l i c a t e d m a t t e r .

T h i s c o m p l e x i t y i s e s p e c i a l l y t r u e f o r v i o l e n c e i n t h e f a a i l y . Knowing t h a t o u r f a m i l y s y s t e m i s a v i o l e n t sys tem. r a t i o n a l p e o p l e c e r t a i n l y woold n o t c h o o s e t h i s s i t u a t i o n . Yet o v e r 90 p e r c e n t o f Bmericans marry, and many m a r r i a g e s a r e marked by c o n f l i c t and v i o l e n c e . P e r h a p s what i s i m p o r t a n t f o r u n d e r s t a n a i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between v l o l e n c e and t h e f a m i l y is n o t i n d i v i d u a l c h o i c e b u t t h e i r o n i e s t h a t seem t o u n d e r l i e t h e norms and o r g a n i z a t i o n o f f a m i l y l i f e .

I r o n y 1. C u l t u r a l norms t h a t l e g i t i m a t e a n d , a r t i m e s . e n c o u r a g e v i o l e n c e between f a a i l y members a r e i n s t r u m e n t a l i n m a i n t a i n i n g t h e f a m i l y sys tem; b u t t h e s e same Lorms p e r p e t u a t e v i o l e n c e a s a n i n t e g r a l p a r t of f a m i l y l i f e .

A set o t norms e x i s t s t h a t l e g i t i m i z e t h e s t r i k i n g of f a m i l y members, a t l e a s t under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s . These norms somet imes a r e used t o j u s t i f y t h e u s e of v i o l e n c e t o m a i n t a i n t h e f a m i l y s y s t e n . I n no way s h o u l d t h i s s t a t e m e n t be i n t e r p r e t e d t o mean t h a t we f a v o r any t y p e o f f a m i l y System Over a n o t h e r . Whether o u r p r e s e n t f a m i l y s t r u c t u r e s h o u l d be m a i r t a i n e d o r changed is n c t a t i s s u e here. I n most fo rms of s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . whether it is a whole s o c i e t y . a b u r e a u c r a c y , o r t h e f a m i l y sys tem, t h e r e i s a n e m p h a s i s o n m a i n t a i n i n g t h e s t a t u s quo. Even though s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n c o n s t a n t l y c h a n g e s , g r o o p w e l l - b e i c g is a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d i f no p r o v i s i o n is made f o r a r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e framework f o r a c t i o n .


Our i n t e r e s t h e r s is u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t v e e c t h e norms t h a t l e g i t i m i z e v i o l e c c e e r d t h e r o l e t h e s e norms p l a y i n f a m i l y l i f e . Goode (1971) a r g u e s t h a t t h o s e who d e s i r e t o m a i n t a i P t h e p r e s e n t f a m i l y sys t?m may USE f o r c e o r i ts t h r e a t a s a form of s o c i a l c o n t r o l . I n o t h e r words. norms l e g i t i m i z i r g v i o l e n c e m a i n t a i r c r a e r i n t h e f a n i l y g r o u p by i m p o s i n g s t r o n g s a n c t i o n s u h ~ l a r i n d i v i d u a l tries t o p l a y by o t h e r " r u l e s . " F o r many i n American s o c i e t y , f o r c e o r t h e t h r e a t o f f o r c e i n t h e f a m i l y is s e e n a s a p e r m i t t e d t e c h n i q u e f o r p r e v e n t i n g o r c o n t r o l l i n g c e r t a i n b e h a v i o r s of f a m i l y members. Is Goode n o t e s :

... t h e mother who abandons h e r c h i l d r e n . t h e f a t h e r who r u n s o f f v i t h t h e c h i l d r e n , t h e w i f e o r husband who t a k e s a second spouse , t h e c h i l d who b e a t s up h i s mother. t h e a d o l e s c e n t g i r l r h o w i s h e s t o s p ~ n d a ueekend w i t h h e r b o y f r i e n d a g a i n s t t h e r i l l of h e r p a r e n t s , t h e w i f e who w i s h e s t o change t h e f a m i l y d o m i c i l e w i t h o u t t h e c o n s e n t o f h e r husband, a 1 1 c a n be a n d sometimes a r e r e s t r a i n e d by e i t h e r f o r c e o r its t h r e a t , i f n o t from f a m i l y members t h e n a t t h e i r r e q u e s t by t h e community t h r o u g h i ts command o v e r f o r c e (1971:626).

n o s t Americans s e e a m o r a l o b l i g a t i o n f o r p a r e n t s t o u s e p h y s i c a l punishment a s a means f o r c o n t r o l l i n g c h i l d r e n i f o t h e r means f a l l ( S t a r k and McEvoy, 1970) . and a good p r o p o r t i o n see it a s t h e most d e s i r a b l e means f o r C o n t r o l l i n g c h i l d r e n . Al though t h e l e g a l r i g h t of a husband t o p h y s i c a l l y p u n i s h a w i f e no l o n g e r e x i s t s ( C a l r e r t , 1974) . t h e i n f o r m a l corms of c e r t a i n s o c i a l g r o u p s (and s p e o l f l c f a m i l i e s i n a l l segments of society) s t i l l l e g i t i m i z e t h e u s e of p h y s i c a l f o r c e t o c o n t r o l an e r r a n t spouse .

Of t h e m o d a l i t i e s t h a t e n s u r e t h a t t h e f a m i l y f u n c t i o n s a s an e f f i c i e n t s o c i a l group. v i o l e n c e is s e e n t o have h i g h i n s t r u m e n t a l va lue . It uorks--at l e a s t i n t h e s h o r t run.

T h i s k i n d o f v i o l e n c e is what G e l l e s an8 S t r a u s (1978) c a l l ' l eg i t imate- ins t rumenta l** v i o l e n c e , v i o l e n c e t h a t i s p e r m i t t e d o r r e q u i r e d by t h e norms of s o c i e t y . P h y s i c a l f o r c e 1s used t o i n d u c e some d e s i r e d a c t o r t o p r e v e n t some u n d e s i r e d behavior . L e g i t i m a t e - i n s t r o m e n t a l v i o l e n c e o c c u r s i n a l l r o l e - r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f t h e n u c l e a r f a m i l y v i t h g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r f r e q u e n c y . The g r e a t e s t f r e q u e n c y i s i n t h e p a r e n t - c h i l d r e l a t i o n s h i p i n t h e form of p h y s i c a l punlshment , b u t a s S t r a u s shows i n C h a p t e r 3, t h e m a r r i a g e l i c e n s e a l s o t e n d s t o - be a h i t t i n g l i c e n s e .

V i o l e n c e can a l s o t + k e a ~~leg i t imate -express iv€ l s form. By e x p r e s s i v e v i o l e n c e ue mean t h e u s e o f p h y s i c a l f o r c e t o c a u s e p a i n o r i n j u r y a s an end i n i t s e l f . Examples of t h i s t y p e of v i o l e n c e i n t h e f a m i l y i n c l u d e t h e v i d e s p r e a d


b e l i e f s t h a t i t i s b e t t e r t o spank a c h i l d t h a n t o "ho ld i n " o n e ' s a n g e r and b e t t e r t o l e t s i b l i n g s " f i g h t i t o u t ' t h a n t o i n t e r f e r e .

R t t i n e s v i o l e n c e i n t h e f a m i l y s e t t i n g g o e s beyond s a n c t i o n i n g by c u l t u r a l norms; it i s i l l e g i t i m a t e . T h i s most wide ly r e c o g n i z e d t y p e o f v i o l e n c e i n t h s f a m i l y i n c l u d e s t h e most s p e c t a c u l a r and e x t r e m e forms: c h i l d a b u s e and murder.

Whenever p h y s i c a l f o r c e i s u s e d w i t h i n t h e f a m i l y , f o r v h a t e v e r r e a s o n . t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n unexpec ted outcomes. C h a p t e r 2 p o i n t s ' t o t h r e e s u c h unexpec ted outcomes. The f i r s t is t h e a s s o c i a t i o n of l o v e v i t h v i o l e n c e . The c h i l d l e a r n s t h a t t h o s e vho l o v e him/her most a r e a l s o t h o s e who h i t and h a v e t h e r i g h t t o h i t . The second u n i n t e n d e d Consequence is t h e l e s s o n t h a t when s o ~ e t h i n g i s r e a l l y i m p o r t a n t . it j u s t i f i e s t h e u s e o f p h y s i c a l f o r c e . P i c a l l y , a n d most i m p o r t a n t . t h e s e i n d i r e c t l e s s o n s becoms s o f u n d a m e r t a l t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s p e r s o n a l i t y and v o r l d view t h a t t h e y a r e g s n e r a l i z c d t o s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , end e s p e c i a l l y t o t h e r e l a t i o c s h i p c l o s e s t t o t h a t o f p a r e n t and c h i l d - - t h a t o f husband and wife.

T h i s l a s t p o i n t is examined i n d e t a i l i n J o s e p h C a r r o l l ' s c h a p t e r on t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l r o l e of v i o l e n c e i n Mexican-lmerlcan a n d J e w i s h s u b c u l t u r e r . He a t t e m p t s t o show how g e n e r a l f a m i l y norms a n d v a l u e s o p a r a f i n g u i t h i r t h e s e two d i v e r g e n t e t h n i c g r o u p s a c t t o i n f l u e n c e t h e a c t u a l u s e of v i o l e n c e a s w e l l a s i t s p e r p e t u a t i o n i n f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s .

The i r o n y h e r e is t h a t t h e s e norms, seer. t o b e n e c e s s a r y i n m a i n t a i n i n g t h e f a m i l y group, a l s o g a a r a n t e e t h a t v i o l e n c e w i l l become a r e g u l a r f e a t u r e of f a m i l y l i f e i n t h e f u t u r e . T h i s g u a r a n t o e is e n s u r e d by s i m p l e membership i n t h e f a m i l y group. R s G e l l e s (1974) n o t s s :

"...the f a m i l y s e r v e s a s b a s i c t r a i n i n g f o r v i o l e n c e by Expos ing c h i l d r e n t o v i o l e n c e , by maklng them v i c t i m s of v i o l e n c e , and by p r o v i d i n g them w i t h l e a r n i n g c o n t e x t s f o r t h e commission of v i o l e n t a c t s n (p. 170) .

I n d e e d , t h e e v i d e n c e i s c l e a r t h a t e a r l y e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h p h y s i c a l punrshment l a y t h e groundvork f o r t h e n o r m a t i v e l e g i t i m a c y and a c t u a l u s e o f i n t r a f a n i l y v i o l e n c e . Overs a n d s t r a u s (1975). i n a s t u d y o f e x p o s u r e t o v i o l e n c s and V i o l e n c e a p p r o v a l , show t h a t t h e more v i o l e n c e e x p e r i e n c e d by a c h i l d , t h e g r e a t e r t h e t e n d e n c y t o f z r o r t h e u s e of v i o l e n c e a s an a d u l t . G u t s a c h e r (1960) s t a t e s t h a t a common e x p e r i e n c e amorg a g roup of m u r d e r e r s h e s t u d i e d was t h e h i g h l e v e l of v i o l e n c e t h e i r p a r e n t s i n f l i c t e d on them when t h e y were growing up. Tansy's (1969) s t u d y of h o m i c i d a l o f f e n d e r s f i n d s t h a t 67 p e r c e n t had h i s t o r i e s o f v i o l e n t

ch.1. S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e a r d I r o n y Pilgs 1 5

c h i l d - r e a - m g . Gelles (1919) f i n d s t h a ? r e s p o n d r n % s who had s e e n t h e i r p a r e n t s e n g a g i n g i n p h y s i c 3 1 v i o l e n c e v e r s much o r l i k e l y t o p h y s i c a l l y f i g h t v i t h r h e x r o u r s p o u s e s t h a n were p e o p l e uho n e v e r saw t h e i r p a r e n t s p h y s i c a l l y f i g h t (p. 173) .

Welsh (1976) e x p l o r e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p betwsen s e v e r e p a r e n t a l punishment and j u v e n i l e de l inquency . Be d e f i n e s s e v e r e p a r e n t a l punishment a s any t y p e of p h y s i c a l discipline u s i n g a n o b j e c t c a p a b l e of l n f l i c t i n g p h y s i c a l i n j u r y . w e l s h q s a n a l y s l s o f t h r e e s a m p l e s o f d e l i n q u e n t c h i l d r e n l e d him t o c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e r e c i d i v i s t male ~ - - - - - - -

dsll-.qur?: ~ n o cad n e v e r beer exposed t C L b i l L , b l a r d , exte:5icn c o r d o r ti?: w b 5 COr.EIlSzer:. IC CddlI:>r, I e 1 s h t 1 r . d ~ a m O C g ale ? e l i r l u e ~ ? s c s r r c c o r E l a t l C n s h i o b2-weer. -

s e v e r e p a r e n t a l p u n l s h n e n t a n d a g g r e s s i o n .

I n c r e a s i c g e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t a h i g h p r i c e is p a i d f o r a a i n t a i n i n g o r d e r i n t h e f a m i l y t h r o u g h v io leoc? . The norms t h a t l e g l t i e a t e v i o l e n c e a s s u r e a f a m i l y i n s t i t u t i o n a n d a s o c i e t y characterized by v i o l e n c e f o r y e a r s t o come.

I r o n y 2. The s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l f e a t u r e s of f a m i l y l i f e t h a t c o n t r i b u t e t o i n t i m a c y a l s o f a c i l i t a t e t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f a h i g h r a t e of i n t r a r p o u s a l v i o l e n c e .

Though t h e f a m i l y s h a r e s c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s v i t h o t h e r s o c i a l g roups , a s a s o c i a l g r o u p and a s an i n s t i t u t i o n t h e f a m i l y h a s d i s t i n c t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Gellss and S t r a u s (1978) have c a t a l o g u e d c e r t a i n o f t h e s e f e a t u r e s o f t h e t a m i l y t o p o i n t o u t t h a t a s p s c i a l t h e o r y of v i o l e n c e i s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e f a m i l y group. Some of t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and o t h e r s ment ioned by a u t h o r s i n t h i s volume, s e r v e a d u a l r o l e i n t h e fami ly . on t h e o r e hand, t h e y c o n t r i b u t e toward making t h e f a m i l y a warm, s u p p o r t i v e , a n d m t i m a t e env i ronment : on t h e o t h e r hand. t h e y s u g g e s t r e a s o n s why t h i s s o c i a l g r o u p may be e s p e c i a l l y prone t o v i o l e n c e . we l l s t e l e v e n s u c h f a c t o r s :

1. ILmf RJ&. An e l e x e n t a r y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a c c o u n t i n g f o r t h e h i g h i n c i d e c c e o f v i o l e n c e i s t h a t s o many h o u r s o r t h e day a r e s p e n t i n t s 1 a c t i r . g w i t h o t h e r f a m i l y members. Bowever. a l t h o u g h t h i s f a c t o r is i m p o r t a n t , t h e r a t i o o f i n t r a f a m i l y v i o l e n c e t o v i o l e n c e e x p e r i e n c e d o u t s i d e t h e f a m i l y f a r e x c e e d s t h e r a t i o of time s p e n t i n t h e f a m i l y t o time s p e n t o u t s i d e . Comparing t h e f a r i i l y w i t h a n o t h e r g r o u p i n which l a r g e amounts of time a r e s p e n t , s u c h a s a work group , p r o v i d e s a c o n c r e t e example t h a t f a r more i s i n v o l v e d t h a n " t ime a t r i s k . "

ch.1. S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e and I r o n y Pege 16

t a k e p l a c e o v e r which a d i s p u t e o r a f a i l u r s t o meet e x p e c t a t i o n s c a n occur .

3. in tens it^ of Involpg~Emyg;. Not o n l y is t h e r e a v l d e r r a n g e of p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r d i s p u t e s o r d 5 s s a t i s f a c t i o n e . b u t , i n a d d i t i o n . t h e d e g r e e o f i n j u r y f e l t i n s u c h i n s t a n c e s is l i k e l y t o be much g r e a t e r t h a n i f t h e ssme i s s u e were t o a r i s e i r r e l a t i o n t o someone o u t s i d e t h e family. F o s s (Chapte r 7) c o n s i d e r s t h i s f a c t o r e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t i n generating h o s t i l i t y among f a m i l y members a s w e l l a s i n c r e a t i n g t h e s t r a t e g i e s f o r d e a l i n g v i t h c o n f l i c t s o f i n t e r e s t among f a m i l y members.

4. I n f r m q i n c a A c t i v i t i e s . nany f a m i l y a c t i v i t i e s h z r e a ' ze ro sum" a s p e c t . C o n f l i c t a r i s e s from s u c h d e c i s i o n s a s w h e t h e r t o p l a y Bach o r n e o d e l s s o h n on t h e f a m i l y s t s r e o , v h o t h e r t o go t o a movie o r bowl ing , o r how t o l i n e up f o r t h e bathroom. L e s s o b v i o u s , b u t e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t , i s t h e i n f r i n g i n g of one ' s p e r s c n a l s p a c e o r s e l f - i m a g e by t h e l i f e s t y l e and h a b i t s o f o t h e r s i n t h e f a m i l y , s u c h a s t h o s e who l e a v e t h i n g s a r o u n d v e r s u s t h o s e who p u t e v e r y t h i n g away, o r t h o s e who e a t q u i c k l y and t h o s e who l i k e l e i s u r e l y meals.

6. and a g~~~g?&?;&s. The d i f f e r e n c e s i n a g e a n d s e x of f a m i l y members ( e s p e c i a l l y d u r i n g t h e c h i l d - r e a r i n o v e a r s l . c o u o l e d v i t h t h e e x i s t e n c e of ~ . . A ~ ~ ~ - - . . .--- ~~ ~

~ -~ ~ -

o e n e r a t i o n a l and s e x d l f f e r e n c e s i n c u l t u r e and o u t l o o k . make t h e f a m l l y a n a r e n a o f c u l t u r e c o n f l l c t . T h l r c o n f l l c + 1s e x p r e s s e d zn s u c h p h r a s e s a s " t h e b a t t l e o f t h e s e x e s " a n d " t h e g e n e r a t r o n gap."

7. Bscrzbed Roles . Compounding t h e problem of age and s e x d i f f e r e n c e s , f a m i l y s t a t u s e s and r o l e s a r e a s s i g n e d , t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t . o n t h e b a s i s of b i o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s r a t h e r t h a n on t h e b a s i s of competence and i n t e r e s t . One a s p e c t o f t h i s s t r u c t u r i n g h a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y been a f o c u s of c o n t e n r i o n -- s o c i a l l y s t r u c t u r e d s e x u a l i n e q u a l i t y o r . i n con temporary l a n g u a g e , t h e s e x i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e f a m i l y . S t r a u s ( C h a p t e r 6) a r g u e s t h a t a male-dominated f a m i l y h a s e s p e c i a l l y h igh c o n f l l c t p o t e n t i a l when it e x i s t s i n a s o c i e t y w i t h a n e g a l i t a r i a n ideo logy . But, a s B l l e n and S t r a u s p o i n t o u t ( i n C h a p t e r 1 2 ) . even w i t h o u t s u c h an i d e o l o g i c i n c o n s i s t e n c y , t h e c o n f l l c t p o t e n t i a l i s h igh , b e c a u s e i n e v i t a b l y n o t a l l h u s b a n d s c a n f u l f i l l t h e c u l t u r a l l y p r e s c r i b e d l e a d e r s h i p r o l e s .


8. PaptQ privm. I n many s o c i e t i e s t h e n o r m a t i v e k i n s h i p and household s t r u c t u r e i n s u l a t e s t h e f a m i l y f rom s o c i a l c o n t r o l s and s o c i a l a s s i s t a n c e i n cnp?.cg with i n t r a t a m i l y c o n f l i c t . T h i s c h a r a c r e r i s t i c is most t y p i c a l of t h e c o n j u g a l f a m i l y sys tem of u r b a n - i n d u s t r i a l s o c i i t i e s ( L a s l e t t . 1973). Both F o s s ( C h a p t e r 8 ) and ADta l ing ( C h a p t e r 9 ) mention t h a t t h e n u c l e a r s t r u c t u r e of America? f a m i l y l i f e makes less l i k e l y t h e dampening e f f e c t s of t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h i r d p a r t i e s i n husband-wife a r g u m e n t s and d i s p u t e s .

9. I n v o l u n t a r y pembersh iz . B i r t h r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r s o b v i o u s l y i r ivOluz ta ry , and under-age c h i l d r e n c a n n o t :hemselves t e r m i n a t e s u c h r e l a t i o n s h i p s . I n a d d i t i o n , S p r e y (1969) shows t h a t t h e c o n j u g a l r e l a t i o n s h i p a l s o h a s n o n v o l u n t a r y a s p e c t s . F i r s t , t h e s o c i a l e x p e c t a t l o n is t h a t m a r r l a g e i s a long-term commitment, a s Expressad i n t h e p h r a s e " u n t i l d e a t h d o u s p a r t . ' I n a d d i t i o n , e m o t i o n a l , m a t e r i a l . a n d l e g a l r e w a r d s and c o n s t r a i n t s o f t e n make membership i n t h e f a m i l y g r o u p i n e s c a p a b l e , s o c i a l l y . p h y s i c a l l y , o r l e g a l l y . So. when c o n f l i c t s and d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n s a r i s e , t h e a l t e r n a t i v e of r e s o l v i n g them by l e a v l n g o f t e n aces n o t e x i s t - - a t l e a s t i n t h e p e r c e p t i o n of what is p r a c t i c a l o r p o s s i b l e .

~ ~ ~~ - L - ~ ~ - - - - -~ ~

f a m i i y l i f e c y c l e - - t h e b i r t h o f c h i l d r e n , n a t u r a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n . a u i n a . and r e t i r e a e r t . The c r i s i s - l i k e n a t u r e o f . - -. ~ ~

t h e s e c h a n g e s h a s l o n g been r e c o g n i z e d (Le l las te r s ,1957) . A 1 1 o f t h i s , combined w i t h t h e huge e m o t i o n a l i n v e s t m e n t t y p i c a l o f f a m i l y r e l a t i o r s h i p s , means t h a t t h e f a m i l y is l i k e l y t o b e t h e l o c u s of more, a n d more s e r i o u s . s t r e s s e s t h a n o t h e r groups. A r e a d i n g o f C h a p t e r 7 emphas izes t h e i m p o r t a n t r o l e o f i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l s t r e s s e s on f a m i l y l i f e i n t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f i n t r a f a m i l y v i o l e n c e .

11. E x t e n s i v e KnoYledue of S o c i a l BiO9raEhies . Because of t h e i n t i m a c y o f t h e m a r i t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , s p o u s e s u s u a l l y have a n i n - d e p t h kowladge o f e a c h o t h e r ' s s o c i a l h i s t o r i e s - - t h e i r a b i l i t i e s and s h o r t c o m i n g s , t h e i r s t r e n g t h s a n d v u l n e r a b i l i t i e s , t h e i r l i k e s and d i s l i k e s (Hepburn 1973) . I n e f f e c t , t h e members o f m a r i t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s h a v e a t t h e i r d i s p o s a l i c f o r m a t i o n t h a t can be used t o s u p p o r t and e n h a n c s e a c h o t h e r ' s i d e n t i t i e s because each knows a b o u t t h e t h i n g s t h a t m a t t e r t c t h e o t h e r . A t t h e same t ime , t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n c a n b e used t o damage t h e i d e n t i t y of s i t h e r spouse. Goode (1971) s u g g e s t s t h a t i n t i m a t e s a r e a b l e t o l a u n c h v e r b a l a s s a u l t s on t h e p a r t n e r ' s v u l n e r a b l e p o i n t s b e c a u s e t h e n a t u r e o f m a r r i a g e e x p o s e s e a c h o t h e r ' s weaknesses. H o t a l i n g ( C h a p t e r 9 ) s p e c i f i c a l l y r e f e r s t o t h e

Ch.1. S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e and I r o n y Eage 18

e x t e n s i v e knowledge of p a r t n e r s a s p r e d i s p o s i n g them t o m i s t a k e n l y a t t r i b u t e m a l e v o l e n t i n t e n t t o t h e a c t i o n s o f spouses .

These e l e v e n f a c t o r s , and no doubt t h e r e a r e o t h e r s , h a v e been p o s i t e d by a u t h o r s o f t h i s volume and o t h e r s a s i m p o r t a n t characteristics of t h e f a m i l y g r o u p t h a t c o n t r i b u t e t o i ts h i g h r a t e o f c o n f l i c t and v i o l e n c s . The i r o n y h e r e i s t h a t many o f t h e s e same f e a t u r e s e n c o u r a g e wzrmth, i c t i m a c y , and s u p p o r t ; f o r example, l a r g e amounts o f t i m e s p e n t f o g e t h e r , d e e p e m o t i o n a l i n v o l v e m e n t , p r i v a c y . a n d i n - d e p t h knowledge o f one a n o t h e r .

The r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e s e u n i q u e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e f a m i l y t o v i o l e n c e as w e l l a s t o i l t i m a c y h a s n o t been v e r i f i e d a n p i r i c a l l y . But t h e t h e o r e t i c a l work on t h i s i s s u e s u g g e s t s many i n t r i g u i n g q u e s t i o n s f o r r e s e a r c h . The most i e p o r t a n t i s whether c h a n g e s i n t h a s e u n i q u e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s can make t h e f a m i l y a less v i o l e n t g r o u p w i t h o u t S a c r i f i c i n g t h e b e n e f i t s o f a n i n t i m a t e a rv i ronment . F o r example, i f we compare n u c l e a r f a m i l y s t r . u c t u r P s w i t h v a r i o u s combinations of e x t e n d e d f a m i l y s t r u c t u r e s , w i l l t h e r e be a h i g h e r l e v e l o f s u p p o r t between members i c t h e l a t t e r form, a s w e l l a s a l o w e r l e v e l of s t r e s s ? S t r a u s ' compar i son of s u p p o r t i v e n e s s between s p o u s e s iii c u c l e a r and i n j o i n t h o u s e h o l d s (1975) s u g g e s t s t h a t l a c k o f s t r e s s may be g a i n e d a t t h e e x p e n s e o f s u p p o r t . And v h a t r o l e d o g r a n d p a r e n t s p l a y i n t e r m s of t h e o c c u r r e n c e of i n t r a f a m i l y v i o l e n c e when t h e y l i v e i n t h e same h o u s e h o l d s a s the:: s o n s and d a u g h t e r s and g r a n d c h i l d r e n ?

I n v e s t i g a t i o n s a l s o c o u l d b e f o c u s e d on s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . For example, t h e a f f e c t o f i n v o l u n t a r y f a m i l y membership o n v i o l e n c e c o u l d b e s t u d i e d by comparing nonmarr ied c o u p l e s who l i v e t o g e t h e r w i t h m a r r i e d c s u p l e s , c o n t r o l l i n g f o r r e l e v a n t f a c t o r s . ~ l s o . d o e s i n t e n s e i n v o l v e o e n t among f a m i l y members f a c i l i t a t e o r dampen t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f v i o l e n c e ? Do f a m i l i e s v i t h e x t e n s i v e community i n t e r e s t s o r i n v o l v e m e n t s v i t h nonfami ly members e x p e r i e n c e less v i o l e n t i n t e r a c t i o n a t home? These Examples s u g g e s t c . l g a Lev c t .any s u c h q u e s t l o r i s :hat c3uld h~ b r c u q h t tc b e a r on *he s p e c l a 1 s o c r a l ?rger:zaczcnal t eecmre? a c d y h e ~ r i r t l u e r c e on t u e b a n a - v l f e s:olcnce.

I r o n y 3. The change t o an e g a l i t a r i a n s t r u c t u r e of m a r r i a g e l e a d s t o t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e s e x i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e f a m i l y b u t a l s o seems t o l e a d t o h i g h e r r a t e s of v i o l e n c e .

The two p r e v i o u s i r o n i e s c o u l d b e c a l l e d =cz_c i r o n i e s . They were concerned v i t h t h e f a m i l y a s a n i n s t i t u t i o n a n 6 s o c i a l g r o u p e s compared v i t h o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s and s o c i a l g r o u p s i n terms of i t s p r o c l i v i t y t o h i g h r a t e s o f v i o l e n c e . The l a s t two i r o n i e s p r e s e n t e d h e r e a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h micro level p r o c e s s e s , t h a t is, w i t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t

ch.1. S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e and I r o n y Page 1 9

d i f f e r e a t i a t e f a m i l i e s frcm e a c h o t h e r .

The tirst of t h e s e i r o n i e s c o n c e r n s t h e s e x i s r o r g a l i z a t i o n of t h e f a m i l y ( S t r a u s , C h a p t e r 6 ) . T h i s c h a p t e r c i t e s n i n e s p e c i f i c ways i n which t h e male-dominated s r r u c t u r e of s o c i e t y a n d f a m i l y c r e a t e s and a a i n t a i r s a h i g h l e v e l Of m a r i t a l Violence. o n e o f t h e many ways i n which male d o m i n a t i o n c a n l e a d t o f a m i l y v i o l e n c e o c c u r s when t h e male i s t h r e a t e n e d . I n o u r s o c i e t y , where m a l e - s u p e r i o r i t y norms a r e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f t r a n s i t i o n , and i n v h i c h t h e presnmpt ion of s u p e r i o r i t y must be v a l i d a t e d hy " r e s o u r c e s " s u c h a s v a l u e d p e r s o n a l t r a i t s and m a t e r i a l goods and s e r v i c e s , a s c r i b i n g s u p e r l o r a u t h o r i t y t o men i s a p o t e n t f o r c e i c p r o d u c i n g p h y s i c a l a t t a c k s on wives. R husband who w a n t s t o b e t h e dominant p e r s o n i n h i s f a m i l y , b u t who h a s l i t t l e e d u c a t i o n , a joh t h a t is low i n p r e s t i g e and income. and a l a c k o t i n t e r p e r s o c e l s k i l l s , may r e s o r t t o p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e t o m a i n t a r n h i s p o s i t i o n .

E m p i r i c a l e v i d e n c e s u p p o r t s t h e s e n o t i o n s . F o r example, i n f a m i l i e s where t h e h u s b a n d ' s a c h i e v e d s t a t u s is l o w e r t h a n h l s wi fe ' s . O'Brien (1971) found a g r e a t e r t e n d e n c y t o USE f o r c e a n d v i o l ~ n c e on f a m i l y members t h a n when t h e husband had t h e - r e s o u r c e m of a h i g h e r p r e s t i g e o c c u p a t i o n . Also, A l l e n and S t r a u s ( C h a p t e r 12) found t h a t among work ing c l a s s husbands who were h i g h i n economic o r p e r s o n a l r e s o u r c e s , t h e r e v a s no c o r r e l a t i o n between power i n t h e f a m i l y and v i o l e n c e . However, among t h o s e working c l a s s husbands who were low i n r e s o u r c e s , t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between male power and v i o l e n c e was 0.49.

Tho e x p e c t a t i o n o f male d o n i n a n c e is g r a p h i c a l l y i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e c a s e h i s t o r y o f J o e and J e n n i f e r r e p o r t e d by La Xossa ( i l C h a p t e r 1 0 ) . T h i s c o u p l e d e p i c r s t h e c o n f l i c t between men and women i x t h e t r a n s i t i o n from male s u p e r l o r i t y t o e g a l i t a r i a n f a m i l y norms, most c l e a r i n t h e d i a l o g u e b e t w e e l J o e and J e n n i f e r a b o u t J e n n i f e r ' s employment o u t s i d e of t h e home, which J o e p e r c e i v e s a s a t h r e a t t o h i s r i g h t t o h e t h e dominant asmber o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p .

The i s s u e of w i f e employment, p e r h a p s t h e most d i r ec t t h r e a z t o male domina t ion i n t h e s o c i e t y a s w e l l as i n t h e f a m i l y , is i n v e s t i g a t e d by Brown ( C h a p t e r 11) t o d e t e r m i n e i t s p o t e n t i a l i m p a c t on husband-wife v i o l e r c e . I n a more g e n e r a l ve in . Brown p r o b e s t h e c o n f l i c t between emerg ing s e x u a l e q u a l i t y and e x i s t i n g norms t h a t promote male domina t ion .

L o g i c a l l y , we would assume t h a t t h e i n c r e a s i n g breakdown of t h e s e x i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e f a m i l y would a l s o l e a d t o a d e c r e a s e i n husband-wife v i o l e n c e . But t h i s d e c r e a s e may n o t b e t h e c a s e , a t l e a s t i n t h e s h o r t run. Dur ing t h i s t r a n s i t i o n p e r i o d , a s t h e f a m i l y r e s t r u c t u r e s i t s power d i s t r r b u t i o n , c o n f l i c t and v i o l e n c e may a c t u a l l y

Ch.1. S o c l a l S t r u c t u r e and I r o n y Pagp 20

b e i n c r e a s e d a s men f e e l t h r e a t e n e d by t h e i r l o s s o f power. I r o n i c a l l y . a t t e m p t s bq women t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r power =n s o c i e t y a n d t h e f a m i l y map s e r v e t o v i c t i m i z e vomen f u r t h e r . a t l e a s t t e m p o r a r i l y .

I n t h e l o n g run , t h e e g a l i t a r i a n e t h o s s h o u l d l e a d t o a d e c r e a s e i n husband-wife v i o l e n c e , h u t it w i l l n o t d e c r e a s e u n t i l men b e g i n t o a c c e p t e g a l i t a r i a n norms a s l e g i t i m a t e .

I r o n y 4. The s u p p r e s s i o n o f c o n f l i c t , wide ly f e l t t o d e c r e a s e v i o l e n c e , may a c t u a l l y i n c r e a s e it.

Most p e o p l e f e a r c o n f l i c t and t r y t o a r o i d it. s o c i o l o g i s t s and p s y c h o l o g i s t s d o r e s e a r c h t o f i n d o u t why c o n f l i c t o c c u r s , o s t e n s i b l y t o b e a b l e t o p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t w i l l e n a b l e p e o p l e t o a r o i d c o n f l i c t . n a r r i a g e c o u n s e l o r s and o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l s concerned w i t h t h e f a m i l y , w i t h a f e w e x c e p t i o n s s u c h a s Bach and Uyden (1968) a n d ShOstroB a n d Ravanaugh (1971), f o c u s much of t h e i r e f f o r t s on h e l p i n g f a m i l i e s t o a v o i d c o n f l i c t . The i m p l i c i t a s s u m p t i o n h e r a i s t h a t t h e s u p p r e s s i o n o f c o n f l i c t w i l l l e a d t o t h e a v o i d a n c e of h o s t i l i t y and v i o l e n c e .

Houever, c o n f l i c t t h e o r i s t s h a v e p r e s e n t e a a c o n v i n c i n g c a s e f o r e x a c t l y t h e o p p o s i t e assumpt ion ; t h e y a rgue t h a t c o n f l i c t i s a n i n e v i t a b l e p a r t o f a l l human a s s o c i a t i o n s ( c o s e r , 1956; Dahrendorf , 1959; Sprey , 1969) . Fur thermore . t h e y h o l d t h a t a n y s o c i a l u n i t t h a t a t t e m p t s t o s u p p r e s s c o n f l i c t r u n s a h i g h r i s k of c o l l a p s i n g , e i t h e r b e c a u s e i t f a l l s t o a d a p t t o c h a n g i n g c i r c u ~ s t a n c e s o r h e c a u s e h o s t i l i t y a c c u m u l a t e s , e r o d i n g g r o u p s o l i d a r i t y .

The application o f c c n f l l c t t h e o r y t o f a m l l y v r o l e n c e h a s assumed t h a t c o n f l i c t 1s c e n t r a l t o . o r even 2

p r e r e q u l s l t e f o r , v l o l e n c c . Hoverer , a d e l l n e a t i o n of how c o n i l l c t p r o c e s s e s and v i o l e n c e a r e r e l a t e d h a s n o t r e c e i v e d a d e q u a t e a t t e n t l o n . P o s s t a k e s on t h l s I s s u e l n C h a p t e r 8.

F o s s c o n t e n d s t h a t c e r t a i n u n i q u e f e a t u r e s o f t h e husband-wife r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h a t is. t h e h i g h f r e q u e n c y o f i n t e r a c t i o n b e t v e e n spouses . t o t a l p e r s o n a l i t y involvement . a n d t h e d i f f i c u l t y i n s i m p l y l e a v i n g t h e f a m i l y s e t t i n g . v l l l p roduce h o s t i l i t y and g e n e r a t e a t t s m p t s t o s u p p r e s s o r i g n o r e h o s t i l i t y . F o s s p roposEs t h a t t h e a v o i d a n c e o f c o n f l i c t S i T u a t i o n S i r o n i c a l l y t e n d s t o i n c r e a s e h o s t i l i t y a s w e l l a s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f v i o l e n c e .

If s u p p r e s s i n g c o n f l i c t l e a d s t o v i o l e n c e d o e s t h i s i m p l y t h e more c o n f l i c t t h e b e t t e r f o r m a r i t a l r e l a t i o c s h i p s ? The q u e s t i o n o f how much c o n f l i c t i s d e s i r a b l e i n t h e f a m i l y s e t t i n g is a n u n i n v e s t i g a t e d and i m p o r t a n t E m p i r i c a l c h a l l e n g e . S t r a u s (1978) h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t r h e r e i s a c u r v i l i n e a r r e l a t i o n between t h e amount of c o n f l i c t a n d g r o u p ve l l -be ing . T h a t is. t h e a b s e n c e o f

ch.1. S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e and I r o n y Page 2 1

c o n f l i c t i n t h e s e n s e of c o n f l i c t s o f i s t e r e s t is t h e o r e t i c a l l y i m p c s s i b l e ; Ever if it c o u l d b e b r o u g h t a b o u t , s u p p r e s s i o n o f c o n f l i c t vould h e f a t a l f o r g r o u p v e l l - b e i n g . A t t h e same time, v e r y h i g h l e v e l s o f c o c f l i c t c a n c r e a t e s u c h a h i g h l e v e l of s t r a s s and /or such r a p i d c h a z q e t h a t g r o u p w e l f a r e i s a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d .

I f S t r z u s ' h y p o t h e s i s is c o r r e c t , t h a t a c e r t a i n l e v e l of c o n f l i c t i s i n d e e d h e a l t h y f o r t h e m a r i t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , how c o u l d t h e a p p r o p r i a t e l e v e l be d e t e r m i n e d ? C e r t a i n t h e ~ r e t i c a l d e d u c t i o n s made by a u t h o r s i n t h i s v o l u a e and O t h e r s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e l e v e l of i n t i m a c y i n m a r i t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s may be a key f a c t o r i n t h e amount of c o n f l i c t e x p e r i e n c e d . S e v e r a l writers have s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e more i n t i m a t e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h e more l i k e l y t h e o c c u r r e n c e of c o n f l i c t (Simme1.1950; Sprey , 1969; Poss. Chapte r 8: H o t a l i n g , C h a p t e r 9: Brown, C h a p t e r 1 1 ) . P e r t a p s , t h e n , t h e l e s s e n i n g o f t h o s e f a c t o r s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e t o i n t i m a c y a l s o would r e d u c e t h e amount of c o n f l i c t i n t h e fami ly .

Possc c h a p t e r p o i n t s o n t t h a t i n some p a t t e r n s o f f a m i l y l i f e a l e s s i n t i m a t e o r i n t e n s i v s involvement is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . Rn e x c e l l e n t c a s e i n p o i n t is d s s c r i b e d by CubPr and Haroff (1965) a s t h e " p a s s i v e - c o n g e n i a l ' mar r iage . a l l f e - s t y l e i n v h i c h a l l e m o t i o n a l and i r s t r u s e n t a l s a t i s f a c t i o n d o e s n o t d e r i v e from t h e mar r iage . I n m a r r i a g e s i n which c r e a t i v e e n e r g i e s and t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f i n t e r e s t s and e m o t i o n a l n e e d s a r e n l t e x c l u s i v e l y d i r e c t e d t o t h e m a r i t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , less i n t e n s i v e p a t t e r n s o f i n v c l v e m e n t w i l l occur . whe ther t h i s t y p e of m a r r i a q s a l s o h a s l e s s c o n f l i c t and v i o l e n c e is a c r u c i a l q u e s t i o n f o r t h e s t u d y of f a m i l y v i o l e n c e .

TRE IRONIC NATURE OF INTRAPAIILY VIOLEBCE

when t h i s book was p lanned , t h e key i d e a s t o b e p r e s e n t e d were t h o s e o f c u l t u r e and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . As t h e book began t o come t o g e t h e r , what might be c a l l e d t h e " i r o n i c n a t u r e cf i n t r a f a m i l y v i o l e n c e " Kept c r o p p i n g up. T h i s i n no way u n d e r c u t s t h e i m p o r t a n c e of c u l t u r e and S o c i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n a s i n t e r p r e t i v e t o o l s . The d u a l i n f l u e n c e o f c u l t u r e and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n is d e s c r i b e d t h r o u g h o u t t h i s volume a s r e v e a l i n g t h e s o c i a l l y p a t t e r n e d n a t u r e cf m a r i t a l v i o l e n c e . The i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n a l i t i e s of m a r r i e d c c u p l e s , w i t h o u t c o n s i d e r i n g t h s s o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d n a t u r e o f m a r r i a g e i t s e l f . c a n n o t e x p l a i n why m a r r i a g e a s a s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a h i g h i n c i d e n c e o f s t r i f e a n d v i o l e r c e .

But c u l t u r e a d s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a r e somewhat s t a t i c n o t i o n s and d o n o t f o r c e one t o f a c e up t o t h e dynamic and e m e r g e n t n a t u r e of f z m i l y i n t e r a c t i o n . I n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h i s book, it is l a r g e l y t h e n o t i o n of i r o n y t h a t p r o v i d e s t h e needed dynamic. we have p o i n t e d t o f o u r such i r o n i a s .

ch.1. S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e and I r o n y Page 22

~t f i r s t g l a n c e , t h e s e r o n i e s nay seem t o b? o n l y amusing o d d i t i e s . They a r e more t h a n t h i s . Recogniz ing t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e s e C o u n t e r i n t u i t i v e p r o c e s s e s S e n s i t i z e s US t o t h e c o m p l e x i t y of f a m i l y l i fe . I r o n i e s h i g h l i g h t t h e f u n d a m e n t a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s t h a t r e s i d e i r t h e c u l t u r a l r o r m s a n d s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of f a m i l y l i f e . They f o r c e u s t o b e wary of a c c e p t i n g t h e conmon-sense dichotomy between v i c e a n d v i r t u e , good and e v i l . l o v e and c o n f l i c t .

L a s t l y , t h e e x p l o r a t i o n of i r o n i c r e l + t i o o s h i p s n a t u r a l l y l e a d s t o t h e o p e n i n g up o f new and i n t e r o s t i n g r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s on f a m i l y v i o l e n c e . R a t h e r t h a n v i e w i r g i r o n y a s r e s i d i n g i n n a t u r e o r i n t h e u n i v e r s e , a s o c i o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e cn i r o n y l e a d s u s t o f o c u s on t h e complex r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t u e e n c u l t u r e and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d i t s r o l e i n g e r e r a t i r g t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s o f f a m i l y l i f e .

NOTES

* P a r t o f t h e f i r s t s e c t i o n o f t h i s c h a p t e r is a r e v i s e d v ~ T S i 0 n o f p a r t of " c n l t u r a l and S o c i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n a l I n f l u e n c e s on v i o l e n c e Ee tveen Family nembers" ( s t r a u s 1974b) .

1. F o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s c h a p t e r , v i o l e n c e i s d e f i n e d . f o l l o w i n g Gelles and S t r a u s (1978). a s "sn a c t c a r r i e d o u t w i t h +he i n t e c t i o n o f , o r p e r c e i v e d a s h a v i n g t h e i n t e n t i o n o f , p h y s i c a l l y h u r t i n g a n o t h e r person." The " p h y s i c a l h u r t " c a n r a n g e from s l i g h t p a i n , a s i n a s l a p , t o murdsr . Bl though t h i s i s t h e b a s i c d e f i n i t i o n o f v i o l e n c e u s e d i n Our r e s e a r c h , it is u s u a l l y a l s o n e c e s s a r y -0 t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t a number o f . o t h a r c h a r a c t c r i s t l c s o f t h e v i o l 5 n t a c t . s u c h a s w h e t h e r i t is ~ i n s t r u m e o t a l " *o some o t h e r p u r p o s e o r " e x p r e s s i v e , " t h a t is, an 2nd i n i t s e l f ; a p d whether it is a c u l t u r a l l y p e r m i t t e d o r r e q u i r e 3 a c t v e r s u s o n e t h a t r u n s c o u n t e r tc c u l t u r a l norms ( l e g i t i m a t e v e r s u s i l l e g i t i m a t e v i o l e n c e ) . Thus, t h e b l s i s f c r t h 3 * s i n t e x t t o h u r t " may r a n g e f rom a c o n c e r r f o r a c h i l d ' s s a f e t y ( a s when a c h i l d is spanked f o r g o i n g i n t o t h e s t r e e t ) t o h o s t i l i t y s o i n t e n s e t h a t t h e d e a t h o f t h s o t h e r i s d e s i r e d . The former woold b e an example of " l e g i t i m a t e i n s t r u n e n t a l v i o l e n c e " a n d t h e l a t t e r of " i l l e g i t i s a t s e x p r e s s i v e v io lecce ."

2. C e r t a i n a o t h o r s i n t h i s volume. e-g.. Po55 ( C h a p t e r 7 ) . u s e t h e term paradox r a t h e r t h a n i r o n y . As n a t z a (1969) n o t e s : t h e r e a r e two meanings of paradox-the g e n e r a l and t h e t e c h n i c a l . I r t h e g e n e r a l meaning of paradox , soneChing c a n be b o t h paradox (a t e x e t c o n t r a r y t 3 commcn s e n s e ) end i r o n y (an outcome of e v l n t s t h a t mocks t h e f i t n e s s of t h i n g s ) . P o s s u s e s t h e t e r n p a r a d o x i r t h e g e n e r a l an3 20: t h e t e c h n r c a l s e n s e of a r a p p a r r n t I n t e r n a l c c n t r a d i c t ; o n .

Chapter 2

Wife-Beating: How Common and Why?

Murray A. Straus

C h a p t e r 1 made f r e q u e n t r e f e r e n c e s t o th ; h i g h r a t e s o f p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e Rmericzn marr iages . u n t i l r e c e n t l y . s u c b a s s e r t i o n s had t o be based on i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c e v i d e n c e , o r on s t u d i e s of s m a l l o r p e r h a p s u n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e samples , f 3 r example, c o u p l e s s e e k i n g d i v o r c e o r c o u p l e s i n v o l v e d i n "domes t ic d i s t u r b a n c e " p o l i c e c a l l s . Th=s c h a p t e r . however. r e p o r t s t h e r e s u l t s of 3

s t u d y of a l a r g e and n a t i o n a l l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e Sample o f c o u p l e s . The r a t e s o f v i o l e n c s found i n t h i s s t u d y were somewhat lower t h a n e x p e c t a d f o r " o r d i P a r y n push ing , s l a p p i n g , and s h o r i n g , b u t a s t o u n d i n g l y h i g h f o r " w i f e - b r i t i n g . " I n a d d i t i o n t o documenting t h e h i g h i n c i d e n c e of wi fe -bea t ing , d a t a on "husband-beat ing" is a l s o p r e s e n t e d and "sed t o i l l u s t r a t e a r e c u r r i n g t h e n e of t h i s volume: t h a t m a r i t a l v i o l e n c c c a n n o t be u c d e r s t o o d i n t e r m s of a s i n g l e f a c t o r such a s sexrsm. a g g r e s s i v e n e s s , l a c k of s e l f - c o n t r o l , o r m e n t a l i l l n e s s of husbands who bea t f h e l r wives. Each of t h e s e f a c t o r s i s importan: b u t d o e s n o t acc0ur.t f 3 r t h e r a t e 3f a s s a u l t by v i v e s OP husbands.

The first o b j e c t l v e of t h i s c h a p t e r is t o p r e s e n t some of t h ~ f i n d i n g s on v i o l e n c e between s p o u s e s from a r e c e n t l y comple ted s t u d y of American c o u p l e s . These f i n d i c g s a r e un ique . b e i n g t h e f i r s t s u c h d a t a on a n a t i o l a l l y r e p r e s e c t a t i v e sample. Al though t h e f i n d i n g s have l i m i t a t i o c s , t h e y g i v e a + l e a s t some i n d i c a t i o n a f t h e e x t e n t t o v h l c h w i f e - b e a t i r g is p a r t o f t h e way of l i f e o f American f a n i l i e s . * l

Ch.2. if e - ~ e a t i r . 9 Page 24

The s e c o r d o b j e c t i v e is t o e x p l a i n f u r t h s r t h e i r o n y t h a t t h e g r o u p t o which most p e o p l e l o o k f o r l o v e and g e n t l ~ n ~ s s is a l s o t h e most v i o l e n t c i v i l i a n g r o u p i n o u r s o c i e t y .

he f i r s t of t h e s e o b j e c t i v a s p o s e s t remendous t e c h n z c a l problems. The s e c o r a o b j e c t i v e , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e t e c h n i c a l p r o b l e s s , p o s e s t h e o r e t i c a l p rob lems f u n d a m e n t a l t o o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f human s o c i e t y . T h e r e f o r e , what f o l l o w s s h o u l d be t a k e n a s h i g h l y t e L t a t i v e . b e g i n n i n g a n s v e r s t o t h e s e q u e s t i o n s .

Dat+ w i l l be p r e s e n t e d on a sample of 2.143 c o u p l e s . T h i s sample was chose? i n a way t h a t makes i t e x r r e m e l y l i k e l y t h a t t h e y a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of a l l American c o u p l e s . The age , r a c e , and soc ioeconomic s t a t u s o f t h e c o u p l e s i n t h e sampl? c o r r e s p o n d q u i t e c l o s e l y w i t h c e n s u s d a t a fo r ' t h e n a t i o n a s a whole. So f e r 50 good. But what a b o u t t h e d a t a on w i f e - b e a t i n g ?

WEAT I S RIPE-BEATING?

TO do r e s e a r c h on t h e i n c i d e n c e of w i f e - b e a t i n g , one must be a b l e t o d e f i r e i t i n a way t h a t can be measured o b j e c t i v e l y . one soon r e a l i z s s t h a t " w i f e - h e a t i n g ' is a p o l i t i c a l r a t h e r t h a n a s c i e n t i f i c term. F o r most p e o p l e . w l f e - b e a t i n g r e f e r s o n l y t o t h o s e i n s t a n c e s I n which s e v e r e damage is i n f l i c t e d . Othor v i o l e n c e is t r e a t e d a s normal o r l a u g h e d o f f w i t h remarks such a s "Hornen s h o u l d ba s t r u c k r e g u l a r l y , l i k e gorgs." o r t a k e t h e f o l l o w i n g :

c o n c o r d , N.R. (AP) The New Rampshire CDmmission on t h e S t a t u s o f Women h a s r e j p c t e d a p l a n '0 h e l p b a t t e r e d w i s e s , s a y i n g t h a t w i f e - b s a t i n q is c a u s e d by t h e rise o f feminism.

"Those women l i b b e r s i r r i t a t e t h e h e l l o u t of t h e l r h u s b a n d s , ' s a i d Commissioner G l o r i a B e l z i l o f Aashua.

A t a mee t ing acnday , commission members, a p p o i n t e d by GOV. n e l d r i m Thornson, s a i d any program t o h e l p b a t t e r e d wives would be "an i l r a s i o n o f p r ivacy .*# ( P o r t s a o u t h B e r a l a , Sept . 13. 1 9 7 7 )

T h i s s t a t e m e n t s u g g s s t s t h a t a c e r t a i n amount of v l o l e n c e i n t h e f a m i l y is "normal v i o l e r c e " i n t h e s e n s e t h a t it i s d e s e r v e d ( f o r example by " i r r i t a t i n g t h e h e l l " o u t o f o n e ' s spouse) and t h a t , c o n t r a r y t o i ts p c s l t i o n on Vio lencE o u t s i d 4 t h e f a m i l y , t h e s t a t e s h o u l d n o t i n t a r f s r e .

Ch.2. R i t e - B e a t i n g Psge 2 5

A r s c E n t c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h a s t u d e n t who had d e c i a e d t o do a term paper o n v i o l e n c e i n t h e f a m i l y s u g g e s t s t h e same c o n c l u s i o n . She came t o see me t o r h e l p on how t o r i r r o w t h e t o p l c ?o someth ing manageable. I s u g g e s t e d c h a t s h e c o u l d c h o O R t c c o n c e n t r a t e O r husband-wife v i o l e n c e , p a r e n t - c h i l d v i o l e n c e , o r r i o l e n c a between t h = c h i l d r e n i n a t ami ly . She was a s t o u l d e d a t t h e l a s t p o s s i b i l i t y and s a i d "Well, I n e v e r t h o u g h t of my b r o t h e r h i r t i n g me a s v io lenC4. ' T h e r e seems t o b e an r m p l i c i t , t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d c u l t u r a l norm t h a t makes z t l e g i t i m a t e f a r f a m i l y members t o h i t e a c h o t h e r .

A t what p o i n t d o e s one exceed t h e bounds of " o r d i n a r y " m a r i t a l v i o l e n c e ? When d o e s i t become "wife -bea t ing?" To s o l r e t h i s problem t h a t R i c h a r d G e l l e s and I took f o r o u r r e s e a r c h , we g a t h e r e d d a t a on a cont inuum of v i o l e n t a c t s , r a n g i n g from a push t o u s i 2 g a k L i f s o r gun. T h i s a l l o w s r e a d e r s t o draw t h e l i n e a t whatever p l a c e seems most a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e i r purpose.

EEASURING WIPE-BEATIBG

But t h i s " s o l u t i o n " c a n a l s o b e a means of a v o i d i n g t h e i s s u e . So b e s i d e s d a t a o r e a c h v i o l e n t a c t , tie combinEd t h e most s e v e r e a c t s i n t o what can b e c a l l e d a " s e v e r e s i o l s n c e i n d e x " o r , f o r p u r p o s e s of t h i s c h a p t e r . a " W i f e - B s ~ t i n g Icdex."

The C o n f l i c t T a c t i c s S c a l e s (CTS) were used t o g a t h e r t h e s e d a t a ( S t r a u s . 1979). These s c a l e s p r o v i d e d a t a on how f a m i l y menbers a t t e m p t t o d e a l w i t h c o n f l i c t s between themse lves . The P h y s l c a l v i o l e n c e Index of t h e CTS c o n t a i n s t h e f o l l o w i n g e i g h t items:

K. Throwing t h i n g s a t t h e s p o u s s I. Pushing , shoving , o r g r a b b i n g 8 . S l a p p i n g N. K ick ing , b i t i n g , o r h t t t i r g w i t h t h e f i s t 0. R i t o r t r i e d t o h i t w i t h someth ing P- Beat uo . . Q. T h r e a t e n e d wzth a k c l f e o r gun R. Used a k n l f e o r gun

The o v e r a l l V i o l e n c e I n d e x c o n s i s t s o f t h e e x t e n r t o which aLy of t h e s e a c t s were c a r r i e d o u t d u r i n g t h e p r r o i o u s 12 months. The Wife-Beating I n d e x c o n s i s t s o f t h e e x t f n t t o which a c t s N t h r o u g h R o c c u r r e d .

~ h . 2 , Wife-Beating Page 27

The c h o i c e o f a c t s N t h r o o g h R a s t h s Wife-Beat ing 1ndeZ d o e s n o t r e f l e c t c u r c o n c e p t i o n o f what is p e r m i r s i b l 4 ~ i o l e n c e . I f i n d n s n e o f t h e s e t o be a c c e p t a b l r f o r

ba tueen a n y human b e i n g s , i r c l u d i n g p a r e n t acd c h i l d , b r o t h e r and s i s t e r , husband and w i f e , s t u d e n t and t ~ a c b e r . m i n i s t e r and p a r i s h i o n e r , o r c o l l a a g u s s i n a depa t tment . I n s h o r t , I f o l l o w t h e maxim c o i n e d by J c h n va lusex : " P e o p l ~ sre 10t f o r h i t t i o g . '

What, t h e n , is t h e b a s i s f o r s e l e c t i n g i t e m s R t h r o u g h R t o make up t h e Wife-Beat ing I n d e x ? 1 t i a s i m p l y the' . t h e s 9 a r e a l l a c t s t h a t c e r r y v i t h them a high' r i s k of s e r i o u s p h y s i c a l i n j u r y t o t h e v ic t im. With t h e s D c o n s i d e r a t i o r s i n mind. WE c a n t u r n t o t h e q u e s t i o c o f t r y i o g t o e s t i m a t e t h e e x t e r t o f u i f s - b e a t i n g i n t h e u n i t e d s t a t e s .

TEE SXTENT OF YIPP-BEATIAG

The p r o c e d u r e s f o r e p a s u r i n g v i o l s n c e just d e s c r i b e d were used i~ a s t u d y o f a n a t i o n a l l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a m p l s o f American f a m i l i e s , made p o s s i b l e by a g r a n t from NIMs. ?. p r o b a b i l i t y sample of 2.1Y3 f a m i l i e s was s t u d i e a . I n a p p r o x i m a t e l y h a l f t h e c a s e s t h e p e r s o n p r o v i d i n g t h e i n f o r m a t i o f was a woman and ir h a l f a mar. To be e l i g i b l e f o r i P c l u S i o n i n t h e s t u d y , t h e r e s p o n d e n t had t o b? c r a member of a male-female c o u p l a , aged 18 t o 70. The c c u p l e d i d n o t have t o h a r e c h i l d r e n , n o r d i d t h e y have t o be l e g a l l y mar r ied . Our sample c o n t a i n s c o u p l e s v i t h and wiThout c h i l d r e n , ar.d m a r r i e d and unmarr ied c o u p l e s i n a b o u t t h e s a n e p r o p o r t i o n a s a r e found i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n .

YEarlp I n c i d e n c e . The most d i r e c t , b u t i n some ways --- a l s o a m i s l e a d i n g , s t a t i s t i c emerg ing from t h s d a t a an t h e Z.lU3 c o u p l e s i r o u r sample is t h e t . f o r t h e 12-morth p e r i o d preceding t h e i x t e r v i e w . 3.8 p e r c e n t of t h e r e s p o n d e n t s r e p o r t e d one o r mcre p h y s i c a l a t t a c k s t h a t f a l l ucd?r o u r o p e r a t i o n a l d s t i n i t i o n o f wi fe -bea t ing . Applying t h i s iCc idenCe r a t e t o t h e a p p r a x i e a t e l y 47 m i l l i c n c o u p l e s i n t h e u n i t e d S t a t e s means t h a t , i n a n y one year . a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1.8 m i l l i o n wives a r e b e a t e n by t h e i r hushanas.

I mentioned t h a t t h i s can be a m i s l e a d i n g f i g u r e ; two o t h e r f a c t s must be c o n s i d e r e d : how o f t e n t h e s ? b e a t i n g s Occur. and how t h e y fit i n w i t h t h n o v e r a l l p a t t e r n o f v i o l e n c e i n t h e fami ly .

~ h . 2 . Wife -Bea t i rg Page 29

F r e M g E y @rlX t h s Y g s . Among t h o s e c o u p l e s i n -- which a b e a t i n g o c c u r r e d , it v a s t y p i c a l l y n o t a n i s o l a t e d i n s t a n c e , a s can be s e e n from t h e "Frequency* c o l u m s of able 1. Kovever, t h e mean f r e q u e n c y of o c c u r r e n c e o v e r s t a t e s t h e c a s e ; i r a few c a s e s v i o l e n c e was a l m o s t a d a i l y O r weekly e v e n t . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , t h e median g i v e s a more r e a l i s t i c p i c t u r e o f t h e t y p i c a l f r e q u e n c y o f v i ~ l e n c e i n t h e v i o l e n t f a m i l i e s . T h i s i s 2.4, t h a t . is , t h ? t y p % c a 1 p a t t e r n is c v e r two s e r i c u s a s s a u l t s p e r year . But of c o u r s e t h e r e is g r e a t v a r i a r i o r . For a b o u t a t h i r d 3f + h e c o u p l e s who r e p o r t e d a n a c t t h a t f a l l s i n o u r c a t e g x y cf w i f e - b e a t i n g , b e a t i n g o c c u r r e d c n l y once d u r i n g t h o year . A t t h e o t h e r E X ~ ~ E B P were c a s e s i n which i t Occurred once a week O r more o f t e n . About 19 p e r c e n t r e p o r t e d two b e a t i n g s d u r i n g t h e year . 16 percan' r e p c r t e d t h r e e o r f o u r , and 32 p e r c e n t r e p o r t e d f i v e o r more.

A more l i t e r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e d a t a can h e O b t a l n e d frcm l o o k i n g a t t h e f i g u r e s i n T a b l e 1 f o r e a c h t y p e of v i o l e n t a c t . Whec t h e c a t e g o r y o f " w i f e - b e a t i n g " i s r e s t r l c t e d t o t h o s e who used t h e t e r m *'beat up" t o d e s c r i b e v h a t h a p p m e d ( i t em P ) , t h e f i g u r e is 1.1 p e r c e n t , with a median of 1.7 b e a t i n g s p e r year . w h i l e t h i s is much l o w e r t h a n t h e 3 . 8 p e r c e n t f i g u r e t h a t t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t a l l t h e s e v e r e v i o l e n t a c t s , i t still r e p r e s e n t s o v e r h a l f a m i l l i o n f a m i l i e s .

D u r a t i o n of f i a r r i a a e Rates. I n o t h e r a s p e c t of v i f e - h e a t i n g that must b e c o n s i d e r e d is t h e p r o p o r l i o ~ o f f a m i l i e s i n which a b e a t i r g o c c u r r e d . O n f o r t u n l t e l y , o u r d a t a f o r e v e n t s b e f o r e t h e y e a r o f t h e s u r v e y aa n o t i d e n t i f y t h e a s s a i l e n t and t h e v i c t i m . 111 t h a t can b e r e p o r t e d is t h a t 2 8 p e r c e n t o f t h e c o u p l e s i n t h e s t u d y e x p e r i e n c e d a t l e a s t o r e v i o l e n t i n c i d e n t and 5.3 p e r c e n t e x p e r i e n c e d v i o l e n c e t h a t we c o n s i d e r a b e a t i n g .

IG some of t h e r e c a s e s . i t was a s i n g l e s l a p o r a S i n g l e b e a t l n g . Bouever. t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l r e a s o n s vhy e v e n a s i n g l e b e a t i n g i s i m p o r t a n t . F i r s t , i n my v a l u e s , e v e n or.€ such e v e n t is i n t r i n s i c a l l y a debasement o f human l i f e . S ~ c o n d . p h y s i c a l d a r g e r is involved . T h i r d , many, i f n o t most. s u c h b e a t i n g s a r e p a r t c f a f a m l l y power s t r u g g l e . Of ten o n l y one o r two s l a p s f i x t h e b a l a n c e of paver i n a f a m i l y f o r many years - -or p e r h a p s f o r a l i f e t i m e .

P h y s i c a l f o r c e i s t h e u l t i m a t e r e s o u r c e t h a t most of u s l e a r n a s c h i l d r e n t o r e l y on i f a 1 1 e l s e f a i l s and t h e i s s u e 15 c r u c i a l . A s t h e husband i n t h e f a m i l y d e s c r i b e a i n C h a p t e r I D s a i d when a s k e d why he h i t h i s w i f e d u r i n g a n argument:

... She more o r less t r i e d t o r u n me and I s a i d no. and s h e g o t h y s t e r i c a l and s a i d . "1 conld k i l l you!" Lnd I g o t r a t h e r angry ar.d s l a p p e d he- i n t h e f a c e t h r e e o r f o u r t i m e s and I s a i d

Ch.2. wi fe -Bea t ing Page 30

-Don' t you e v e r s a y ? h a t t o me again!" And ur h a v e n ' t had any problem s l c c e .

L a t e r i n t h e i n t e r v i e w , t h e husband e v a l u a t e d h i s use of p h y s i c a l f o r c e a s f o l l o w s :

You dor . l t u s e it u n t i l you a r e f o r c e d t o it. A t t h a t p o i n t I f e l t I had t o d o someth ing p h y s i c a l t o s t o p t h ~ bad p r o g r e s s i o n of e v e n t s . I took rn? c h a n c e s v i t h t h a t and it worked. I n t h o s e circumstances my judgment was c o r r e c t 3 r d i t worked.

S i n c e s u p e r i o r s t r e n g t h and s i z e g i v e s t h e a d v a n t a g e t o men i n s u c h s i t u a t i o n s . t h e s i n g l e b e a t i n g may be an s x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r :n m a i c t a i n i c g male d o a i n a n c e i n t h e f a m i l y system.

k c c u r a x o f E s t i m a t e s . How much c o n f i d e n c e ca' b e p l a c e d i n t h e s e f i g u r e s ? I am r e a s o n a b l y c o n f i d e n t t h a t t h e s a m p l e is r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f Rmerican c o o p l e s g e n € r a l l y . But t h a t is o n l y one a s p e c t o f t h e a c c u r a c y q u e s t i o n . Tha o t h e r main a s p e c t is whether o u r r e s p o n d e n t s " t o l d a l l . " BEre I have d o u b t s t o r t h e f o l l o w i n g r e a s o n s :

1. U n d ~ r r e p O r t i ~ g of d o m e s t i c v i o l e n c e i s l i k e l y t o o c c u r among two gzoups of p e o p l e , f o r o p p o s i t e reasons . For a l a r g e group, v i c l e n c e is s o much a normal p a r t of t h e f a m i l y sys tem t h a t a s l a p , push , o r s h o v e (and somet imes even more s e v e r s a c t s ) i s s i m p l y n o t no tewor thy o r d r a m a t i c enough t o be remembered. Such o m i s s i o n s a r e E s p e c i a l l y l i k e l y when we a s k a b o u t e v e c t s o v e r t h e e n t i r e l e n g t h of a a a r r i a g e .

2. P a r a d o x i c a l l y , t h e r e is a l s o underrepart :ng a t t h e O t h e r end o f t h e v l o l e n c e cor t inuum-- those who ~ x p s r l e n c e d s u c h s e v e r e v i o l e n t a c t s a s b e i n g b i t t e n , h i t v i t h o b j e c t s . b e a t e n up. o r a t t a c k e d w i t h a k n i f e o r gun. ThEse a c t s go beyond t h e "normal v l o l e n c e ' of f a m i l y l i f e . Such a c t s a r e a d m i t t e d r e l u c t a n t l y , b e c a u s e o f t h e shame i n v o l v e d i f one i s t h e v i c t i m , o r t h e g u i l t if o n e is t h e a t t a c k e r .

3. I f i n a l r e a s o n f o r r e g a r d i n g t h s s e f i g u s r s a s d r a s t i c u n d e r e s t i n a t e s l i e s i n t h e n a t u r E of o u r sample. S i n c e a major p u r p o s e of t h e s t u d y was t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e ~ x t e P t t o which v i o l e n c e i s r e l a t e d t o o t h e r a s p e c t s o f hushand-wife i n t e r a c t i o n . we sampled o n l y c o u p l e s l i v i n g t o g e t h e r . Divorced p e r s o n s were a s k e d o n l y a b o u t t h e c u r r e n t m a r r l a g e ( a g a i n b e c a u s e o f inte:r iew tims l imits and r r c a l l a c c u r a c y prob lems) . S i n c e " e x c e s s i v e ' v i o l e n c e i s a m a j o r c a u s e o f d i v o r c e , and s i n c e o u r s a m p l e i s l i m i t E d t o c o u p l e s l i v i n g t o g e t h e r , t h e s e d a t a p r o b a b l y o a i t many of t h e h i g h v i o l e n c e c a s e s .

Ch.2. wi fe -Bea t ing Page 31

These C o r s i d e r a t i o n ~ , p l u s t h e h i g h e r r a t e s i n o u r p i l o t s t u d i e s and i n f o r m a l e v i d e n c e (where s c n e of t h e f a c t o r s l s a d i n g t o u n d e r r e p o r t i n g were l e s s ) s u g g e s t t h a t t h e t r u e i n c i d e n c e f o r v i o l e n c e i n a m a r r i a g e is p r o b a b l y c l o s e r t o 50 91 6 0 wrcert of g.&& c=&~ t h a n it i s t o t h e 2 8 p e r c e n t who were w i l l i n g t o d e s c r i b e v i o l e n t a c t s i n a B a s s i n t e r v i e w survey .

WIPE-BELTING I S NOT RESTRICTED TO WIVES

Although t h i s c h a p t e r i s concerned p r i m a r i l y w i t h v i f e - b e a t i n g , a n a d e q u a t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e phenomsron r e q u i r e s t h a t we c o c s i d e r i t i r a wider c o n t e x t . We must r e C o g P i z e t h a t one d o e s n o t have t o be m a r r i e d t o be t h e v i c t i n o f p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e by a p a r t n e r . Our n a t i o n a l s u r v e y ( P l l o and S t r a o s , 1980) a s t o d y by iiennon (1976) o f s t u d e n t s l i v i n g t o g e t h e r , and much i n f o r m a l e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t t h a t c o u p l e s who a r e no? m a r r i e d have r a t e s o f v i c l o n c ? t h a t a r e a s h i g h o r h l q h e r t h a n t h o s e mar r ied . I n f a c t , c l o p l e e d o n o t have t o l i v e t o g e t h e r . Once a s t e p i s t a k e r t o u e r d a a a r r i a g e - l i k e a r rangement . a s i n a b o y f r i a n a - g i r l f r i e n d r e l a t i o n s h i p , and E s p e c i a l l y if r e g u l a r s e x i s i n v o l v e d . t h e v i o l e n c e r a t e jumps d r a m a t i c a l l y . V i o l e n c e can no l o n g e r b e f i g u r e d i~ t h e r a t e s p e r 100,000 c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a s s a u l t s i r g e n e r a l . I n s t e a d , s i m p l e p e r c e n t a g e s , t h a t is, r a t e s p e r hundred, a r e more l o g i c a l . Why t h i s happens i s i m p o r l a n t i n i t s e l f and a l s o b e c a u s e it t h r o w s a g r e a t d e a l o f l i g h t o n t h e situation o f wives.

ADSBAND BEATING

N O W we come t o f i n d i n g s t h a t may be surprising t o some r e a d e r s . The r a t i o n a l s a m p l e d a t a c o n f i r m what a l l o f o u r p i l o t s t u d i e s have shown ( G e l l e s . 1974; S t e i n m e t z , 1977; S t r a u s , 197Y): t h a t v i o l e n c e b e t v e e o husband ar.d v i f e is n o t a one-way s t r e e t . Thr o l d c a r t o o n s o f t h e v i f e c h a s i n g a husband w i t h a r o l l i n g p i n o r t h r o w i n g p o t s and p a n s a r e c l o s e r t o r e a l i t y t h a n most o f u s ( e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e of u s w i t h f e m i n i s t s y m p a t h i e s ) r e a l i z e . T h i s can be s e e n f r o a a n i n s p e c t i o n of t h e w i f c columns i n T a b l e 1.

Ch.2. S l f e - B e a t i n g

t h e VOfd VlOleDCe.

Page 32

Sg'cif ic p i c l e n t Acts. I f we l o o k a t t h e s p e c i f i c - - -- -- -- t y p s s o f v i o l e n t a c t s sampled by t h e C R T , t h e r e i s e v i a e n c e for +he ont and Dan t h r o v i n o s t e r e a t v o e . s i n c e t h e number o f -.- .~~. L - -

L - ~ ~ - ~ ~ 2 ~ 2 . ~ .

wives who t h r e w t h i n g s a t t h e i r h u s b a n a s is a l m o s t t w i c e a s l a r q e a s t h e number o f h u s b a z d s who t h r e v t h i n q s a t the:= wives. F o r h a l f o f t h e v i o l e n t a c t s , however, t h e r a t e i s h i o h e r f a r t h e husband: + h e f r e o u e n c v is h i s h e r f o r t h e

d~ - - A

h u s b a n d s i n a l l b u t t v a o f t h e items. The b i g g e s t d i s c r e p a n c y i n f a v o r o f wives o c c u r s i n k i c k i r g and h i t t i n q v i t h o b j e c t s . Such a c t s a r e less d e p e n a e n t on s u p e r i o r p h y s i c a l s t r e n g t h . T h i s Eggma t o s u p p o r t t h e v i e v t h a t an i m p o r t a n t d i f f ~ r E n c E between male a n d f e m a l e d o m e s t i c v i o l e n c e s t e n s from t h e s m a l l e r s i z e , w e i g h t , and muscle deve lopment o f most women, r a t h e r t h a n from a n y g r e a t e r r e j e c t i o n of p h y s l c a l f o r c e on m o r a l o r normativ: grourias.

P o l l c y m u l i c a t i o n s . Althooqh t h e s e f i n d i n g s show h i g h r a t e s of v i o l e n c e u i q ~ , t h i s f a c t s h c u l a n o t d i v e r t a t t e n t i o n from t h e need t o a i v e u r i m a r v a t t e r t i o n t o wives

a s t h e imlaedlate f o c u s o f s o c i a l p o l i c y . There a r e a number of r e a s o n s t o r t h i s :

(1) P o a l i d i t y s t u d y c a r r i e d o u t i n p r e p a r a t i o r i f o r t h i s r e s e a r c h ( B u l c r o f t and s t r a u s , 1975) shows t h a t u n d e r r e p o r t i n g o f v i o l e n c e is g r e a t e r f o r v i o l e c c e by husbands t h a n i r i s f o r v i o l e n c e by wives. T h i s i s p r o b a b l y b e c a u s e t h e u s e of p h y s i c a l f o r c e i s s o much a p a r t o f t h e male way o f l l f e t h a t i t is t y p i c a l l y r o t t h e d r a m a t i c and o f t e n t r a u m a t i c e v e c t t h a t t h e same a c t o f v i o l e n c e i s f o r a voman. To b~ v i o l e n t is n o t unmascul ine . But t o b e p h y s i c a l l y v i o l e n t . & u n f s m i n i n e a c c o r d i n g t o con temporary R a e r i c a c s t a n d a r d s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , i f it were p o s s i b l e t o a l l o w f o r t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i n r e p o r t i n g r a t e s , even i c s i m p l e ~ u m e r i c a . 1 terms, w i f e - b e a t i n g p r o b a b l y would b e t h e more s e v e r e problem.

(2 ) W e n i f one d o e s n o t t a k e i n t o a c c o u r t t h i s d i f f e r e n c s i n u n a e r r e p o r t i n g , t h e d a t a i n T a b l e 1 show t h a t h u s b a n d s h a v e h l g h e r r a t e s of t h e most dangerous and i n j u r i o u s fo rms o f v i o l e n c e ( b e a t i n g - u p and u s i n g 6 k n i f e o r g u n ) .

(3) T a b l e 1 a l s o shews t h a t when v i o l e n t a c t s a r e committed by a husband, t h e y a r e r e p e a t e d more o f t e n ?ha> i s t h e c a s e f o r wives.

(4) These d a t a d o n o t t e l l u s what p r o p o r t i o n of t h e v i o l e n t a c t s by r i v e s were i n r e s p o n s e t o blows i n i t i a t e a by husbands. Wolfgang's d a t a on h o s b a ~ d - w i f e homic ides (1957) s u g g e s t t h e t t h i s is a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r .

ch.2. u i f %-Bea t ing Page 33

(5) The g r e a t e r p h y s i c a l s t r e n g t h of men makes i t more l i k e l y t h a t a woman WLll be s e r i o u s l y i n j u r e d when bee ton up by h e r husbacd t h a n t h e r e v e r s e .

(6) A d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y l a r g e number o f a t t a c k s by h n s b a r d s seem t o o c c u r vhec t h e wi fe i s p r e g n a n t ( G s l l e s . 1976). t h u s p o s i n g e d a n g e r t o t h e a s y e t unborn c h i l d .

(7) aomec a r e l o c k e d i n t o m a r r i a g e t o a s u c h g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n men. Because o f a v a r i e t y o f economic and s o c i a l c o n s t r a i c t s , t h e y o f t o r have no a l t a r n a t i v e t o p u t t i n g up wi th b e a t i n g s by t h e i r hnsbands ( G e l l e s . 1976; B a r t i n , 1976; S?raus, 1976a. 1977b).

I n s h o r t , wives a r e v i c t i m i z e d by v i o l e n c e i n t h e f a m i l y z o a ouch g r e a t e r e x t e r t t h a n a r e husbands and s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e b e t h e f o c u s o f t h e most immedia te r s m e d i a l s t e p s . Bowever, t h e s e d a t a a l s o i n d i c a t e t h a t a f u n d a m e n t a l s o l u t i o n t o w i f e - b e a t i n g c a n n o t b e r e s t r i c t e d t o s h e immedia te problem of t h e a s s a u l t i n g husbands. R a t h e r , v i o l e n c e is embeadPd i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e s o c i e t y a n 6 t h e f a m i l y s y s t e m i tself ( s t r a u s , 1 9 7 6 ~ ) . Ths p a r t i c u l a r l y b r u t a l form of v i c l e n c e known a s w i f e - b e a t i n g is l i k e l y t o end o n l y wi th a c h a n g e in t h e c u l t u r a l and s s c i a l o r g a t i z a t i o n a l f a c C o r s u n d e r l y i n g p a r e n t - t o - c h i l d , c h i l d - t o - c h i l d , a n d wife- to-husband v i o l e n c e a s ~€11. Some of t h e s p a c i t i c s t e p s t o a c c o m p l i s h t h i s change a r e o u t l i n e d i n Chapte r 13.

TEE CRUSES OF RIPE-BEATING

R O Y I t u r n t o t h e p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e c a u s e s o f v i f e - b e a t i n g a r s t o be fonnd i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f American S o c i e t y and i t s f a m i l y system. Demons t ra t ing t h i s , s v s n i n p r i n c i p l e . i s a v a s t u n d e r t a k i n g . Indeed , ?ha: is whni t h i s book is abcut. In t h i s c h a o t e r . I w i l l s i m ~ l v i d e r t i f v - . . --- . . s e v e n of t h e maln f e c t o r s and *he a e n s r e l t e n o r o f t h e argoment . P l g u r e 1 g l v e s a n o v e r v l s w of t h e s e f a c t o r s and some of t h e l r r n t e r r e l a t l o n s h i p s .

3 combina t ion of t h e s e f a c t o r s ( p l u s o t h e r s c o t diagrammea f o r l a c k o f s p a c e ) makes t h e f a m i l y t h e most v i o l e n t o f a l l c i v i l i e n i n s t i t u 5 i o n s and a c c o u n t s f o r t h a t a s p e c t o f f a m i l y v i o l e n c e which we c a l l wi fe -bea t ing . L e t US l o o k b r i e f l y a t each o f t h e s e f a c t o r s .

1. of Ea&x s ~ 9 f L L g i . An e s s e n t i a l -- s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r a n y u n d e r s t a n d i n g of f a s i l y v i o l e n c e i s t h e h l g h l e v e l o f c o n f l i c t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f f a m i l i e s . I n C h a p t e r 1, e l e v e n r e a s c n s f o r t h e t y p i c a l h i g h l e v e l of coqf l ic t w i t h i n t h e f a m i l y ware i d s n t l f i e d and b r i e f l y e x p l a i n e d . These r e a s o r s i n c l u d e d t h e broad r a r p a o f a c t i v i t i e s s h a r e d by f a m i l y members, wi th c o n s e q u e r t g r e a t e r

Ch.2. Wifa-Beat ing P a g ~ 34

o p p o r t u n i t y f o r c o c f l i c ' s o f i n t e r e s t t h a n i n more n a r r o w l y f o c u s e d g r o u p s ; t h e a g e a n d s e x d i f f e r e n c e s b u i l t i r t o t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e f a m i l y : and t h e a s s i g c m e n t o f f a n i l y r o l e s on t h e b a s i s of a g e and s e x r a t h e r t h a n i n t e r e s t a r d C O P ~ S ~ ~ C C E . A l l f o u r c h a p t e r s i n P a r t I11 c o n s i d e r v a r i c u s a s p s c t s o f i n t r a f a m i l y c o c f l i c t . C h a p t e r 8 c s n s i d e r s t h e s s c o ~ f l i c t s i n t h e l i g h t of c o n f l i c t t h e c r y and t h e paradox of 'he l o v e - h a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s o o f t e n found il f a m i l i e s .

2% yZq& L e v e l of V i o l e n c e i n f& socie; et The h i g h l e v e l o f c o n f l i c t i n h e r e r t i n t h e f a m i l y , c o e b r n e d v i t h t h e huge e m o t i o n a l i n v e s t m e n t t y p r c a l o f f a m i l y r e l e t i o n s h i p s . means t h a t t h e f a m i l y is l i k e l y t o be t h e l o c u s of a c r e , and more s e r i o u s , c o n f l i c t s t h a n o t h e r groups. But c o n f l i - t and v i o l e n c e a r e n o t t h e same. V i o l c n c e is o n l y one olpans of d e a l i n g w i t h c o n f l i c t . What a c c o u n t s f o r t h e u s e of v i o l e n c e t o d e a l v i t h c o n f l i c t s w i t h i n t h e f ~ m i l y ? A f u n d a a e o t a l s t a r t i n g p l a c e is t h a t we a r e p a r t of a v i o l e n t s o c i e t y . There is a c a r r y - o v e r from one s p h E r e of l i f e t o a n o t h e r . a s I have t r i a d t o show i n a p a p e r comparing l e v e l s o f f a m i l y v i o l e n c e i n d i f f e r e n t s o c i e t i e s ( S t r a u s , 1 9 7 l a ) . However, g r a n t i n g t h e c a r r y - o v e r p r i n c i p l e , t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n i s by no means s u f f i c i e n t . C o n f l i c t i s 31sO h i g h , f o x example; i n academic d e p a r t m e c t s . Eut t h e r e h a s n e v e r been a n i n c i d e n t of p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e i a any 3f t h e s i x d e p a r t m e n t s i n which I h a r e t a u g h t d u r i n g t h e p a s t 25 y e a r s . I n f a c t . I have o n l y h e a r d o f o n e s u c h i n c i a a n t o c c u r r i n g anywhere. C l e a r l y , o t h e r f a c t o r s must be p r e s e n t .

3, sad 4. F z m i l ~ SgCii&@si~~ i n Zio&ens%. One 3f t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t of t h e s e o t h e r f a c t o r s i s t h a t t h e f a m i l y i s t h ~ s e t t i n o i n which most DeODle f i r s t e x o e r l e n c e

&

p h y s i c a l v i o l e c c e , and t h e s e t t i n g t h a t e s t a b l i s h e s t h e e m o t i o n a l c o n t e x t and meaning of v i o l e n c ~ .

L e a r n i n g a b o u t v i o l e n c e s t a r t s w i t h p h y s i c a l punishment , which is n e a r l y u n i v e r s a l ( s t e i n m e t z and S t r a u s , 1974). When p h y s i c a l punishment i s used. s e v e r a l c o n s e q u e n c e s c a n be expec ted . F i r s t , most o b v i o u s l y , is l e a r n i n g t o do o r n o t d o whatever t h e punishment i s i c t e n d e a t o t e a c h . L e s s o b v i o u s , b u t e q u a l l y o r more i m p o r t a n t , a r e t h r e e o t h e r l e s s o n s t h a t a r e s o d e e p l y l e a r n e d t h a t t h e y become an i n t e g r a l p a r t of o n e ' s p e r s o n a l i t y and world view.

The f i r s t of t h e s e u n i n t e n d e d c o n s e g u s n c e s i s t h e C s s o c l a t i o C Of l o v e w i t h v i o l e n c e . PhysLca l punishment t y p i c a l l y b e g i n s i n i n f a n c y w i t h s l a p s t o c o r r e c t and t e a c h . Iomay and Daddy a r e t h e f i r s t a n d u s u a l l y t h e m l y o n e s to h i t a n i c f a L t . and f o r mast c h i l d r e n t h i s c o n t i n u e s t h r o u g h o u t c h i l d h c o d . The c h i l d t h e r e f o r e l e a r n s t h a t t h o s e who l o v e him o r h e r t h e most a r e a l s o t h Y s e vh3 h i r .

Second. s i n c e p h y s i c a l p u n i s t m m t i s used t o t r a i n t h e c h i l d o r t o t e a c h a b o u t danqa;ous t h i n g s t o be a v o i d e d , it e s t a b l i s h e s t h e mora l r i g h t n e s s of h i t t i n g o t h e r f a m i l y

T ~ E t h i r d u n i n t e n d e d conseguence is t h e l e s s o n t h a t when someth ing i s r e a l l y i m p o r t a n t , i t j u s t i f i e s t h e u s a of p & y s i c a l f o r c e .

These i n d i r e c t l e s s o n s a r e c o t c o n f i n e d t o p r o v i d i r g a model f o r l a t e r t r e a t m e n t o f o n e ' s own c h i l a x e n . S a t h e t . t h e y bECOme s u c h a f u n d a m e n t a l p a r t o f t h e i c d i v i a u a l ' s p e r s o n a l i t y and o u t l o o k t h a t t h e y a r e g e n e r a l i z e d t o o t h e r s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , e s p e c i a l l y t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p c l o s e s t t o t h a t o f paren? and c h i l d - t h a t of husband and wife.

Thus, e a r l y e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h p h y s l c a l punishment l a y t h e groundwork f o r t h e n c r m a t i v e l e g i t i s a c y of a l l t y p s s o f v i o l e n c e b u t e s p e c i a l l y i n t r a f a m i l y v i o l e n c e . Rs s u g g e s t e d by box 4, i t provide: a r o l e aodel- indeed. a s p z c i f i c n s c r i p t n ( s e e Chapte r 4 ar:d Gagnon and Simon, 1973) - - for s u c h a c t i o n s . nany c h i l d r e n d o n o t even nesd t o g e n s r a l i z e t h i s s o c i a l l y s c r i p t e d p a t t e r n of b e h a v i o r from t h e p a r e n t - c h i l d nexus i n which it was l e a r n e d t o o t h e r f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s : i t o u r e s t i m a t e s a r e c o r r e c t , m i l l i o n s o f c h i l d r e n c a n d i r e c t l y o b s e r v e p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e between husbands and v i v e s ( s e e a l s o Ovens and S t r a u s . 1975) .

5, Cgl_sg=& E m . The p r e c e d i n g d i s c u s s i o n h a s f o c u s e a . o n t h e way ir. which v i o l e n c e becomes b u i l t i n t o t h e b e h a v i o r a l r e p e r t o r y of husbands and wives. Though i m p o r t a n t , e a r l y e x p e r i e n c e c o u l d n o t a c c o u n t f o r t h e h i g h l e v e l of f a m i l y v i o l e n c e , were it n o t a l s o s u p p o r t p a by C u l t u r a l norms 1 E g i t i n i z i n g s u c h v i o l e n r p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s . S i n c e most o f u s t e n d t o t h i n k of norms t h a t c a l l f o r l o v e a n d g e n t l e n e s s w i t h i n t h e f a s ~ l y , it is d i f f i c u l t t o p e r c e i v e t h a t t h e r e a r e b c t h @ jgg? and & fa&? c u l t u r a l notms l e g i t i m i z i n g t h e u s e o f v i o l e n c e between f a m i l y members. C h a p t e r 3 documer t s t h e e v i d e n c e f o r t h e e x i s t e r c e of s u c h n o r n s and C h a p t e r 5 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e i n d i r e c t e f f e c t o f c u l t u r a l norms.

6, agfi Z, = p a l I n e a u a l t ~ ~ 2 s C2g1=3 !9g52gg~sg 2 s Women. The l a s t two c a u s a l f a c t o r s , boxes 6 and 7 of P i g u r e ----- 1, can be c o n s i d e r e d t o g e t h e r and summarized i n t h e p T o p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e s e x i s t o r g a n i z a t i c n o f t h e s o c i e t y and Its f a m i l y sys tem ; s one of t h e most t u n d a m e n t a l f a c t o r s i n t h e h i g h l e v e l o f u i f e - b e a t i n g . C h a p t e r 6 and P l r t IV d e m o n s t r a t e t h i s p r o p o s i t i o n . P o l i c y recommendations aimea a t p r e v e n t i n g v i f e - b e a t i n g a r E examined i n C h a p t s r 13. Some a s p e c t s a l s o have been p r e s e n t e d e a r l i e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r . S l n c e t h e s e i s s u e s a r e d i s c u s s e d i r d e p t h i n o t h e r chapte:s, I w i l l n o t e o n l y t h a t boxes 6 and 7 of F i g u r e 1 summarize t h e main e l e m e n t s o f sex ism t h a t l e a d $5 wi fe -bea t ing .

P e r h a p s d e v o t i n g an i n a p p r o p r i a t e l y s m a l l p a r t of t h e t e x t Of t h i s c h a p t e r t o s e x u a l i n e q u a l i t y - - o n e o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t c a u s a l f a c t o r s i n u i f e - b e a t i n g , - - w i l l d r a n e t i z e

t h a t sex l sm is o r l y o n e p a r t o f t h e complex c a u s a l m a t r i x o f f a m i l y v i o l e n c e ( c u t l l n e d i n F i g u r e 1 ) . T h a t male domixance does n o t p r o t e c t men from v i o l e n c e by o t h e r men a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s complex i ty .

'1f t r u e e q u a l i t y between t h e s e x e s were somehow t o h e a c h l e v e d tomorrou , a l l fo rms o f f a m i l y v i o l e n c e ( i n c l u d i n g w i f e - b e a t i o g ) would c o n t i n u e t o e x i s t - - t h o u g h p r o h a b l y a t a Somewhat l o w e r i r c i d e n c ~ - - ~ n l ~ s s s t e p 5 a l s o a r e t a k e n t o a l t e r t h e f a c t o r s i d e n t i f i e d i n b o x e s 2. 3, 4. and 5 o f F i g u r e 1. The l e v e l c f n o r - f a m i l y v i o l e n c e a l s o must be l o w e r e d t o end t h e t r a i n i n g i n v i o l e n c e t h a t is p a r t o f g rowing u p i n a t y p i c a l American f a m i l y . V i o l e n c e is t r u l y woven i n t o t h e f a b r i c o f American s o c i e t y . and i n t 3 t h e p e r s o n a l i t y , b e l i e f s , v i l u e s . and b e h a v i 3 r a l s c r i p t s of most o f o u r p o p u l a t i o o . E l l m i n a t i o n o f w i f e - b e a t i n g depends n o t o n l y on s l i m i n a t i n g s e x u a l i n e q u a l i t y . b u t a l s o on a l t e r i n g t h e s y s t e m o f v i o l e n c e on which s o much o f American s o c i e t y depends .

ROTE

1. T h i s c h a p t e r , originally p r e s e n t e d a t t h ? c o n f e r e n c e on " B a t t e r e d wires: D E i i c i n g t h e I s s u e s , n C e n t e r f o r R962aroh on women. S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y . Hay 2 0 , 1977; and a t t h e Second World Congress , I n t e r n e t i o n a l S o c i e t y on F a m i l y Law. f l o n t r e a l , J u n e 14. 1977, is a s h o r t e n e d and r e v i s e d v e r s i o n o f "wi fe -Bea t ing : Bow Common and why." r e p r i n t e d v i t h p e r m i s s i o n from V i c t i m o l o g p s o l , 2. Number 3, 1977. (c) 1977 Visage P r e s s . I n c . The m a t e r i a l s i n t h i s c h a p t e r w i l l be p r e s e n t e d more f u l l y i n a f o r t h c 3 r n i r g book. Behjn_& ==a& m z V i o l e n c e ;gali_s=g c+_g&&~ - ( s t r a u s . G e l l e s . a n d s t e i n m e t z , 1980).

Page 38

The c u l t u r a l corms and v a l u e s p s r m i t t i g g husband-wife v i o l e n c e r e s e m b l e what Bern 3 ~ d Ben (1970) c a l l " n o n c o r s c i o u s ideo logy ." T h i s i d e s p o i n t s o u t t h a t on some i s s u e s ( t h e Bess examined t h e r o l e o f women i n America!? s o c i e t y ) o u r p e r , s p e c t i v e is s o d e e p l y h e l d and s o s u b t l e t h a t we c a n n o t Even imagine a l t e r n a t i v e b e l i e f s and a t t i t u d e s . Only when l snonconsc ious i d e o l o g i e s n a r e c h a l l e r g e d a r e p e o p l e a p t t 5 d i s p l a y t h e d e p t h o f s u c h a b e l i e f system. Or ly under c h a l l e n g e is t h e r a t i o n a l e o f t h e i a ? o l o g y l i k e l y t o s u r f a c e .

Bs t h e c h a p t e r s i x t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n a a k e c l e a r , o u r s o c i e t y f a i l s t o r e c o g n i z e t h e m a s s i v e c u l t u r a l " s c r i p t i n g " (Gagnon and Simon. 1973) t h a t makes it more p e r m i s s i b l e t o s t r i k e 3 f a m i l y member t h a n t o h i t a f r i e n d , co-worker. o r s t r a l g e r . One of t h e r e a s o n s t h e s e c u l t u r a l norms O K s c r i p t s a r e i g n o r e d is 2 d e e p l y h e l d b e l i e f t h a t v i o l e n c e i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t of human n a t u r e . T h i s b e l i e f b l i n d s p s o p l e t o s e e i n g t h a t c u l t u r a l norms s p e c i f y who may ba h i t and uhc may n o t , a r d how h a r d , and under what c i r c u m s t a n c e s .

Another f a c t o r b l i n d s p e o p l e t o t h e C u l t u r a l l y p a t t e r n e d n a t u r e o f f a m i l y v i c l e n c s (548 C h a p t e r 1): t h e i r o n y tha : t h e m a n i f e s t i d e o l o g y ( a s c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e "ncnconsc ious ideo logy") e m p h a s i z e s p e a c e , harmony, and g e n t l e r e s s amorg f a m i l y members. The r e a l i t y t o which t h e c h a p t e r s i r P a r t I1 t e s t i f y is t h a t norms legitimizing i n t r a f a m i l y v i o l e n c e a r e p r e s e n t a r d powerful . They nay n o t be e a s i l y r e c o g n i z e d , b u t * n o n c o n s c i o u s i d e o l o g i e s * seldom a r e . B e c c g n i z i n g t h e s e t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d c u l t u r a l norms is c r i t i c a l t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e S o c i a l c a u s e s of f a m i l y v i o l e n c e : f a m i l y V i o l e n c e must b e s e e n a s s mode o f b e h a v i o r a c q u i r e d t h r o u g h y e a r s o f c u l t u r a l and f a m i l y s o c i a l i z a t i o n .

Chapter 3

The Marriage License as a Hitting License: Evidence from Popular Culture, Law,

and Social Science

Murray A. Stmus

T h i s c h a p t e r e m p h a s i z e s a t h e n e t h a t u n d e r l i e s many of t h e o t h e r c h a p t e r s . It i s t h e a b i l i t y t o s e e t h r o u g h o r p r o b e behind t h e o f f i c i a l v e r s i o n of r e a l i t y . o f f i c i a l norms nsy e x a l t t h e f a m i l y a s a g r o u p devoted t o g e n t l e n e s s and l o r e , b u t t h i s c h a p t e r p r o v i d e s e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e s e norms c o e x i s t w i t h a more S u b t l e s e t o f norms t h a t l e g i t i m a t e t h e nse of f o r c e and v i o l e n c e i n t h e f a m i l y s e t t i n g .

The c h a p t e r a l s o r a i s e s a number of c r i t i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n s f o r Unders tandIcg v i o l e n c e i n t h e f a m i l y system. Although i t d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e e x i s t e n c e of p r o - v i o l e n c e norms. t h e q u e s t i o r o f how s u c h norms come i n t a e x i s t e n c e i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e is n o t ansvered . Why a r e t h e y b e i n g m a i n t a i n e d , s o n e t i a e s wi th g r e a t f e r v o r , by men and women a l i k e ? Throughout t h i s volume t h e r e a r e h i n t s t o a n s w e r s t o t h e s e q u e s t i o n s . F o r e x a ~ p l e , t h e c h a p t e r on v i o l e r c e i n c h i l d r e n ' s books (Chapte r 4) i l l u s t r a t e s o r e o f t h e ways t h a t c u l t u r a l norms a r e t r a n s m i t t e d from g e n e r a t i o n t o g e n e r a t i o n . The c h a p t e r s i n P a r t III show some o f t h e ways t h a t t h e n a t u r e of f a m i l i e s c r e a t e s a h i g h l e v e l o f c o n f l i c t , a n d t h e c o n a i t i o n s under which c o n f l i c t t u r n s i n t o v i o l e n c e . F i n a l l y , P a r t I V h e l p s u s a v o i d t h e t r a p of f i x i n g a n a n y one f a c t o r a s $ks cause , o r evec t h e main c a u s e , o f husband-wife v i o l e n c e . Each of t h o s e c h a p t e r s shows r h a t n e i t h e r c u l t u r a l norms n o r f a m i l y s z r u c t u r e a l o n e c a n a c c o u n t f o r t h e h igh r a t e o f husband-wife v i o l e n c e . But t o g e t h e r t h e y form an e x p l o s i v e c o n b i n a t i o n .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ch.3. n a r r i a g e L i c e n s e Page 40

I n C h a p t e r s 1 and 2 , and i n a s e r i e s of o t h e r p a p e r s a n d books ( G s l l e s . 1974, 1977: S t e i n m e t z and S t r a u s . 1974; S t r a u s , 1973) . e v i d e n c e was p r e s e n t e d t h a t t h e f a m i l y is ~ l e e m i n r n t i n a l l l v D e s o f o h v s i c a l v i o l e n c e . f rom slaDS t o ~~~ - -- ~.. ~- ~- . ~ . - - ~- - ~

t o r t u r e and murder. These s t u d i e s s u a a p s t t h a r t h e f i r s t ~ ~~~ -~ ~~~ ~ > 2

p r i o r i t y f o r t h o s e c o r c e r n e d w i t h t h e l e v e l o f v i o l e n c e i n hmer ican s o c i e t y s h o u l d n o t be v i o l e n c e i n t h e s t r e e t s , b u t v i o l e n c e i n t h e home, and t h e f a c t o r s t h a t l e a d t o it.

The most a p p r o p r i a t e p l a c e t o b e g i n i s v i t h a d i s c u s s i o n of t h e p h y s i c a l punishment of c h i l d r e n . Y e b e l i e v e t h a t p h y s i c a l punishment s e r v e s a s t h e p r i m a r y mechacism by v h i c h members o f o u r s o c i s t y l e a r n t o u s ? b o t h v e r b a l and p h y s i c a l a g g r e s s i o n . P a r e n t a l u s e of p h y s i c a l punishment i s r e m a r k a b l y s i m i l a r t o many e x p e r i m e n t s on a g g r s s s i o n u s i n g e l e c t r i c s h o c k s . Even more i m p o r t a n t . p h y s l c a l ponishment p r o v i d e s a p o w e r f u l r o l e model t h r o u g h which t h e c h i l d l e a r n s t h a t i f one t r u l y v i s h e s t o i n f l u e n c e a n o t h e r , p h y s i c a l f o r c e is e f f e c t i v e and s o c i a l l y a c c e p t a b l e : t h a t it is l e g i t i m a t e , o f t e n m o r a l l y n e c e s s a r y t o u s e p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e on t h o s e one presumably l o v e s : and t h a t o n e s h o u l d r e s p o n d t o a g g r e s s i o n w i t h a g g r e s s i o n .

S i n c e s t u d i e s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d G r e a t B r i t a i n show t h a t a t l e a s t 9 3 p e r c e n t of a l l p a r e n t s use p h y s i c a l punishment ( S t e i n m e t z and S t r a u s , 1974) . and t h a t a t l e a s t h a l f c o n t l n u e t o u s e i t t h r o u g h t h e s e n i o r y e a r i n h i g h s c h o o l ( S t r a u s , 1971; S t e i n m e t z , 1974) . i t is an a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l s o c i a l l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e . n o r e o v e r , t h i s r o l e model ing i s supplemented f o r an amazing ly l a r g e number o f c h i l d r e n by e x p l i c i t i n s t l g a t i o n t o a g g r e s s i o n . E x h o r t a t i o n t o v i o l e n c e is n o t r e s t r i c t e d t o s lum f a m i l i e s . P a r e n t s t y p i c a l l y p s r e i t o r u r g e a c h i l d t o f i g h t back i f a s i b l i n g is a g g r e s s i v e . n o r e o v e r , 7 0 p e r c e n t of t h e r e s p o n d e n t s i n one n a t i o n a l sample s u r v e y f e l t t h a t "when a boy is growing up, it is v e r y i m p o r t a n t f o r him t o h a r e a few f i s t f i g h t s " ( S t a r k and ticEvoy, 1970) .

IS f o r husband-v i fe a g g r e s s i o n , t h i s c h a p t e r v i l l a t t e m p t t o shov t h a t a m a r r i a g e l i c e n s e is a n i m p l i c i t h i t t i n g l i c e n s e . The a v a i l a b l e e v i d e n c e s h o v s t h a t t h e t y p i c a l a d u l t i s more l i k e l y t o be a t t a c k e d - - v e r b a l l y , p h y s i c a l l y , o r even morally--by h i s o r h e r own spouse t h a n by any o t h e r p e r s o r . Data on h o m i c i d e s i n a t l e a s t a dozen d i f f e r e n t c c u c t r i e s ( C u r t i s . 1974; wolfgang, 1956: Bohannan, 1960) show t h a t m u r d e r e r s and t h e i r v i c t i m s were more o f t e n members o f t h e same f a m i l y t h a n of any o t h e r murder -v ic t im r e l a t i o n s h i p . I n f a c t . when woman a r e murdered, it is o v e r u h e l m i n g l y by t h e i r husbands. End. t o c o m p l e t e t h e p i c t u r e , when husbands n u r d e r wives t h e p t e n d t o do s o w i t h g r e a t b r u t a l i t y . a s i n d i c a t e d by s u c h t h i n g s a s m u l t i p l e s t a b wounds o r m u l t i p l e gun s h 3 t s . a s compared v i t h t h e s i n g l e s r a b o r s i n g l e s h o t t y p i c a l when w i v e s n u r d e r husbands (Yolfgang, 1956).

Ch. 3. f l a r r i a g e L i c e n s e Page 41

T h e r e t o r e , someth ing i n t h e f a m i l y sys tem n o t o n l y p r o d u c e s a h i g h l e v e l of p h y s i c a l a g g r e s s i o n . b u t a l s o makes w l r e s t h e v i c t i m of t h a t a g g r e s s i o n . C h a p t e r 6 examines t h i s h i g h r a t e o f a q g r e s s i o n a g a i n s - women i n t e r m s o f t h e s e x i s t O r g a n i z a t i o n of s o c i e t y and t h e f a m i l y , and i d e n t i f i e s n i n e of t h e p r o c e s s e s t h a t l i n k s e x u a l i r e g u a l i t y t o p h y s i c a l a g g r e s s i o n a g a i n s t women. s t a r t i n g w i t h t h e mos t o b v i o u s l i n k a g e : t h e use o r i m p l i c i t t h r e a t o f p h y s i c a l i n t i m r d a t i o P t o k e e p v o a e r s u b o r d i n a t e .

TEE PARIDOX OF FABILY VIOLEBCE XORnS

A S n o t e d i n C h a p t e r s 1 and 2, t h e norms and v a l u e s r e l a t i n g t o i n t r a f a m i l y v i o l e n c e pose a paradox. On t h e one hand, t h e r e is t h e "myth of f a m i l y n o n v i o l e r c e " ( S t e i n m e t z and S t r a u s . 1974; S t r a u s . 1974b) t h a t r e f l a c t s c u l t u r a l nor86 and a s p i r a t i o n s f o r t h e f a m i l y t o b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by l o v e , g e n t l e n e s s , a n d harmony. on t h e o t h e r hand, s o c i a l norms e x i s t t h a t imply t h e r i g h t o f f a m i l y members t o s t r i k e e a c h o t h e r , t h e r e t a r e l e g i t i m i z l n g i n t r a f a m i l y a s s a u l t s . a t l e a s t under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s .

a s n l t e d i n o u r d i s c u s s i o n of The n y t h of Fami ly Nonviolence i n C h a p t e r 1, c u l t u r a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s and d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s o f t h i s t y p e a r e p r e s 9 n t i n Every s o c i a t p t o a g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r e x t € n t . ( B e n e d i c t , 1938; Eabree , 1950: Ry+n a r d S t r a u s , 1954). P h y s i c a l a g g r e s s i o n is a p r i m e example of t h i s i n Bmsrican s o c i e t y . Although t h z r o a r e c l e a r norms and v a l u e s restricting v i o l e n c e a n 3 e m p h a s i z i n g t h e v a l u e of p e a c e and harmony, e s p e c i a l l y between f a m i l y members, s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a h i g h l e v e l o f a c t u a l v i o l e n c e e x i s t s , a l o n g w i t h ro rms g l o r i f y i n g a g g r e s s i o r and v i o l e n c e . I n r e s p e c t t o t h e f a m i l y , t h e l e g i t i m a t i o n o f v i o l e n c e i s sometimes e x p l i c i t o r e v e n mandatory--as i n t h e c a s e of t h e r i g h t and o b l i g a t i o n of p a r e n t s t o u s e an a p p r o p r i a t e l e v e l of p h y s i c a l f o r c e t o t r a i n and c o n t r o l a c h i l d . I r f a c t . p a r e n t s a r e p e r m i t t e d t o u s e z l e v e l o f p h y s i c a l f o r c e t h a t i s d e n i e d p r i s o n a u t h o r i t i e s i n c o n r r o l l i n g i n n a r e s . I r t h e c a s e of husband-wife r e l a t i o n s , s i m i l a r norms a r e p r F s e n t a n d powerfu l . b u t l a r g e l y i m p l i c i t , unrecoyniz?d , o r c o v e r t . what is t h e e v i d e r c e t h a t s u c h norms e x i s t ?

Ch.3. t l a r r i ~ g e L i c e n s e Page 42

IBPORilAL nANIPESTETIONS OF CULTURAL NORMS PERMITTING OR APPROVING lAAlThL VIOLENCE

I n g e h o r g Dedichen, who l i v e d v i t h h r i s t o t l e O n a s s i s f o r 12 y e a r s , d e s c r i b e r a n i n c i d e n t i n which 0c .ass i s beat. h e r s e v e r e l y u n t i l he q u i t frcm e x h a u s t i o n :

The fol1ow:ng day i n s t e a d of a p o l o g i z i n g , O n a s s i s e x p l a i n e d , " A 1 1 Greek husbands , I t e l l you, a l l Greek men w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o c , b e a t t h e i r wives. I t 's good t o r them." And t h e n hz l a u g h e d ( S h e a r e r . 197S:q).

n o s c o f t h e American o r E n g l i s h p u b l i c r e a d i n g t h i s might dismiss i t a s a Greek p e c u l i a r i t y . But, j u s t a s c n 3 s s i s ' s t a t e m e c t is an e x a g g e r a t i o n f o r Greek men, o u r d e n i a l of t h i s norm E x a g g e r a t e s i n t h e o t h e r d i r e c t i o c . c r c e one i s aware t h a t t h e r e are norms l e g i t i m i z i n g m a r i t a l (and e s p e c i a l l y husband-tc-wife) v i o l e n c e , i r s t a n c s s s u c h a s t h e above pop up c o n s t a n t l y . One amazing examplE i s t h e a r c i e n t (and f l a g r a n t l y s e x i s t ) j o k e t o l d on t h s BBC women's program " P e t t y c o a t Lane ' i n t h e s p r i n g o f 197'4. One woman a s k e d a n o t h e r why s h e f e l t h e r husband d i d n l t l o v e h e r anymore. Rer answer: "Ha h a s n ' t hashed me i n a f o r t n i g h t . "

h t a h i g h e r l i t e r a r y l e v e l , p l a y s p r o v i d e many ~ x a m p l e s o f t h e mar r iagE l i c e n s e a s a h L t t i n g l i c e n s e , i n c l u d i n g S e v e r a l by George Bernard Shaw, 3 r d t h ~ r e c e n t p l a y a b o u t a L e s b i a n C o u p l ~ , "The K i l l i n g 0 f . S i s t e r George," i n which J u n e makes t h r e a t e n i n g mot ions toward Al ice :

S l i c e : Don'? t o u c h me. ~ o u ~ r e g o t no r i g h t .

June: I ' v e g o t e v e r y r i g h t .

Al ice : 1 . m c o t m a r r i e d t o you. you knov.

The above a r e , of c o u r s e , o n l y l i t e r a r y r s f l e c t i o a s of t h e c u l t u r a l norms t h a t can be o b s e r v e d i n everyday l i f e . These examples r a c g e fcom c a s u a l r e m a r k s s u c h a s t h a t c f t h % r a i l w a y conduc?or who, vhen a s k e d by a voman f o r h e l p w i t h a s t o b b o r n s e a t , d i d s o and remzrked, "sowe o f t h e s e s e a t s a r e j u s t l i k e women: yon h a v e t o k i c k them t o maki t h a e work" ( p r o t e s t l e t t e r t o Th€ Nev York Times, J u l y 19. 1974:5). O t h e r examples a p p e a r i n t h e meaia w i t h a t l e a s t t a c i t a p p r o v a l o f t h e i r c o n t e n t s . a s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n of t h e v i d e l y r e a d column by Ann L a n a e r s (October 29, 1973):

Dear Ann Landers: Come o u t of t h e c l o u d s , f a r L o r d ' s s a k e . and g a t down heze v i t h u s humans. I a n s i c k t o d e a t h of y c u r h o l i e r - t h a n - t h a u a t t i t u d e toward women whose husbands g i v e them a wel l -deserved h e l t i n t h e mouth.


Don' t you know t h a t a man c a n be pushed t o t h e b r i n k and sone:hing's g a t t o g i v e ? h c r a c k ir! t h e t s e t h c a n be a v o c d e r f u l t e n s L o n - b r e a k e r . It 's a l s o a l o t h e a l t h i e r t h a n k e e p i n g a l l t h a t a n g e r b o t t l e d up.

By husband h a u l s o f f end s l u g s me e v e r y Eer months a n d I d o n ' t n ind . Be f e e l s b e t t e r and s o d o I b e c a u s e he n e v e r h i t s me u n l e s s I d e s e r v e it. So why son'?. you c o n e o f f i t ? - P e a l m p p y

Dear R.H.: If you d o n ' t mind a c r a c k i r ~ t h e t e e t h e v e r y few months , i t ' s a l l r i g h t w i t h ma. I hope you h a r e a good d e n t i s t .

I number o f h u s b a n d s a n d w i v e s i n t e r v i e w e d b y C e l l e s e x p r e s s e d s i m i l a r a t t i t u d e s , s o t h a t G e l l s s d e v e l o p e d a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of t y p e s o f " n o r m a l v i o l e n c e " ' ha t i n c l u d e s s u c h c a t e g o r i e s as "1 a s k e d f o r it." "I d e s e r v e d i t , ,* "Shp n e e d e d t o b e b r o u g h t t o h e r s e n s e s , " 4 t c . ( G 2 l l o s . 1974:58). O t h e r e x a m p l e s o c c u r i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h f a m i l y d i s t u r b a n c e p o l i c ~ c a l l s , w i t h w i v e s a s well a s h u s b s n d s o f t e n a s s e r t i n g t h e i r r i g h t t o h i 5 e a c h o t h e r b i c a u s ~ t h e y a r e s a r r i e a ( P a r r a s , 1967 ; Y o r k s h i r e P o s t . Bay 23, 1979:9) . T h e s e s a n e a t t i t u d e s a r e w i d e l y s h a r e d by o f f i c i a l s of t h e c r i a i c a l j u s t i c e sys tem. s c a s t i m e s t h i s presumea r i g h t t o h i t is l i n k e d t o t h e r a c e o r s o c i a l c l a s s o f t h e c o u p l e , a s shown i n Deny of P a m a s ' e x a m p l s s and i n a n E n g l i s h j u d g e ' s r emark , ' i f he had bean a m i n e r i n S o u t h w a l e s I migh t h a v e o v e r l o o k e d it" (London D a i l y B i r r o r , J a n u a r y 29 . 1974 : l ) . T h i s r e m a r k made h e a d l i n e s , b u t o n l y b e c a u s e w e l s h m i n e r s PrOteStEd.

E f i n a l example i s p r o v i d e d by a m a r r i a g e c o u n s e l i n g c a s e ( S t r a u s , 1973:120) i r which t h e husband h i t h i s w i f e o n numerous o c c a s i o n s . Re a r d h i s m l f s f e l t t h a t he c o u l a n o t h e l p h i a s e l f b e c a u s e , i r t h e h e a t o f t h s t r e m ? n d o u s a r g u m e n t s , h e " l a s t c o n t r o l . " The c o u n s e l o r , however, t r i e d to p e r s u a d e t h e c o u p l e t h a t t h e h u s b a n d ' s b e h a v i o r was n o t s i m p l y a r e v e r s i o n t o " p r i m i t i v e n l e v e l s , b u t i n f a c t was u n d e r n o r m a t i v e c o n t r o l . He d i d s o by a s k i n g t h e h u s b a n d "Why d i d n ' t you s t a b h e r ? ' T h i s c o n v e r s a 5 i o n b r o u g h t o u t t h e i m p l i c i t . u n r e c o g n i z e d , b u t c o r e 5 h e l e s s o p e r a t i n g noro t h a t p e r a i t t e d t h e husband t o h i t h i s wife b u t n o t t o s t a b h e r . T h i s u n r e c o g n i z e d norm l e g i t i m i z i n g i n t r a f a m i l y v i o l s a c e . u n l e s s it p r o d u c s s s e v e r e i n j u r y , p a r a l l e l s t h e C a l i f o r a i a " w i f e - b e a t i n g m s t a t u t e c i t e d below.


L e g l t l m a t i o n o f Husband-Wlf- V l o l ~ n c e by t h e C o u r t s and P o l l c s

There 1s c o n s i d e r a b l e e v i d e n c e t h a t Even though l a w s g i v i n g h u s b a n d s t h e r i g h t t o " c h a s t i s e " a r e r r i n g v i f e a r e n o l o n g e r w i t h us . t h e u n d e r l y i n g s p i r i t 3 f such l a w s l i n g e r s . Tha t s p i r i t i s now p r i m a r i l y extralegal, b u t i n i m p o r t a n t ways it is s t i l l embodied i n t h e l e g a l system.

Immunilp $o&r. one of t h e most i m p o r t a n t of t h e s e ------ l e g i t i m i s a t i o n s o f husband-wife v i o l e n c e is t o be f o u ~ d i n t h e d o c t r i n e of " s p o u s a l immunity' t h a t , t o t h i s day , i n many j u r i s d i c t i o r s p r e v e n t s a w i f e from s u i n g h e r husband f o r a s s a u l t and b a t t e r y . I n o t h e r j u r i s d i c t i o n s , t h e law h a s been changed c c l y r e c e n t l y . T r u n i n g e r ( 1 9 7 1 : 2 6 9 ) c i t e s t h e f o l l o w i n g example:

I n S e l f vs. S e l f ( 1 9 6 2 ) t h + w i f e a l l e g e d t h a t t h e d e f e n d a n t husband ..." u n l a w f u l l y a s s a u l t 4 p l a i n t i f f and b e a t upon, s c r a t c h e d and abused t h e p e r s o n o f p l a i n t i f f , " and t h a t a s a r e s u l t p l a i n t i f * ' s u s t a i n e d p h y s i c a l i n j u r y t o h e r p e r s o n and e m o t i o n a l d i s t r e s s , and among o t h e r i c j u r i e s d i d r e c e i v e a broken arm. ' The hosband ' s motion f o r a summary jodqmsnt was g r a n t e d by t h e t r i a l c o u r t .

on a p p e a l . t h e C a l i f o r n i a Supremp c o u r t r e v e r s s a t h e t r i a l c o u r t ' s judgment, t h u s o v e r r u l i n g e e v e r a l o l d e r C a l i f o r n i a c a s e s s u p p o r t i r g i n t e r s p o u s a l immunity. The r a C i o c a l e o f c o u r t s r e t a l n i n g t h e common l a w s p 3 u s a l i n m u c i t y d o c t r i n e f e a r was t h a t a l l o w i n g t h e t o r t a c t i o n "would d e s t r o y t h e p e a c e and harmony of t h s hone, and t h u s would be c o n t r a r y t o t h e p o l i c y o r t h e 1 2 ~ . ~ ~

PGar ~f f h e P o l i c e i~ P$. As T r u n i n g e r a l s o p o i n t s o u t , it is d o u b t f u l Whether a v i f e g a i n s much, o t h e r t h a n t h e p r i n c i p l e , from a b i l i t y t o s u e h e r husband f o r a s s a u l t a c d b a t t e r y : t h e a c t u a l o p e r a t i o n of b o t h t h e c i v i l and c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s y s t e m s p u t s up snormaus o b s t l c l e s and, i n a n y c a s e , i t t y p i c a l l y d o e s n o t h i n g t o p r e v e n t i m e E d i a t e repetition of t h e o f f e n s e w h i l e t h e c a s e i s b s i n g a d j u d i c a f e d . U s u a l l y t h e o n l y way i n which a r i o l € n t s p o u s e c a n be removed from t h e h c a e i s by a r r e s t , b u t t h e p o l i c e make s u c h a r r e s t s r a r e l y . I n fsc', u n t i l t h - 1976 r e v i s i o n . t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n of P o l i c e C h i e f s ' * r % i n i n g manual recommends t h a t a r r e s t , s gpi be made i c s u c h c a s e s .

The c o - a r r e s t g u i d e l i n e p r o b a b l y i s more c l c s e l y f o l l o w e d t h a n any o t h e r i r t h e t r a i n i n g manozl bscaose it s o c l e a r l y f i t s t h e e x p e r i e n c e end v a l u e s 5f t h e po l ic* . I n g e r e r a l . t h e p o l i c e see. t o s t - a r e t h e b e l i e f i n t h e l e g i t i m a c y of s p o u s a l vioLence. p r s v i d e d t h a r E s u l t i n g

Ch.3. l a r r i a g e L i c e n s e P a g e 115

i n j u r i e s o r des t ruc : ion a r e w i t h i n llmits. s o r e p o l i c p dEpar tmEPtS h a v e i n f o r m a l " s t i t c h r u l e s - whereby t h e wouna r e q u i r e s a c e r t a i n ( h i g h ) number o f s t i t c h e s b e f s r e a n o f f i c e r makes a 2 a r r e s t ( F i e l d and F i e l d , 1973:229). P a r n a s (1967) c l t f s c a s e a f t e r c a s e o f t h e p o l i c e a v o i d i n g a r r a s t s i n s ; t u a c i o n s a a n d a t i c g o r e w e r e t h e p a r t i e s n o t husband and wi fe . Almost a n y p o l r c s n a c c a n c i t e nuwprous e r a m p l a s o f h u s b a n d s ' c l a i m i n g t h e r i g h t t o s t r i k e t h e i r w i v s s . and many p o l i c e t h e m s e l v e s b e l i e v e t h i s t o b e t h e l a w ( T L u n i r g e r , 2972: 272: Coote . 2979) .*1

o b t a i n i n g e v e n b a s i c p h y s i c a l p r o t e c t i o n is o f t e r d i f f i c u l t a s i s g r a p h i c a l l y shown i n t h e f o l l o w i n g i n s t a n c e (REV York Times. J u n e 14. 1976) :

It was a b o u t 4 o * c l o c k i n t h e a f t e r n o o n " t e n a c a l l came i n t o t h e 1 0 3 r d P r e c i n c t s t a t i o n h ~ u s e i n J a m a i c a , Q u e e c s , f rom a woman vho s a i d h e r husband h a d b e a t e n h e r . t h a t h e r f a c e was p l e s d i n g and b r u i s e d . She t h o u g h t some o f h ? r r i b s had b e e n b roken .

W a n yon h e l p me?- s h e p l e e d e d t o t h e p c l i c e o f f i c e r who a n s w e r e d t h e phona. 'By h u s b a r d ' s gone now, b u t h e s a i d h e v o u l d come b a c k and k i l l me.' She wes a l s o f r i g h t e n e d , s h e s a i d . t h l t h e would s ta r t h e a t i n g t h e c h i l d r e n rb r t e r e t u r n e d .

'It's n o t a P o l l c s D e p a r t m e n t t h r n g , " + h e o f f l c e r t o l d h e r . "I+'s r e a l l y a f a m i l y t h i n g . Y o u ' l l h a v e t o g o t o F a m l l y C o u r t tomorrow. T h e r e ' s n o t h r r g t h a t I c a n do."

o f P r o s e c u t o r s t o &i. D s s p i t e t h e r e p e a t s d n a t u r e a n d f r e q u e n t s e v e r i t y o f m a r i t a l v i o l e r c e , i t i s e r d u r e d f o r l o n g p e r i o d s - - o f t e n mary yea r s - -by l a r g e Gumhers o t women. Some o f t h e r e a s o n s t h a t s o many w i v e s t o l e r a t e t h i s s i t u a t i o n f o l l o v f rom t h e v a r i a b l e s a n a l y z e d i n t h i s p a p e r . o t h e r f a c t o r s h a r e been i d e n t i f i e d i n G s l l e s ' p a p e r "Pbused Hives: why Do They S t a y ? " (1976) . s o o n e r o r l a t e r , however , t h e s i t u a t i o n b r i n g s l a r g e n u a b e r s o f w e e n t o t h e p c i n t o t d e s p e r a t i o n . Soma r s s p o r d t o t h i s by l e a v i n g . o r e v e n by k i l l i n g t h e h u s b a c d ; o t h e r s a t t e m p t t o s e c u r e a w a r r a n t f o r t h e a r r e s t of t h e i r husbands . P o r o b v i 3 u s l y d i f f e r e r t r e a s o c s , e a c h o f t h e s e a l t e r n e t i v e s i s t y p i c a l l y u n s a t i s t a c t o r y . I f t h e w i f e e t t e a p t s t o b r i n g c h a r g e s , s h e f a c e s b e i n g " c o o l e d o u t * a t e v e r y s t e p by o f f i c i a l s sf t h e c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e sys tem. T h i s p r c c s s s is i l l u s t r a t e d by P i e l d and F i e l d ' s t a b u l a t i o n o f t h e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7,500 s u c h a t t e m p t s ir. Wash ing ton , D.C. i n 1966:

I n v a r i a b l y , t h e p o l i c e had t o l d +hem t h a t , i n o r d e r t o p r o t e c t themselves, t h e y had tc " g e t = w a r r a n t f r o m t h e d i s t r i c t a t t o r n e y . ' They

Ch.3. m a r r i a g e L i c e n s e Page 46

announced t y p i c a l l y , "I have come t o g e t one." TO them t h i s i m p l i e d an a u t o m a t i c p r o c e s s , l i k e d r o p p i n g n i c k e l s i n t o a v e r d i n g machine, and t h e y e x p e c t e d a r o u t i n e p r o c e d u r e c u l m i n a t i n g i n t h e i s s u a n c e of a w a r r a n t f o r t h e i r husband ' s a r r e s t . T h e i r h e i g h t e n e d f e e l i n g of p r e c i p i t a t s d a n g e r r e i n f o r c e d t h i s e x p e c t a t i o n . and t h s i r e e n s e o f g r i e v a n c e and d e s p e r a t i o n was f u r t h e r s o l i d i f i e d bv t h e l o n o v a i t t h e v endured b e f o r e t a l k i n g wi th t h e i r - i t i a l s c r e e n i n g po l iceman o r t h e d i s t r i c t a t t c r n e y . Of t h e s e 7,500 women, f e w e r t h a n 200 l e f t h a v i n g s e c u r e d t h e i r o b j e c t i v e (1973:232).

F i n a l l y , e v e r when t h e c i r c u m s t a n c a s a r e s u c h t h a t t h e p c l i c ~ and d i s t r i c t a t t o r n e y c a n n o t a v o i d b r i n g i n g c h a r g e s . few s u c h c a s e s g e t t o t r i a l .

R s u r v e y c f t h e a s s a a l t c a s e s i n t h e District of Columbia showed t h a t o v e r t h r e e - f o u r t h s of t h s c a s e s ! !c t , invo lv ing h u s b a n a s and wives went t o a d i s p o s i t i o n of t h e merits of g u i l t o r innscence . The e n f o r c e m e n t p a t t e r n was r e v e r s e a i n husband-wife CZSES. O r l y a b o u t o n e - s i x t h o f a l l a r r e s t s i n v o l v i n g m a r i t a l v i o l e n c e u l t i m a t e l y ended a t t r i a l cr v i t h a g u i l t y p l e a . 3cd t h e crime c h a r g e d by t h a t t i m e v a s i n v a r i s b l y a misdemeanor r a t h e r t h a n a f e l o n y ( F i e l d and F i e l d . 1973: 224).

V i c t i m C o m ~ e n s a t i c r . : r o t h e r vay i r which t h ? law ------ c o n t i n u e 5 . 5.2 e f f e c t , t o l e g i t i m i z e husbans-wife a s s a u l t c r o p s up i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e work ings of b o a r d s a n a commission^ t h a t h a v e besn s e t up i n England and a f e u A a e r i c a a s t a t e s t o compensa te v i c f i m s of c r imes . The E n g l i s h board e x p l i c i t l y r u l e d a g a i n s t c c m p e r s a t i o n when t h s v i c t i m is a s p o u s e (Wi l l i ams . 1979) and t h i s a l s o seems t o be t h e c a s e v i t h t h e C a l i f o r n i a l s v ( E d e l h e r t z and G e i s , 1979:278; T r u n i o g e r , 1971:270).

T& Les=& a s t e r n aFd c u l t u r a l &E~;PQ 2f I P t r a f a l l l E v i o l e n c e . The s i t u a t i o r d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n is v e l l - -- - - -- summarized by t h e p h r a s e used a s t h e s u b t i t l e o f P i s l a and F i e l d ' s a r t i c l e (1973) cn t h e c r i m i n a l p r o c e s s i r c a s e s o f m a r i t a l v i o l e n c e : " N e i t h e r J u s t i c e Nor Peace." 4 s i t u a t i o n s o p e r v a s i v e is n o t l l k e l y te he a r e s u l t of h i s f l r i c a l a c c i d e n t . n o r is i t l i k e l y t o b? a consequence 3f t h e many d i f f i c u l t i e s i n d e a l i n g l e g a l l y w i t h m a r i t a l v i o l e n c e and t h e low r a t e o f s u c c e s s a c h i e v e d by i n v c k i c g c r i m i n a l law. T h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s and u n c e r t a i n t i e s , a f t e r a l l , l o n o t d e t e r t h e o a l i c e and c e u r t s f rom r n v o k i n o c r i m i n a l ~~~ A -~ - - ~ - ~- ~ ~ - a d j u d i c a t i o n p r o c e s s e s f o r many crimes--such 35 p r o s t i t u t i o n - - w i t h an even l o v e ? r a t e o f s u c c e s s i n c c n t r o l . R a t h e r , t h e f a i l u r e t o i n v o k e c r i m i n a l p e n a l t i e s r a f l e c z s h i s t o r i c a l c o n t i n u i t i e s i n t h e c u l t u r a l norms t h a t make t h e

Ch.3. m a r r i a g e L i c e n s e Page 47

m a r r i a g e l i c e n s e a h i t t i n g l i c e n s e . T h i s i s e l a o s t c l c a r i n t h e C a l i f o r n i a P e n a l Code s e c t i o n on w i f e - b e a t i n g , which p r o h i b i t s an a s s a u l t o n l y i f it r e s u l t s i n s e v e r e p h y s i c a l i n j u r y . But t h e most c l e e r conremporary l e g a l e x p r e s s i o n of t h e r i g h t o f husbands t o u s e p h y s i c a l f o r c e i s found i n t h e immunity o f husbands f rom p r o s e c u t i o n f o r r a p e o f t h e i r wives.

E x p e r m e n t a l and S U T V E ~ EVZdenCe on Approval o f l a T i t a l V l o l e n c e

There is a s l o w l y growing body o f E m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h on i n t r a f a m i l y a g g r e s s i o n and v i o l e n c e , some of which p r o v i d e s e v i d e n c e on t h e c u l t u r a l norms we a r e c o n s i d e r i n g . The s n r v e y conduc ted f o r t h e Uni ted S t a t e s R a t i o n a l Commission of t h e Causes and P r e v e n t i o n o f V i o l e n c e foand t h a t a b o u t one q u a r t e r o f t h e p e r s o n s i n t e r v i e w e d s a i d t h e y c o u l d a p p r o v e a husband o r w i f e h i t t i n g e a c h o t h e r u n d e r c e r t a i n circums;ances ( S t a r k and 8cEvoy. 1970) . That f i g u z e is p r o b a b l y a c o n s i d e r a b l e u n d e r e s t i m a t e b e c a u s e of t h e e x i s t e n c e of o p p o s i t e corms--the more s o c i a l l y a c c e p t a b l e a c 3 - s i c l e n c e n3rms and t h e i m p l i c i t o r c o v e r t p r o - v i o l e n c e norms.

The c o n t r a d i c t c r y and c o v e r t n a r u r e o f t h e corms a p p r o v i n g m a r i t a l v i c l e c c e makes e x p s r i n e n t a l and o b ~ e r v a t i o n a l s t u d i e s p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p r o p r i l t e , b e c a u s e t h e s e s t o d i e s d o p o t depend on t h e w i l l i n g n e s s o r a b i l i t y t o v e r b a l i z e norms a n d v a l u e s . U r f o r t u n a t e l y . f o r p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n s . a l l t h e o b s e r v a t i o n a l s t u d i e s have b e e r o f p a r e n t - c h i l d v i o l e n c e ( R e l l a k a n d i n t e l l . 1 9 7 4 ) . But t h e r e h a v e been e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s o f m a r i t a l a g g r e s s i o n o r s t u d i e s t h a t b e a r OL m a r i t a l a g g r e s s i o n .

he f i r s t o f t h e s e s t u d i e s a l s o r e f l e c t s t h s mora g e n e y a l phenomenon o f male h o s t i l i t y t o women:

One of t h e l e i s t r e c o g n i z e d i n d i c e s of mals h o s t i l i t y t o f e m a l e s i s t h e r e a c t i o n of men who watch a v i o l e n t a c t a g a i n s t women, r a t h e r t h a n c o a m i t t i n g o r i n i t i a t i n g it themse lves . Three p s y c h c l o g i s t s from R i c h i g a n S t a t e u n i v e r s i t y s t a g e d a s s r i e s o f f i g h t s t h a t were t o be w i t n e s s e d by UnSuspect iCg p a s s e r s b y . The r e s e a r c h e r s found. t o t h e i r anazement , t h a t ma15 w i t n e s s e s r ~ s h e d t o t h e a i d of men b e i n g a s ~ a u l t s d by e i t h e r women o r o4n, and t h c t man he lped women b e i n g h i t by o t h p r women. Rut n o t one male b y s t a n d e r i n t e r f e r e d when a male a c t o r a p p a r e n t l y b e a t up a woman (Pogreb in , 1974:49-55 and 8 0 ) .


I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e i c t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e s s f i c d i n g s a s r e f l e c t i n g male h o s t i l i t y t o women, i t a l s o seems l i k e l y t h a t t h e y r e f l e c t t h e rorm p e r m i t t i n g a s s a u l t s betwsen s p o u s e s . T h a t i s , t h e male b y s t a n d e r s d i d n o t come t o t h e a i d o f a f e m a l e v i c t i m of a male a s s a i l a n t because t h e y i n f e r r e d t h a t h e was t h e womac's husband. T h i s , i n f a = % , is t h e r e a s o n a number o f b y s t a n d e r s gave f o r n o r i n t s r v e n i n g a s K i t t y Genovese was murdered (Rosen tha l . 1964). T h i s c o r c l u s i o n i s f u r t h e r g i v e n c r e d e n c e b e c a u s e i t a g r e e s v i t h e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s of " b y s t a r d e r i n t e r v e n t i o n , ' such a s t h e e x p e r i m e n t s r e p o r t e d a n d summarized by Bickman (1975) . Bickman c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h e s o c i a l d e f i n i t i o n of what a c t i c n s a r e r i g h t f o r t h e b y s t a n d e r i s a more p o w s r f u l d e t e r m i n a n t o f i n t e r v e n t i o n t h a n t h e s e v e r i t y of t h e c r i m e o r c o n c e r n f o r t h e w e l f a r e o f t h e v i c t i m .

C l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e s e f i n d i n g s i s a n u n p u b l i s h e d e x p e r i m e n t by C h u r c h i l l and S t r a u s i n which t h e s u b j e c t s were g iven a d e s c r i p t i o n of an a s s a u l t and a s k e d t o i r d i c a t e what punishment t h e y f e l t was a p p r o p r i a t e . I n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e a s s a u l t , t h e v i c t i m was kcocked unconsc ious . In h a l f t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s t h e a s s a i l a n t was d e s c r i b e d s s t h e vomanvs husband. I n t h e o t h e r h a l f . t h e d e s c r i o t i o n was i d e n t i c a l ~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~~~ ~~ - ~- . - ~ ~ ~ .~~ ~~ ~~ ~~

e x c e p t t h a t t h e c o u p l e was d e s c r i b e d a s "go ing t o g e t h e r " f o r a year . The mean punishment s c o r e when t h e v i c t i m was n o t m a r r i e d t o t h e a s s a i l a n t was 4.15, compared v i t h 2.65 when t h e v i c t i m was t h e wife. Boreover . t h i s e x p e r i m e n t p r o b a b l y u n d e r s t a t e s t h e d i f f e r e r c e , i n t h a t it s p e c i f i e d t h s t t h e unmarr ied c o u ~ l e had been o o i r o t o a e t h e r f o r a vear . The d l t f e r e n c e pkobably would h a v e -beep much g r e a t e r i f t h e unmarr ied c o u p l e had n o t been d e s c r l b e d a s havzcg a q u a s l m a r l t a l r e l a t l o r s h l p .

I n a f i n a l set of e x p e r i m e n t s b e a r i n g on t h i s i s s u e . c o u p l e s i n t e r a c t e d i n a s t a n d a r d i z e d l a b o r a t o r y t a s k i n v o l v i n g c o n f l i c t . The d a t a f o r m a r r i e d c c u p l s s was compared v i t h t h e d a t a f o r u r m a r r i e d c o u p l e s i n t h e Sam9 t a s k s i t u a t i o n . E s t u d y by Ryder (1968) found t h a t s t r a n g e r s were t r e a t e d more g e n t l y t h a n were spouses . S i m i l a r l y . u s i n g an e x p e r i m e n t a l t a s k t h a t r e q u i r e d t h e c o u p l e t o r e a c h a d e c i s i o n , Winte r , P e r r e i r a , a r d Bowers (1973) found t h e u n z e l a t e d c o u p l e s l i s t e n e d r e s p e c t f u l l y t o one a n o t h e r whereas m a r r i e d c o u p l e s were o f t e n r u d e t o ane a n o t h e r . Although t h E r e i s a l o n g d i s t a n c e b e t v e e n r u a e n e s s a n d v i o l e n c e . i t seems l i k e l y t h a t what Ls m a r i f e s t e d i n t h e s e two e x p e r i m e n t s is t h e b e g l n n i n g of t h e journ3y t h a t f o r many c o u p l e s u l t i m a t e l y e n d s i n v i o l e n c e ( S t r a u s , 1974a) .

ch.3. l a r r i a g e L i c e n s e Page 49

TRZ CYCLE OF INTRAPABILY VIOLENCE

I n C h a p t e r 2 t h e r o l e - m o d e l i n g f u n c t i o n of p h y s i c a l punishment was d e s c r i b e d , and e s p e c i a l l y t h e i m p l i c i : l e s s o n t h a t i t i s p e r m i s s i b l e , e v e n mandatory, t o ose p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e on t h o s e one l o v e s most. But t h e l e a r n i n g o f s o c i a l s c r i p t s f o r a g g r e s s i o n b e t v e e n f a m i l y members t a k e s p l a c e i n many o t h e r ways, and I w i l l c o n c l u d e by b r i e f l y ment icn ing j u s t one o f t h e s e : o b s e r v a t i o n by c h i l d r s n o f a g g r e s s i v s b e h a v i o r between t h e p a r e n t s t h e a s e l v s s , a n a p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e i n p a r t i c u l a r .

W h e n t h e Family V i o l e n c e R e s e a r c h Program began, we were under t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t v i o l e n c e be tveen s p o u s e s i s r a r e . and t h a t middle c l a s s p a r e n t s t a k e p a i n s t o a v o i d p h y s i c a l f i g h t s i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n . The i d e a t h a t p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e between s p o u s g s is r a r e was t h e f i r s t o f t h e myths a b o u t i n t r a f a m i l y v i o l e n c e t h a t t h e d a t a from t h e program f o r c e d u s t o abandon. S u b s e q u e n t l y , a s t u d y by BulCrOft and S t r a u s (1975) s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e i t e a o f p a r e n t s ' b e i n g a b l e t o h i d e p h y s i c a l f i g h t s may a l s o b e i c c o r r e c t .

I n t h i s s t u d y , 121 u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s and t h s i r p a r e n t s e a c h s e p a r a t e l y comple ted p a r a l l e l q u s s t i o n n a i r e s , i n c l u d i n g one s e c t i o n t h a t d e a l t w i t h c o n f l i c t s betweec t h e p a r e n t s . T h e r e was a s e r i e s o f i t e m s c o n c e r n i r g modes of c o p i n g w i t h t h e s e c o n f l i c t s ( t h e C o n f l i c t T a c t i c s S c a l e s deSCrlbEd i n S t r a n s , 1979 a n d used i n Chapt? rs 2 and 1 2 ) . These i t e m s were a r r a n g e d i n o r d e r o f c o e r c i v e n e s s . s t a r t i n g w i t h d i s c u s s i n g t h i n g s c a l m l y , and e n d i r g w i t h h i t t i n g t h e o t h e r w i t h a h a r d o b j e c t . A v i o l e n c e i n d e x u a s computed from t h e l a t t e r q u e s t i o n s .

we found a s u r p r i s i n g l y h i g h c o r r e l a t i o r . between t h e S C O r J S computed on t h e b a s i s of d a t a o b t a i n e d f r s a t h e s t u d e n t a n d t h e scsrec o h t a i n n n on t h e b a s i s of + h e ~~- ~~. -....- ~ ~ ~~~~ ~~ ~~. q u e s t i o n n a i r e comple ted by e a c h p a r s n t : t h e C o r r e l a t i o n br tween t h e p a r e n t - r e p o r t d a t a a n d t h e c h i l d - r ? p o r t d a t a f o r h u s D a n d 9 s v i o l e n c e was .64, a r d f o r t h e w i f e ' s v i o l e n c e i n d e x t h e c o r r e l a t i o n was . 32 . The s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h i s f i n d i n g i n t h e p r e s e n t c o n t e x t i s t h a t i t i n d i c a t e s t h e d e g r e e t o which c h i l d r e n know a b o u t a c t s o f p h y s i c a l a 4 9 Z 9 s s i o n between t h e i r D a r e n t s . a t l r a s t d u r i n q t h e T e a r - -

t h ; c h i l d is a s e n i o r i n h igh s c h o o i . coosequsn t l$ . par ;n t s seem a g a i n t o be s e r v i n g a s r o l e models f o r l n t r a f a m i l y p h y s i c a l a g g r e s s i o n and f o r l e a r n i n g t h ~ s o c i a l corms which-- to r e p e a t t h e o p e n i n g s t a t e m e n t 2f t h i s chap te r -aaks t h e f a m i l y t h e most f r e q u e n t s e t t i n g f o r a g g r e s s i o n o f a l l t y p e s . r a n g i n g from i n s u l t s , t o s l a p s . $ 0 b a i t i n g , t o r t u r e . a n d murder.

ch.3. n a r r i a g e L i c e n s e Page 50

NOTES

P a r t o f t h i s c h a p t e r i s r e p r i n t e d w i t h p e r m i s s i o n f rom n u r r a y R. S t r a u s , " S e x u a l I n e q u a l i t y . C u l t u r a l Warms, and Wife -Bea t ing , " o r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d i n YtztLE&zy. 1976: 1 (Spr i~g) :5 (1 -76 . ( c ) 1976 V i s a g e P z e s s , 1r.c.; a ~ d i n E m i l i o c. Viano. e d i t o r , V i c t i m s a n d So~ie$x, Washington, D.C., V i s a g e P r e s s , 1976.

1. Programs t o l c f o r m a n d t r a i n p 3 l i c e t o d e a l more e f f e c t i v e l y w i t h f a m i l y d i s t u r b a n c e s h a v e bpen i n i t i a t e d i n s e v e r a l cities. see Bard. 1969, 1971, 3nd C h a p t e r 13.

Chapter 4

Violence and the Social Structure as Reflected in Children's Books

from 1850 to 1970

Martha D. Huggins and Murray A. Straus

The previous chapter showed that cultural norms make the marriage license a hitting license. The research reported in the present chapter vas designed to see if this approval of violence between family members is a theme in books written for children. The resalts show that childrer's books do depict a great deal of riolence. including killings. In addition, they reinforce the lesson of physical punishment by depicting riolence as an effective means of secoring justice or of achieving some valued end.

Aowever, althongh this chapter shows that children's books describe and justify violence. for violence the findings are not what we expected. Giver the high rates of familp violence pointed cut in Chapters 1 and 2 . it is iro~ic that in these stories little of the violence takes place between members of the same iamlly. Thsre is a ride discrepancy between the reality of family life and the idsalized picture implied by the lack of family violence in children's books. Bs in television, physical aggression is largely depicted as something that occurs between strangers. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the discrepancy between the violent reality of family life and the media's avoidance of shoving violence between family members.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ch.4. V i o l e n c e i n C h i l d r e n ' s Books Page 5 2

of t h e h i g h l y i n d u s t r i a l i z e d n a t i o n s o f t h e v o r l d , t h e u n i t e d S t a t e s i s c l e a r l y one o f t h e a o s t v i o l e n t (Pa lmer , 1972:15). Nany e x p l a n a t i o n s have been o f f e r e d f o r t h i s phenomenon (Graham and Gurr , 1969) . and u n d o u b t e d l y a cumber o f f a c t o r s o p e r a t e t o m a i n t a i n p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e a s a c o n t i n u i n g a s p e c t o f American s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . On2 f a c t o r t h a t h a s been a s u b j e c t o f c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n t r o v e r s y i s t h e mass media.

Some i n v e s t i g a t o r s a r g u e t h a t v i o l e n c e i n t h e media r e f l e c t s t h e v i o l e n c e of t h e s o c i e t y ( d i s c u s s e d i n Lynn, 1969) . O t h e r s m a i n t a i n t h a t v i o l e n c e i n t h e mass meaia and i n s p o r t s s e r v e s a s a s a f e t y v a l v e , p e r m i t t i n g a g g r e s s i v e d r l v e s t o be d r a i n e d of f - - the " d r i v e d i s c h a r g e " and " c a t h a r s i s " models ( B E t t e l h e i m , 1967; Freud, 1959: Peshbach a n d S i n g e r , 1971; Lorenz , 1966). Both t h e " r e f l e c t i o n " and t h e " c a t h a r s i s " t h e o r i e s s e e v i o l e n c e i n t h e media a n d i n s p o r t s a s h a v i n g e i t h e r a n e u t r a l o r a n e u t r a l i z i n g r o l e . They t h e r e f o r e c o n t r a s t s h a r p l y w i t h t h e o r i e s t h a t h o l d t h a t v i o l e n c e i n t h e media i s p a r t o f t h e p r o c e s s o f t r a n s m i t t i n g a n d e n c o u r a g i n g v i o l a n c e . Among t h e l a t t e r a r e t h e " c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n " t h e o r y o f S i p e s (1973) . . s o c i a l l e a r n i n g " t h e o r y (Bandura. 1973). and " g e n e r a l s y s t e m s t h e o r y n ( S t r a u s , 1973).

The t h e o r e t i c a l and m e t h o d o l o g i c a l i s s u e s u n d e r l y + n g t h i s COntrOverSy a r e s o complex t h a t a n e v e n t u a l resolution w i l l r e q u i r e , a t t h e mimimum, an a c c u a u l a t i o n and * t r i a n g u l a t i o n ' o f e v i d e n c e from a v a r i e t y o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . A i s t o r i c a l s t u d i e s o f a v a r i e t y of c u l t u r a l f o r m s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y needed. A s t u d y of c h i l a r e n ' s books t h e r e f o r e seemed d e s i r a b l e b e c a u s e (1) most o f t h e a v a i l a b l e r e s e a r c h on t h e mass media a n d v i o l e n c e f o c u s e s on t e l e v i s i o n . C h i l d r s n ' s books, however, may be j u s t a s important o r more i m p o r t a n t . Our i n f o r m a l o b s e r v a t i o n i s t h a t t h e i m p a c t o f a book r e a d by a c h i l d ( o r t o a young c h i l d by a s i g n i f i c a n t p e r s o n s u c h a s a p a r e n t ) i s e x t r e m e l y powerfol . (2) The a v a i l a b i l i t y of c h i l d r e n ' s books f o r o v e r o n e hundred y e a r s e n a b l e s a d e g r e e of h i s t o r i c a l d e p t h n o t p o s s i b l e f o r any of t h e o t h e r mass media.

T h g o r e t i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e . We b e l i e v e t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n between l i t e r a t u r e and s o c i e t y is " d i a l e c t i c " : l i t e r a r y and c t h e r a r t i s t i c p r o d u c t i o n s r e f l e c t t h e c u l t u r e and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t l c n o f t h e s o c i e t y . e s p e c i a l l y i ts dominant s t r a t a . However, o n c e it is i n e x i s t e n c e , l i t e r a t u r e s e r v e s t o c o n t r o l and mold t h a t c u l t u r e and s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . I f t h e a r t i s t ' s work is t o be a c c e p t e d , he o r s h e must draw on t h e C n l t u r a l h e r i t a g e o f s o c i e t y and a p p e a l t o i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t s i n t h e l i v e s of members o f s o c i e t y . It t h e same t i m e , t h e work of a c a r t i s t - - o n c e accepted--becomes s p a r t o f t h a t c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e and is one o f many e l e m e n t s i n f l u e n c i n g and c o n t r o l l i n g what g o e s o n i n t h e s o c i e t y .

Ch.4. V i o l e n c e i n C h i l d r e n ' s Books Page 53

P r e v i o u s c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s s t u d i e s have g i v e n some i n d i c a t i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between c h a n g e s i n s o c i e t y a n d c h a n g e s i n l i t e r a r y c o n t e n t s . s t r a u s and Boughton

A--- - - - - -- - -

c r o s s - l a g g e d c o r r e l a t i o n . S i n c e we w i l l n o t be p r e s e n t i n g s u c h d a t a , t h e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r i s n o t o f f e r e d a s a t e s t of t h e s e assumpt ions . Our aim i s more modest; s i m p l y t o p r e s e n t t h e r e s u l t s of o u r h i s t o r i c a l a n a l y s i s , t o g e t h e r w i t h o u r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e t r e n d s .

s p e c i f i c O b i e c t i v e s . One o f t h e p u r p o s e s of t h e s t u d y - is t o d e t e r m i n e i f t h e l e v e l o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e d e p i c t e d i n c h i l d r e n ' s books h a s been i n c r e a s i n g o r d e c r e a s l n g d u r i n g t h e 120-year s p a n from 1850 t o 1970. He pose no h y p o t h e s i s a b o u t t h e d i r e c t i o n of change , b e c a u s e t h e a v a i l a b l e e v i d e n c e d o e s n o t s u g g e s t any o v e r a l l ' o r d e c r e a s e i n t h e l e v e l o f v i o l e n c e i n t h e U n i t e a S t a t e s d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d (Graham and Gurr , 1969).

The s e c o n d o b j e c t i v e is t o g a i n i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e way s o c i e t y d e f i n e s and l a b e l s p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e f o r i t s n e x t geEBra t ion . The s t u d y e x a n i n e s t h e e x t e n t t o which v i o l e n c e i n l i t e r a t u r e i s d e p i c t e d a s an n e x p r e s s i v e " a c t ( c a r r i e d o u t t o c a u s e p a i n o r i n j u r y a s an snd i n i t s e l f ) o r a n " ins t rumenza l '* a c t ( c a r r i e d o u t t o a c h i e v e some e x t r i n s i c purpose) . S z n i l a r l y , t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f v i o l e n t a c t s p r e s e n t e d by t h e a u t h o r s a s " l e g i t i m a t e u and " i l l e g i t i m a t e * s u g g e s t s how s o c i e t y e v a l u a t e s and l a b e l s p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e .

F i n a l l y , t h e c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s was d e s i g n e d t o o b t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n on r h e s t a t u s e s , r o l e s , mot ives , and e m o t i o n s of t h e c h a r a c t e r s i n v o l v e d i n v i o l e n c e . azd t h e p r e c i p i t a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s , outcomes. a n d c o n s e q u e n c e s of v i o l e n c e . To t h e e x t e n t t h a t v i o l e n c e i n l i t e r a t u r e m i r r o r s v i o l e n c e i n t h e s o c i e t y , s u c h i n f o r m a t i o n p r o v i d e s i n s i g h t i n t o t h i s i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . To t h e e x t e n t t h a t l i t e r a t u r e i n f l u e n c e s s o c i e t y , s u c h i n f o r m a t i o n g i v e s i m p o r t a n t c l u e s t o t h e " s c r i p t n (Gagnon and Simon, 1973) f o r v i o l e n t b e h a v i o r p r e s e n t e d t o c h i l d r e n . * l

ch.a. V i o l e n c e i n C h i l d r e n ' s Books Page 54

SAIIPLE BND SETHOD

g~mle. R t h r e e - s t e p s a m p l i r g p r o c e s s was used. The f i rs t s t e p was t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f what, f o r want o f a b e t t e r tar.. c a n b e c a l l e d " c h i l d r e n ' s c l a s s i c s , ' books r e c o g n i z e d by a l i t e r a r y e l i t e of t h e s o c i e t y . we f o c u s e a on t h i s t y p e of l i t e r a t u r e because , a s Marx s u g g e s t e d (1964). t h e i d e a s o f t h e e l i t e s t r a t a t e n a t o be t h e dominant and i n f l u e n t i a l i d e a s i n t h e s o c i e t y . Prom . t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , it is n o t t h e mora l e v a l u a t i o n s of t h e popula3 .on a t l a r g e t h a t g i v e r i s e t o a g r o u p ' s d e f i n i t i o n s of r e a l i t y , b u t main ly t h e e v a l u a t i o n s of t h e aominant c l a s s ( P a r k i n . 1971:92). On t h e . b a s i s o f t h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s , we s o u g h t o u t lists of r e c o m m e ~ d e d a n 3 es teemed c h i l d r e n ' s books, f o r example, t h e n u o t a b l e C h i l d r e n ' s Books: 1965-1972' p r e p a r e d by t h e Book E v a l u a t i o n Committee of t h e American L i b r a r y Assoc ia t iou .*2 The body of work compi led by t h i s method is a c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y o r d e r e d l ist of a l l books p u b l i s h e d between 1850 and 1970 t h a t were i n c l u d e d i n any of t h e lists o f recommended books.

The s e c o n d s t e p o f t h e s a m p l i n g p r o c e s s was d e s i g n e d t o y i e l d f i v e books p u b l i s h e d i n 1850. and f i v e p u b l i s h e d e v e r y f i f t h y e a r t h e r e a f t e r . i n 1855. 1860. and s o on, u p t o and i n c l u d i n g 1970. f o r a t o t a l o f 125 books. F o r t h o s e r e a r s i n which many books appnared , t h e s a m p l e of f i v e was drawn by random numbers. If t h e r e rere f n u e r t h a n f i v e books i n t h e sample y e a r ( a s sometimes happened i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s ) . books from t h e c l o s e s t a d j a c e n t y e a r were i n c l u d e d , f o r example, a book p u b l i s h e d i n 1856 is i n c l u d e d i n t h e s a m p l e f o r 1855. S i n c e t h e s e a r e a l l "classic" o r "recommended" books we were a b l e t o f i n d 115 of t h e o r i g i n a l l y s e l e c t e d 125 b o o t s i n n e a r b y l i b r a r i e s . The m i s s i n g tsn books were r e p l a c e d by a random s e l e c t i o n from among t h e o t h e r books p u b l i s h e d d u r i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e years .

The t h i r d s t e p i n t h e s a m p l i n g p r o c e s s c o e s i s t e d of u s i n g a *.able of random numbers t o select f i f t e e n d i f f e r e n t p a g e s from s a c h book. We f o l l o w e d t h i s p r o c e d u r e t o p r e v e n t l o n g e r books from d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y i n f l u e n c i n g t h e r e s n l t s . Our d a t a t h a n d e s c r i b e any a c t o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e t h a t o c c u r r e d on one of t h e sample p a g e s 1s 125 "recommendedn c h F l d r e n v s books p u b l i s h e d from 1850 t h r o u g h 1970.13

goding p=$&&. The b a s i c u n i t o f a n a l y s i s c o n s i s t s of an a c t of i n t e r D e r s o n a 1 v i o l e n c e , which u e d e f i n e a s the

identifying t h e book i n -which i t o c c u r r e d and p r o v i d i n g s p a c e t o code t h e t y p e of i n f o r m a t i o n i d e n t i f i e d a few p a r a g r a p h s back. Bore s p e c z f i c i n f o r m a t i o n on ?ach of t h e s e variables w i l l be g i v e n when t h e r e l e v a n t d a t a a r e

Ch.4. T i o l e n c e i n C h i l d r e L ' s Books Page 5 5

p r e s e n t e d . *4

FREQUENCY A N D TRENDS I N VIOLENCE

n a r y o b s e r v e r s o f t h e American s c e n e have s u g g e s t e d t h a t America is a v i o l e n t s o c i e t y . Palmer ( l 9 7 2 : l 5 ) , f o r example, c o n t e n d s t h a t :

" S i n c e its i n c e p t i o n , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a s been i n t h e f r o n t r a n k s o f v i o l e n t s o c i e t i e s . Born i n r e v o l u t i o n , v r a c k e d by c i v i l war, i n v o l v e d i n numerous v a r s , it h a s a l s o t h e t r a d i t i o n of b loody r i o t i n g , homic ide and a r r e s t . "

Accord ing t o t h e s t a t i s t i c s c i t e d by Palmer, e a c h y e a r t h e r e a r e 15.000 c r i m i n a l homic ides , 35.000 s u i c i d e s . 300,000 S e r i o u s a s s a u l t s , and 50,000 f o r c i b l e r a p e s , and t h e s e a r e minimum e s t i m a t e s . T h e s r more e x t r e m e f o r m s o f p h y s i c a l f o r c e o n l y p a r t i a l l y i l l u s t r a t e a more widespread p a t t e r n o f v i o l e n c e i n t h e Uni ted S t a t e s . P o r example. p h y s i c a l f i g h t s between husband and w i f e may o c c u r i n h a l f t o t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f a l l m a r r i a g e s ( s e e C h a p t e r 2) . a n d p h y s i c a l f i g h t s between s i b l i n g s a r e s o common a s t o b e a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l ( S t r a u s . Gelles, a l d S t e i n m e t z , 1979). Is t h e v i o l e n c e t h a t i s s o much a p a r t o f American l i f e f o u n d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e f o r c h i l d r e n ?

Ths answer t o t h i s r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n i s a c l e a r "yes." l o r e t h a n t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f t h e 15-page 'book-segments" had o n e o r more v i o l e n t e p i s o d e s , w i t h a t o t a l of 264 s u c h e p i s o d e s . The l a r g e s t number o f v i o l e n t e p i s o d e s i n a s i n g l e book was 1 0 ( i n &IS_: &gf&g). The mean number o f v i o l e n t a c t s p e r book-segment u a s 2.1. The f l g u r a o f 2.1 v i o l e n t e p i s o d e s p e r book-segment means t h a t a 50-page book is l i k e l y t o i n c l u d e a b o u t s e v e n v i o l e n t a c t s and a 150-page book. a b o u t 21 v i o l e n t a c t s .

a o w i t i e s oz & e n E p . T h e , v a r i e t y of methods used i n - t h e s e b o o k s 0 c a u s e p h y s i c a l p a i r o r i n j u r y t o a n o t h e r C o v e r s most of t h o s e k n o m t o t h e human race . Thess r a n g e d flom mere lv s h a k i n o someone t r v o s u c h i n c i d e n t s \ . t c h i t t i n o . . - ~

and k i c k i n g (39 i n c i d e n t s ) , t o r t u r e (6 i n c i d e n t s ) , h u r n i n g (11 i n c i d e n t s ) , s t a b b i n g (43 i n c i d e n t s ) , a r d s h o o t i n g (40 i n c i d e n t s ) . The most f r e q u e n t t y p e o f v i o l e n c e i n v o l v e d pouncing on someone, g r a b b i n g t h e n f o r c e f u l l y o r c a u s i n g them t o f a l l (66 i n c i a e n t s o r 25 p e r c e n t of t h e t s t a l ) . Boverer. s u c h r e l a t i v e l y mi ld f o r m s v e r e outnumbered by a b o u t two t o one by more s e v e r e f o r m s s u c h a s s t a b b i n g . shooting. t o r t u r e , and b u r n i r g .

T h i s f a c t i s a l s o r e f l e c t e d i n t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of a c t s on t h e h a s i s o f t h e r e s u l t i n g p h y s i c a l i n j u r y : 2 2 p e r c e n t o f t h e 264 c a s e s d e s c r i b e d a p h y s i c a l i n j u r y , and a n

Ch.9. V i o l e n ~ e i n C h i l d r e n ' s Books Page 56

a d d i t i o n a l 33 p e r c e n t d e s c r i b e d a v i o l e n t death . C l e a r l y , Y E a r e n o t dealing with " k i d s t u f f . " The e s s e n t i a l l y a d u l t n a t u r e o f t h e v i o l e n c e p o r t r a y e d i n t h e s e books w i l l be shovn a t g r e a t e r l e n g t h l e t e r .

0 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 g 05 10 15 20 75 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 - - -

Time Period <,{ Publication

Figure 1. Mean number ofv io lcniacispei 15 pages hy ycai publiihcd

Ch.4. V i o l e n c e i n C h i l d r e n ' s Books Psge 57

H i s t o r i c a l Trends. F i g u r e 1 g i v e s t h e mein number o f v i o l e n t a c t s p e r book-segment f o r e a c h f i v e - y e a r t i m e per iod . T h i s c h a r t r e v e a l s n o l o n g - t e r n " s e c u l a r " t r e n d . T h i s f i n d i n g is c o n s i s t e n t v i t h t h e c o n c l u s i o n s of Graham and Gurr (1969:628) c o n c e r n i n g s t u d i e s of a c t u a l r a t h e r t h a n fictional v i o l e n c e . A t t h e same time, t h e r e is a p a t t e r n t o t h e h i g h s +nd l o w s i n f i c t i o n a l v i o l e n c e . The h i g h s t e n d t o o c c u r when t h e s o c i e t y i s engaged i n war. Thus, t h e h i g h e s t p o i n t s i n F i g u r e 1 o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h s Bmerican C i v i l war (1865). World s a r I (1915) . world War 11 (1945). and d u r i n g t h e peak o f t h e V i e t Nam d e n o r s t r a t i o n s i n t h e u n i t e d S t a t e s (1970) .*5

These d a t a . s h o r i n g t h a t v i o l e n c e i n c h i l d r e n ' s f i c t i o n i s a s s o c i z t e d w i t h t h e c o l l e c t i v e v i o l s n c e of t h e s o c i e t y , a r e remarkably c l o s e t o t h e f i n d i n g s o f s t u d i e s t h a t show a n i n c r e a s e i n a c t u a l v i o l e n c e ~ U g g a s o c i e t y d u r i n g p e r i o d s of war ( E r c h e r and G a r t n e r . 1976: Aenry and S h o r t . 1954:102). The a r c h e r and G a r t n e r f i n d i n g s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y impressive b e c a u s e t h e y a r e based o n d a t a f o r 110 d i f f e r e n t n a t i o n s . The c o r r e s p o n d e n c e betwepn t h e f i n d i n g s of o u r c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s v i t h a n a l y s e s b a s e d on a c t u a l l e v e l s o f v i o l e n c e i s a l s o o f methodolog icaL i n t e r e s t i n t h a t i t p r o v i d e s a d d i t i o n a l s u p p o r t f o r u s i n g c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e o p e r a t i o n o f a s o c i e t y .

FICTIONAL VIOLENCE A N D SOCIAL CONTROL OF DSVIANCF

The d a t a j u s t p r e s e n t e d s u g g e s t t h a t v i o l e n c e i s a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f ~ r e c o m e n d e d " c h i l d r e n ' s books. Housver. S i n c e Our i n t e r e s t is n o t i n c h i l d r e n ' s l i t e r a t u r e 2% ge, b u t i n u s i n g c h i l d r e n * ~ books t o g a i n a g r e a t e r U n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e r o l e o f v i o l e n c e i n American s o c i e t y . o u r f o c u s will b e on t h e n a t u r e o f v i o l e n c e and i ts c o r r e l a t e s . Re have a l r e a d y p r e s e n t e d one s u c h c o r r e l a t e - - t h e a s s o c i a t i o n of f i c t i o n a l v i o l s n c e w i t h p e r i o d s of n a t i o n a l c o l l e c t i v e v i o l e n c e . T h i s can b e l n t e r p r e t e d a s m a n i f e s t i n g t h e p r i c c i p l e t h a t a r t i s t i c p:oductions r s f l e c t the s o c i o c u l t u r a l m a t r i x o f t h e a r t i s t .

Rs s u g g e s t e d t h a t f i c t i o n nay s e r v e t o mold and c o n t r o l SOc2ety. a c d i t is t o t h i s i s s u e t h a t we now t u r n . Durkheim (1950) and E r i k s o n (1966) h o l d t h a t mora l v i o l a t i o n s a r e S i n g l e d o u t f o r punishment and p u b l i c d i s a p p r o v a l a s a means o f s t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e commitment o f t h e s o c i e t y t o i t s mora l norms. T h s o r e t i c a l l y , t h e h igh i n c i d e n c e of v i o l e n c e i n t h e s e books c o u l d b e a v e h i c l e t o e x p o s e a n 6 p u z i s h t h o s e who U S 8 v i o l e n c e . S e v e r a l of o u r f i n d i n g s . however, s u g g e s t t h a r t h i s is .ot t h e c a s e . I n f a c t , t h e i m p l i c i t message i s t h a t v i o l e n c e is e f f e c t i v e i n r e s o l v i n g s e e m i n g l y i n s 3 l u b l e problems.

Ch.9. V i o l e n c e i n C h i l d r e n ' s Books Page 58

The f i r s t Evidence f o r t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s t h e l a r g e p r o p o r t r o n of t h e v i o l e n t i n c i d e n t s c l a s s i f i e d a s " i n s t r u m e n t a l v i o l e n c e " ( d e f i n e d a s t h e u s e o f v i o l e n c e t o f o r c ? a n o t h e r t o c a r r y o u t , o r t o h i n d e r m o t h e r from c a r r y i n g o u t . some a c t ) . Some 7 2 p e r c e n t o f a c t s were c l a s s i f i e d a s i n s t r u m e n t a l v i o l e n c e . compared v i t h 28 p e r c e n t c l a s s i f i e d a s " e x p r e s s i v e v i o l e n c e " ( a c t s c a r r i e d o u t t o c a u s e p a i n o r i n j u r y a s an end i n i t s e l f ) . % v i o l e n c e i n t h e s e books is p o r t r a y e d overwhelmingly a s u s e f "1.

E second t y p e o f e v i d e n c e a g a i n s t t h e t h e o r y t h a t t h e v i o l e n c e i s a v e h i c l e f o r c o n v e y i n g mora l d i s a p p r o v a l o f v i o l s n c e is shown i n t h e outcomes. Of t h e 171 i n s t r u m e n t a l v i o l e n t a c t s t h a t c o u l d b e coded f o r outcome, 60 p e r c e n t were d e p i c t e d a s a c h i e v i n g t h e d e s i r e d outcome.

T h i r d , WE c l a s s i f i e d each a c t a c c o r d i n g t o whether t h e b o o k ' s a u t h o r p o r t r a y e d it a s l e g i t i m a t e o r i l l e g i t i m a t e . Of t h e 261 a c t s t h a t c o u l d be coded 03 t h i s d imens ioc . 48 p e r c m t were p r e s e n t e d a s s o c i a l l y l e g i t i m a t e a c t s .

P i n s l l y , a d d i t i o n a l i n s i g h t is g a i n e d when t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y and t h e l e g i t i m a c y d i m e n s i o n s a r e c r o s s - c l a s s i f i e d , r e v e a l i n g t h a t most o f t h e a c t s of i n s t r u m e n t a l v i o l e n c e (55 p e r c 9 n t ) were d e p i c t e d a s s o c i a l l y l e g i t i m a t e whereas "or ly" 28 p e r c e n t of t h e e x p r e s s i v e a c t s o f v i o l e n c e were d e p i c t e d a s l e g i t i m a t e . Thus. when v i o l e n c e i s p o r t r a y e d a s a means of ach ievement , it t e n d s t o b e g i r e n t h e s t a m p of s o c i a l a p p r o v a l by t h e a u t h o r s of t h e s e books. Bnt when it i s p o r t r a y e d a s a n e x p r e s s i o n o f emot ion , it i s d e p i c t e d a s i l l e g i t i m a t e . We s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p r e p r e s e n t s t h e c o m b i n a t i o n of t h e h i s t o r i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t e m p h a s i s o n a c h i e v e m e n t i n Rmsrican s o c l e t y coming t c g e t h e r v i t h t h e n a t i o n s 1 h e r i t a g e o f v i o l e n c e .

O v e r a l l , t h e e r i d s n c c s u g g e s t s tha ' t t h e h i g h f r e q u e n c y o f V L ~ ~ E D C I 51 c h i l d r e n ' s books is n o t p a r t of a s o c i a l c o n t r o l p r o c e s s r e s t r i c t i r g v i o l e n c e . The v i o l e n c e i n t h e s e s t o r i s s i s t y p i c a l l y c a r r i e d o u t t o a c h i e v e some ecd o r s o l v e scme p r c b l e n : it is u s o a l l y s u c c e s s f u l : end, when used f o r s u c h l n s t r u n e r t a l purposes . it is most o f t e n d e p i c t e d a s S o c i a l l y l e g i t i m a t e . Thus, t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t c h i l d r e n ' s books a r e a means of s o c i a l c o n t r o l and s o c i a l i z a t i o n , t h e p c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f v i o l e n c e i n American s o c i e t y .

a v o c a b n l m of n o t i v e s . Even if t h e s e books a r e n o t - p a r t o f a p r o c e s s by which t h e s o c i e t y e x p o s e s and l a b e l s v i o l e n c e a s a d e v i a n t a c t . o t h e r s o c i a l c o n t r o l and - ~~~~ -

S o c i a l i z a t i o n f u n c t i o n s i n r e l a t i o n t o v i o l e n c e a r e n o t r u l e d out. U e h a v e s u g g e s t e d j u s t t h e o p p o s i t e - - t h a t t h e s e hooks p l a y an i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n l a b e l i n g v i o l e n c e a s l e g i t i m a t e a n d i n t e a c h i n g t h e s o c i a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e

ch.4. V i o l e n c e i r C h i l d r e n ' s Books Page 5 9

o c c a s i o n s f o r i ts use .

A s Bandura (1973) shows. a g g r e s s i o n a n d v i o l e n c e a r e , f o r t h e nos7 p a r t , s o c i a l l y s c r i p t e d behavior . Among t h e n o s t i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t s of t h e s c r i p t f o r v i o l e n c e t a u g h r i n t h e s e c h i l d r e n ' s books a r e "motives" o r r e a s o n s t h a t communicate t o t h e c h i l d s o c i e t y ' s d e f i n i t i o n of t h e o c c a s i o n s on v h i c h v i o l e n c e may be used. Our i n i t i a l a n a l y s i s made u s e of 34 c a t e g o r i e s , some of which s e r e p r e d e t e r m i n e d and t h e r e m a i n d e r added a s we came a c r o s s r e a s o n s t h a t d i d n o t fit t h e c a t e g o r i e s . These 34 c a t e g o r i e s t h e n were g r o u p e a u n a e r s i x major heaa ings .

I n d e s i g n i n g t h e s t u d y , we f ~ l t t h a t v i o l e n c e i n c h i l d r e n ' s books O f t e n would be p r e s e n t e d a s a msans o f p u n i s h i n g o r p r e v e n t i n g s o c i a l l y d i s a p p r o v e d b e h a v i o r , e s p e c i a l l y on t h e p a r t o f c h i l d r e n . To a l l o w t h i s hunch a f a i r o p p o r t u n i t y t o be proved o r d i s p r o v e d , we combined a l l c o d i r g c a t e g o r i e s t h a t c o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d v i o l e n c e used t o e n f o r c e s o c i a l norms o r v a l u e s . we i n c l u d e d any i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e p u r p o s e of v i o l e n c e was t o e n f o r c e a l e g i t i m a t e a u t h o r i t y : t o p u n i s h v i o l a t i o n s o f a e s t h e t i c norms ( t a b l e manners, e t c . ) . J a c k of t h r i f t , l y i n g , s t u p i d i t y , wickedness , o r g r e e d ; c r t o p romote t h e g e n e r a l t r i u m p h of good o v e r e v i l . The " S o c i a l C o n t r o l w c a t e g o r y i n t h e accompanying t a b u l a t i o n shows t h a t a l l t h e s e i n s t a n c e s came t o Only 18 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l number o f v i o l e n t a c t s .

TABLE 1. NOST COMEON REASONS FOR IIITIATIBG VIOLENCE ----- Reason X

(N=264)

Goal Blockage o r F r u s t r a t i o n 22 Emot iona l S t a t e s 22 S o c i a l C s n t r c l 1 8 Self-Def e n s e 18 War 10 . . No Apparent Other

The low p e r c e n t a g e of v i o l e n c e f o r s o c i a l c o n t r o l d o e s n o t come a b o u t b e c a u s e any o t h e r r a t i o n a l e d o m i n a t e s t h e p o r t r a y a l o f v i o l e n c e i n t h e s e books. I n f a c t . t h e two c a t e g o r i e s t h a t s h a r e t o p p l a c e , "Goal Blockage o r P r u s t r a t i o n " a n a "Emot iona l S t a t e s , ' i n c l n a e o n l y a b o u t 22 p e r c e n t e a c h of t h e t o t a l Cases. The Goal Blockage c a t e g o r y i n c l u d e s u s i n g v i o l e n c e t o remove a n o b s t a c l e : f o r example, t o femove a b a r r i e r t o t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n of hunger , t o a t t a c k a p e r s o n b l o c k i n g a t t a i n m e n t o f a goa l . t o a s s e r t one ' s

Ch.4. V i o l e n c e i n child re^'^ Books Page 6 0

p o u e r i n g e n e r a l , The o t h e r t o p c a t e g o r y , " E n c t i o r a l S t a t e s . " i n c l u d e s v i o l e n c e m o t i v a t e d by some s t r o n g emot ion s u c h a s shame o r h u m i l i a t i o n . r e v e n g e , o r r a g e o v e r h a v i n g been i n s u l t e d .

The S o c i a l C o n t r o l . s e l f - D e f e n s e , and War c a t e g o r i e s combined come t o 46 p e r c e n t of t h e mot ives Jr r e a s o n s f o r v ~ o l e n c e . Thus, t h e t y p e s o f v i o l e n c e f o r which a m o r a l c a s e can b e a rgued a r e s l i g h t l y less f r e q u e n t t h a n t h e combined f r e q u e n c y of v i o l e n c e t o a t t a i n some o t h e r end , g r a t u i t o u s v i o l e n c e . o r v i o l e n c e a s a r e s u l t of an e s o t i o n a l s t a t e . C l e a r l y , i f t h e s e a r e m o r a l i t y T a l e s , an i m p o r t a n t p a r t of t h e mora l code b e i n g communicated is t h e "eye f o r a n e y e , t o o t h f o r a t o o t h ' a s p e c t of t h e Old Testament . By and l a r g e , t h e s e c o n c l o s i o n s a p p l y o v e r t h e e n t i r e p e r i o a from 1850 t o 1970- R o s e r e r , t h e S o c i a l C o n t r o l c a t e g o r y t e n d e d t o be more common p r i o r t o 1930. I n a d d i t i o n . one of t h e s u b c a t e g o r i e s o c c u r r e d o n l y i n t h e p e r i o d 1955 t o 1970--violence used t o p u n i s h t h e " s t u p i d i t y " of o t h s r s . P e r h a p s t h e i n c r e a s i n g b u r r a u c r a t i z a t i o n of modarn s o c i e t y a n d t h e a t t e n d a n t d e n a r d s f o r r a t i o n a l i t y , s o w e l l d e s c r i b e d by Weber (1964) . l e a d s t o d e p i c t i n g " s h e e r s t u p i d i t y " ( I r r a t i o n a l i t y ) a s one of t h e more s e r i o u s mora l t r a n s g r e s s i o n s of c u r time.

C ~ i t a l Punishment. P n o t h e r a s p e c t o f t h e v o c a b u l a r y o f m o t i v e s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e s e books c o n c e r n s v i n l e n t a e a t h . The f a c t t h a t someone was k i l l e d i n 3 3 p e r c e n t o f t h e book-segments p r o v i d e s a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o g a i n i n s i g h t i n t o t h e s o c i a l d e f i n i t i o n of k i l l i n g and d e a t h t h a t is p r e s e n t e d t o c h i l d r e n . Rn i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f t h i s d e p i c t i o n comes t o l i g h t b e c a u s e t h e d e a t h o f t e n o c c u r s b e c a u s e t h e v i c t i m h a s commit ted some mora l wrccg o r cr ime. Tha t is, a l t h o u g h t h e terms " c a p i t a l punishment" and " d e a t h p e n a l t y " a r e n o t used , t h e s e hooks g r a p h i c a l l y d e s c r i b e u s e of t h e d e a t h p e n a l t y . And, a s Bruno B e t t e l h o i i n (1973) s a y s a b o u t "...those g r e a t American f o l k h e r o e s , The T h r e e L i r s p P=gsn ( i n uh tch t h e b i g bad wolf is b o i l e d a l i v e f o r b lowing t h e house down): ' C h i l d r e n l o r e t h e s t o r y ... But t h e i m p o r t a n t l e s s o n u n d e r l y i n g t h e e'joyment a n d drama o f t h e s t o r y e q u a l l y c a p t u r e s t h e i r a t t c n t i o n . " * l

we f e l t t h a t t h e books sampled c o n t a i n e d many s u c h e x a m p l e s o f t h s i u p l i c i t u s e o f t h e d e a t h p e n a l t y . To check t h i s , r e c r o s s t a b u l a t e d t h e v a r i a b l e i n d i c a t i n g d e a t t o r o t h e r i n j o r y wi th t h e a c t t h a t p r e c i p i t a t e d t h e v i o l e n c e . The r e s u l t s show t h a t c a p i t a l punish men^ ( t h e k i l l i n g of a c h a r a c t e r who commit ted a m o r a l t r a n s g r e s s i o n o r c r i m e ) o c c u r r e d i n 22 p e r c e n t o f t h e i n s t a n c e s i r which a c h a r a c t e r d ied . S i n c e t h e s e a r e h a p p e n i n g s of g z e a t d r a m a t i c i n t e n s i t y , what B e t t e l h e i m c a l l s " t h e i m p o r t a n t l e s s o n u n d e r l y i n g t h e Enjoyment and drama of t h e s t o r y " is l i k e l y t o make e s t r o n g i m p r e s s i o n on t h e c h i l d ' s m i rd . It i s n o t a t a l l f a r - f e t c h e d t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s l i t e r a r y background i s p a r t o f t h e b a s i s f o r t h e widespread , s e e m i n g l y

ch. 4 . V l o l e n c e i n C h i l d r e n ' s Books Page 6 1

i r r a t i o n a l commitment t o t h e d e a t h p e n a l t y Og s o nany m e r i c a n s ( s e e G e l l e s and S t r a u s . 1975).

RRCE, SEX, hND PBUILY

Race. The r a c i a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f v i o l e n t c h a r a c t e r s ---- i n t h e s e books a n d t h e i r v i c t i s s d o e s n o t shov a n y s t r i k i n g d e v z a t i o n from t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e Uni ted S t a t e s p o p u l a t i o n . Of t h e i n i t i a t o r s o f a g g r a s s i r e a c t s , 80 p e r c e n t were white . 9 p e r c e n t b l a c k , 1 p e r c e n t o r i e n t a l , 7 p e r c e n t I n d i a n , a n d 8 p e r c e n t " o t h e r . ' The d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r v i c t i m s of t h e s e z g g r e s s i v e a c t s is a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a n e (79, 7, 2. 5 , and 6 p e r c e n t ) .

Ch.4. V i o l e n c e i n C h i l d r e n ' s Eooks Page 6 2

Sex. n o s t o f t h e v i o l e n c e i n t h i s s a m p l e of books t o o k p l a c e - - ~ e t v e e n men. u i n e t y - o n e p e r c e n t o f t h e a g g r e s s o r s were male, a s were 86 p e r c e n t o f t h e v i c t i m s . Thus. v i o l e n c e i n t h e s e hooks i s overwhelmingly d e p i c t e d a s a male a c t l v i t y . If t h e p e r i o d c o v e r e d by t h i s s t u d y is one showing a g r a d u a l movement t o w a r d s e x u a l e q u a l i t y , t h i s t r e n d s h o u l d be r e f l e c t e d i r a g r a d u a l i n c r e a s e i n t h e p r o p o r t i o n of f e m a l e c h a r a c t e r s who engage i n "mascu l ine" a c t s o f a l l t y p e s , i n c l u d i n g a g g r e s s i o n . The l o w e r l i n e o f F i g u r e 2 d o e s i n d i c a t e j u s t s u c h a t r e n d .

Although t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f vomeu a g g r e s s o r s is growing, t h e r e a r e many ups a n d downs i n F i g u r e 2. Gecas (1972) d i d n o t f i n d a n y s u c h t r e n d o v e r time i n a s t u d y of a d u l t magazine f i c t i o n , and it may be t h a t t h e " t r e n d " r e o b s e r v e d r e f l e c t s a c o i n c i d e r c e c f random f l u c t u a t i o n s . Arguing a g a i n s t t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f 0.45 h a s a p r o b a b i l i t y o f c h a n c e o c c u r r e n c e of l e s s t h a n 0.05 when measured o v e r 2 5 time p e r i o d s . I n a d d i t i o n . P i g u r e 2 s u g g e s t s a c y c l i c a l p a t t e r n w i t h i n t h e g e n e r a l t r e n d . A s p e c t r a l a n a l y s i s (Dixon, 1965) was t h e r e f o r e c a r r i e d o u t t o d e t e r m i n e i f a d e p e n d a b l e c y c l i c a l p a t t e r n c o u l d be s e e n in t h e time s e r i e s ; t h i s a n a l y s i s r e v e a l e d a c y c l e o f f o u r time p e r i o d s (20 y e a r s ) , a c c o u n t i n g f o r 3 8 p e r c e n t of t h e v a r i a n c e .

I n t h e a b s a n c e o f o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n , it is d i f f i c u l t t o i n t e r p r e t t h i s 20-year c y c l e . One p o s s i b i l i t y is t h a t a c h i l d r e a d i n g t h e s e books a t a g e 10 would have r e a c h e d m a t u r i t y a n d p e r h a p s vould h e w r i t i n g books of h i s 3r h e r ovn i n 20 y e a r s . T h a t g e n e r a t i o n ' s a u t h o r s might t h e n t e n d t o p roduce works o f f i c t i o n i n f l u e n c e d by t h e d e p i c t i o n o f f e m a l e c h l z a c t s r s i n t h e books t h e y had r e a d a s a c h i l d . But whatever t h e e x p l a n a t i o n . t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s c y c l i c a l p a t t e r n . i n c o m b i n a t i o n v i t h t h e upward s e c u l a r t r e n d , a c c o u r t s f o r 58 p e r c e n t o f t h e v a r i a n c e i n t h e p r o p o r t i o n of f e m a l e a g g r e s s o r s s u g g e s t s t h a t more t h a n c h a n c e f a c t o r s a r e shown i n F i g u r e 2. I n a d d i t i o n . t h e i n c r e a s e i n f e m a l e a g g r e s s o r s i s c o n s i s t e n t v i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f wcmen a r r e s t e d f o r v a r i o u s c r i m e s , e s p e c i a l l y v i o l e n t c r i m e s (Roberts . 1971) .*8

A d u l t s -- Versus C h i l d r e n . On t h e b a s i s o f a c t u a l and p c t e n t i a l i n j u r i o u s n e s s , and i n t e r m s of t h e p u r p o s e s d e p i c t e d , we s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e v i o l e n t i n c i d e n t s i n t h e s e books a r e n o t " k i d s t u f f . ' The most d i r e c t e v i d e n c e is t h a t 80 p e r c e n t of t h e i n i t i a t o r s o f v i o l e n t a c t s v e r e c d u l t s . H O r was t h i s f i g u r e o f t e n m i t i g a t e d by a s e o f an a n i m a l o r o t h e r nonhuman c h a r a c t e r s : 80 p e r c e n t o f t h e a g g r e s s o r s v e r e humzn c h a r a c t e r s . The image p r e s e n t e d t o c h i l d r e n i n t h e s e h o o k s i s o f a d u l t s b e i n g p h y s i c a l l y v i o l e n t . Boreover , t h e p e r c e n t a g e of ac ts i n which t h e a g g r e s s o r is an a d u l t h a s g r a d u a l l y been i n c r e a s i n g o v e r t h e 120-year s p a n o f t h i s s t u d y , as t h e upper l i n e shows i n P i g u r e 2.

ch.4. v i o l e n c e i n C h i l d r e n - s Books Page 63

The preponderance of a d u l t f i g u r e s a s p h y s i c a l aggresso:s is a n i n s t a n c e of f i c t i o n t h a t d o e s c o t m i r r o r r e a l i t y , n o t b e c a u s e a d u l t s i n o u r s o c i e t y a r e not--;iolent. b n t b e c a u s e c h i l d r e n zg. Pushing , shoving , h i t t i n g , and p b y s i c a l f i g h t i n g a r e more common among c h i l d r e n t h a n among a d o l t s , r a t h e r t h a n t h e r e v e r s e . 8 9 T h i s r e v e r s a l may r e p r e s e n t one of t h e mp-hs c o n c e r n i n g v i o l e u c e i n Rmerican m i d d l e - c l a s s s o c i e t y . namely, t h a t v i o l e n c e i s approved o n l y when its end is s e e n a s s o c i a l l y worthy o r v a l u s d , a s punishment of wrongdoers o r n p r e v e n t a t i v e ' a i r ra ids .*lO

P&Ly Violence. Another myth t h a t t h e s e books - t r a n s m i t is t h e n o t i o n t h a t p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e between f a m i l y members i s r a r e . T h e r e is a wide d i s c r e p a n c y b e t v e e n t h e i d e a l i z e d v i c t u r e o f t h e f a m i l r a s a o r a u o committea t n -- - ~- ~ -. -- a -- - ..- .= ..-- -. ..- .. n o n v i o l e n c e hetween its members and "ha t a c t u a l l y g o e s on. The a v a i l a b l e e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t v i o l e n c e i s t y p i c a l o f f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s ( S t e i n m e t z and S t r a u s . 1973: S t r a u s , 1974b: S t r a u s . G e l l e s , and S t e i n m e t z . 1979). I n c h i l d h o o d . t h e p e r s o n s most l i k e l y t o s t r i k e a c h i l d a r e s i b l i n g s and p a r e n t s . I n adu l thood . t h e v i c t i m of a s s a u l t o r murder i s most l i k e l y a f a m i l y member. A s shovn i n C h a p t e r 3. i n f o r m a l norms. l a r g e l y u n v e r b a l i z e d , make a m a r r i a g e l i c e n s e a h i t t i n g l i c e n s e ( s e e G e l l e s , 1974; Schulz , 1969) .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , i n t h e s e c h i l d r e n ' s books, 91 p e r c e n t o f t h e v l c l e n t i n c i d e n t s t a k e p l a c e b e t v e e n p e r s o n s who a r e ggt r e l a t e d . Two p e r c e r t o f t h e v i o l e n c e was by f a t h e r s and two p e r c e n t by mothers. I n o n l y a s i n g l e i n c i d e n t d i d a husband h i t a w i f e and i n none was t h e a g g r e s s o r a w i f e o r g r a n d p a r e n t . These f i n d i n g s a r e p a r a l l e l t o t h o s e r e v e a l e d i c a n i n f o r m a l s e a r c h f o r i n s t a n c e s of husband-wife v i o l e n c e i n 20 r ~ o r e l s f o r a d u l t s ( s t e i n m e t z and s t r a u s , 1974).

The a b s e n c e cf husband-v i fe v i o l e n c e i n a d u l t f i c t i o n a n d t h e v i r t u a l a b s e n c e of any i n t r a f a m i l y v i o l e n c e i n c h i l d r e n ' s f l c t i o n c a l l s f o r an e x p l a n a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y since s o much contemporary f i c t i o n a t t e m p t s t o show r e a l i t y i n gr im d e t a i l . a l t h o u g h t h e s e d a t a d o n o t p e r m i t a

z c f ~ n l t i v e answer, re s u g g e s t t h a t t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o c e s s e s may be a t work.

F i r s t i s a p r o c e s s o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l . The s o c i e t y d o e s have a commitment t o f a m i l i a l n o n v i o l e n c e , even though it e x i s t s s i d e by s i d e v i t h more c o v e r t norms p e r m i t t i n g and e n c o u r a g i n g i n t r a f a n i l y v l o l e n c e ( C h a p t e r 3). Thus, t h e c u l t u r a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f s o c i e t y t e n d t o p o r t r a y f a m i l i e s i n a way t h a t v i l l n o t e n c o u r a g e peoplE t o v i o l a t e t h i s norm.

second is a p r o c e s s of s%G& coQsfzEi&g f Eg&&&. The s o c i e t y must h a v e i t s members d e f i n e t h e f a n i l y as a p l a c e o f l o v e and g e n t l e n e s s r a t h e r t h a n a p l a c e o f v i o l e n c e b e c a u s e of t h e t remendous i m p o r t a n c e o f s e c u r i n g c o n a i t n e n t t o t h e f a m i l y a s a s o c i a l group. The a y t h of f a m i l y

Ch.4. V i o l e n c e i n C h i l d r e n ' s Eooks Page 6U

n o n v i o l e n c e i s one of t h e many ways t h a t t h e i n s t i t u t i o n of t h e f a m i l y is s t r e n g t h e n e d a n d suppor ted . It h e l p s e n c o u r a g e p e o p l e t o marry a n d t o s t a y m a r r i e d d e s p i t e t h c a c t u a l s t r e s s e s o f f a m i l y i n t e r a c t i o n .

T h i r d , most s p e c u l a t i v e l y . t h e ~ p f ; & a_f f a g u ~ n o n v i o l e n c e d i s c o u r a g e s members o f t h e i n t e l l e c t o a l e l i t e , whe ther n o v e l i s t s o r s o c i o l o g i s t s , from p r o b i n g i n t o t h i r a s p e c t of t h e f a m i l y . We h a v e a l l been b r o u g h t up on t h i r l i t e r a t u r e and even r e a d i t a s a d u l t s . Apparen t ly . h a v i n c a c c e p t e d t h e l i t e r a t u r e ' s b a s i c p r e m i s e s , n o v e l i s t s a v o i e w r i t i n g a b o u t p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e between f a m i l y nsmbers, and s o c i o l o g i s t s have p r a c t i c e d " s e l e c t i v e i n a t t e n t i o n " tt r e s e a r c h on t h i s a s p e c t o f t h e f a m i l y ( S t e i n n e t z a n d S t r a u s , 19741.

SUBBARY BND CONCLUSIONS

Our s t u d y of 125 ' c l a s s i c " O r "recommended' c h i l d r e n ' s books p n b l i s h e d from 1850 t o 1970 r e v e a l e d an e x t r e m e l y h igh i n c i d e n c e of p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e . Almost a l l t h e books d e s c r i b e d one o r more a c t s o f a c t u a l o r t h r e a t e n e d v i o l e n c e . The t y p i c a l c h i l d r e n ' s book c a n be e x p e c t e d t o have one v i o l e n t i n c i d e n t , a t h i r d o f which is l e t h a l , f o r e v e r y s e v e n pages o f t e x t . There was no g e n e r a l i n c r e a s e o r d e c r 9 a s e o v e r t h e 120 y e a r s s t u d i e d . However, t h e p o r t r a y a l o f v i o l e n c e t e n d e d t o be h ~ g h d u r i n g p e r i o d s i n which t h e S o c i e t y was engaged i n war, and t o b s low d u r i n g p e r i o d s of economic d i f f i c u l t y .

i f t h e d e p i c t i o n o f v i o l e n c e were c o n s t r u e d a s a v e h i c l e t o e x p r e s s s o c i e t a l d i s a p p r o v a l o f v i o l e n c e . i t would be p r e s e c t e d a s e v i l . and t h e p s r p e t u a t o r s o f v i o l e n c e u c u l d be :ariahcC. Tte o p p o s l t e serms T O be t h e c a r e . For exlmpl*. ' r : s t r u m e r t a l n v :o le ic r was f r s q u s n t , 3rd 7 y p ; c a l l p z e r u l i e d L L t t e a : t l l r . m € ~ t 3f t h e a g g r e s s o r ' s >, l rpos?.

N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s e books d o have i m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n s o f s o c i a l i z a t i o n and s o c i a l c o n t r o l . They p r o v i d e s c r i p t s and r o l e models t h r o u g h which g e n e r a t i o n s o f young Bmericans h a v e l e a r n e d how t o behave v i o l e n t l y . Among t h e e l e m e n t s o f t h e s e complex s c r i p t s t h z t must be l e a r n e d a r e t h e m o t i v e s t h a t one can l e g i t i m a t e l y i n v o k e t o j u s t i f y v i o l e n c e , t h e k i n d s of p e r s o n s who can b e v i o l e n t and a g a i n s t whoa v i o l e n c e i s p e r m i s s i b l e , t h e l e v e l o f s o c i a l l y a c c e p t a b l e i n j u r y , and t h e Emotions t h a t a r e a p p r o p r l a t e o r r e q u i r e d o r t h e p a r t of t h e a g g r e s s o r ( f o r example, joy o r remorse) a n d t h e v i c t i m ( f o r examFle, r a g e , t e a r s , o r h u m i l i a t i o n ) . A l l of t h e s e e l e m e n t s and t h e i r COnPlex i n t e r r e l a t i o n s a r e d e p i c t e d f o r t h e c h i l d i n t h i s s a m p l e of books.

Ch.4, Violence i n C h i l d r e n ' s Books Page 65

V i o l e n c e between f a m i l y members is a major e x c e p t i o n t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t c h i l d r e n ' s books p r o v i d e a s c r i p t f o r Vio lence . V l o l e n c e w i t h i n t h e f a m i l y was r a r e l y p o f t r a y e d , r e f l e c t i n g t h e s o c i a l mythology of f a m i l i a l nonviolence. he myth of f a m i l y n o n v i o l e n c e may ;n t u r n r e f l e c t t h e h i g h s t a k e t h a t s o c i e t y h a s i n s e c u r i n g ana m a i n t a i n i n g comeitment t o t h e f a m i l y a s a s o c i a l group.

NOTES

*Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e 1975 a n n u a l m s o t i c g of t h e E a s t e r n S o c i o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y . T h i s r e s e = r c h was p a r t l y s u p p o r t e d by N a t i o n a l I r ~ s t i t u t e of f l e n t a l S e a l t h g r a n t nomber 18-15521 am3 by a summer f e l l o w s h i p awarded t o t h e s e n i o r a u t h o r by t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f New Eampshire G r a d u a t e school . We would l i k e t o e x p r e s s o u r a p p r e c i a t i o n t o P a u l Kaplac f o r h i s work on c o d i n g t h e 125 books, t o Loren Cobb f o r a s s i s t a n c e w i t h t h e s p e c t r a l a n a l y s i s , and t o P a u l Drew, Arnold Linsky. S t u a r t Palmer, and Donna P e l t z f o r v a l u a b l e comments a n d criticisms o n an earlier d r a f t .

1. Assuming t h a t l i t e r a t u r e d o e s i n f l u e n c e s o c i e t y , a c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s hy i t s e l f c a n o n l y i n d i c a t e t h e n a t u r e o f t h e message. It d o e s n o t p r o v i d e d a t a on t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e i n f l u e n c e o r on t h e s p e c i f i c s e c t o r s o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n t h a t a r e most, l e a s t , o r n o t a t a l l i n f l u e n c e d . I n a complex modern s o c i e t y , b o t h t h e i n t e n s i t y a n d t h e e x t e n t o f i r f l u a n c e a r e h i g h l y p r o b l e m a t i c , f o r t h e same r e a s o n s t h a t "funcYiOna1 i o t e g r a t i o l " i n g e n e r a l i s p r o b l e m a t i c i n s u c h s o c i s t i e s (Cohen, iY69: 151-156).

2. The f o l l o v i n g s u p p l e n e n t a r y m a t e r i a l i s a v a i l a b l e o n r e q u e s t : (1) L i s t o f books a n a l y z e d . (2) L i s t of book lists used t o l o c a t e books f o r each of t h e f i r e y e a r p e r i o d s . (3) c c d f and c o t e s h e e t used i n t h e c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s .

3. For 193 o f t h e books, we were a b l e t o o b t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e a p p r c x i m a t e a g e - o f - c h i l d r a n g e f o r which t h e book was c o n s i d e r e d s u i t a b l e . We coqed t h e a i d p o i n t o f t h 9 a g e r a n g e f o r e a c h book. These median a g e s r a n g s d from f i v e books w i t h a recoamerded a g e of s i x y e a r s t o one book f o r 16 y e a r 016s. The mean of t h e median a y e s was 10.8 y e a r s and t h ~ mode was 10 y e a r s (26 p e r c o n t o f t h e c a s e s ) .

Y. Although u e coded o n l y a c t s o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l v i o l e n c e t h a t o c c u r r e d on t h e p a g e s drawn i n t h e sample, we r e a d a s much of t h e rest of t h e book a s n e c 3 s s s r y t o d e t e r m i n e s u c h t h i n g s a s t h e s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e a c t o r s and t h e i r motives. E copy o f t h e d e t a i l e d c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s c o d e may be o b t a i n e d from t h e N a t i o n a l A u x i l i a r y P u b l i c a t i o n s S e r v i c e . S e e f o o t n o t e 1.

Ch.9. V l o l e n c e i n C h i l d r e c ' s Books Page 66

TWO d i f f e r e n t c o d e r s made t h e c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s . E t e s t o f t h e r e l i a b i l i t y of t h e c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s p r o c e d u r e was c a r r i e d o u t t h r e e d a y s a f t e r t h e a c t u a l c o d i n g h a d begun. A l l books coded t h a t day were done by b o t h c o d e r s . For t h e 360 c o a i n g s compared (10 books, 36 v a r i a b l e s p e r b o o k ) , t h e r e was a n 87 p e r c e n t agreement .

TO p r e v e n t d i f f e r e n c e s between c o d e r s from i n f l u e n c i n g t h e t r e n d a n a l y s i s . e a c h c o d e r a n a l y z e d o n l y two or t h r e e of t h e hooks f o r a g i v e n year . ' T h e r e f o r e , p o s s i b l e " d r i f t " o r c h a n g e s i n c o d i n g s t a n d a r d s t h a t might have o c c u r r e d a s t h e c o d i n g proceeded would n o t b i a s t h e t i m e s e r i e s a n a l y s i s .

5. None of t h e hooks p u b l i s h e d d u r i n g t h e peak y e a r s were "mar s t o r i e s . " I n a d d i t i o n , l i t t l e o f t h e v i o l e n c e p o r t r a y e d i n any of t h e s e books is t h e k i l l i n g o r wounding o f a n enemy s o l d i e r .

6. Our c o d i n g c a t e g o r i e s were y e r p r = s s l v e . v e r s u s =*I;& r r . s t r u m s % t l l . srr.ce b ~ t h coap0le r . t s nay be orassnc . SEE S- laus. Fellas. a ~ d Ster?.ae-z 11973) f o r 3 - .- ~ ..--.. -. -.~- ~ - - ~ - . ~. -

d i s c u s s i o n of t h i s and r e l a t e d i s s u e s i n i d e n t i f y i n g t y p e s o f violence. The c a d i n o o f e s c h a c t as e i t h e r o r i m a r i l p ~ ~ ~~. > ~~

~ ~

i c s t r u a s c t a l o r e x p r s s s r s e was c a r r i e d o u t sspara:ely from t h e c o d r c g o t such v a r i a b l e s a s t t n s p e c i f r c r a a s o r s f o r lL l? ia : ina V : O ~ E ~ C P (SEE T a b l e 11 and t h e r e 1s i h e r P f 3 r e 2

~A -~ ~ ,~ ~

s m a l l d i s c r e p a n c y between t h e two v a r i a b l e s . If t h e t v o n o n i n s t r u m e n t a l c a t e g o r i e s a r e s u b t r a c t e d from T a h l e 1, t h i s p r o d u c e s 7 1 r a t h e r t h a n 72 p e r c e n t i n s t r u m e n t a l a c t s .

7. R e t t e l h e i m was r e f e r r i n g t o t e a c h i n g t h e w o r k - e t h i c i t h i s q u o t a t i o r , b u t we f e e l it is e q u a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e v i o l e n c e - e t h i c t h a t i s a l s o p r e s e n t e d .

e . Of c o u r s e . a s t h o s e f a m i l i a r w i t h c r i m e s t a t i s t i c s r e a l i z e , t h i s d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mean t h a t women have engeged i n more v i o l e n t + c t s . Changes i n t h e s o c i a l 3 a f i n i t i o n of women s i a i l a r t o t h o s e o c c u r r i n g i n t h e s e children's hooks may a l s o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e p e r c e p t i o n of women by t h e p c l i c e and p u b l i c p r o s e c u t o r s , l e a d i n g t o an i n c r e a s e i n a r r e s t r a t e r a t h e r t h a n a n i n c r e a s e i n i n c i d e n c e of v i o l e n c e .

9. Eowever. i f t h e u n i t o f v i o l e n c e is homic ide o r t h o s e a s s a u l t s t h a t e n t e r t h e o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s , t h e n t h e peak a g e i s t h e m i d d l e t o l a t e t w e n t i e s .

10. E s s s r t i n g t h a t t h i s i s o n e way i n which c h i l d r e n ' s l i t e r a t u r e r e f l e c t s i d e a l r a t h e r t h a n a c t u a l s o c i a l p a t t e r n s p o i n t s up t h e weakness of t h e " d i a l e c t i c a l i n t e r p l a y " t h e o r y , namely. t h a t it is u n t e s t a b l e : n o t h i n g can r e f u t e it. Correspondence can be c l a i m e d a s an i n s t a n c e of s u p p o r t of t h e ' f r e f l e c t i o n ' l p r o c e s s and a d i s c r e p a n c y can he c l a i m e d a s p a r t o f t h e * i n f l u e n c e " p r o c e s s . N e v e r t h a l e s s , a s Cohen (1969:6) n o t e s . u n t e s t a b l e t h e o r i e s c a n have h s u r i s t i c

Ch.4. Violence in Children's Books Page 67

value. In the present caso it sensitizes us to finding instances that, in our judgment, reflect one or t h e other of thase two processes and to speculate abwut the underlying reasons. If these speculations point to isportant social processes, It can be said that the theory has heuristic value, especially so if it leads to sobseqoent research to test these speculations.

Chapter 5

A Cultural-Consistent! Theoy of Family Violence in Mexican-American

and Jewish-Ethnic Groups

Joseph C. Carroll

up t c t h i s p o i n t we h a v e been c o 3 s i d e r i n g c u l t o r a l norms t h a t d e a l d i r e c t l y w i t h v i o l e x c e . Rowever, t h i s c h a p t e r s u g g e s t s t h a t pven c i l l t u r a l corms t h a t d o 2% have a m a r i f e s t r e f e r e n c e t o v i o l e r c e a l s o a f f e c t t h e l e v e l of v i o l e n c e . ? o r example, norms Day s t r u c t u r e f a m i l y r o l c s i n a way t h a t i c c r e z s s s t s n s i o n an4 h o s t i l i t y i n t h e f a m i l y , e v e n though t h a t i s c o t what i s i n t e n d e d . C a r r o l l a r g u e s t h a t t h e e l e m e n t s 02 a c u l t u r e t e n d t o be i n t e r a s p e n d e n t . Hs a p p l i e s t h i s " c u l t u r a l c o n s i s t e r c y " t h e o r y t3 n e x i c a n - S a e r i c a n and Jewish-American f a m i l i e s . For example, C a r r o l l c o n c l u d e s t h a t i n m e x i c a n - l m ~ r i c a n f a m i l i e s , norms c a l l f o r male dominance i n husband-wife r 9 l a : i o n s h i p s and f a t h e r dominance i n p a r e a t - c h i l d r e l a t i o c s h i p s , whereby it i s n o t l e g i t i m a t e f o r a wife o r c h i l d t o c o n t e s t t h e husband o r f s t h e r , a r e s y s t e m a t i c a l l y 1:IkeZ t o a h i g h l s v s l of v i o l e n c e . I n J e w i s h f a m i l i e s , i t is nct i l l e g i t i m a t e t o a r g u e w i t h o n e ' s husband, u i f s . o r f a t h e r . C o n f l i c t s a r c n o t s e t t l e d on t h e b a s i s o f a s c r i b e d power, b u t or. t h e b a s i s oE d i s c u s s i o n and k r o v l e d g e ( e i t h e r s c r i p t u r a l o r s c i e n t i f i c ) . To t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h i s i d e a l i s f o l l o v e d , c o r f l i c t s can be s e t t l e d w i t h o u t r e s o r t i n g t o v i o l e c c e .

w h i l e t h i s c h a p t e r examines o n l y t w o e t h n i c S n b c u l t u r e s , it is a p r o m i s i n g b e g i n n i n g t o t h e deve lopment o f a t y p o l o g y o f f a m i l y s u b c u l t u r s l norms a n d t h e i r r o l e i n p e r m i t t i n g o r d i s c o u r a g i r . g t h e u s e o f v i o l e n c e a s a means of c o x f l i c t r e s o l u t i o c .

~h.5 . C u l t u r a l C o n s i s t e n c y Page 6 9

The c o x c e p t c i t h e s u b c u l t o r e o f v i o l e n c e r p f p r s t o norms t h a t d e a l d i r e c t l y w i t h t h e e x t e n t t o v h i c h v i o l p n c e may be u s e d e r a t h e c o n d i t i o n s under v h i c h v i o l e n c e is p e r m i s s i b l e . Eowever, t h i s c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n d o e s no* d e a l w i t h t h e q u e s t l a n of how s u c h norms a n d v a l u e s con= i n t o b e i c g and why t h e y p e r s i s t a s c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s . One e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e deve lopment o f t h e s e c u l + u r a l p a t L e r n s a s s e r t s t h a t s p e c i f i c c u l t u r a l e l e m e n t s r e f l e c t t h e c p e r a t i o n of t h e c u l t u r e 3s = '~=fgg. White s u g g e s t s t h a t c u l t n r e may have s y s t e m i c p r o p e r t i e s , i n t h a t t h e s t r u c t u r e of c u l t u r e c o n s i s t s of i n t e g r a t e d components rela 'sd by c a u s e and e f f e c t (1975:36). Thus. norms c o n c e r n i n g ~ F ? l e n c e t e n d t o r e f l e c t and he c g n s i s t e n t w i t h t k e v a l u e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a group.

The p u r p o s e of t h i s c h a p t e r i s t o d e v e l o p s u c h a c u l t l r a l - c o n s i s t = r c y t h e o r y o f v i o l e n c e and t o a p p l y t h i s t h e o r y t o Mexican-Bmericar and J e w i s h e t h n i c groups. These g r o u p s were s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e t h e y seemed t o have markedly d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s and norms, a l l o w i n g f o r e x a m i n a t i o n of t h e t h 4 0 r y f rom two d i f f s r e c t s t a n d p o i n t s . The two g r o u p s may be Seen a s e x t r e m e s on a c u l t u r a l v a l u e cont inuum on which o t h e r e t h r i c g r o u p s may b e p l a c e d and compared. D t h e r t h e o r i e s b e s i d e s c u l t o r a l c o n s i s t s n c y a s s e r t t h a t a c o l t u r e reflects t h e t y p i c a l p e r s 0 r . a l i t y o f z s o c i e t y ' s menbers o r t h a t a c u l t n r e r e f l e c t s t h e p r e s s u r P s a n d l i a i t a t i o n s i n h e r e n t i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of a s o c i e t y . These e x p l a n a t i o n s a r e a l s o i m p o r t a n t f o r a f u l l u r a e r s t a n d i n g of a cu l tu r ; , b u t t h e y a r e o m i t t e d from t h e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r t o a l l o w room t o a d e q u a t e l y d e v e l o p a c u l t u r a l - c o o s i s t e n c y t h e o r y .

A CULTURBL-CORSISTEICY TEEOBY OF VIOLEBCB

S i c c e t h e g o a l of t h i s c h a p t e r i s t a a x p l a i o t h e c a u s s o f f a m i l y v i o l e c c e i n c e r t a i n e t h n i c g r o u p s i n t e r m s o f c u l t u r a l c o n s i s t e n c y , we must f i r s t l e f i n e what we mrar by a s u b c u l t u r e . R c c o r d i r g t o Wolfgang, s u b c o l t u r s s a r i s r vhan n o t a l l o f t h e v a l u ~ s , b e l i e f s , o r norms i n a s o c i e t y a r e g i v e n e q u a l s t a t u s by a l l g roups . S u b c u l t u r a l g r o u p s may p a r t i a l l y a c c e p t o r deny e l e m e n t s o f t h e c e n t r a l o r dominant v a l u e s . y e t r e m a i n w i t h i n t h e c u l t u r s l sys tam (1967:99). Thus a g r o u p o f p e o p l e , f o r example, an e t h n i c g r o u p , may s h a r e v a l u e s and norms r e g a r d i n g f a m i l y l i f e t k a t a r s n o t i d e n t i c a l t o t h o s e g e r e r a l l y a c c e p t e d by t h e wider s o - i e t y . I n o u r d e f i n i t i o n , v a l u e s f o r f a m i l y l i f e r e f e r t o h a s i c v a l u e s o f t h e a t h c i c g r o u p r a t h e r t h a n t o t h o s e t h a t d e a l e x p l i c i t l y w i t h v i o l e r c e . Examples of more b a s i c ValuSs a r e t h o s e of power r e l a t i o n s a s s i g n e d by a g e a n d s e x , o r t h e p r a c t i c e o f r e l i g i o n .

Ch.5. C u l t u r a l C o n s i s t e n c y Page 70

l l t h o u g h t h e y a r e n o t c o n c e r n e d w i t h s p e c i f i c e L h r i c g roups . P a r s o n s a n d S h i l s ' d i s c u s s i o n of t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s is r e l e v a n t . They s t a t e :

C u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s t e n d t o become o r g a n i z e 3 i n t o Systems. The p e c u l i a r f e a t u r e o f t h i s s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n i s a t y p e of i n t e g r a t i o n which we may c a l l c o n s i s t e n c y o f p a t ? e r n (1953:Zl).

The C o r s i s t e n c y o f p a t t e r n o f s u c h a sys tem w i l l e x s s t t o t h e e x t e n t t o v h i c h t h e same c o m b i n a t i o n o f v a l u e judgments.. . runs C c n s i s t e n t l p t h r o u g h o n t t h e a c t o r s ' r e s p o n s e s t o d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o r s : t h a t is, t o a d i f f e r e n ? c l a s s o f o b j e c t s , d i f f e r e n t o b j e c t s i n t h e s a n e c l a s s , and t h e same O b j e c t s on d i f f e r e n t o c c a s i o n s (1953: 172) .

I n a c u l t u r a l sys tem, a s t h e 5erm i s used above. O r i e n t a t i o n s toward a p a r t i c u l a r r o n s o c i a l o r s o c i a l o b j e c t a r e i n t e r d e p e n d e n t . S o c i a l o b j e c t s may be i n d i v i d u a l s o r c o l l e c t i v i t i e s (1953:s). C u l c u r a l p a t t e r n s r e f e r t o t h e e x t e n t t o which s y s t e m s of i d e a s o r b s l i e f s , and s y s t e m s of v a l u e o r i e r t a t i o n s a r e s h a r e d by members of a c u l t u r e .

Accord ing t o P a r s o n s and S h i l s , t h e problem f o r t h e s t u d s n t of c u l t u r e is t o d e t e r m i n e t h e v a l u e judgments t h a t l e a d t o c m s i s t e n c y of p a t t e r n s .

I n o r d e r t h e r e f o r e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e x i s t e n c e of S y s t e m a t i c c o h e r e n c e where t h e r e h a s n o t been e x p l i c i t s y s t e a a t i z a t i o l , if i s n e c e s s a r y f r r t h e s t u d e n t o f c u l t a r e t c nzcover t h e * x y l i c i t C u l t u r e 2nd t o d e t e c t whatever common p r e m i s e s may u n d e r l i e a p p a r e n t l y d i v e r s ? 3r.d u n c o n l e c t e a I t e m s of o r i e n t a t i o l (1953:22).

The p o s i t i o r t a k e n i n t h i s c h a p t e r i e t h a t e a c h s t h r i c g r o u p s h a r e s a set of "commoa premises" t h a L c o n s t i t u t e t h e s o u r c e of mcmbers' a c t i o r l i r a l l a r e a s of l i f e . Thes? a r e t h e b a s i c v a l u e s o f t h e group. Thns, t o a r r i v e a t t h e a c t u a l l e v e l o f f a m i l y v i o l e n c e , we must examine t h e b a s i c f a m i l y v a l u e s o f t h e e t h n i c group.

There is l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t norms f o r f a l i l y v i o l ~ n c s d o e x i s t i n some e t h r i c g roups . Lewis (1960) found t h + t s e v e r e punishment was t r a d i t i o n a l i n T e p o z t l a n . P a r e n t s b e l i e v e d i n e a r l y punishment t h a t began a b o u t t h e t i m e s c h i l d l e a r n e d t o walk, a l t h o u g h t h e most s e v e r e punishmen: o f c h i l d r e l o c c u r r e d between t h e a g e s of f i v e a n d twslrs. Lewis r e p o r t e d t h a t a l t h o u g h puxishment i n t h i s v i l l a g e had become l e s s s e v e r e . it was n o t uncommon f o r f a t h e r s t o b e a t t h e i r c h i l d r e n w i t h a s t i c k o r r c p e .

Ch.5. C u l t u r a l C o r s i s t e n c y

I n y e a r s p a s t f a m i l y bounds o i t h e law.

Page 71

v i o l e n c e was even w i t h i n 'he

canon Law i n y e a r s p a s t a c c e p t e d w i f e - b e a t i n g a s a f a i r means of k e e p i n g a s p o u s e i n o r d s r . I hundred Years a a o 5% was a n u n o u e r t i o n e d o a t t e r n ~~< -~ - - - ~ - ~

i n many f a m i l l e s , due i n p e r t t o t h e l a c k of S t a t u s o f a woman. and i n D a r t t o t h e i r c h a t t e l - -

v a l u e i n a m a r r i a g e [ P e n n e l l , l974:lS).

The f i n a l q u e s t i o n t o be d i s c u s s e d i n t h e deve lopment o f a t h e o r y o f e C h n i c f a m i l y v i c l s n c e is how t h e norms o f a g r o u p remain s t r o r g from g e n e r a t i o n t o g e n e r a t i o n . wolfgaxg b e l i e v e s t h a t l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s e s p e r p e t u a t e t h e s n b c u l t u r a l norms f o r v i o l e n c e .

T h e deve lopment c f f a v o r a b l e a t t i t u d e s t c v a r d , and t h e u s e of . v i o l e n c e i n a s u b c u l t u r e u s u a l l y i n v o l v e l e a r n e d behavJor and a p r o c e s s of d i f f e r e n t i a l l e a r n i n g , a s s o c i a t i o n . o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n (1967: 160) .

S i n c e i m i t a t i o n is a powerfu l l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s (Baadura, 1973). one c o u l d s a y t h a t t h e g r e a t e r t h e amount of v i o l e n c e i n p a r e n t s ' b e h a v i o r t o w a r d a c h i l d a n d toward e a c h o t h e r . t h e g r e a t e r t h e c h a n c e t h a t t h e c h i l d w i l l sct v i o l e n t l y l a t e ; i n l i f e ( s e e c h a p t e r 12, s e c t i o n D).

A t t h i s p o i n t it may b e a p p r o p r i a t e t o a s s e s s t h e i d e a t h a t one ' s c u l t u r e h a s a g r e a t d e a l t o d3 wi th t h e development of p e r s o n a l i t y . P e r h a p s i n v i e w i n g c u l t u r r a s a c a u s e of p e r s o r a l i t y , we see o n l y h a l f cf t h e p i c t u r e . P e r s o n a l i t y may h a v e a l o t t o do w i t h t h e developmene o f c u l r ' l r s . Yicqer (1965) h a s s t r e s s e d ttls p - l z r i n .n r x a m l n a r l o r o t v h e r h e r - h e sociocultural sys tem a f t o c t s :~d is :duaI a c t l o r cr wherher : r . d i v i ? l a l a c t _ ? > i f f s c r s +h* S O o i O c u l t u r a l system. o r both. Be c a l l s f o r a more c a r e f u l s p e c i f i c a c l o r of c a u s a l r e l a t i o r s h i p s i n s t u d i e s o f c u l t u r e a n d s t a t e s t h a t t k e r e l a t i o n s h i p between c u l t u r a l n x m s a n d p e r s o n a l i t y i s r e c i p r o c a l . I n o t h e r woras, " i n d i v i d u a l r e s p o n s e s t o and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f c u l t u r e l e a 3 t o n o r m a t i v e v a r i a t i o n " (1965:82). Also, K a r d i n e r (1963) h a s r e p o r t e d t h a t a l t h o u g h c u l t u r e and p e r s o r i l i t y changa each o t h e r i n a c y c l i c p r o c e s s , institutional c h a r g e t e n d s 50 be f o l l o w e d by p e r s o n a l i t y change. The f o l l o m i r g d iagram i l l u s t r a t e s t h e r e c i p r c c a l n a t u r e o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between c u l t u r e 1 v a l u e s , norms. a n d p e r s o n a l i t y .

Ch.5. Cultural consistency Page 72

Exircme male domi- Old over young i h c m ic rc r the di i - Chiidicn 5houId icdrn

nance (Caiiilo-Bcron, (Penaioid) ciplinc the be!!^ the to hc iubmiir ive and Fermndei-Marina hii id (cnrilIo.Beron, obedient to rhc father e l ai., Lewis, Madscn Ramirez) (Fcinnndez-Marina ci a$.)

Penaloral

I Mother iuppoits Fathci tends to

father's authority -.c-----favordaughter (Fernandei-Marina (Penalom, Lewis) e l a!.. Lewis]

Norms: Uistsnce and severity in rather-ion icla!ioni [Pcnalosa, Lewis)

I + Low degiec of referent power (Lewis1

.1 coercive power

I 4

Son's fear of the father (Fernandcr-Marina cr al., Madsen) I

i'erpetuoiian: I . Majority o i h o y i deqire 4 . . to be itim thcir lather, even

though they fear h im (Feinundci-Marina el a i l

1. 2.Child ai aduit treats his w r c and children thcramc way his father treated him IPena Iod

Figure 1 . Mexican-American paicnt-child violence

ch.5. C u l t u r a l

I n movins

C o n s i s t e n c y Page 7 3

erom t h e s e g e n e r a l p r r n c i p l e s to s p e c i f i c Our f i r s t s t e p was t o c o l l e c t an i n v e c t a r v o f e t h n i c g roups .

f a m i l y v a l u e s and n o r a s f r o m - t h e l i t e r a t u r e o r e a c h sthcic group. F a m i l y v a l u e s were d e f i n e d a s " g e n e r a l l y t c c s p t e d e s p l r a t i o n s and i d e a l s which a r e p u b l i c l y s a n c t i s n e d " ( K a r d i n e r , 1963) . a n d which a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h i n t r a f s m i l y r e l a t i o F s h i p S . N o r m a x e see2 a s more s p e c i f i c r u l e s g o v e r n i n g behavior . a r i s i n g from t h s v a l u e s 3nd more c l o s e l y l i c k e d t o v i o l e n c e . For example, a b a s i c v a l u e i n Ksxican-American e t h r i c g r o u p s would b e t h e dominaocs o f o l d o v e r young, whereas a norm would b e t h e s e v e r i t y o f p a r e n t - c h i l d r e l a t i o n s .

Nsxt, WE a t t e m p t e d t o d e v e l o p h p p o t h e s e s c o n c e r n i n g c a u s a l l i n k s be tveen t h e f a m i l y v a l u e s and t h e a o r n s f o r ViolencE o r n o n v i o l e n c e . The f i n a l s t e p was t o f i n d c h i l d - r e a r i r g norms i n t h s l i t e r a t u r e t h a t seem t o p e r p e t u a t e b e h a v i o r i n Each e t h n i c gronp.*l

A 1 1 of t h e b a s i c f a m i l y v a l u e s i n F i g u r e 1 a r e concer2ea wi th t h e a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g a u t h o r i t a r i a n r a l e which t h e o l d e r male p o s s e s s e s i n nex ican- l rncr ican f a m i l i e s . * ? The f u n d a m e n t a l i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y b e t v e e n g r e a t z u t h o r i t y and i n t i m a c y s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e f o u r b a s i c f a m i l y v a l u e s p r c a o t e d i s t a n t a n d s e v e r s f a t h e r - c h i l a r e l a t i o n s . Yi razae (1977) r e p o r t e d t h a t f a t h e r - c h i l d r e l a t i o n s do t e n d r3 b5 s o ~ e ~ h a t d i s t a n t . L e w i s (1960) s u g g e s t e d t h a t d i s t a n c e may b e m a n i f e s t e d t h r o u g h a g e n + r a l l a c k of a f f e c t i v e r e l a t i o n s a s f a t h s r s pay l a s s a t t e n t i o n t o c h i l d r e n a s t h e y grow o l d e r .

An example of s e v e r l t y would be t h a t c h i l d r e n a r e o f t e n s e v e r e l y p n r i s h e d f o r an o f f e n s e s u c h a s l y i n g (Pena losa , lY68:685). P e n a l o s a and L e v i s b o t h r e p o r t t h a t r e l a t i o n s between f a t h e r s and d a u g h t e r s t e n d n o t t o be a s d i s t a c t o r S e v e r e a s f a t h e r - s o n r o l a t i o c s . F a t h e r s map show a m i l d form of f a v o r i t i s m t o d a a g h t e r s and b e more p r o t e c t i v e and p o s s e s s i v e .

I m p l i c i t i n t h e above p a r r g r a p h is t h e f o l l a v i n g p r o p o s i t i o n r e l a t i z g any c n e of t h e s e b a s i c f a m i l y v a l u e s t o more s p e c l f i c norms.

Ch.5. C u l t u r a l Cons-s tency Page 79

1. TO t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h s n a l e p o s s ~ s s e s s g r e a t amount o t a u t h o r r t y i n f a a l l y l l f e , t h e s o r ? w l l l t h a t c u l t u r e be c h a r a c t e r r z e d by % = s t a r t and s e v e r e f a t h e r - s o n relations.

I n t h e c u l t u r a l - c o n s i s t e n c y t h e o r y f o r nexican-American f a m i l i e s a n i m p o r t a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s b e t v e e n t h s norm o f d i s t a n t . s e v e r s f a t h e r - s o n r e l a t i o n s and t h e a c t u a l ose Of v i o l e n c e . The s e v e r e f a t h e r - s o n r e l a t i o n s may l e a d t o t h e s o n b e i n g a f r a i d o f h i s f a t h e r ; t h e s o n ' s f e a r c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h a f a t h e r ' s e x e r c i s i n g of c o n t r o l t h r o u g h h i s t emper and v i o l e n t o u t b u r s t s .

How d o e s t h e SOP'S f e a r o f t h e f a t h e r l e a d t 3 t h e d i s p l a y of t emper a n d v i o l e n t o u t b u r s t s a s a meacs o f c o n t r o l ? A p p a r e r t l y , t h e p r e s e n c e o f r e a r i n a r E l s t i D n s h i p i n h i b i t s t h e d e g r e e of communicat ion be twesc two p=rt!es. P o s s i b l y t h e d i s t a n c e and e m o t i o n a l a l o o f n e s s between f a t h e r a n d s o n i n d i c a t e s low " r e f e r e n t pover" and t h e r e f o r e t h e need t o u s e " c o e r c i v e power.' R e f e r e n t power is t h e d e g r e p t o which one p e r s o n ' s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o r o n e n r s s w i t h a n o t h e r a l l o w s t h 9 l a t t e r p e r s o n t o i n f l u e n c e t h e f o r m e r (French and Raven, 1959:1611. C o e r c i v e power a o e s n o t d e r i v s from a t t r a c t i o n o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n b u t from t h e t h r e a t of punishment a s a means by which o n e person i n f l u e n c e s a n o t h e r (French and Raven. 1959:157). I n o t h e r words. t h e c h i l d COntOrmS t o t h e f a t h e r ' s w i s h e s n o t b e c a u s e o f a mutua l a t t r a c t i o n b u t b e c a u s e o f t h e t h r e a t o f f o r c e an3 t h z h i g h p r o b a b i l i t y o f punishment. The p r e s e n c e o f a g r e a t d e g r e e o f c o e r c i v e power may c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e f e a r of t h e f a t h e z t h a t F e r n a n a e z - E a r i r e t & (1958) acd Badsen (1969) r e p o r t a s p r e v a l e n t i n ~ u e r t o - ~ i c a n and u e x i c a n - ~ m s r i c a n f a m i l i e s . Eadsen s t a t e d t h a t Mexican-American c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s a s k e d t o e v a l u a t e t h e f a t h e r ' s r o l e i n t h e L a t i n

ch.5. c u l t u r a l C o n s i s t e n c y Page 75

f a n i l y f e l t t h a t i t was t o o a u t h o r i t a r i a n . S t u d e r t s r e p o r t e d t h a t "it i s t r u e t h a t t h e c h i l d r e n have a g r e a t r e s p e c t f o r t h e f a t h e r b u t it is a r e s p e c t based oc f e a r * a n d t h a t " [ t h e f a - h e r ] s h o u l d b e a f r i e n d t o h i s c h i l a r e n , c o t a d i c t a t o r n (Badsen, 1964:SZ).

T h i s f e a r may i m p a i r a c h i l d ' s u n d e r s t a n d i r g of t h e f a t h e r ' s d e s i r e s r % l a % i n g t o a c e r t a i n m a t t e r . The p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s t a n c e and minimal c o m n u n i c a t i c n may l e a d t o t h e c h i l d a c t i n g i n a way which t h e f a t h e r f e e l s i s wrong and may i n c r e a s e t h e c h a n c e t h a t t h e f l t h e r w i l l a c t v i o l e r t l y .

F i v e . p r o p o s i t i o n s l i r k i n g s e v e r e and d i s t a n t f a t h e r - s o n r e l a t i o n s a n d t h e a c t u a l u s e o f v i o l e n c e a r e i m p l i c i t i n t h e p a r a g r a p h s above.

2. The more s e v e r e and d i s t a n t t h e f a t h e r - s o n r e l a t i o n s , t h e l o w e r t h e r e f e r e n t power i t t h a t r e l a t i o n s h i p .

3. The l o w e r t h e r e f e r e n t power, t h e g r e a t e r t h e C o e r c i v e power t h a t t h e f a t h e r n e e d s t o b r i n g t o b e a r on t h e son.

4. The g r e a t - r t h e c o e r c i v e pover , t h e g r e a t e r t h e s o n ' s f e a r o f t h e f a t h e r .

5. The more t h e son f e a r s t h e f a t h e r , t h e more d i f t i c u l t it may be f o r t h a t s o n t o u n d s r s t a n d h i s f a t h e r ' s d e s i r e s and t h e g r e a t e r t h e c h a n c e t h a t t h e s o r w i l l n o t a c t a c c o r d i n g t o t h o s e a e s i r e s .

6 . TO t h e e x t e n t t h a t & h e s o n d o e s n o t a c t a c c o r d l n g t o t h e f a t t e r ' s d e s i r e s a r d a COerclvE power r e l a t z o n s h i p e x L s t s b e t v e s r f a t h e r and son , r h e g r e a t e r t h e chance t h a t C o n t r o l "111 b e based cn temppr and v i o l e n t Outburs+s .

u s i c g d e d u c t i v e l o g k , t h e s e f i v e p r o p o s i t i o n s can b e merged t o show t h e r e l a t i o c s h i p between t h e norm of s e v e r e and d i s t a n t f a t h e r - s o n r e l a t i o n s and t h e a c t u a l use of v i o l e n c e as f o l l o w s :

Ccmbining 2, 3, and 4:

7. The more s e v e r e and d i s t a n t t h e f a t h e r - s o n r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h e g r e a t e r the. s o n ' s f e a r o f t h e f a t h e r .

Then c o a b l n i n g t h e above w i t h 5:

Ch.5. C u l t u r a l C o n s i s t e n c y P l g a 7 6

8. The n o r e s e v e r e and d i s t a n t t h e f a t h e r - s o n r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h ~ g r e a t e r t h e c h a n c e t h a t t h e SOL w i l l n o t a c t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f a t h s r ' s d e s i r e s .

F i n a l l y , combin ing 7 w i t h 6 , t h e l i n k between t h e norm f o r v i o l e n c e a n d t h e a c t u a l u s e o f v i o l e n c e i s made.

9. The more s e v e r e and d i s t a n t t h e f a t h e r - s o n r e l a t l O n S h l p , t h e g r e a t e r t h e c h a n c e t h a t c o r t r o l w i l l be b a s e d on temper and v i o l e n t O u t b u r s t s .

I t d e d u c t i v e l o g i c is u s e a t o combine p r l p o s i t i o n s 1 aLd 9 , t h e following p r o p o s i t i o n i s y i e l d e a .

10. TO t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e male p o s s e s s e s 2

g r e a t d e a l of a u t h o r i t y i n f a m i l y l i f e , t h e g r e a t e r t h e c h a n c e t h a t c o n t r o l r i l l be based on t h e u s e o f t emper and v i o l e n t o u t b u r s t s .

Thus, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c u l t u r a l - c o n s i s t e n c y t h e o r y , i n nexican-American e t h n i c g r o u p s , a v a l u e r e l a t e d t o f a m i l y l i f s t h a t h a s n o t h i n g d i r e c t l y t o d o w i t h t h e u s e o f v i o l e n c e a c t s t o i n c r e a s e t h e a c t u a l l e r e l o f v i o l e n c e . The method of l i n k i J g p r o p o s i t i o c s used above can be used t o r e l a t e t h e o t h e r t h r e e f a m i l y v a l u e s t o t h e a c t u a l 1 2 v e 1 o f f a m i l y v i o l e n c e .

T h i s p a t t e r n o f v i o l e n c e i s p r o b a b l y p e r p s r u a t e d t h r o u g h s o c i a l l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s e s (3andura. 1973). Owens and S t r a u s (1975). f o r example. show ? h a t + h e morc v i a l e n c e e x p e r i e n c e d by a c h i l d , t h - g r e a t e r t h e t c n d a n c y t o f a v o r v i o l e n c e a s an a d u l t . A p p a r e n t l y t h e c h i l d comes t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e b e s t r a y t o have h i s own c h i l d r e n a c t o b s d i e n t l y is t o u s e p h y s i c a l f o r c e , even if h e was a f r a i d o f it a s a c h i l d . r i n g e r ' s s t a t e m e r t t h a t : n d i v i d u a l p c r s a n a l i t y h a s a g r e a t d e a l t o do w i t h t h e development o f c u l t u r e a l s o a p p l i e s here . I f t h e c h i l d f e e l s t h a t t h e u s e of f o r c e is t h e b e s t way a t c o n t r o l l i n g o t h e r members i f h i s f l a i l y , c u l t u r a l norms t h a t may s u p p o r t t h i s v i e = a r e r e i n f o r c e d .

The d i s c u s s i o n up t o t h i s p o i n t h a s c e n t e r e d on t h e f o r m a l n o r m a t i v e s y s t e m found i n Mexican-8morican famI l ieS .*3 n i r a n d e (1977) r e p o r t s t h a t t h i s f o r m a l s t - u c t u r e d o e s e x i s t b a t h a s been i n t e r p r e t E d bo lh a s a s o u r c e of p a t h o l o g y and a s a s o u r c e o f warmth and s e c u r i t y . l l i r a n d e (1977) a l s o s u g g e s t s t h a t w h i l e t h e f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e o f norms nay e x i s t , f a m i l i a l a n d s e x u a l r o l e s a r e b e i n g m o d i f i e d a s Mexican-lmericans a r e a s s i m i l a t e d , i n i n c r s a s i r g numbnrs, i n t o A a e r i c a l s o c i e t y . Eaukes and T a y l o r ' s 1975 s t u d y of t h e power s t r u c t u r e o f n e x i c a n f a m i l i e s s u p p o r t s n i r a n d e ' s p o i n t . Thus. i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t changing r o l e s may be m a n i f e s t i n less s u p p o r t o f t h e f a t h e r ' s f c r n a l a o t h o r i t y and less d i s t a n t an$ l e s s s e v e r e f a t h s r - s o n

Ch.5. C u l t u r a l c o n s i s t e n c y Page 77

r e l a t i o n s . As a r s s u l t , t h e p roposed l i n k b e t v c s r t h = f c r m a l n o r m a t i v e s t r u c t u r e and f a m i l y v i o l e n c e may be weaker t h a n p r e d i c t e d above.

On t h e o t h e r hand, r e c e n t r e s e a r c h on f a m i l y v i o l e n c e among Anglo-Americans s u g g e s t s t h a t a s t h a t r a d i t i o n a l male dominated power s t r u c t u r e becomes undermined, t h s r e map b e a t e n d e n c y f o r f a m i l y v i o l e n c e t o i n c r e a s e i n t h e s h o r t run ( s e e Brown, C h a p t e r 11 and Al len and S t r a u s . C h a p t e r 1 2 ) . T h i s may be e s p e c i a l l y t r u e o f f a m i l i e s which become f e m a l e c e n t e r e d ( S t r a u s & &.. 1979).

Jews traditionally hava been c h a r a c t e r i z s a a s h a v i r g a l o v r a t e o f f a m i l y v i o l e n c e . most J e v s would be c o n s i d e r e d i n o r above t h e middle c l a s s today , and t h i s s t e t u s might c o n t r z b o t e t o t h e i r l o v r a t e s o f f a m i l y v io l rnce .*q Souever . even a? t h e t u r n of t h e c e n t u r y . when most Jews war? w o r k i n g - c l a s s immigraCtS, t h e y p r o b a h l y a l s o had l o v e r r a t e s o f f a m l l y v i o l e n c e t h a n o t h e r poor e t h n i c groups. J e w i s h f a m i l y v a l u e s may be r e l a t e d t o t h e low l e v e l of f a m i l y v i o l e n c e .

F i g u r e 2 a p p l i e s t h e c u l t u r a l - c o n s i s t e n c y t h e o r y of f a m i l y v i o l e n c e t o Jewish-Americans.

1. To t h e e x t e n t t h a t i n t e l l e c t u a l i t y is s t r e s s e d , t h e emphas i s w i l l be on r a t i o n a l means a t s c l v i r g f a m i l y problems. r a t h e r t h a n on v e r b a l o r p h y s r c a l c o e r c i o n .

B f u n c t i o n of i n t e l l e c t u a l i t y i n J e w i s h f a m i l i e s . which may be more c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o n o n v i o l e n c e , is t h e f a c t t h + t ncrms f o r a r t i c u l a t e n e s s , a r g u m e n t a t i v e n e s s , and p a r e c t - c h i l d b a r g a i n i n g a r e p r a s e n t . These t h r e s norms w012ld s e e n t o s a n c t i o n c o n f l i c t b u t t o c h a n n e l i t o f f i n t o d i ~ c u s s i o n r a t h e r t h a n p h y s i c a l a c t i o n . Y a f f e r e p o r t e d

Ch.5. Cultural Consistency Page

that:

EOBe discipline is far less strict among Jews than among other groups. Jewish parents arr naggers, screamers, nudgers--but not hitters. The child has to go pretty far before he'll get the back of his father's hand. And a lot more ConverSational freedom is tolerated. Jewish children are allowed to interrupt, cantradict the grown-ups, be "fresh* (1968: 312).

4 Anything far the 4

Cornpaision 4

lnlellecruality Children (Shapiio (Shapira and Shapiio and Darhefrky) and Dashefiky) Dashefrkyj

Daiheiiky, Yaffe) Bargaining

Non-Violence

Importance o f family in Religiosity ofmaie Pursuit o f Knowledge: Jewish identincarion (Shapiro and Daihefrky, the mind is a great tool. (Shapiio and Daihefiky) Bemrrein) (Beinstein, Gordon,

Pwtootion: Bays perceive ihemielvei as like their father (Shapiio and Dahefrky)

Figure 2. lewirh.American parent-child violence

1 Intense parentchild involvomeni (Shupiia and Darhefrky, Yrffe) -

Shapiio and Darhefrky, Siiodtbeck, Yuffe)

c u l t u r a l C c r s i s t e n c y Page 7 9

S i m i l a r l y . Z u k l s s t u d y of 300 J e v i s h f a m i l i e s (1978) d a s t r o r g c u r r e n t o f e g a l i t a r i a n i s m r u n n i n g t h r o u g h s h f a m i l i e s . p a r t i c u l a r l y i n more a s s i m i l a t e d , l e s s O ~ O X ones. T h i s f e e l i n g , combined w i t h t h s c h a n n e l i n g g g r e s s i e n i n t o v e r b a l r a t h e r t h a n p h y s i c a l e x p r e s s i o n , s t o " t h e h i g h l e v e l o f b i c k e r i n g t h a t o c c u r s between and and wi fe , between p a r e n t s and c h i l d r e n . a n d be tweer .... T e a s i c g , sa rcasm and r i d i c u l e = r e r e q u l a r l y o v ~ d b r D a r e n t s t o set limits on c h i l d r e l ' s behavior ." - .

E t e r n a l l y l n c o m p e t l t i o n . t h e J e w l s h f s m l l y 1s a a e r l t o c r a c y .

Thus. lt is p o s s l b l e t h a t f r r q u e n t c c n f l r c t may b e a c h a r a c t e r l s t l c of J e w l s h f a m r l l e s . I f t h a t is t h e c a s e , t h e f r e q u e n c y of c c n f l i c t may be a s l g n t h a t &wish f a m l l r e s a r e v e r y s t a b l e .

when c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by f r e q u e n t C o n f l i c t s r a t h e r t h a n by t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n of h e s t i l e and a m b i v a l e n t f e e l i n g s , we may b e j n s t i f i e d , g i v e n t h a t s u c h c o n f l i c ? ~ a r e n o t l i k e l y t o c o n c e r n b a s i c c o n s e n s u s , i n t a k i n g t h e s e f r e g o e n t c o n f l i c t s a s an i n d e x of t h e s t a b i l i x y o f t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s (Cos l r . 1956:SS).

The f o l l o w i n g p r c p c s i t i o n can b e deve loped from t h e above d i s c u s s i o n :

2. The g r e a t e r t h e emphas i s on a r t i c u l a t e n e s s , a r g u m e n t a t i v e n e s s . and p a r e n t - c h i l l b a r g a i n i n g . t h e g r e a t e r t h e c h a c c e t h a t c o n f l i c t s r i l l be r e s o l v e d t h r o u g h d i s c u s s i o n r a + h e r t h a n v i o l s 3 l cr c o e r c i v e a c t i o n .

P i c a l l y , t h e b a s i s o f a c u l t u r a l - c o n s i s t e n c y a n a l y s i s c a n b e shovn by combining p r o p o s i t i o n s 1 a r d 2 t o p r ? s e n t one r e l a t i o n s h i p between a b a s i c f a m i l y norm and t h e a c t u a l u s e o f v i o l e n t o r n o n v i o l e n t a c t i o n t o r e s o l v e a c o n f l i c t .

3. The g r e a t e r t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e p u r s u i t of knowledge is s t r e s s e d , and d e b e t e and c o n f l i c t a r e r e g a r d e d a s l e g i t i m a t e , t h e g r e a t e r t h e c h a n c e t h a t c o n f l i c t s w i l l be r e s o l v e d t h r o u g h d i s c u s s i o n r a t h e r than v i o l e n t o r c o e r c i v e a c t i o n .

Ch. 5. C u l t u r a l C o n s i s t e n c y Page 80

CONCLOSIOA

I n t h i s c h a p t e r we h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o c o n s t r u c t a c u l t u r a l - c o n s i s t e n c y t h e o r y of f a m i l y v i o l e n c e . T h i s t h e o r y is based on t h e i d e a t h e t c u l t u r a l v a l u e s h a v i n g Po m s n i f s s t r e f e r e n c e t o v i o l e n c e a c t e i t h e r t o i n c r e a s e o r t o ho ld down t h e a c t u a l l e v e l of f a m i l y v i o l e n c e ir c s r t a i n e t h n i c g roups . Values and norms were l i n k e d t o g e t h e r , and t h e Corms were ;n t u r n l i n k e d t o t h e a c t o a l l e v e l o f v i o l e c c e i n a n e t h n i c group. The p e r p e t u a t i o n o f t h e u s e o f v i a l e n c e f rom g e n e r a t l o c t o g e n e r a t i o r was a l s o examined.

The flexican-American and J e v i s h - a a e r i c a n e t h n i c g r o u p s were used t o i l l u s t r a t e t h i s t h e o r y . A h i g h e r l a v e 1 of f a m i l y v i o l e n c e was assumed t o bf p r e s e n t i n n ~ x i c a n - A m e r i c a n t h a n i n J e w i s h - l m e r i c a n f s n i l i e s . The h i g h e r l e v e l o f v i o l e n c e i n Mexican-American f a m i l i e s was proposed t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e v a l u e s of s e v e r e male dominance, s t r ict d i s c i p l i n e . and s u b m i s s i o n t o t t e f i t h e r . s e v e r e and d i s t a n t f a t h e r - s o n r e l a t i o n s were s e e n t o be t h s r e s u l t of t h e s e v a l u e s , l e a d i n g t o f e a r o f t h e f a t h e r , p o o r c c m m u n i c a t i o l , a n d a r e s u l t i n g h i g h l e v e l o f p a r e n t - c h i l d v i o l e n c e . P e r p e t u a t i o n o f t h i s s u b c u l t u r e i s a c c o m p l i s h e d t h r o u g h t h e d e s i r e f o r b o y s t o b e l i k e t h s i r f a t h e r s even t h o u g h t h e y f e a r t h e n , a r d b e c a u s e a c h i l d t u r n e d a d u l t t r e a t s h i s wi fe and c h i l d r e n t h e same way h i s f a t h e r t r e a t e d h i s fami ly . M o d i f i c a t i o n s i n t h e f o r m a l n o r m a t i v e s t r u c t u r e o f l e r ican-Amer ican f am:lies c h a l l n n g i n g t h e h u s b a n d - f a t h e r ' s f o r m a l a u t h o r r t y v e r e n o t e d and s e e n a s p o s s i b l y i n c r e a s i n g f a m i l y v i o l e n c e , a t 1 ~ 2 s t Ln t h e s h o r t run.

Values o f t h e J e w i s h e t h n i c g r o u p a l s o were examined i n t h i s t h e o r e t i c a l f ramevork. The b a s i c famzly v = l u e s emphasized v e r e t h e p u r s u i t of k rowlsdga and t h e u s e c f t h e mind r a t h e r t h a n t h e body. The v a l u e o f i n t e l l e c t u e l i t y r e s u l t i n g from t h e s e v a l u e s was proposea t 3 l e a d f o t h e f a v o r i n g o f a r t i c u l a t e n e s s . a r g u m e r t s t i v e n e s s , and b a r g a i n i n g a s a way t o s o l v e f a m i l y a i s p u t e s . Thus, d e b a t e a n d r a t p h y s i c a l c o e r c i o n is u s e d and t h e r e is less f a m i l y v i o l e n c e . Values a r e p e r p e t u a t e d i n t h a t boys p e r c e i v e t h e m s e l v e s a s l i k e t h e i r f a t h e r s .

F i n a l l y . a s n o t e d ir C h a p t e r 1, t h e c o n c l u s i o n s of t h i s c h a p t e r , l i k e t h e c o n c l u s i o n s o f t h e o t h e r t h e o r e t i c a l c h a p t e r s . a r e n o t p u t f o r w a r d a s e s t a b l i s h e d f a c t s . R a t h e r . t h e y a r e i n t e n d e d a s s t i m u l i a r d h y p o t h e s e s f o r e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h .

ch.5- C u l t u r a l C o r s i s t e n c y Pege 8 1

NOTES

*A r e v i s i o n o f a p a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e a m o a l m e e t i n g of t h e N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l on Family R e l a t i o n s . August 20-23, 1915. The p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e c h a p t e r v a s s u p p o r t e d bp A a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f menta l R e a l t h g r a n t number 13050. i would l i k e t o t h a n k P r o f e s s o r Dorothy P innegan of Colby-Sawyer C o l l e g e f c r many h e l p f u l s o g g e s t i o n s and conments t h r o u g h t h e deve lapment of t h i s paper.

1. Another s o u r c e o f p e r p e t u a t i o n c o u l d be f e s a b a c k p r o c e s s e s t h a t o c c u r i r t h e proposed c a u s a l c h a i n b e i v e e r b road f a m i l y v a l u e s n o t r e l a t e d t o v i o l e c c a , norms o f v i o l e n c e , and t h e a c t u a l u s e o f v i o l e n c e . The u s e o f v i o l e n c e t o c o n t r o l a s i t u a t i o n , r e s u l t i n g i n t h e l a b e l o f v i o l e n c e . might s t r e n g t h e n t h e norm of v i o l e n c e t h r o u g h a s e l f - f u l f i l l i n g prophecy. i n f a c t , t h e p e r c e i v e d e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f a norm o f v i o l e n c e o r n o n v i o l e n c e might even s t r e n g t h e n t h e more b a s i c v a l u e from v h i c h t h e v i o l e n t o r n c n v i o l e n t norm h a s c r i g i n a t e d . I!! o t h e r words, i f t h e norm of v i o l e n c e o r n o n v i o l e c c e i s a l e f f e c t i v e means o f c o n t r o l . t h e n t h e vay of l i f e t h a t s a n c t i o n s t h i s norm would be f u r t h e r r e i n f o r c e d .

2. The G r e b l e r e_t_ a_&: (19701 s t u d y of u r b a n Llexican-Aeericans found t h a t t h e v a l u e p l a c e d on t h e man a s a u t h o r i t y f i g u r e v a r i e s by income l e v 2 1 and ne iphbarhood . Rowever, n e a r l y t v o - t h i r d s o f t h o s e v i t h medium o r l o w e r income l i v i n g i n a r e a s v i t h a h i g h p s r c e n t a g e o f mexican- lmer icans f e l t t h a t t h e h u s t a n d s h c u l d have c o m p l e t e c o n t r o l o v e r t h e f a m i l y income. T h i s f i n d i r g s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e v a l u e o f male a u t h o r i t y i s q u i t e s t r o n g i n e t h n i c e n c l a v e s .

3. I would l i k e t o t h a n k P r c f e s s o r A l f r e d 0 Mirande o f + h e Universi:y of C a l i f o r n i a , S i v e r s i d e , f o r b r i r g i n g t o mg a t t e n t i o n a view of t h e Mexican-American f a r i l y which d i f f e r s f rom t h e view which is more p r e v a l e n t i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e . T h i s view i m p l i e s t h a t K ~ x i z a n - R m r r i c a n f a m i l i e s would have a l o v e r d e g r e e of f a m i l y v i o l e n c e t h a n i s s u g g e s t e d i n t h i s a r t i c l e .

4. E r l a z g e r (1979). i n a r e v i e w of s t u d i e s Examining t h e r e l a t i o n betweer s o c i a l c l a s s acd f a m i l y v i o l e n c e , r s p o r t e d d i f f e r e n c e s b e t v e a a s o c i a l c l a s s e s , w i t h p h y s i c a l punishment i n c r e a s i n g a s one g o e s down t h e s t s t o s l a d a e r . HOveVer, t h e d i f f s r e n c e s z r s n o t a s l a r g e a s many would

Part 111 Social Organization and Family Violence

I m p o r t a n t a s a r e t h e c u l t u r a l h o r n s t h a make it l e g l c i m a t e f o r f a m i l y members t o us p h y s i c a l f o r c e on e a c h o t h e r . t h s y d o n o t f u l l e x p l a i n f a m i l y v i o l e n c e . F i r s t , t h e s e norms z r g u i d e l i n e s more f o r c u l t u r a l l y y=gi$&b a c t i o n s t h a n f o r c o l t u r a l l y rs&=$$ a c t i o n s So t h e q u e s t i o n r e s a i n s a s t o why sow* f s a i l i e do and o t h e r s do n o t engage i n s u c h p e r m i s s i b l v i o l e n c e . We must a l s o examine how o r why norm l e g i t i m i z i n g v i o l e n c e w i t h i n t h e f a n i l y c a i n t o be ing , and why s u c h norms c o c t i n u e e x i s t .

A s With most a s p e c t s o f s o c i e t y , r o s i n g 1 f a c t o r p r o v i d e s t h e answer t o t h e s e q u e s t i o n s . R a t h e r a complex i n t e r w e a v i n g of f a c t o r s e x i s t s t h a t ve a r e j u s t b e g i n n i n g t o unrave l . X3verer. Even a t t h i s e a r l y s t a g e i n t h e s c i e n t i f i c s t u d y of f a m i l y v i o l e n c e . i t is c l e a r t h a t nzny o f t h e t h r e a d s making up t h e f a b r i c o f v i o l e n c e i n t h e f a m i l y a r e t h o s e i d e n t i f i e d i n C h a p t e r 1 a s s o c i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n a l f a c t o r s . 9 r.umbfr oE t h e s e were b r i e f l y d i s c u s s e d ;a t h a t c h a p t e r . f o r example, t h e i n v o l u n t a r y n a t u r e of aembersh ip i n e f a a i l y , t h e p r i v a c y o f t h e f a m i l y a s a s o c i a l i n s t i + u t i o a , a l d assignment . Of r o l e s w i t h i n t h e E a s i l y by a g e and s e x r a t h e r t h a n by i n t e r e s t o r competence.

The c h a p t e r s i n P a r t 111 t r e a t some of t h e s e s o c i a l O r g a n i z a t i o c a l f a c t o r s i n aetail, i n d i c a t i n g t h e t y p e s of s o c i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s t h a t g i v e rise t o s i t u a t i o n s i n which p e o p l e fEna t a r e s o r t t o t h e u s e of v i o l e n c e . S i o c e t h e s i a r r a n g e s e n t s a r e r e g u l a r i t i e s of s o c i a l l i f e . most o f which h a v e been p a r t of :he s t r u c t u r e of t h e human f a m i l y f o r p e r h a p s t h o u s a n d s 3f y e a r s , we c a n s p e c u l a + e t h a t t h e y a r e a l s o a t t h e r o o t of t h e persistence o f norms t h a t p e r m i t v i o l e r c s i n t h e fami ly . C u l t u r a l norms t e n d t o e v o l v e i n a vag t h a t r e f l e c t s , r e g u l a r i z a s , and l e g i t i a i z e s t h e t y p i c a l b e h a v i o r of members of a s o c i e t y . I n s h o r f , as was n o t e d i n C h a p t e r 1, c u l t u r e and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a r e t v s f a c e t s o f a s i n g l e r e a l i t y . Even s o , t h e y a r e f a r f r o s h a r l n g a f i x e d a n d immutab le r e l a t i o n s h i p t o each o t h e r . The emergent n a t u r e o f a l l homar l i f e d i c t a t e s t h a t c u l 5 u r e and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n w i l l c o n s t a n t l y g e t o u t o f L i n s

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y ~ t h e a c h o t h e r , w i t h a resulting p r e s s u r e t c r e s t o r e t h e s y n c h r o n i z a t ~ o n .

The c h a p t e r s i n P a r ? 111 h a s 3 a t l e a s t f o u r t h i n g s i n common. F i r s t , t h e y s h a r e what cou ld b e c a l l e d a n emphas i s on s t r u c t u r a l ~ o n d u c i ~ e n e s s . Each c h a p t e r s e e k s t o e x p l a i n t h e h i g h r a t e o f c o n f l i c t and v i o l e n c e i n t h e f a m i l y by f o c u s i n g on some z s p e c t o f t h 2 s t r u c t n r e o f r e l a t i o n s between f a m i l y n e n b s r s and on how t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s c o n t r i b u t e s t o o r dampens v i o l e n c e .

Secocd. e a c h c f t h e a u t h o r s , 5n h i s Jr h e r own way. h i g h l i g h t s t h e i r o n y t h a t t h ? o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e o f f a m i l y l i f e c r e a t e s c o n d i t i o n s f o r warmth and i n t i m a c y a s w e l l a s f o r c o n f l i c t a n d v i o l e c c e .

Thi rd . t h e s e c h a p t e r s d o n o t p r e s e n t nau d a t a , b u t i n s t e a d summarize and e x t e n d a l a r g e number of e x i s t i n g e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s ana t h e o r e t i c a l arguments . T h ~ y o r g a n i z e and make d e d u c t i m s from e x i s t i n g t h e c r y and r s s e a r c h on v i o l e n c e and f a m i l y v i o l e n c e . Nct t h a t t h e y f e e l c o l l e c t i n g new d a t a i s u n n e c e s s a r p , but o r g a n i z i c g and i c t e r p r e t i n g . from a s c c i o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , what is a l r e a d y kcown a b c u t f a m i l y v i o l e n c e c a n g i v e new i n s i g h t s and a sounder b a s i s f o r f u t u r e e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h .

L a s t , p o s s l b l y t h e mcst zmpoztan t a s p e c t of t h e f o r m a t of t k e c h a p t s r s i n P a r t 111 i s t h e i r e x l m t r a + . i a r o t . ways i n which E c c i a l s a r r a b l e s e r e : n - e r r e l a t e d . Po: uc-il r? uzdersTarC hou a nanbDr cr r - l es2n ' s a r i e h l c ; f i t t o g e t h e r , e x p l a n a t i o n s o f f a m i l y c o n f l i c t and v i o l e n c e v F l l b e i n c o m p l e t e .

Chapter 6

Sexual Inequality and Wife Bea

Murray A. Straus

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

T h i s c h a p t e r d e s c r i b e s a major a s p e c t o t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e u n d e r p i n n i n g husband-wif v i o l e n c e : t h e s e x i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e f a m i l and t h e s o c i e t y i n g e n e r a l . It a r g u e s t h a sex ism p r o d u c e s v i o l e n c e b e c a u s e men us v i o l e n c e t o m a r n t a i n t h e i r p o s i t i o n a s "head of t h e household." n o r e is i n v o l v e d i n sex ism t h a n t h e " r i g h t n t o be t h e head o f t h r f a a i l y as s u p p o r t e d by c u l t u r a l v a l u e s end b e l i e f s ; sex i sm is a l s o grounded in i ~ s t i t u t i o n a l arrangements--such a s t h e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t men w i l l marry y c u n g s r wonen and t h e s e g r e g a t e d l a b o r market i x v b i c h women's j o b s a r e lpss w e l l pa id- - tha t maKe male dominance a r e a l i t y . A s o c i e t y , o r g r o u p s w i t h i n a s o c i e t y , may f a v o r e q u a l i t a r i a n r e l a t i o n s h i p s , b u t u n l e s s t h e s e n o t i o n s go beyond b e l i e f s and become r s f l e c t e a i n s o c i e t a l a r r a n g e m e n t s , t h e domina t ion of women by men i s bound t o c o n t i n u e .

Ban7 cf t h e i s s u e s examined i n t h i s c h a p t e r c r o p up a g a i n and a g a i n t h r o u g h o u t t.he vclume. These i s s u e s a r e c r i t i c a l i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n of p r a c t i c a l s t e p s t o r e d u c e and e v e n t u a l l y e l i m i n a t e husband-wife v i o l e n c e , a thrm? examined f u l l y i n C h a p t e r 13.

T h i s C h a p t e r d e s c r i b e s some of t h e ways i n which r h male-dominant p a v e r s t r u c t u r e of t h e f a m i l y g i v e s r i s e t v i o l e n c e . T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t , a s o u r s o c i e t y msv?s t o v s r a n o r e e g a l i t a r i a n f a m i l y s y s t e m , b o t h t h e a c t u a l l e v e l s o v i o l e n c e and t h e norms i m p l i c i t l y p e r m i t t f n g s u c h v i 3 l = n c s w i l l d e c l i n e . Al'hougb t h i s d e c r e a s e i s t h e l i k e 1 l o w - t e r m outcome, i t is f a r f rom a c e r t a i n t y . F i r s t . man c t h e r f a c t o r s a f f e c t t h e l e v e l of v i o l e n c e i n t h e f a m i l

1. Defense cf B a l e P .u th01i t~ . I r t h e c>nL.DxL of an - - - v i d u a l i s t i c a l l y o r i e n t e d u r b a n - i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t y , t h e

r l p t i o n of s u p e r i o r a u t h o r i t y t o husbands i s a p o t e E t CE p r o d u c i n g p h y s i c a l a t t a c k s on wives. I n s u c h a i e t y , m a l e - s u p e r i o r i t y norms a r e n o t c l e a r l y unders tood

a r e i n t h e p r o c e s s of t r a r e i + i c n , and t h e pz=sgs~;:Qe i f e s u p e r i o r i t y anst be v a l i d z t e 4 by s u p p r i o r ' r ~ s o u r c e s " h a s v a l u e d p f r s o n a l t r a l t s and m a t e r i a l gools and v l c o s (Eodman, 1972). If e v e r y nan wsrs, i n f a c t .

D e r i o r t o h i s w i f e i n s u c h r e s o u r c e s 3s i n t e l l i s e n c e . .owledge, o c c u p a t i o n a l p r e s t i g e . and income, t h e r e would be

concordance between t h e a u t h o r i t y a s c r i b s d a n 3 t h e d i v i d u a l a c h i e v e m e n t s e x ~ o c t e d t o acconDanP t h a t a u t h o r i t v . .

ach:evement-oriented s o c i e t i e s . c l e l r l y , s u c h p 9 r i c r i t y is n o t z l w a y s t h e case, d S s p i t E t h e s o c i e t a l r u o t u r e t h a t g i v e s men t remendohs a d v a n t a g e s i n a c c e s s t o €58 t r a i t s and r e s o u r c e s . Consequent ly , many men f e e l n o s t compel led t o f a l l back on t h o "ul+.ima?a resource** of y s i c a l f o r c e t o P a i n t a i n t h e i r s u p e r i o r p c s i t i o n (Goode. 71; S e r a u s , 1974b:bb-57). P g r a p h i c i l l u s t r a t i c i ! of j u s t is p r o c e s s is t h e c a s e of J o e a n d J e n n i f e r r e p o r t s d

b? Rossa (Chapte r 10). B l l e c and S t r a u s g i r e s t ~ t i s t i c a , i d e n c e i n C h a p t e r 12.

2. Com&a:p n a s c u l i n i t ~ . T a l c o t t P a r s o n s (1997) h a s -- --- Zrgued t h a t i n modern i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t i e s , t h e s ~ p 3 r z t i o n o f t h e male o c c u p a 2 i o n a l r o l e from t h e f a m i l y and ?he predominance of t h e mother i n c h i l d r e a r i n g c r e c t e s a fundamenta l d i f f i c u l t y f o r men i n r e s p p c t t o a c h i e v i n g a m a s c u l i n e s e x u a l i d e n t i t y :

Ch.6. s e x u a l I n e q u a l i ' y

The bcp h a s a t e n d e n c y t o f c r a a d i r s c t e m i n i n e i d e n t L f i c a t i o n . s i c c e h i s mother is t h model most r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e and s i g n i f i c a n t h i But h e i s n o t d e s t i n e d t o become an adu woman. n o r e o v s r he s o o n d i s c o v e r s t h a t c e r t a i n v i t a l r e s p e c t s Women a r e c o n s i d e r a i n f e r i o r t o mer. t h a t i t would hence bs shamefu f o r him t o grow up t o b e l i k e a "omin. Rex when boys emerge i n % o what F r e u d i a n s c a l l t " l a t e n c y p e r i o d , " t h e i r b e h a v i o r t e n d s to be marked by a k i n d of cog~gllpg $s;q&&&te h q g r e s s i o n toward women vho " a f t e r a l l a r e blamc," is an e s s e r t i a l c o n c o m i t a n t (p.305).

l l t h o u g h Pazsons ' emphas i s i s on t h e p a r t i c u l a r c o n s t e l l a t i o n j u s t d e s c r i b e d a s p a r t i a l e x p l a n a t i o r I g s n e r a L l y b i g h l e v e l o f male a g g r e s s i v e n e s s i? H- sOCie? les . it a l s o seems l L k e l y t o be p a r t of t h e t h a t s o much male a g g r e s s i v e n e s s is d i r o c t a d a g a i r s t wives i n p a r t i c u l a r . S i m i l a r l y , P a r s o n s ' a n a l y shows t h e o r i g i n s of f e m a l e a g g r e s s i v e p e r t i c u l a r s t r u c t u r e o f t h e f a m i l y i n i n d u s t r i a l s c much o f t h i s a g g r e s s i v e n e s s is f o c u s e d s p e c i f i c a l l y aq men, e s p e c i a l l y husbands. a s t h e a g e n t s o f women's r e p r e p o s i t i o n i n s o c i e t y . * 2 T h i s c l i m a t e if mnlua l a r t a g n b c t v s e n t h e s e x e s p r o v i d e s a c o l t e x t :hi? is not o c o n d u c i v e t o a t t a c k s by h u s b a ~ d s on u i r s s b u t p r o b a b l y u n d e r l i e s a number of o t h e r r e l a t e d pheriomeaa, s n c h a g rowing e v i d e n c e t h a t i n mar7 i n s r e n c e s , " r a p e is a p, t r i p , n o t a p a s s i o n t r i p D (Eez t , 1 ? 7 5 : 4 0 : Borgzss Aolmstrom. 1 9 7 4 1 . l o r e o v e r . a s i n t h e t y p i c a l homose t a p e i n p r i s o n s (Davis. 1910). t h e d e g r a d a t i o r h u m i l i a t i o n o f t h e v i c t i m i s o f t e n a e a j o r m s t i v a t i n g f o r

3- Economic C o ~ s t r a i r t s , ? a g i s c r i m i n a t i Q Q . Thp ss ecO?.omic a n d o c c u p a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e of s o c i e t y a l l o w s u few a l t e r n a t i v e s . Tbe j o b s open t o women i r e 1 3 u e r s t a t u s and. d e s p i t e a n t i d i s c r i m i n a t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n . vo c o n t i n u e t o e a r n l e s s t h a n men i n t h e same o c c u p a t f o Wi thout a c c e s s t o good jobs , women a r e d e p f n d e n t cn t h - husbands. I f a d i v o r c e t a k e s p l a c e , a lmas? a l l hnsban d e f a u l t c?. s u p p o r t payments a f t e r a s h 3 r t t i m e , e v a s s u m i n g t h e y c o u l d a f f o r d thsm i n t h e f i r s t p l a c C o r s e q u e n t l y , many women c o n t i n u e t o e n d u r e p h y s i c a l a t t a c trom t h e i r husbapd b e c a u s e t h e a l t e r n a t i v e t n d i v s r c e p c v e r t y ( G e l l e s , 1 9 7 6 ) .

c h i l d r e n , b u t a t t h e same time s o c i e t y e o s s r o t p r o r e l t h e r economic recompense f o r h e r d o i n g s o , o r c h i l a c a r C e n t p r s t h a t t a k e o v e r p a r t o f t h e burden s3 t h a t s h e ca e a r n ecough t o s u p p o r t h e r c h i l d r e n . Occupations d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , l a c k of c h i l d - c a r e f a c i l i t i s s , i n a d s q u a t

p o r t f rom e i t h e r t h e aovernmsnt o r t h e f a t h e r - - a l l omm i n t o r e m a i r i n g m a r r i e d even whec t h e y a r e t h e f v i o l e n c e .

fir$& or i & g S W e - ? a r € n t F E p p p l a . Another of t h e norms t h a t h e l p s t o m a i n t a i n t h e s u b o r d i n a t i o n o f

t h e i d ? a t h a t c h i l d r e r c a r r o t be a d s q u a t s l y b r o u g h t e p a r e n t . Thus, i f a woman i s t o h a v e c h i l d r e n , s h e o have a man. TO t h e l i m i t e d e x t s n t t h a t r e s e a r c h

s u p p o r t s t h i s view. t h e s i t u a t i o n comes a b o u t o n l y of t h e confounding of p o v e r t y a c d s o c i a l o s t r i c i s n n g l e paren thood . Bl though i t seems l i k e l y t h a t i f r e s s u r e and c o n s t r a i n t s were removed, most women

want t o l i v e w i t h a man, a n i m p o r t a r t n i n o r i t y d o e s nd l i v e s , i~ e f f e c t , i n a s t a t e o f f c r c e d a t i o n . Thus. i n n u m e r a b l e and. u n d e r p r e s e n t ons , u n n e c e s s a r y s o c i a l and a c o x o a i c c o n s t r a i n t s

t h e s i c g l e - p a r e n t f a m i l y from b s i n g a v i a b l e s o c i a l nd f o r c e s n a r y women t o a c c e p t o r c c n t i n u e a P a t e , S t r S S S f n l r e l a t i o n s h i p .

1. E p s ~ a g c e of ~ j f g rg= Xpggp. undsr t h e - t s y s t e m , b e i n g a w i f e a r d mother is t h e most r t a n t s i n g l e r o l e f o r a woman. IndEed, Emerican u r a l n o r a s a r e s u c h t h a t one CEnfor be i f u l l voman ss marr ied . E mar, OR t h e o t h e r hand, h c s t b p o p t i o n o f s t i n g much o r l i t t l e of h i m s e l f i n t h e h u s b a n d - f a t h e r

depending on h i s i n t e r e s t , a b l l i t y , a r d c:zcumst.arces. S h o r t , *he s t i g m a of b e i n g a d i v o r c e d aaz is s a a l l a r e d w i t h t h a t o f b e i n g a d i v o r c e d womac--to whlcn a

c i a 1 te rm, w i t h o v e r t o n e s o f i m m o r a l i t y , ha5 been ached: d i v o r c e e . T h i s f o r c e d dependence on t h e w i f e E a s t h e b a s i s f o r a r e s p e c t e d p o s i t i o r i r s o c i e t y a a k e s d i f f i c u l t f o r a womal t o r s f u s f t o t o l e r a t e m i l e v i c l e n c e

d end t h e marr iage.

7 . Aega+jx Self-Image. Wnder t h e p r e s e n t s o c i a l r n c t u r e , women t e n d t o d e v e l o p n e g a t i r ~ s e l f - i m a g e s , p e c i a l l y i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e c r u c i a l t r a i t o f a c h i s s e s e n t o r n e r , 1972: T r u x i s g e r . 1 9 7 1 : 2 6 0 ) . A s a c o n r a q u e n c e ,

-clings o f g u i l t a r d masochism d e v e l o p , which p a r m i t women 0 t o l e r a t e male a g g r e s s i o n a c d v i o l e n c e and , i n some x t reme c a s e s , t o s e e k it. P u l l s e x u a l e q u a l i t y would l i m i n a t e t h i s a s a s e x u a l l y s t r u c t u r e d p a t t e r n o f b s h a v i o r . ven t h o u g h it may r e m a i r o r a n individual-to-indisiaual a s i s . Only 2 de-emphasis on i n d i v i d u a l c o m p e t i t i v e ChiovBment w i l l f n l l y e l i m i n a t e t h i s problem.

8. Women a s C h i l d r e n . The c o n c e p t i o n of women a s t h e -- r o p e r t y o f men is no l o n g e r p a r t o f t h e l e g a l sys tem of n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r i e s . Aowever, Elements o f t h i s o u t l o o k

l i n g e r i n t h e f o l k c u l t u r c and a l s o s u r v i v e i n c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f +he law, s u c h a s i n 'he s t a t o t e s t h a t d e c l a r e t h e husband t h e head o f t h e bousehould and g i v e him v l r i o u s r i g h t s o v e r h i s w i f e , l i k e t h e r i g h t t o c h o o s e t h f p l a c e of

Ch.6. S e x u a l I n e q u a l i t y

abode , t o which t h e w i f e must conform.*3 I n a d d i t i o is t h e r e l a t e d c o c c e p t i c n of women a s u c h i l d l i c o m b i n a t i o n , t h e s e a s p e c t s o f t h e s a x i s t o r g a c i z S o c i e t y g i v e husbands a c o v e r t m o r a l r i g h t t o use f o r c e OP t h e i r wives a n d o g o u s t o t h e o v e r t l e g a l -- p a r s n t s t o u s e p h y s l c a l f o r c e o n t h e i r c h i l d r e n ( s e e G 1979:58).

9 , &l_e o r i e n t a t i o n sE $25 QhB:n_al ~nsticf Not o n l y i s much male v i o l e n c e a g a i n s t w i r e s a t t r i b u t a t h e s e x i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n o f s o c i e t y , b u t t h e f i n a l t n d i s t h a t t h € m a l e - o r i e n t e d o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e c r j u s t i c e sys tem v i r t u a l l y g u a r a n t e 4 s t h a t few vcmaa u i a b l e t o s e c u r e l e g a l r e l i e f . To b e g i n v i t h , t h e l o n g i n o b t a i n i n g c o u r t o r d e r s and " p e a c e bonds- make u s e l e s s i n s e c u r i c g i m m e d i a t e r e l i e f f rom t h e dan a n o t h e r a s s a u l t . Even without . t h G s e d e l a y s . many c a n n o t a t t e n d c o u r t b e c a u s e o f t h e l a c k of c h i 1 a r r a n g e m e n t s d u r i n g t h e l o n g h o u r s o f w a i t i n g f o r a ca Come U P O r because , zs Of teP happezs, t h e c a s r e s c h e d u l e d . P-mong a t h e r impediments t o s e c u r i n ? p r o a g a i n s t a s s a u l t s by a h u s b a r d a = € + h o s e d s s c r i b e d s e c t i o n o f C h a p t e r 3 o r * 'Legi t imat ion of Rusban V i o l e n c e by t h e C o u r t s and Pol ice" : immuri ly from s u i f a i l u r e o f p o l i c e t o a c t a g a i n s t hUsSands, :hs " c o o l i n g by p o l i c e , p r o s e c u t i n g a t t c r r e y s , and j u d g e s of wive a t t e m p t t o b r i n g c o m p l a i n t s , and t h e d e n i a l of c o a p s n s by p u b l i c compensa t ion r e v i e w boards .

SEXUAL LIBERATION AWD TPE REDUCTION OF NRRITAL RSSRO

Alrhough Goode b e l i e v e s t h a t f o r c e o r i t s t h r e a t u l t i m a t e l y n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e e x i s t e n c a of s o c i e t y , h ~ c o n c e d e s t h a t *'...the amount of f o r c e now a p p l i e a i n t h v a r i o u s a r e a s o f f a m i l y l i f e ...[ i s n o t ] ... e i t h e r n e c e s s o r d e s i r a b l e n (Gocde, 1971:92]. One of t h e ways i n uh t h e amount o f f c r c e [ n e c e s s a r y t o m a i n t a i n a v i a b l ~ p a t t of f a m i l y l l f e ] c a n be reduced is t o r e d u c e t h e d e g r e e i n e q u a l i t y found w i t h l c t h e fami ly . C h i l d r e n ' s immatn i m p o s e s a l i m i t on t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e y can be g r e q u a l i t y v i t h t h e i r p a r e n t s . But t h e p a r t i c u l a r econo a n d p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i n n s t h a t may have j u s t i f i e d s u b o r d i n e t e p o s i t i o n f o r women i n e a r l i e r p e r i o d s o f h i s t a r e C l e a r l y n o ' l c c g e r p r e s e n t .

The g o a l s of t h e v o a e n l s movement a r e c e n t s ~ r d e l i m l n a t i n g e a c h o f t h e v i o l e n c e - p r o d u c i n g l n e q u i t d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r . S i n c e t h e s e f a c t o r s account t h e h i g b l e v e l o f p h y s i c a l a s s a u l t s on women by t h husbands , a c h i e v e m e n t of t h e g o a l s o f t h e f e m i n i s t movem i s t r e m e n d o u s l y i m p o r t a n t f o r a n y r e d u c t i o n of mari a s s a u l t .

Pege 9 1

t h e p r o c e s s o f a d v o c a t i n g t h e s e f u n d a m e n t a l 1 c h a n g e s t h e women's movement h a s mads v s r i o u s

c o c t r i h u t i o n s . For example, t h e i d e o l o g y of t h s movement i t s e l f e n c o u r a g e s women t3 r e s i s t a l l

o p p r e s s i o n . e s p e c i a l l y p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e . T h s r o n a n e x p l o s i v e growth of " b a t t e r e d - w i f e s h e l t e r s . " g i n England a b o u t 1972 and i n t h e n n i t e a S'ates 1975. These p r o v i d e imoedia'e p h y s i c a l e s c a p e , a r l y f o r t h o s e w i t h young c h i l d r e n who n i g h t e have xo a l t e r n a t i v e t o b e i n g v i c t i m i z + d by t h e i r

vomen's movement h a s been p e r c e p t i v e i n r e c o g n i z i n g p e r i o r male p h y s i c a l s t r e n g t h and s k i l l a r e i m p o r t a n t f t h e p r o c e s s by which male dominance is a a i n t a i n a d .

r e c o g n i t i o r p e r t l y a c c o u n t s f o r t h e emphas i s on k a r a t e h e r s e l f - d e f e n s i v e t r a i n i n g . Enwover, i t i s u c l i k e l y k a r a t s w i l l , i n f a c t , p r o t e c t womeo frcm a s s a u l t , e t h a n t h e a b i l i t y t o r e s p o n d p h y s i c a l l y p r o t e c t s men a s s a u l t by o t h e r men. Boreover . t h e k a r a t e a p p r o a c h u t i o n a l t z e s t h e r o l e of p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e i r s o c i a l c t i o n and hence i n c r r a s z s t h e l i k e l l h o o a o f f u r t h e r ce. I e v e r t h e l s s s , t h e e h p h a s i s on p h y s i c a l ~ f e n s e t r a i n i r g i s a n i m p o r t a n t s p u & s t e p t o w a r d s e n t o a l e l i m i n a t i o n o f v i o l e n t rsp:essiDn of r s a e n . h i s e v e n ? u a l i t y w i l l Only Clme a b o a t i f t h e more e n f a l p rob lems o f s e x u a l i n s q u a l i t y c a r be 0v;:coms. a t e l y , emphas i s h a s s h i f t e d from t r a i n i n g i n t h e us9 s i c a l f o r c e t o t r a i r i n g i n " a s s e r t i v e n e s s , " which is o r t a n t S t e p i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of s e x u a l equa l i ty .*u

B e v s r t h e l e s s , t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f t h e p e r i o d o f s i t i o n c a n n o t b e o v e r l o o k s d . The lonu- run c o n s e q u e n c e s a more e q u a l i t a r i a n s o c i e t y may be t 3 l e s s s ~ t h e uency w i t h which wives a r e v i c t i m s of a s s a u l t by

b z ~ . d s . Eut , w e s u g g e s t e d e a r l i e r ( s e e a l s o Kolb and aus, 1974: W h i t e h u r s t , 197U). t h e & & ~ ~ = E Y ~ Conseqnences

y b e t h e o p p o s i t e , b e c a u s e a s i z a b l e number of mec w i l l e a s i l y g i v e u p t h e i r s e x - s t e r e o t y p e d r o l e s . A 1 1 t h r e e

ters i n P a r t IT document t h i s i n d i f f e r e n t ways: a c a s e of a s p e c i f i c c o u p l e , l o g i c a l d e d u c t i o n , and

s t i c a l d a t a on a l a r g e sample of c a u p l e s . L i k e a d i t i o n a l l y o r i e n t e d women, men a r e c o c d i t i o n e d by t h e i r l r u r e t o p e r c e i v e o n l y t h e p r e r o g a t i v ? s and a d v a n t a g e s of e t r a d i t i o n a l male r o l e , and t o i g n o r e i t s b u ~ d e n r , s t r a i n t s , 2nd d i s e d v 3 n t a g e s . Thus, a l e s s v i o l e n t world d l e s s v i ~ l e n c e i n t h 4 f z m i l y r e q u i r e men's a s w a l l as men's l i b e r a t i o n .

O c f o r t u n a t e l y , p r o g r e s s toward s e x u a l e q u a l i t y end reedom from s e x u a l l y s t e r e o t y p e d r o l e s h a s r o t basn a s

g r e a t a s seemed p o s s i b l e i n t h e e a r l y 1970s. R t p r e s e n t (1978-74). t h e r e is even c o n s i d e r a b l e doubt t h a t t h ? Fqua l R i g h t s Bmendaent w i l l pass . B s t a t e - h y - s t a t e t a l l y by t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Women's Year Commission found t h a t s t a t - l a v s

Ch.6. S e x u a l I n e q u a l i t y

(which g o v s r n most d o m e s t i c m a t t e r s ) c o n t i n u e t o g i s u b s t a n t i a l l y f e w e r z i q h t s t h a n t h e i r husbands i n r i n h e r i t a n c e , d i v o r c 5 , p r o p e r t y ownersh ip , d o m e s t i c and a d u l t e r y ( u n i t e d P r e s s , O c t o b e r 30. 7977). Kan show t h a t t r a d i t i o n e l s e x r o l e s r e m a i r e n t r e n c h among t h e ycung. F o r example, a s u r v e y o f 1 7 - p a r - t h e W a t i o n a l Bssessment o f E a u c a t i o r a l P r o g r s s e foun n n l y h a l f o f t h i s a g e g r o u p t h i n k s a l l women s h o u l d b t o p u r s u e careqrs O u t s i d s t h e hone (Be* F o r k T i r n s s , 2 1977: 826: see a l s o Reinhold . 1977).

8.5 a r e c e n t c o e m e n t a r o r p u t it: "Scrakch alm3s man, and y o u ' l l f i n d w i s t f u l memories nf h i s a o f h e r a s o c k s and cooking Sunday lunch...." (Pra rckn . 1977; a l s o S t a p p and P i n e s . 1976). The de t l i l s v a r y , of co w i t h t h e s e t t i n g a n d t h e s o c i o e c o n o m i c l e v e l , b u t t h e o f male s u p e r i o r i t y r e e a i r s t h e same. I n t h a t same a r Pzancke t e l l s abou' a f r i e r d :

... who h a s made a name f o r h e r s e l f i e d u c a t i o n a l f i l m s i n new Ycrk, had a i c n e r i n LJ Anqeles r e c e n t l y w i t h a n o t h e r o l d f r i e n d . uh h a s made a much b i g g e r nans f o r h i m s e l f i n t e l e v i s i o r . S e t t l i n g down o v e r l a t e - n i g h t b r a n d i e s , s h e was s t u n n e d vhsn h e t u r n e d t o h e r a n d s a i d , V c u krow, I c a n ' t imagine b e i n g m a r r i e d t o you. I d p a n i c 2nd run." "Why?" S a l l y a s k e a , h u r t t h a t F h e i r f r i - ~ d s h i o vh ich had m v e r even t o u c h e d on t h e s u b j e c t of m a r r i a a e . seemed s u d d r n l v f lawed . "You're 1 - . s t a r , " he s a i d . But. S a l l y p o i n t e d o u t , h l was t h e one g e t t i n g q u c t e d i n T i n e and B e v s r e e k and was p r o b a b l y e a r r i n g $100,000 a y e a r t o h e r 820,000. "Eaybe so." he s a i d d e c l a r a t i v ~ l y . "bu t u n d e r n e a t h !t a l l I t h i n k y o u ' r e s m a r t e r t h a n I am."

what l u r k i n g t e r r o r s p o s s e s s men when t h e i r womln a c h i e v e s u c c e s s on t h e i r own? Ths t r u t h o f t h e m a t t e r is, t h a t i n s p i t e o f V i r g i n i a slims, ve haven ' t come s u c h a l o n g ray . b a b i e s (Prancke , 1977:uU).

x u a l I n e q u a l i t y Page 9 3

T h e r e a r e , of c o u r s e , many o t h e r f a c t o r s which t e t o t h e e x i s t e n c e and m a i r t e n a n c s 5f norms ng i n t r a f a a i l y v i o l e n c e . Owens a d S t r s u s (7975) ,

ample, p r e s e n t d a t a on t h e c o r r e l a t i o r of c h i l d h o o d n c e s of v i c l e n c e ( i n c l u d i n g v i c t i m i z a t i o n ) w i t h e n c e a t t i t u d e s and v e l u e s . See a l s s t h e d i s c o s s i a c

e i n f l u e n c e of s o c i e l y ' s p o s i t i v e E v a l o a t i o n of E i n C h a p t e r Y; ar.d i n S t r a u s . 1979a. 19146.

. S e e w h i t i n g (1965:137) a r d t h e d i s c u s s i o r . of " t h e y th" =a S t s i n a e t z a c d S t r a u s (1979:lO-13) fs: o t h e r n which t h e p a t t e r n o f male-female r e l a t i o n s h i p s b u i l t t h e s o c i e t y h e l p s t o c r e a t e a n t a g o n i s m b E t w ~ E n r h e

and hence s t r e c g t h e n s t h o a s s o c i a t i J n between y and v i o l e n c e .

. It is p e r t i n e n t t h a t . EvEn i n a s t a t e known f o r i ts and f a m i l i a l e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n , a s r e c e n t l y a s 1971,

l i f o r n i a S t a t e Bar I s s o c i a t i a n v o t e d ~ p t t o r e p e a l e g i s l a t i o n ( T r u c i n g e r , 1971:216).

4. The combir .a t ion o f s e x u a l e q u a l i t y , f f a a l s r t i v e n e s s , a n d s e x u a l l i b e f a t i c r mioh' a l s o c o n t r i b u t e e d u c i n g rape . I f women were t o e s c a p e t h e c u l t u r a l l y s o t y p e d r o l e of d i s i n t e r e s t i n and r e s i s t a r c * '3 sex. were t o t a k e on an z s s e r t i v e r o l e i n e x p r - s s i n a + h e i r

s e x u a l i t y . r a t h e r thar . l e a ~ l n g s u c h s x p r a s s i o n t c t h s e r t i v e n e s s o f men, womsn's L E V s t a t u s mig?t c s n t r i b u t a t o

r e d u c t i c r i n r a p e i n s e v e r a l nays. P x r s t , many r a p e s an i l l e g i t i m t e e x t e r s i o r . of s a n c t i o r e d t e c h r i q u ? s o f

ercoming" t h e c u l t u r a l l y p r e s c r i b e d r e s i s t a n c e of women EX ( K i r k p a t r i c k and Kanin. 1 9 5 1 ) . Seccnd. t h e unding of SEX and a g g r e s s i o n t h a t i s b u i l t i n t o o u r

r u r e c o u l d be reduced ( S t e i n m e t z and S t r a u s , 1974: 70-13). r d , t o t h e e x t e n t t h e t s h a r p l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d s e x r o l e s

r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h s , phenomena of "compuls ive c u l i n i t y ' and s t r u c t u r e d a n t a g o n i s m between t h e s e x e s ,

e l i m i n a t i o n o f s e x u a l i n e q u a l i t y woold r e d u c e t h e Dumber "power t r i p " a n d " d e g r a d a t i o n ceremonyl m o t i v a t e d r a p e s

o v n m i l l e r , 1975).

Chapter 7

Stress and Family Violence

Keith M. Fanington

T h i s c h a p t e r e m p h a s i z e s t h e e f f e c t of f a m i l y s t r u c t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s on t h e amount Of S t r e s s e x p e r i e n c e d . P a r r i c g t o n s u g g e s t s t h a t compared w i t h most o t h e r g r o u p s , t h ? f a m i l y E x p e r i e n c e s more stress and may b ~ less c a p a b l s Of c o p i n g w i t h it. The f a m i l y , b e c a u s e o f i t s u r i q u e s t r u c t u r e , e l s o may be l e s s e f f i c i e r t i n d e a l i n g v i c h s t r ~ s s f n l s i t u ~ t i m s .

It is i n t e r e s t i n g t o c o n t r a s t t h i s s o c i o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e w i t h t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f a "medical" model f o r t h e c o r t r 3 1 of v i o l e n c e . "Curzngw v i o l e n c e t h r o u g h d r u g s snd s u r g e r y h a s a p o w e r f u l a p p e a l t o laymen ana S c i E n t i S t s a l i k e . I f a day d o e s a r r i v e when it becomes r o u t i n e t o t a k e a p i l l when we f e e l t h s Urge t o k i c k a co-worker o r t h r s v a punch a t o u r mate, i n t r z f a m i l y v i o l e n c e w i l l p r o b a b l y still e x i s t . I f t h e f a m i l y r u n s o u t of n o n a g g r e s s i o n p i l l s . one s p o u s e c o u l d blame t h e o t h e r f o r b e i n g l a x , a n d might f e e l j u s t i f i e d i n h i t t i n 3 t h e O t h e r s o t h a t he o r s h e won't f o r g e t t h e n e x t t ime . o r p e r h a p s a mother w i l l s l a p h e r c h i l d b e c a u s e t h e c h i l d r e f u s e s r o swal low t h s n o n a g g r e s s i o n p i l l .

FaSringCOn's p o i n t of view i s t h a t r e g a r d l e s s of medica l t e c h n o l o g y , t h e s t r u c t u r e o t r e l a t i o n s t i p s b e t w e n f a m i l y members must change i t v z o l e r c a i s t o be redoze*. I f c o n f l i c t s o t i n t e r e s t a n d s t r e s s i n f a m i l y l i f s a r e i n e v i t a b l e , t h s n t h o f a m i l y must d e v e l o p a S t r u c t u r e f o r r e s o l v i n g t h a s e c o n f l i c t s n o n v i o l e n t l y . Bl though C h a p t e r 13 o f f e r s some s u g g e s t i o n s . a c h i e v i r g t h r s e e n d s w i l l be d i f f i c u l t . s i n c e , a s F a r r i n g t o n p o i n t s o u t . f a m i l y s t r u c t u r e works a g a i n s t t h e n o n v i o l e c t r e s o l o t i o r of s t r e s s f u l s i t u a t i o n s .

P GENERAL STRESS FBhlEQOEK

The c o n c e p t of stress h a s had a h i s t a r y markPd by c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n c e p t u a l ambzgui ty and d i s s e n s i o n (nechanic , 1962: C h a p t s r 1; 1968:296-300; L a z a r u s , lQ66:Ct.ap%?; 1: Levzne and Scotch . 1967:163-165; S c o t t and Sowazd, 1970; acGra th . 1970) . S t r e s s h a s been d e f i n e d a n a s t u d i e d a s (1) a t h r e a t e n i n g o r d i s r u p t i v e s t i m u l u s ( G r i n k e r and S p i e g s l , 1945; Basowl tz & g., 1955:7; H i l l , 1958: J a n i s . 1958:13); (2 ) 3 p a r t i c u l a r r e s p o n s e o r p a t t e r 3 of r e s p e n s e s i n ?he face o f such a s t i m u l u s (Eas0wit.z er a_&.. 1955:289: J a n i s , 1958:13; Eechanic , 1962:7): o r (3) a s k a t e of t h e organzsm a s it is e x p ~ r i e c c i n g s u c h a s t i m u l u s (Se lye . 1956: Dohrecrend. 1961; Wolff. 7968) . The ? rob lems s r i s i c g from t h i s l a c k of a common d e f i n i t i o n have l e d a number o f t h e o r i s t s t o abandon t h e a t t e m p t t o a c h i e v e s p e c i f i c i t y , and i n s t e a d t o u s e t h e term " s t r e s s " t o r e f e r t o a g e n e r a l f i e l d o f s t u d y t h a t encompasses a l l o f t h e s e more s p e c i f i c phenomena ( J a n i s , 1958:ll-13: L a z a r u s , 1966:27; Levine ana Scotch . 1967:169: BcGrath. 1970:16). T h i s i s t h e a p p r o a c h t a k e n i n t h e " g e n e r a l s t r e s s madel,* a c c o r d i r g t o which f a m i l y v i o l e c c s w i l l be a n a l y z e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r .

Components Of S t r e s s

The phenomenon of s t r e s s can b e s e e n a s compossa of s e v e r a l d i s t i n c t e lements . Drawing fcam schemes d e v s l o p s d by E i l l (1958). Dohrenvend (1961). Levine and S c o t c h (1967) a n d BcGrath (1970). t h e g e n e r a l s t r e s s model t r e a t s t h e f o l l o ~ i r g a s t h e c o m p o n ~ n t p a r t s of any s t r e s s s i t u a t i o c :

1. The S t r e s s o r S t i m u l u s . T h i s r e f e r s t o any s i t u a t i o n -- --- or condition, e n c o u n t e r e d by an i n d i v i d u a l o r g roup , t h a t is c a p a b l e o f p r o d u c i n g d i s r o p t i o n o r t h r e a t f o r t h a t l n d i v i d o a l o r group. When t h i s c o n d i t i o n o c c u r s , it c a n be

Ch.7. S t r e s s and Family V i o l e r c e

s a i d t h a t t h e s t i m u l u s is i m p o s i n g a "denand" on i r - v c l v e d , by r e g u l r i r g t h a t Some r e s p o n s e be a a l l e v i a t e t h e s t r e s s o r s i t u a t i o n a n d remove t h e t h r d a n g e r o r disruption.

Some t h e o r i s t s h a v s viewed S t r P s s o r s ' i m n e c e s s a r i l y synorymoos w i t h major t r a g e d i c a t a s t r o p h e s . T h i s i d s a is u c f o r t u n a t e , f o r i t i g n o s u b t l e e f f e c t s o f l e s s d r a m a t i c s t i m u l i . Re S Eoward r o t e :

The c o n c e p t o f s t r e s s h a s besn t 3 o c l o s e q u a t e d w i t h e x t r e m e t rauma acd d u r e s s . T a s s o c i a t i o n h a s hed t h e e f f e c t o f d i v e r t : a t t e n t i o n away from t h e s t u d y o f s t i m u l i t h a r e wear ing t o t t e o r g a n i s m , and t h a t hav i m p o r t a n t p h y s l o l o g i c a l acd p s y c h o l o g i c l COnSsquences f o r it, b u t which a r e n e i t h c d r a m a t l c o r e s p e c i a l l y ur.usual...both t r a u a a t i and n o n t r a u m a t i c b u t wear ing e v e n t s a r StTeSSfUl i n ?he SeCSE t h a t t h ~ y b o t h produc t h e same t y p e s c f p t y s i o l o g i c a l a c p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e s p o n s e s (1970:266-267).

IC f a c t , i t is n o t even n e c e s s a r y t h a t the. s t i m o l viGved i n n s g a C i v e te rms . Hany c e u t r a l l y o r even p o s i d e f i n e d r t i m o l i a x e c a p a b l e of p l a c i n g g r e a t demands t h o s e e x p e r i e n c i n g them (Kolaes and Bahe, 1967). B. p e o p l e respond a s much tc t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n of a s i t u a t i t o t h e a c t u a l s i t u a t i o n , v i r t u a l l y a l l s t i m u l i i n S o c i a l e n v i r o n m e z t have t h e p o t e n t i a l t o p roduce s t r e s s some i n d i v i d u a l s .

2. O ~ j ~ g v e DEmand. T h i s r e f e r s t o t h e " o b j e c t r e a l i t ? of a g i v e n s i t u a t i o r . To t h e e x t e n t t h a s t r s s s o r StimU1uS p o s e s demands t h a t a r e i n d e p e n d e n t of c o g n i t i v e p r o c o s s e s o f d e f i n i t i o n a n d p e r c o p t i o n , I n d i v i d u a l O r g roup i n v o l v e d c a n be s a i d t o be e x p e r i e n c o b j e c t i v e demand. While p e r h a p s q u i t e csmmon aT p h y s i o l o g i c a l o r S i o c h e n i c a l l e v e l s of hnnan E r i s t e n s t r e s s o r s t h a t c o r n p l e t s l y b y p a s s c o g n i t i v e a u a r s n e s s e v a l u a t i o n a r e p r o b a b l y somewhat r a r e a t t h e s o c i a l l e v Rowever. t h i s is no? meant t o i m p l y t h a t o b j e c t i v e dsmana n e v e r a n importanC a s p e c t of " s o c i o l z g l c a l " s t r s i t u a t i o n s . For example, f a c i n g t h e t h o u g h t of p a r a c h u t fxom a p l a n s . 0; b e i n g c o n f r o n t e d by w h i t a p p e a r s t o be armed c r i m i n a l , a r e s i t u a t i o n s t h a t pose a r e r y r e a l t h r t o t h e u n f o r t u n a t e v i c t i m , i r d e p e n d e n t o f t h a t p a r s 3 s p e c i f i c e v a l u a t i o n and d e f i n i t t o n of t h e s i t u a t i o n .

3. Subj '= i&E Qg-=d. ?.ppley and ? rumbul l h -- --- Observed t h a t . "With t h e e x c e p t i o n of EXtreBs and sud l i f e - t h r e a t e n i n g s i t u a t f o r s . it i s r e a s o n a b l e t o s a y t h a t s t i m u l u s i s a s t r e s s o r t o a l l i n d i v i d u a l s txposed t 3 i (1967:7). T h i s v a r i a t i o n i n what i s viewed a s s t r e s s f u l

145s and Family V i o l e c c e Page 9 7

i n d i v i d u a l d i f f c r e z c f s i n l e a r n i n g and e x p e r i s a c e . h a s a p t l y n o t e d , "Ran is v u l n e r a b l e [ t a s t r o s s ] h e r e a c t s n o t o n l y t o t h e a c t u a l J X I S ~ C C S o f

b u t t o t h r e a t s and symbols o f d a n g e r e r p e r i e c c s a i n t" (1968:3). therefor^, ii f r e q u e n t l y happens t h a t a 5 p o s i n g 10 r e a l "Objec t ive" d a n g e r i s n o n e r h s l e s s ed and d e f i n e d + s p r o b l ~ m a t i c . 12 s o c h an i r s t a n c e , es l i t a e d i f f ~ r e l c f how mnch o b j e c t i v e demand g e x i s t s : what :p i r p o r t a z t i s t h a t t h e d e f i n i t i o n e r o r t h r e a t h a s been made, and t h s i n d i v i a u a l f s ) d w i l l be a c t i n g i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h i s d e f i n i i i o n . t h e t e r m i n o l o g y of t h e g e n e r a l stress s o d e l . t h i s c a n r r e d t o a s " s u b j e c + i v e ' demana.

RPsBzse S a D a b i l i t L s s . T h i s c a t e g o r y i n c l u d e s a l l a s k i l i s , a t t r i b u t e s . and r e s o u r c e s t h a t an i n d i v i d u a l up h a s a t i ts d i s p o s a l i n d s a l i ~ g v i t h s t r e s s o r i. RlthOUgh t h e l ist of p O s s i b l 9 T%spDnse l l t i e s is F c d l e s s , some o f t h e more i m p o r t a n t o m s

a i n c l u d e p a s t e x p e r i e n c e Ln a s a l i n g w i t h s i m i l a r 1886, v a r i o u s s k i l l s t h a t h a r e been l e a r n e d o r a c q u i r e d , l l i g e n c e and c r e a t i v i t y , t h e m o t i v a t i o n r o d e a l w i t h t h e a t i o n , s u p p o r t and encouragement from o t h e r s i n *he

- a 1 sys tem, t h e a s o o r t o f e n e r g y a v a i l a h l c , 325 t h ? i t y t o c c c t r o l o r e t s e m c t i c n a l s t a t e . ill of t h e s e

s e e l e m e n t s a r e v i e v e d by t h e g e n e r a l s t r e s s a o ? e l a s n i n g t o form a r e s e r v o i r of p o s s i b l ~ r e e p o c s a s t o

s s f u l s t i m u l i .

5, thgice of 2eazss. Rhen a n i n d i v i d u a l o r group i s r o n t e d by a s t r e s s o r s t i m u l u s , one o r more r e s p o n s e s

be s e l e c t e d from t h o s e a v a i l a b l a a n d a p p l i e d 'cward s s t r e s s o r . Obvious ly , j u s t as i n d i v i d u a l s ana g r o u p s y s u b s t a n t i a l l y v i t h r E g a r d t o what :hey s e z a s p o s i n g a e a t o r problem. s o a l s o w i l l t h e y v a r y i n t h e i r c a p a c i t y d e a l w i t h v a r i o u s e i t u a t i a n s a c d i n t h e r e p o c s e s t h a t

e y w i l l make 11 a g i v e n s z t u a t i o n . Bousver , it seems a s o n a b l e t o assume t h a t , i r t h e g r e a t ~ a j o r i t y o f c a s e s ,

e f f o r t w i l l be m d e t o meet t h e i n p a n d t n g d e a a n d s t o t h e a t e s t d e g r e e p o s s i b l e . T h i s d o e s n o t imply t h a t t h s b e s t i c e "ill a l u a y s be made, b u t i t d o e s a s s o n e ths: t h e i v i d u a l o r g r o u p w i l l h e n o t i o e t s a t o a c t i n i t s b e s t e r e s t by making what it b e l i e v e s t o be an a p p r 3 p r i a t e

6, S t r e s s Lev1.2. I f t h ~ r e s p o n s e made t o a s t : es ror s t i m u l u s i s S u t f x i e n t t o meet and s l i m i n a t e t h e dpnands b e i n g posed by t h a t s t i m u l u s , i t c a n be s a i d t h a t n a s t e r y , o r ~ u c c ~ s s f u l r E s o 1 u t i o P of t h e problem, h a s t a k e n p l a c e . Under t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t h e s t r e s s o r s i t u a t i o n s h o u l d no l o n g e r be p r o b l e m a t i c . I n f a c t , t h s i n d i v i d u a l o r g r o u p w i l l p r o b a b l y b e more e f f e c t i v e i n d e a l i n g w i t h s i m i l a r p rob lems i n t h e f u t u r e b e c a u s e of t h i s experience ( S c o t t and aovard. 1970:272). I n t h i s s e r s e , it c a n b t a r g u a d ' t a t s t r e s s h a s c e r t a i n p o s i t f v e consequences , p r o v i d e d it

Ch.7. S t r e s s a n d Fami ly BLoleece

r e m a i r s w i t h i n r e a s o n a b l e limits.

Eowever, ?he r a s p o n s e made t o a s t r e s s o r s t i n o t g u a r a n r e e t h a t demand w i l l b e e l i m i n a t e d i n s L a n c e s , t h e r e s p o n s e f s ) r i l l b~ i n s u f f i i n a p p r o p r i a t e . and m a s t e r y w i l l n o t occur . Th s u c h f a i l u r e on t h e p a r t o f r e s p o n s e copaDi a c c o r d i n g t o t b e g e n e r a l stress model, a n i n c r e a " s t r e s s l a v e l ' o f t h o s e L n v ~ l v e d .

Viewing "stress" a s t h e d i s c r e p a n c y betw€en d r e s p o n s e c a p a b i l i t i e s i s co t a nev i a e a : c a n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n is s u g g e s t e d by Mechanic (1962: 1968:301) and XcGrath (1970:17-211, and i s i n p l i c i a n d s o w a r d ' s e p r o h l e n - s o l v i n g w s t r e s s model (1970 and S c o t t , 1965). E c c o l d i n g t o t h i s view. t h e g d i s c r e p a n c y between impending demands an* 4 a i s t i l g c a p a b i l i t i e s . t h e g r e a t e r t h e s t r e s s l e v e l of t h e i o r g r o u p i n q u e s t i o n . I n u s i n g t h e te rm " s t r e s s r a t h e r t h a n s i m p l y ' s t r e s s , " t h e g r n e r a l stre a s s u m e s t h a t man and t h e g r o u p s he forms a r e i n ?. c s t a t e of s t r e s s , and t h a t a s-&Qt_e c o n g r u ? r c e demands a n d r e s p o r s e c 2 p z h i l ; t = e s f o r a c y i n d L o i g r o u p i s i m p o s s i b l e .

In a c c o r d a n c e v i t h t h i s view t h a t s t r e s s " c o n s t a n t " i n huaan e x p e r i e n c e , t h e g e n e r a l s t r e s s S u g g e s t s t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s a n a g r o u p s a d a p t t o t h i s f a c l i f e by d e v e l o p i n g a s L r e s s l e v e l a t v h i c h t h e y f e e c o m f o r t a b l e a r d f u n c t i o n most E f f e c t i v e l y . ThPsa flop s t r e s s l e v e l s d e v e l o p o v e r time, and t h e y r e p r e s e combined p r o d u c t o f a number of s o c i a l , p s y c h o l o g i c a l S t r u C t u r a L f a c t o r s . Scot'. and Howard s u g g e s t t h a t i h = wide I n d i v i d u a l v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e s e optimum s t r e s s 1s w i t h some p e r s o r s a c d g r o u p s d e a a n d i 3 g more congruence o t h e r s :

The c a t u r e o f t h i s l s v e l v a r i s s t remendous ly BmOng i n d i v i d u a l s : T h e r e a r s p e r s o n s xho r e g u i r e h i g h and s u s t a i n e d l e v e l s o f s t i m u l a t i o r i n o r d e r t o f e e l c o m f o r t a b l e and s a t i f l e d : t h e r e a r e o t h e r s vho r e q u i r e c a m p a r a t i r e l y l aw l e v e l s o f s r l m u l a t l c n , a n d vho f s e l most C o m f o r t a b l e when demands made on them a r r t i g h t l y d i s p e r s e d a r o u r d v e r y low a c t i v i t y l e v e l s (1970:270).

I n a d d i t l o n t o p u r e l y i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n op t im str%ss l e v e l . s u b s t a n t i a l m a c r o s c o p i c v a r i a t i o n betvsEn a among s o c i e t i e s is a l s o l i X s l y , w i t h sems g r 2 u p s a c c u r t a m t o a much h i g h e r l e v e l of s t r e s s t h a n o t h e r s .

Because t h e s e optimum s t r e s s l e v e l s a r e , i n e f f e c t , c u m u l a t i v e p r o d u c t o f a l l p a s t e x p e r i e n c e , t h a y a r e lik t o be f i r s l y e c t r e n c h s d a r d q u i t e r e s i s t a n t t c r a p i d

s~ and F a n i l y V i o l e n c e Pilge 9 9

nge. On t h e o f h e r h a r d , a n i n a i v i d u a l o r g r o u p ' s +&& s t r e s s l e v e l is l i k e l y t o be s u b j e - ? t o

f l u c t u a t i o n , d e p e r d i n g on t h e p a r t L c u l a r s t i m u l i d. For t h e most p a r t , t h e s e c h a n g e s s h o u l d be

811nor. 211OY%Dg t h e s t r e s s l e v e l t o remain w i t h i n l e , o r a t l e a s t t o l e r a b l e . limits. I n t h o s e

i n which c h a n g e s a r e n o t minor, where s t r e s s l e v e l exceeded , t h e s i t u a t i o n becones prob lemat ic .

d i n g t o t h e g e c s r a l s t r e s s model, c h a n g s s i n e v e 1 o c c u r w h e t h e r t h e d i s c r e p a n c y between demands n s e c a p a b i l i t i e s i s " p o s i t i v e n o r " n e g a t i v e o i n . J u s t a s t h e demands b e i n g p l a c e d ??. an 1 o r g r o u p nay b e coo g r e a t , s o t o o can t h e y be t o o Gra th u s e s t h e t e r m s "over load" and u u n d e r l o a a m t o

h i s d i s t i c c t i o n , and s t a t e s :

r e is ncw a s u b s t a n t i a l body of i t ~ r a t D r e . . . w h l c h s u g g e s t s t h ~ t tress-like f f e c t s may r e s u l t f rom an env:ror.ment t h a t

p l a c e s t o o l i t t l e asnand on...tha f o c a l organism

works s u c h a s Paliner 's t h e o r y l i n k i n g " t ? n s i ~ n ' and ce (197U; 1972) . K l a u s n e r ' s s t u d i e s o f s t r e s s - s e e k i r g , A e r o c ' s i n v = s + i g a t i o n of t h e ' lpa tho logy of boreaoa"

a n d s e i d ~ r b e r g ' s c l i n i c a l d e s c r i p % i o c of t h e " t rauma t l 9 s s n e s s 1 ' (1972) seem t o s u p p o r t t h e c o 9 t e n t i o n ? h a t t l e demand c a n be j u s t a s d a n g e r o u s 2s t o o much.

o s u m n ~ r i z e t h e n o t i o n of s t r e s s l e v e l , it c a n be s a i a " S t r e s s n o t o n l y r c v o l v e s a * s t a t e ' o f t h e f o c a l

SP a n d a ' s t a t e ' o f t h e env i ronment , b u t a l s o i n v o l v e r . l a t l o n s h i p between t h e two11 (McGrath. 1970:16). The ter t h e d i s c r e p a n c y b e t v e f n e x i s t i n g demanas and l a b l e r e s p o c s e c a p a b i l i t i e s , t h e g r e a t e r v i l l be t h e s5 l e v e l o f t h a t i n d i v i d u a l o r g rcup . T3 t h e e x t e n t

t h i s i m b a l a c c e i s n o t p r e s e n t l y , and d o e s 09t s u d d e n l y me, t o o g r e a t : a s l o r g a s mast e x i s t i n g demands c a c b s

t s a t i s f a c t o r i l y from w i t h i n t h e s e r e s p o n s e c a p a b i l i t i e s ; d a s l o n g a s enough demand e x i s t s t o c h a l l e n g e t h e d i v i d u a l o r g r o u p s u f f i c i e n t l y . f h e s t r e s s l e v e l c l n be i d t o h e a t a minimal . n o n p r o b l e m a t i c l e v e l . i ioverer . if

i n c r e a s e i n t h e a c t u a l s t r e s s l e v e l o f a r i n d i v i d u a l o r roup is a s i g n i f i c a n t d e p a r t u r e f rom t h e optimum s t r e s s ~ v e l o f tha ; i n d i v i d u a l o r g roup , t h i s change is l i k e l y t o

ve o v e r a l l n e g a t i v e c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r t h o s e i c v o l v e a .

Ch.7. S t r e s s and Fami ly V i o l e n c e

u n r e s o l v e d S t r e s s S l t u a t l o n s

I n t h e d i s c u s s i o n t h u s f a r , it h a s been a r g u e d t h v a r i a b l e s i n t e r a c t t o d e t e r m i n e a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s o r g s t r e s s l e v e l . From t h i s p r o p o s i t i o n , i t f o l l o w s t h a t a i l u r e t o a c h i e v e m e s t e r y o v e r a p a r t i c u l a r st s t i m u l u s c a n be ~ t t r i b u t e d t o (1) t h e n a t u r e of t t . ~ st s i t u a t i o n , and/or (2 ) t h e r e s p o n s e ( s ) made by E x p e r i e n c i n g t h i s s t r e s s o r s i t u a t i o n . As ve s h a l l characteristics cf e a c h of t h e s e e l e m e n t s o f t h e s e x p e r l e f i c s c a n p r e c l u d e s u c c e s s f u l r e s o l u t i o n 3f t h e p a t hand.

F i r s t , i n c o n s i d e r i n g s t r e s s o r s t i n u l i , i t i s o t h a t p rob lems v a r y i r terms o f t h e i r p o t e n t i a

r e s p o n s e . no m a t t e r what t h e y a t t e a p t . S c ? r t and Pouara (1970:271; Yoward and S c o t t , 1965:146-147) bavs identified t h r e e t y p e s of problem s r t u a t l o n s t h a t p r e l u d e s u c c e s s f u l . . map:=ry: ( 1 1 p r c t l + m s * tk - j c s c d e a a c l s r r F I C ? : s :f ?he org??:sa.n r e p o r r e c?p=.b:lil:=s. ( 2 ) p r o b l = l r i k a t t a w * c o

demands e x i s t . s o t h a t i t is i m p 3 s s i b l e t o mse s ~ c c e ~ ~ F u 1 1 y . IP any of t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s , no n a t t s r e s p o n s e ( s ) a r e c h o s e n , t h e y s i m p l y w i l l n o t be s u f L t o a c h i e v e maszerp a v e r t h e s t r e s s o r s t i m u l u s .

Concern ing t h e r e s p o r s e s made t o s t r e s s s i t o a t - S c o t t and Howard (1970:272: Eoward and S c o t t . 1965:147- have r . i c e l y d e l i c e a t e d a t y p o l o g y o f p o s s L b l e r e s p 3 c T h e s e i n c l u d e (a) t h e a s s e r t i v e r e s p o n s e , i n which t i n v o l v e d meet t h e problem "head-on," and a t t e m p t t o s o l v i n a d i r e c t and m e a f i i r g f u l f a s h i o r . , (b) t h e d i v ~ r e s p o n s e . i n which r e s o u r c e s a n d eEergy a r e a p p l i e d t o problem b u t a r e ~ 1 s d i r e c t e d . t.t;us l e a v i n g t h e a c t u a l pr v i r t u a l l y un touched , and ( c ) t h e i n e r t r e s p o n s e , i n e f f a %on-response. ' i n which t h e r e i s no m e a n i n g f u l a t t 4 made t o r e s o l v e t h e problem a t h a l d .

Even r n stress s i t u a t i o n s i n which a n i n d i v i d u a l g r o u p f a c e s a s t r e s s c r s t i m u l u s t h a t i s p o t e c t i s o l v a b l e - - i n t h a r t h e y p o s s e s s r e s p o n s e c e p a b i l i s u f f i c i e n t r o meet i t s demands--only by z h o o s i n g a s s e r t i v e r e s p o n s e w i l l t h e y a c t u a l l y a c h i e v e m s s t e r D i v e r g e n t o r i r e r t r e s p o n s e s a r e n o t a c t u l l l y d i r e c t e d t h e problem ir q u e s t i o n ; t h u s , t h e s e r e s p o n s e s a r e unab t o C o n t r i b u t e d i r e c t l y t o a r e s o l u t i o n of t h a t problem.

s t r e s s and P a n i l y V i o l e n c e Psge 101

~ e n c e s of t h e F a i l u r e t o Achieve n a s t e r y

r t h e above r e a s o n s , t h e r e a r e r u a e r o u s stress t i o n s i n whlch t h e demands posed by a s t r e s s c r s t i s u l u s

o t b e met s u c c e s s f u l l y . Responses t o t h e s e s z r P s s o r s e made, y a t m a s t e r y of t h e s i t u e t i o n f loss n o t r e s u l t .

p l a i n e d e a r l i e r , ' h i s d i s c r e p a n c y between demand and e c a p a b i l i t i e s r e p r e s e n t s t h e s t r e s s l e v e l of t h s u a l o r g r o u p i n q u e s t i o n . And, t o t h e a x t e n t t h a t i s c r e p a n c y r e p r e s c c t s a d r a s t i c o r major change 2n

Stress l e v e l - - i n t h e d i r e c t i o n away from o n e ' s o p t i m a l s l e v e l - - i t i s t o be e x p e c t e d r h a t t h i s u n r e s o l v e d

s i t u a t i o n may become even more p r o b l e m a t i c a v e r t ime.

o r sxample, ? h e c o n t i n u e d p r e s e n c s of t h s s t i l l onmet s nay have a s e r i o u s impac t npon t h o s e i n r c l ~ e 3 . For e , t h e f a i l u r e t o r e s o l v e a problpm o f f = ~ l t y

n i c a t i o n betweex a husband acd wi fe c a r e a s i l y l s a a t o , m o r ~ s e r i o u s , m a r i t a l problems.

1 second p o s s i b l e consequ-nce 3f a? i n i f f m c L i v e o n s e t o stress may b e t h a t , n o t o n l y h a s t h i s r e s p o z s e ed t o d e a l wi th t h e c r i g i 2 a l problem, b u t i t pay h a v e v e r t e n t l y i n t r o d u c e d new s t r e s s o r s t i m u l i . 1 s w ~ l f f 8:3) s u g g e s r s , t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of a r e s p o n s ? mede t o a 55 s i t u a t i c n may t u r n o u t t c he mare d ~ m a g l r g t h i n t h e cts of t h e s t r e s s S i t u a t i o n i t s e l f . P a r zxsmple,

e r e a s a husband h i t t i n g h i s wifo might a p p e a r t o i ? r m i n a t a f e c t i v e l y a c u r r e n t n a r i ' a l argument , t h i s d i v e r g e n t s p o n s e c o u l d , on a l o r g - t e r m b a s i s , c s u s s r ? s c n t m e r f and s t i l i t y t o b u i l d up w i t h i n t h e w i f e , t h u s p o s i n g an even r e s e r i o o s problem f o r t h e f u t u r e .

E lso , t h s r e i s what S c o t t a r d Rovard have termed t h e c o r d o r d e r problem" of h a n d l i c g t h e u n r e s 3 l v e d t = n s i o n s t have a r i s e n d u r i n g t h e a t t e m p t t o r e s o l v e t h e c u r r e n t 45.5 s i t u a t i o n . These " t e n s i c n s n r e f e r t s a s t i t e o f r g y a r o u s a l w i t h i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l . I n t h e words of Sco't

EOwBrd:

... e v e c when prob lems E r e s u c c e s s f u l l y s o l v e a . 3

t i m e gap e x i s t s between t h e i n i t i a l p r c v o c a t i o n and t h e u l t i m a t e r e s o l u t i o n . During t h e t i m e i r which t h e problem is b e i n g d s a l t w i t h , t h e organism 1s i n a s t + t e o f q r s a t e r ar l E S S = r B o b i l i z a t i o n , a s t a t e i n u h i c h Energy and r e s o u r c e s are bound up s o t h a t t h s organism e x p e r i e n c e s t e n s i o n . I n c a s e s o f s u c c e s s f u l problem s a l v i n g . t o n s i c n s a r e e v a n t u a l l y d i s s i p a t e d and t h e organ ism r e t u r n s t o i t s u s u s l l e v e l o f f u n c t i o n i n g . when problems a r e c o t So lved , however. t e n s i o n s p e r s i s t u n t i l mechanisms a r e found t o c o p e w i t h them. The f a i l u r e t o m a s t e r t h r e a t s t h e r e f o r e g i v e s r i s e t o a second-order problem: ... t h a t o f d e a l i n g

Ch.7. Stress ard Pamllp Vrolence Page 102

Page 103

r-- - - ~ C T ~ S S O ~ should ~resent no further difficult~. Rcuever. ir - ~ .~ ~~~ . -~

instances, the stressor situation will not be resalved he responses made. Ir these situations, the disczspancy een demand and responsa capabilities rspresents an ease in stress level. This increase in stress leo.1 has potenfial to produce additional problems for those Ired. Let us now apply this framework to the stuay of

APPLYING TRE GWFRAL STRESS MODEL TO InTBAPAnILP B I O L 3 7 C Y

ss and %he Family

A number of theorists have already begun to irdicite importance of "stress" for explaining a major portion of afaeily violence, especially in the area of chila sbuse. example, Blumberg (1964-1965) views overz~alons physical shment of children by parects as being as much s result the various 5treSSe~ experienced by *he child's pareots t is a result of the actual desire or neea to coctrol child's behavior. In Plumberg's words, "When everything getting On top of 2 no+her she smacks more" 64-1965:19Y). Gil (1971) explains . socioec3nomic fferences in child abose as resulting at least partially m the difterential number and saverity ~f strassful eriances characterizing family life at different social ss levels. In explaining violence directea toward laren, Gelles' "social psychological' model of child use (1973) attributes primacy to a variety of "situational

The ccnmon thread rurnicg through these statements is at any theory that attempts to explain irtrafamily olence nust give primary consideration to the structural biables likelp to determine a family's predisposition to olence. This is precisely what the stress fraseuork 110~s US to do. since it views these structural variables - ~ - ~-

StrPsSOr SIinuli thac impose demands on individuals and milies, and to which scme response must be made if stress VelS are to remain within tolerable limits.

There can be little doubt that the modern family, both a social unit and through its indiviaual members,

cour.ters numerous stressor stimuli in the course of its y-to-day existence. As Campbell statss,

[Modern] c h a n g e s [ i n f a m i l y s o l i d a r i t y ] a o 30 n e c e s s a r i l y s i g n i f y a d e c l l n e i n t h e i m p n r t a n c Of t h e family. They do r e f l e c t t h e i n c r e a s i n p r e s s u r e s which t h e f z m i l y is under--but t h ~ s s t r e s s e s f r e q u e n t l y stem p r e c i s e l y from t h e f a c t h a t more is b a i n g drmanded o f f a n i l y l i f e t h a n e v e r b e f o r e (1969: 251) -

The s t r e s s o r s t i m u l i t h a t c o r f r o n t f a s i l i e s and members s tem from many d i f f e r e n t s c u r c e s . For example a r e r e l a t s d t o t h e f u n c t i o n s t h a t t h e f a m i l 7 i s " e n t r u i t h per forming , b o t h w i t h r e g a r d t o i ts i n d i v i d u a l me a n d t o t h e l a r g e r s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . O t h e r s a r e t h e o f P E r t i C U l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f i 3 d i v i d u a l f a m i l y s u c h a s t h e i r s t a t u s i n t h e scc 'e l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n s y s t t h e i r p r e s e n t p o s i t i o n i r t h e " f a m i l y l i f e cyc le . " Eo r e g a r d l e s s of t h e S p e c i f i c o r i g i n s o f t h e s t r e s s c r s t h a t c o n f r o n t any p a r t i c u l a r f a m i l y . t h e p o i n t t n b h e r e i s t h a t t h e s e c o n f r o n t a t i o n s a r e f a c t s o f l i f e - - n o t i s o l a t e d and ou t -of - the-ozd inary Cccur rencEs

I n a d d r t i o n t o t h e s e e x t e r n a l s t r e s s e s , t h e f i t s e l f is o f t e n a s o u r c e o f stress. i n t h a t many pro c a n be t r a c e d back t c p a r t i c u l a r f a m i l y s i t o a t i m s t r o c t u r e s . For example, Croog (1970) n o t e s t h a t p rob lems a s i n t r a f a m i l y v a l u e c o n f l i c t s , t h e p a r t i c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e v a r i o u s s t a g e s o f t h e f a m i l y c y c l e , and prob lems o f r o l e c o n f l i c t a r e p o t e n t i a l s o o Of Stress t h a t a r i s e from d i r e c t l y v i t h i n t h e E a s i l y u IP a d d i t i o n t o t h o s e s t r e s s e s t h a t e m a n l t e from w i t h i f a m i l y a r e numerous e v e n t s e x p e r i e n c e d by i n d i v i d u a l me m t h e " e x t e r n a l world,* v h i c h a r e t h e n b r o u g h t back t h e f a m i l y s e t t i n g . Rl thcugh t h e f a m i l y i s comnsnly Lho of a s a p l a c e v h i c h f a m i l y members c a n b r i n g t h e s e ex P r e s s u r e s and " l e t o f f s team," t h i s a c t i o n may have o n e g a t i v e c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r t h e f a m i l y a s a u h s l e . A s s t a t e s , "The r e l e a s e of t h e s e e m o t i s c s nay i n thsms- c r e a t e t e n s i o n s i t u a t i o n s t h a t h a v e t h e e f f e c t s of strss a s f a r a s o t h e r f a m i l y members a r e concern&" (1970: Even i n s i t u a t i o r s i n v h i c h t h e f a m i l y i t s e l f is not s o u r c e of a p a r t i c u l a r problem, t h e f a m i l y may o e r e r t h e a m p l i f y t h e e f f e c t s o f t h a t problem on its members, o p e r a t i n g a s a " c r y s t a l i z i n g e n t i t y v i t h i n vh ich t s t r e s s o r s emerge and e x e r t t h e i r impac t" (Crsog. 1910:25

V l o l e n c e a s a Response t o S t r e s s

If t h 9 f a m i l y d o e s e x p e r i e n c e numezous s t r e s s i t u a t i o n s . i t E o l l c u s t h a t i n d i v i d u a l f a m i l y mcmbsrs, f a m i l i e s a s s o c i a l u n i t s , o f t e n w i l l be c a l l e d on t o i t t s t o meet and e l i m i n a t e t h e demands posed by v a r i s t r e s s o r s . 3.36, a s d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r , when c o n f r o n t e d w a s t r e s s f u l s i t u a t i o n , t h e s e p e o p l e w i l l l o o k '0 t h r e p e r t o i r e s o f r e s p o n s e c e p a b i l i t i e s a s t h e y t r y t o come

s t r e s s and Family V i o l e n c e Page 105

r e s p o n s e t h a t p r o d u c e s mas te ry .

l e a r l y . a s Goode (1971:629) h a s s u g g e s t e d i n h i s u r c e t h e o r y " of f a m i l y v i o l e n c e , t h e p o t e n t i a l t o u s e

c e c a n be r e g a r d e d a s an i m p o r t a r t r e s o u r c e of d u a l s o r groups. P n t i n t o t h e terms of t h e g e n e r a l

5 model, t h e c a p a c i t y f o r v i o l e n c e r e p r e s e n t s a p o r t i o n i n d i v i d u a l ' s o r g r o u p ' s r e s p o n s e c a p a b i l i t i e s t h a t can

p l i e d t o t h e s o l u t i o c of varFous problems.

st o n l y i s v i o l e n c e a Qpss&&f r e s p o n s e t 3 s t r e s s f u l . l o r s : i n o u r s o c i e t y , it o f t e n r e p r e s e n t s an t&& r e s p o n s e . X s stein me?^ a n d S t r a u s n o t e . i c a n s have a l v a y s had a p r o p e n s i r y t o u s e v i o l e n c e t o r e n a t i o r a l and p e r s o n a l g o a l s 4 * 1 9 7 : 1 U l ) B major n f o r t h e p r e v a l e n c e of v i o l e n c e t h r 2 u g h o u t o u r t y ' s h i s t o r y h a s been t h a t 5 u r s o c i a l norms and r a l v a l u e s a c t u a l l y s a n c t i c r and l e g i t i m i z e t h ~ u s e of n c e a s a p p r o p r i a t e b e h a v i o r i n many s i t u a t i o n s ( s e e er 3). T h i s Cormat ive E p p r o v a l ?f v i o l e n c e seems t o b e i a l l y t r u e w i t h i n t h = c o n t e x t o f ths f a m i l y , wherr , f o r l e , i t i s a c c e p t a b l e , o r a t l e a s t p e r m i s s i b l e , t o spank s b e h a v l n g c h i l d o r s l a p a nagging r i f e when

u n s t a n c e s " c a l l f o r " s u c h behavior .

IS V i o l e ~ c e Used a s a Response t o S t r e s s ?

The u s e of v i o l e l c e a s a p o s s i b l e r e s p o n s e t o s t r e s s u a t i o n s r e p r e s e n t s an i n t e r e s t i n g paradox. The i l a b i l i t y o f n o s t r e s o u r c e s f o r any p a r t i c u l a r i n d i v i d u a l

f a m i l y is l i k e l y t o depend o r a number of s t r u c t u r a l acd r s o n a l f e a t u r e s , i n c l u d i n g s o c i o e c o n c n i c s t a t u s , 39%. and x. Borever , v i r t u a l l y e v e r y o n e p o s s e s s e s th+ r e s o u r c e o f

s n t i a l v i o l e n c e . It i s t r u e t h a t d i f f e r e n t i n a i Y i a u c l s 1 r e q u i r e v a s t l y d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s t o p rovcke t h e n t o

e r t e n t t h a t t h e y w i l l commit an a c t of v i o l e c c a o r r e s s i o n . I l s o , t h e a c t u a l means o f e x p r e s s i n g v i o l e n c e ,

t h e r e s u l t i n g msuccessn of t h e a c t , r i l l v a r y g r e a t l y . e v e r , t h e p o i n t t o be made h e r e i s t h a t , whereas t h e s e s s i o n o f most o t h e r r e s o o r c e s v a r i e s from p e r s 3 n t o

e r s o n and f a m i l y t o f a m i l y , t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r v i o l e n c e i s a c o n s t a c t " p a r t o f a l l i n d i v i d u a l and f a m i l y r e s p o c s e

p a b i l l t l e s , no m a t t e r how e x t e n s i v e o r how minimal t h e m a l r d e r o f t h e r e s p o n s e c a p a b i l i t i e s .

on t h e o t h e r hand, a l t h o o g h e v e r y o n e cqn use v i o l e n c e , a t e v e r y o n e do=. V i o l e n c e is n o t a l m y s t h e r e s p o n s e hosen t o a s t r e s s f u l s i t u a t i o n . I n f a c t . i t i s u s e d E l a t i v e l y i n f r e q u e n t l y . Thus. o ~ e q u e s t i o n of major mportance c o r c e r a s t h e i s s u e of ~ g q p v i o l e n c e i s usEd a s an S S E r t i V 0 r e s p o n s e t o a s t r e s s s i t u a t i o n . and Kg1 it is used n t h o s e i n s t a n c e s .

Ch-7. S t r e s s and Fami ly V i o l e n c e

The A v a i l a b i l i t y o f R l t e r n a t i r e Responses t o S t r s s s

One of t h e most i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n a n s t h i s q u e s t i o n conce?ns t h e n a t u r e of t h ? o t h e r r e capabilities. A s B e t t e l h e i m s u g g e s t s . "whether o r n w i l l u s e v i o l e n c e o r a v o i d i t depends e n t i r e l y 0 . a l t e r n a t i v e s o l u t i o n 5 a r e known t o a p e r s o n f a c i n problem" (1967:301). S i m i l a r l y . S t e i n m e t z and S t r a u s a

We b e l i e v e t h a t t h e w i l l i n g n e s s and a b i l i t y t o us6 p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e i s a ' resource ' . . . . E f a m i l y member c a r u s e t h i s r e s o u r c e t c CompePSate f o r l a c k o f o t t e r such r s s o u z c e s ir money, knouledge , a n d r e s F s c t (1974:9).

Goode h a s deve loped t h i s g e n e r a l i d s a i n b:s rtsg t h e o r y of f a m i l y v i o l e n c e (1971). Goode i d e n t i f i e s " f o a n d i ts t h r e a t " a s on9 of f o u r m a j o r s e t s of r e s s u r c e s t a n i n d i v i d u a l c a n u s e i n c ? L c m p t i r g +o a c h i e r e d e s r r s d i V i o l e n c e c a n b e used a s z r e s o u r c e uhen o t h e r a l t e r p a r e s o u r c e s , i .e . . econcmic, p r e s t i g e , and t r a i t r e s o o r a r e u l a v a i l a b l e o r have proved i n e f f e c t i v e . RDusver, G e m p h a s i z e s t h a c t h e a c t u a l u s e of v i o l e n c e i s l i k e l y t d e p e n d e n t upon t h e s t a t e o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ~ s r e s o u r c e s . Thus. lf o t h e r a p p r o p r i a t e r e s o u r c e s do e it is l i k e l y t h a t one o r more o f t h e s e w i l l be t r i a d s o l u t i o n t o t h e problem i n s t e a d o f v i o l e n c e . a s s t a t e s :

most p e o p l e do c o t w i l l i n g l y c h o o s e o v e r t v l o l e n c e vhen t h e y command o t h e r means because t h e c o s t s o f u s i n g f o r c e a r e h i g h i n a r y s o c i a l sys tem, b u t e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e family.... C o n s e q u e n t l y , it i s a g e n e r a l r u l e t h a t t h e g r e a t e r t h e o t h e r r e s o u r c e s a n i n d i v i a u a l can command, t h e more f o r c e he c a n mus te r . h u t t h e l e s s he w i l l a c t u a l l y d e p l o y o r u s e f o r c e i n 3n o v e r t manner (1971:628).

Thus, we s e e t h a t v i o l e n c e and a g g r e s s i o n a r e ' s u b s t i t u t f o r o t h e r t y p e s of r e s o u r c e s vhen t h e s e o t h e r r e s o u r c e s a r o t a par' of e x i s t i n g r e s p o n s e c a p a b i l i t i e s .

S U b c ~ l t u r a l o r Family Norms Regard ing V i o l e n c e

Ox t h e o c e hand, it h a s been a r g u e d t h a t o u r s o c i h a s norms and v a l u e s t h a t p o s i t i v e l y s a n c t i o n t h e u s e vlOlePCe i n t h e f a m i l y s e t t i n g . Rnd t h i s l e g i t i m i z a t i o n a g g r e s s i v s b e h a v i o r is l i k e l y t o i n c r e a s e t h e e x t o n t which violence is ~ c t u a l l y used a s a "prob lem-so lo t e c h n i q u e " w i t h i n t h e fami ly .

h.7. S t r e s s a n d Pami ly V i o l e n c e Page 107

Aouever, a s Wolfgang and P e r r a c u t i s u g g e s t i n t h e i r s u b c u l t u r e o f v i o l e n c P t h e c r y (1967), i t i s a l s c l i k r l g

* t h e norms g o v e r n i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f t h e use of o l a n c e w i l l a l s o vary somewhat wirhiq s o c i e t y . Thus, i n

cme segments of s o c i e t y , v i o l e n c e nay be r e g a r d e d a s mars u l t u r a l l y a c c e p t a b l e t h a n it is i n o t h e r p o ~ t i o n s of o c i e t y . A s t h i s 1eg : t i aa t ion o f v i o l e n c e v a n e s , t h e r e d i s p o s i t i o n t o u s e v i o l e n c e a s a r e s p o n s e t o s t r e s s t u a t i o n s s h o u l d v a r y a c c o r d i n g l y . Thus, i n t h o s e u b c u l t u r e s . ' and i n t h o s e p a r t i c u l a r f a m i l y ur:ts, v h e r e i s t i r g norms most e x p l i c i t l y s a n c t i o n v i o l e n c e and g r f s s i o n , we s h o u l d most o f t e n ~ x p p c t ToSpOn95 of a o l e n t n a t u r e .

st E x p e r i e n c e w i t h V i o l e n c e

E m p i r i c a l e v i d e c c e s u g g e s t s t h a t p e r s o c s who behave g g r e s s i v ~ l y w i t h i c t h e i r f a m i l i e s t e n d t o have f a m i l y ackgrounds o f v i c l e n c e (Xeinpe e l 2.. 1962: S t c s l ? and o l l o c k . 1968: G i l . 1971) . T h i s s u g g e s 5 s t h a t . no5 o n l y i s i o l e n c ~ a l e a r n e d b e h a v i o r . b u t i n a d d i t i o n , i s t a u g h t end r z n s n i t t e d by t h e f a m i l y a s p a r t o f t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n recess. Thus. it c a n be a r g u e d t h a t t h e f a m i l y o p e r a t e s a s

" t r a i n i n g ground" f c r v i o l e n c e ( S t e i n m e t z and S t r a u s , 974: Pa?? I V : G e l l s s a r d S t r a u s , 1978) .

Violence. Tens ion . and F r u s t r a t i o n

Thus f a r , d i s c u s s i o n h a s c e n t e r e d on t h e use of i o l e P c e a s an a s s e r t i v e r e s p o n s e t o a s t r e s s 3 r s:imulus. he i m p l i c a t i c n h a s been t h a t violent?, wher used i n t h i s a s h i o r . r e p r e s e n t s a r a t i o n a l a t t e m p t on t h e park o f a e r s o n t o d e a l w i t h a p r o b l e a a t i c s i t u a t i o n i n what t h a t e r s o n b e l i e v e s i s an a p p r o p r i a t e and e f f e c t i v e a a c n e r t o

h i e v e a d e s i r e d end. T h i s c o a c e p t i c n of s t r e s s - i n d u c e d o l e r c e seems c o n p a r a b l e t o what G e l l e s and S t r a u s have r a e d i n s t r u m e n t a l v i o l e r c e - - " t h e u s e of p a i r o r i n j u r y a s

p u n i s h s e n t t o i s d u c e a n o t h e r p e r s o n t o c a r r y o u t some a c t

Ch.7. S t r e s s a n d Family V i o l e n c e

o r r e f r a i n from ar act11 (1 '378) .

Aovever, t h e r e is a n o t h e r p l a c e i n t h e g e n e r a l model where v i o l e n c e is e x p e c t e d t o o c c u r - a s a c o n s e q of t h e s e c o r d - o r e e r p rob lems o f t e n s i o n and f r u s t r a t i s c a n r e s u l t from u n r e s o l v e d stress s i t u a t i o n s . I n f a 15 h e r e t h a t i n t r a f a m i l y v i o l e n c e is l i k e l y t 3 occu of ten- -no t a s a n a s s e r t i v e , p r c b l e m - o r i e c t s d a t + e a c h i e v e m a s t e r y o f a s i t u a t i o n , b u t r a t h o r a " i r r a t i o n a l . ' l a s h i n g - o u t b e h a v i o r spawned by s e e u n r e s o l v a b l e problems. And, j u s t a s t h e concep s t r e s s - i ~ d u c e d v i o l e n c e appear ; t o c o r r e s p 3 n d c l 3 s a G e l l e s and S t r a u s * definition o t " i n s t r u m e n t a l " v i o l e n c d o e s t h e i d e a o f v i o l e n c e a s a r e a c t i m t o f r u s ' r a t i o t e n s i o n seem r o u g h l y c o m p s r a b l e t o " e x p r a s s i v a " V i o l e c d e f i n e d by t h e s e a u t h o r s - - - t h e us- o f p h y s i c a l f a c a u s e p a i n o r i n j u r y a s ar. end i t s e l f " ( G e l l e s and s 1978) . F r u s t r a t i o n and S t r e s s

A S u s e d by S o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s . t h e c o n c f p f r u s t r 3 t i o n seams t o r 9 f e r most o f t e n t 3 i n e m o t i o n a l s accompanied f r e q u e n t l y by a n g e r and a n x i e t y , t h a t may a vhen an i n d i v i d u a l i s p r e v e n t e d from a t t a i n i n g a ass g n a l . We s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s a f f e c t i v e s t a t e o f f r u s t r a c a n , l i k e t e n s i o n , b e viewed a s a ' second-order p r o b S p r i n g i n g from t h e f a i l u r e t o s a t i s f a c t o r i l y r e s o l v e s t r e s s s i t u a t i o n - - i n e f f e c t , ar " e m o t i o r a l c o u n t e r p a r t t h e unexpended e n e r g y t h a t S c o t t a n d Bovard te rm " t e n s i o

Tb* i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f s t r e s s - p r o d u c e d " f r u s t r a t i o n " t h e g e n e r a l stress modal a p p e a r s t o b s c o i s i s t e n t w i t rest o f t h e framework. I m p l i c i t i n t h i s t r s a t m e n f r u s t r a t i o C a r e a l l of t h e n e c e s s a r y e l e m e n t s o f a s s i t u a t i o n d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r : (a) a s t r e s s o r s t i m u l u s , t h e form o f a d e s i r e d g o a l , and p r e s s u r s s . b o t h i n t e r n a l e x t e r n a l . t o a t t a i n t h a t a o a l : lbl o b i e c t i v e s c d . . S u b l e c t i v e demand t o a c h i e v e t h a t Goal: t c l t h e r e s p o n s e . . . c a p a b i l i t i e s o f t h e person from which an a s s e r t i v b , d i v e r g e n t . o r a r t u e r t r e s p o n s e , w i l l be ch3sen: and (a d i s c r e p a n c y between demand and r e s p o n s e , i m p l y i n g t h a t . o l e r e c s o n o r a n o t h e r , t h e d e s i r e d g o a l h a s n c t be a t t a i c e d .

Vlewing f r u s t r a t i o n i n t h i s manner. t h e g e n e r a l s t re model is a b l e t o t r e a t a v i d e r a n g e of s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o and c o n d i t i o n s a s n f r u s t r a t i c g . " F o r e x a a p l e , a mother m beccme u f r U s t r a t E d ' by t h e f a c t t h a t h e r young ch c o n t i n u a l l y c r i e s and misbehaves. e husband and f%t whose r a c i a l and e d u c a t i o c a l background p r e v e n t s hLm f o b t a i n i n g a s t a b l e job t h r o u g h v h i c h he can s u p p o r t f a m i l y may w e l l be " f r u s i r a t e d * . by t h i s s i t u a t i o n . a no may f i n d t h e housewife-mother r o l e " f r u s t r a t = n g q l i n t c r s s

T h s Q e n e r a l s t r e s s model would n o t denv t h e i m p o r t a n t

een a s a r i s i n g from an u n r e s o l v s d s t r e s s s i t u a t i o n . 7s. t h e a e n e r a l stress model s e e s a l l f r u s t r a t i o n a s l y i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e o f Stress, ln. t h ~ t it u l t i m a t e l y s from t h e discrepancy b e t v e e n a d e s i r e d g o a l a n d t h e i t y t o aChieVE t h a t g c a l .

. r a t i o n and t h e Family

A number o f i n v e s ? i g a t o F s have l r c k e e fTuS+r?.ti3E w i t h a f a m i l y v i o l e n c e . F o r example, G i l ' s t h e ? r y of c h i l d = (1971) h o l d s t h a t t h e p o v e r t y e x i s t i n g i n t h e l o v e r

e c o n o n i c l e v e l s cf s o c i e t y c r e a t e s f r u s t r s t i o n s s e d 1c c h i l d abuse. O'Brien e x p l a i n s v i o l e n c e between n d s a n d wives by s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e i n a b i l i t y t o

h i e v e adequa$e economic r e v a r d s might r e s u l t i n "f a n i l y t e r e d v e n t i n g of t h e a g g r e s s i v e n e s s on t h e p a r ? o f t h e

sband which had its a n t e c e d e n c e i n f r u s L . r s t i o n s o u n t e r e d i n t h e l a r g e r s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e s o c i a l and nomic world" (1971:696). s h i t e h u r s t (1974) p r e d i c t s t h a t

t r e n d t o w a r d g r e a t e r e q u a l i t y f o r women may u s 1 1 p o s e a j o r s o u r c e of f r u s t r a t i o n , and hence of v i o l e n c e , f 3 r men

c a n n o t c o p e w i t h t h e i r new s t a t u s .

BUT. v h a t is it a b o u r t h e f a m i l y t h a t h a s promptea t h e s e d o t h e r f r u s t r a t i o n - b a s e d t h e o r i e s of f a m i l y v i o l e n c e ? Is ere a s p e c i a l connec'ion b e t v e e n f r u s t r a k i o n and t h e mi ly? Is t h e f a m i l y a more l i k e l y s e t t i n g t h a n o t h e r c i a 1 g r o u p s f o r t h e g e c e r a t i o n . and a c t i n g sut . of u s t r a t i o n ?

The f a m i l y can be r e g a r d e d a s a u r i q u e s o c i a l e n t i t y i n e r a s of i t s p o t e n t i a l f o r f r u s t r a t i o n . P a r t o f t h e r e a s o n o r t h i s s p e c i a l p o s i t i o z , a s d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r , i s t h a t t h e a m i l y r o u t i n e l y e n c o u n t e r s numerous s t r s s s o r s t i m u l i i n t h e c u r s e o f i t s d a i l y E x i s t e n c e . The s h e e r number o f S t r e s s e s a c e d p r o b a b l y e n s u r e s t h a t et l e a s t some o f t h e s e c a n n o t be eso lved .

I c a d d i t i c n , t h e f a m i l y owing t o i ts p o s i t i n n i n o c i e t y a n d t h e mechanics o f i ts i n t ~ r n a l s t r u c t u r e , i s i k e l y t o bp c o n f r o n t e d w i t h a number of s t r e s s o r s t h a t have

l o v probability o f s u c c e s s f u l r e s o l u t i o n s c a hence s h i g h o t e n t L a l fcr g e n e r a t i n g f rus t ra t :on . Some of t h ? more ommon " i n s o l u b l e n demands f a m i l i e s o f t e n f a c e i n c l u d e t h e

Ch.7. S t r e s s and Fami ly V i o l e n c e

t h e s ~ ~ ~ e s s f u l r e g u l a t i o n o f t h e c o n f l i c t s t h a t s o c c u r among i n t i m a t e s , +nd t h e supervis 'on of t h e a c t of a l l t a a i l y members i r t h e e x t e r n a l world.

Thus, t h e f a m i l y seems t o e n g e n d s r f r u s t r a t i o r b o t h q u a n t i t a t i v e l y and q u a l i ? a t i v e l y , it f a c e s p rob lems i n t r y i n g t o c o u n t e r s t r e s s o r s t i a u l i . G e l l e s and S t r a u s p r o b a b l y d o n o t o v e r s t a t e t h s a y i n g t h a t " t h e f a m i l y , by v i r t u e of i ts s t r u c f u n c t i o n s , can be viewed a s an i n h e r e n t l y f r u i n s t i t u t i o n f o r i t s members* (1978:28).

Response C a p a b i l i t i e s o f F a m i l i e s

However, t h e l a r g e number and v i d e v a r i e t y of d s t r e s s e x p e r i e n c e s a I e o n l y p a r t of t h e r e a s 9 f r u s t r a t i o n i s t y p i c a l o f f a m i l i e s . Enothor s s t o f InCIEaSeS t h e l i k e l i h o o d of frustration w i t h l n -he These t a c t o r s d e r i v e from t h e a b i l i t y o f f a m i l i e s t o thE s t r e s ~ e s t h e y do f a c e .

Although t h e f a m i l y may b e r e l a t i v e l y " s t r e s s - p it d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y f o l l o w t h a t t h e fam wel l -equ ipped t o cope w i t h t h e s e s t r e s s o r s and t h e a t h a t t h e y impose. o n t h e c o n t r a r y , a p p a r e n t l y t h e u rban f a m i l y i s "a l e s s t h a n s u c c e s s f u l g r o u p d e a l i n s t r e s s e s a n d problems" ( G e l l e s a n d S t r a u s . 1978).

There a r e many r e a s o n s f o r t h i s i n a d e q u a c y example, t h e s t a t u s p o s i t i o n s r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h i n t h e g e n e r a t e d i v e r s e , o f t e n c o n f l i c t i n g , i n t e r e s t s , and c o n f l i c t s nay i n t e r f e r e v i t h o p t i m a l decis ion-making. b e c a u s e t h e t y p i c a l moderr f a a l l y is r e l a t i v a l y smal l i m i t e d rumber o f p e o p l e can b e used a s r e s o u r - a t t e m p t i n g t o cope v i t h a d i f f i c u l t s i t u a t i o n . I n add t h e i n t i m a t e and i n t e n s e n a t u r e o f f a m i l y r e l a t i c o f t e n means t h a t d e c i s i o n s a r e made e m o t i o n a l l y r a t h e r r a t i o n a l l y .

These and o t h e r s t r u c t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e 1 t o r e n d e r t h e f a m i l y a r e l a t i v e l y i n e f f i c i e n t s c c i a l w i t h r e g a r d t o b o t h t h e dec i s ion-waking and t h e p e r f , o f t a s k s based upon t h e s e d e c i s i o n s . T h l s i n e f f i c o f t e n makes i t d i f f i c u l t t o mest t h e demands o f s u c h f a m i l y r a s p o n s i b i l i t i a s a s s o c i a l i z a t i o n o f t h e youo f u l f i l l a e n ? of t h e e m o t i o r a l n e e d s o f a l l f a m i l y aembez s a y n o t h i n g of t h e more d r a m a t i c c r i s e s t h a t f r s q u b e f a l l i n a i v i d o a l f a m i l i e s .

t r e s s and Family V i o l s n c e Page 111

posed hy t h e s e s t i m u l i . Bnd, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e stress model, t h e r e s u l t of t h i s u n f o r t u n a t e

f o r t h e g e n e r a t i o n of f r u s t r a t i o n .

a s a R e a c t i o n t o F r u s t r a t i o n and T e n s i o n

n i f w e a g r e e t h a t t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f f r u s t r a t i o n g i n t h e f a m i l y 1 s high , t h e e r u p t i o n of xip&pgce i s a i c e d . R c a u s a l l i n k a g e is n e c e s s a r y t o d e t z r n i n e

how frustration i n t h e fam'ly t r a n s l a t e s i n t o i v e behavior .

OaUSE t h e g e n e r a l s t r e s s model e q u a t f s t h e no?s of t e n s i o n and f r u s t r a t i o n , it i s u s e f u l t o

t o S c o t t and Howard's t r e a t m e n t ~f t e n s i o n 272-273) i n a t t o e p t i c g t o d e t e r s i c e t t a r e l a t i o c s h i p

.n f r u s t r a t i o n and v i o l e n c e . These a u f h o r s a r g u e t h a t . a n i c d i v i d u a l is f a c e d w i t h t h e "second-ords r problem"

- t e m p t i n g t o r e s o l v e t h e t e n s i o n c r e a t e d by a f a i l u r e a t y, t h e o n l y r p a l c o u r s e o f a c t i o n s v a i l a b l e i s t o a t e t h i s accumula ted t e n s i o n t h r o u g h some mechanism of e. Tha; s u c h a l i n e o f r e a s o n i n g is a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e n a l s t a t e o f f r u s t r ~ t i o c is s h o r n by what EEndura

:31-39) h a s r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e " a g g r e s s i v e d r i v e l e s n o f v i o l e n t b e h a v i o r , most n o t a b l e o f which is

d gt alL's " f r u s t r a t i o n - a g g r e s s i o n hypothes i s ' ' 11939).

h e t h e r one p r e f e r s t o a t t r i b u t e t h i s b e h a v i o r t o ses of s o c i a l l e a r n i n g (Bandura a n d F a l t e r s . 1963;

,a, 1973; S t e i c m e t z and S t r a u s , 197U) o r t o i n n a t e g i c a l p o t e r t i a l ( D o l l a z d p i gL.. 1939; a r d r e y , 1966: z. 1 9 6 6 ) . t h e r e c a n be l i t t l e denying t h a t ViolencE is i n l y one of t h e more p o p u l a r means of "b lowicg o f f

i n o u r s o c i e t y . ffcr o n l y is v i o l e n c e a fig_ousg: nism of t e r s i o n r e l e a s e , b u t , a t l e a s t i n emer ica .

r e s s i o n i s d e f i n e d a s a Erg& r e s p o n s e t o f r u s t r i t i o n " i n m e t z a n d S t r a u s . 1974:9). Thus, t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t

f a m i l y h a s an R i n h e r e n t l y f r u s t r a t i n g " c h a n c t s r , r e s s i v e v i o l e n c e s h o u l d b e e x p e c t e d t o o c c u r o f t e n w i t h i n

f a m i l y s e t t i n g .

It s h o u l d be emphasized t h a t a d i s t i n c t , q u a l i t a t i v e r e n c e e x i s t s b i t w s e n v i o l e n c e t h a t ts an asser : ive. u m e n t a l r e p o n s e t o a s t r e s s o r s i t u a t i o n , and v i 3 l e n c e is a n e x p r e s s i v e r e a c t i o E t o f r u s t r a t i o r and t e r s i o n . d i f f e r e n c e h o l d s even though t h e same s t r e s s o r

a t i o n c a n b e t h e s o u r c e of v i o l e n c e i n b s t h o a s e s . and . thouqh t h e s e two t y p e s o f v i o l e n c e can be o u t w a r d l y i s t i n g u i s h a h l e .

The r e a s o n f c r making t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n is t h a t v e r y f e r e c t c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s a p p e a r t o be i n v o l v e d i n t h e s e

t y p e s of v i o l e n t a c t . on t h c one hand, s t r a s s - i n d u c e d ,

Ch.7. S t r e s s and Fami ly V i o l e r c e Page 112

i n s t r u m e n t a l v i o l e n c e is p r o b l e m - o r i e n t e d and goa l -d i rec ted- -an a t t e m p t t o d i r e c t l y meet and r e s o l v e t h e demands posed by a s t r e s s o r s t i m u l u s .

On t h e o t h e r hand, f r u s t r a t i o n - p r o d u c e d , e x p r e s s i v e v i o l e n c e l a c k s t h i s r a ? i o r a l , p rob lem-so lv ing dimension. I t is n o t an a s s e r t i v e r e s p o n s e , a n d it i s n o t r e a l l y d i r s c t e a t o w a r d t h e s o l u t i o n o f a problem. l l t h o u g h t h i s k i n d of v i o l e n t b e h a v i o r i s g o v e r r e d , a t l e a s t t o some e x t e n t , by i n t e r n a l i z e d norms t h a t s p e c i f y s p p r o p r i l t s t y p e s o f c o r d u c t i n g i v e n s i t u a t i o c s ( G e l l e s and S t r a u s , 1978:21)--+nn t h u s is n o t r e a l l y "unconsc icus" o r "beyond t h e c o n t r o l " o f t h e a c t o r - - t h e f a c t r e m a i n s t h a t e x p r e s s i v s v i o l e n c e d o s s n o t r e p r e s e n t t h e r a t i o n a l , c a r e f u l l y c h o s r n r s s p o n s s t o a S t r 4 s s o r S l t u a t i o L t h a t i n s t r u m e n t a l v i o l e n c e doss .

E x p r e s s i v e V l o l e n c e and C c t h a r s x

The g e n e r a l stress model ' s t r e a t m e n t o f . e x p r e s s i v e v i o l e n c e d o e s n o t i m p l y a d h e r e n c e t o v h s t S t e i n m e t z and S t r a n s h a v e t e r m e d t h e " c a t h a r s % s ~ v t h n I lq lU! lu-~K.

~ .~~. S t r a u s . 1974) . P r o p o n e n t s of t ( D o l l a r d ey G.. 1939: B e t t 1968) h a v e a r g u e , ~ ~ ~~~

v i o l e n c e t e n d s t o -. .- . , - - - - - . - f e e l i n g s t o t h e p o i n t where more s e r i o u s a g g r e s s i o n r e s u l t s ; hence. t h e y r e g a r d t h e l i m i t e d E x p r e s s i o n o f a g g r e s s i o n a s d e s i r a b l e and b e n e f i c i a l . Acwersr. t h e a e n e r a l s t r e s s model

~ ~- ~~

d o e s n o t c o n s i d e r f r u s t r a t i o n - p r o d u c e d v i o l e n c e i n s u c h f u n c t i o n a l i s t t e r n s : r a t h e r . it e x p r e s s e s an e m p i r i c a l f a c t r e g a r d i n g i n t r a f a m i l y v i o l e n c e - - t h a t it i s o f t e n a consequence of u n r e s o l v e d stress s i t u a t i o n s , an8 t h a t t h e " i n t e r v e n i n g * p r o c e s s i s f r u s t r a t i o n .

P o s s i b l y , e x p r e s s i v e v i o l e n c e d o a s improve a s t r e s s s i t u a t i o n t e m p o r a r i l y . Even S t r a u s , a s e v e r e c r i t i c o f t h e c a t h a r s i s v i e w p o i r t , c o n c e d e s , ' T h e r e can be l i t t l e d t h a t an o u t b u r s t of a g g r e s s i v e a c t i v i t y i s o f t e n f o l l o v e a s h a r p r e d u c t i o n i n t e n s i o n , a n e m o t i o n a l r e l e a s e , and a f e e l i n g of q u i e s c e n c e . Thus, t h e r e is o f t e n a r =meed3 c a t h a r t i c e f f e c t " (1979a:25). However. even i f v i o l d o e s d i s s i p a t e a c c u m u l a t e d f r u s t r a t i o n and t e n s i o n , t outcomes a r e p r o b a b l y o n l y t e m p o r a r y and s u p e r f i c i a l . P a long- te rm r i e v p o i r t , i t i s d o u b t f u l t t r u s t r a t i o n - c a u s e d v i o l e n c e w i l l have a c y mfaningf p o s l t i v e a f f e c t on a problem: E x p r e s s i v e v i o l e n z e r a r e 1 d i r e c t e d a t t h e geriuine c a u s e s of a problem. T h e r e f o r e . is u n l i k e l y t o change t h e c o c d i t i o n s t h a t c a u s e d t h e t e n s a n d r r u s t r a t l o n i n t h e f irst p l a c e . I n f a c t , because o f p o t e n t i a l f o r r e i n f o r c i n g f u t u r e v i o l e n t b e h s v i o r (Feshb 1970; Bandura. 1973:31-39: S t e i n m e t 2 and S t r 1974:14-1.5)- e x p r e s s i v e v i o l e n c e n o t o n l y f a i l s t o impro p r e s e n t t r o a b l e s o m e f a m i l y s i t u a t i o n , b u t a l s o can c u n i n t e n d e d and u n d e s i r a b l e long- te rm consequences.

ch.7. S t r e s s and Fami ly V i o l e r c a Page 113

v w e r l o a d " v e r s u s "Underload" S t r e s s S i t u a t i o n s

E S O U T C ~ o f Some d i f f i c u l t y i r t h e scheme proposed h e r e whether any q u a l i t a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t between

e r l o a d " and "underlOzd*- s t r e s s s i t u a t i o n s i c t h e i r t r n t i a l f o r g e n e r a t i n g e x p r e s s i v e violent;. Rs d i s c u s s e d

a r l l s r . t h e g e n e r a l stress model d e f l n e s s t r e s s a s sgp ~ g n i f i c a n t d i s c r e p a n c y between demand and respor .se a p a b i l i t i e s , whe ther demand e x c e e d s r e s p o n s e c a p e b i l i t i ~ s r v i c e v e r s a . The c o n n e c t i o r s between s t r e s s , f r u s t r a t i c n , r d v i o l e n c e may be f a i r l y c l e a r i n t h e c a s e of "over load" t r e s s s i t u a t i o n s : what a b o u t t h e c o r n e c t i o c s between x p r e s s i v e v i o l e n c e and "under load" s t r e s s s i f u a t i o n s marked y e x c e s s i v e r o o t i n e , l a c k o f c h a l l e n g e . and e g e n e r a l bsence o f s t i m u l a t i o n ?

g s g a r d i n g t h e c o m p a r a t i v e effects af '*ovnrlnsd* r s r s u s n d s r l c a d " s t r e s s s i t u a t i o n s a s c a u s e s c f v i o l e n c e and g r e s s i o n , t h e p r e s e c t i n c l i n a t i o n o f t h e g e n e r a l stress d e l is t o assume t h a t t h e y a r e . i n e f f e c t . t h e same. T h i s

c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e "Clockwork Orange" t h e o r y of f a m i l y l e n c e ( G E l l e s a n d S t r a u s . 1978:30-32). v h i c h s u g g e s t s t a g g r e s s i v e b e h a v i o r o f t e n o c c u r s i n s i t u a t i o n s where e g l o v e f i t s t o o smooth ly and f a m i l y members t r y to . ' s t ir n g s upv j u s r t o maks t h i n g s i n t e r e s t i n g . " On t h e s t r e n g t h

t h i s + h e c r y , t h e n , one would e x p s c t p s r s n n r t o s t t a c k t h e r s VhEn t h e i r l i v e s a r e marked by boredom and l a c k of

c i t c m e n t . j u s t as t h ~ y do when f a c e d by u n s o l v a b l e oblems. Aovever, t h e r e a r e t h o s e who would p r o b a b l y

u e s t i c n t h i s a s s u m p t i o n (Palmer, 1970; 1972: G e l l e s and t r a u s , 1978:31), s u g g e s 5 i c g t h a t t h i s a s p e c t o f t h e e l a t i o n s h i p between s t r e s s a c d v i o l e n c e n e e d s much n v e s t i g a l i a n b e f o r e t h i s q u e s t i o n c a n be r e s o l v e d .

Ch.7. S t r e s s and Family B i o l e c c e

I f Sound, t h e g e c e r a l s t r e s s mods1 would seam t o a s t r o n g p o s i t i o n t o c o n t r i b u t e s o b s t e n t i a l l y tow i n t e g r a t e d t h e o r y o f f a m i l y v i o l a t c e . I t a l l o w s f o i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f e l e m e n t s f r o n s e v e r a l imp s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h e s t o f a m i l y v i o l e n c a example. f r u s t r a t i o n - a q g r e s s i o n t h e o r y and s o c i a l l e t h e o r y . Et t h e same time, t h e g e n e r a l s t r e s s model i n t o a c c o u n t t h e v a r i o u s s t r u c t u r a l f a c t o r s t h a t de?s which f a m i l i e s w i l l be most l i k e l y t o E x p e r i e n c e s what r 3 ~ o u r c e s t h e y w i l l have a t t h e 3 d i s p o s a l i o ae s t r e s s , and, most i m p o r t a n t o f a l l , t h e l i k e l i h o o s t r e s s H i l l r e s u l t i n v i o l e n c e ( F z r r i n q t o n , 1975:37-45

NOTE

* P o r t i o n s of s e c t i o n s o f t h i s p a p e r a p p e i r i n nTow G e n e r a l Theory o f S t r e s s a n d Fami ly v i o l r n c s . * by F a r r i n g t o n , a p a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e 1975 a n n u a l r e e t i t h e R a t i o n a l C o u n c i l on Family R s l a t i o o s .

Chapter 8

The Paradoxical Nature of Family Relationships and Family Conflict

Joyce E. Foss

Not a l l v i o l e n c e b e t v e e n f a m i l y members i s t h e r e s u l t o f a c o n f l i c t . Ind c o t a l l c o n f l i c t s end i n v i o l e n c e . whether o r n o t t h e i n e v i t a b l e c o n f l l c t s o f f a m i l y l i f e e v e n t u a t e i n v i c l e n c e d e p e n d s p a r t l y on v h e t h e r t h e r e a r e a l t e r n a t i v e methods f o r r e s o l v i n g t h e c o r f l i c t . Bowever, i n C h a p t e r 7 P a r r i n g t o n proposed t h a t f a m i l i e s may be s t r u c t u r e d i n a vay t h a t a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t s t h e i r c a p a b i l i t i e s f o r r e s o l v i n g c o n f l l c t s . I n t h i s c h a p t e r . P o s s examines t h i s c o n t e n t i o n i n more d e t a i l and a l s o c o n c l u d e s t h a t i n i n t i m a t e g r o u p s l i k e t h e f a m i l y , s t r u c t u r a l c o n s t r a i n t s work a g a i n s t e f f e c t i v e c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n .

rmong +he f a c t o r s working a g a i x s t f a m i l i e s ' u s i n g c o n f l i c t ~ e s c l u t i o n t e c h n i q u e s t h a t have a low p r o b a b i l i t y o f p r o d u c i n g v i o l e n c e a r e t h e h i g h e m o t i o n a l i n v e s t m e n t b e t v e e r f a m i l y members. t h e i r t o t a l p e r s o n a l i t y involvement . and t h e knowledgs t h a t members c a n n o t s i m p l y p i c k up and l e a v e when a c o n f l i c t deve lops . S imple a v o i d a n c e is a w i d e l y used t e c h n i q u e t o p r e v e n t an e s c a l a t i o n i n t o v i o l e n t encour. ters . b u t it is a v e r y d i f f i c u l t s t r a t e g p i n g r o u p s t h a t a r e s t r u c t u r e d t o g e n e r a t s h i g h l e v a l s o f i n t e r a c t i o ~ , ecoromic i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e . and s m o t i o n a l commitment. B e s i d e s . a s P o s s n o t e s . t h e a v o i d a n c e o f c o n f l i c t i n i n + i m a t e g r o u p s u i l l l e a d o n l y t o more c o n f l i c t .

Ch.8. P a r a d o x i c a l Fami ly R e l a t i o n s h i p s Page

i n t e r p e r s o n a l v i o l e n c e a n d a g g r e s s i o n . The i s s u e c f t h l r e l a t i o n s h i p between f a m i l y s t r u c t u r a and c o n f l i c t anr v i o l e n c e 1s i m p o r t a n t f o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s . F i r s ? , n e i t h e l f a m i l y s o c i o l o g i s t s n o r c o n f l i c t t h e o r i s t s g D n e r a l l y ha.,! t a k e n f u l l a d v a n t a g e o r t h e f a m i l y a r e n a a s one i n which c o n f l i c t a p p r o a c h might be u s e f u l l y a p p l i e d ( P a r r i n g t o n an( POss. 1977: S k o l n i c k , 1973: Spre?, 1969). Second. more s p e c i f i c a l l y , c o n f l i c t t h e o r y h a s b e a r i a e n t i f i s a a s r p o t e n t i a l l y f r u i t f u l a p p r o e c h t o t h e s t u d y of v i o l e c c e ir f a m i l i e s ( G e l l e s and S t r a u s , 1974; S t e i r m e t z s n d S t rams , 1974:5-6). F u r t h e r , s e v e r a l o t h e r frameworks i 3 s n t i f i e a a a v a l u a b l e i n t h e a r e a , s u c h a s r e s o u r c e , s t r u c t u r a , exchange, and f r u s t r a t i c n - a g g r e s s i o n t h e o r i s s ( G e l l p s an[ S t r a u s , 1374) . a l s o i n c l u d e c o n f l 2 c t a s a c + n t r a l coccep t . Yet, thoogh c o n f l i c t o f t t n is p r e s e l t e d a s c e l t r a l t c , o r a p r e c o n d i t i o n for, v i o l e n c e . a s p e c i f i c t h e o r y of hor c o n f l i c t p r o c e s s e s and v i o l e n c e a r e r e l a t e d h a s n o t been a d e q u a t e l y d e l i n e a t e d .

Lewis C o s e r ' s work o r c o c f l i c : p r o v i d e s a found f o r t h i s a n a l y s i s : h i s e x t e n s i v e a t t e n t i o n t o i n t i g r o u p s makes h i s work r e a d i l y a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e fsm T h i s c h a p t e r p r e s m t s a number o f p r o p o s i t i o n s c o n c e f a m i l y C o n f l i c t and v i o l e n c s and summarizes t h e f o r m u l In d i a g r a m m a t i c form. A m a j o r emphas i s i n t h e c h a p t c a r e f n l s p e c i f i c a t i o n of key c o n c e p t s i n t h e a r e a .

TKX F91ILY PS A STRUCTURAL PERADOX

COSerls a n a l y s i s o f c o n f l i c t i n i n t i m a t e g r o u p s h i on a r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e p a r a d o x i c a l n a t u r e of t S t r u c t u r e . I n t i m a t e g r o u p s a r e p a r a d o x i c a l i n t h a t t h s S t r n c t u r a l e l e m e n t s t h a t make h o s t i l i t y l i k e l y a l s o c r e a h i g h probability t h a t h o s t i l i t y w i l l be s u p p r e s s e d . The key c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f i n t i m a t e g r o u p s a r a t h e f r e g u e n c y of i n t e r a c t i o n and t h e t o t a l p e r s o n a i n v o l v e m e n t among g r o u p membsrs. The f o l l o w i n g p r o p o s i t i i l l u s t r a t e t h e p a r a d o x i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e s e s t r u c t f e a t u r e s w i t h h o s t i l i t y and t h e s u p p r e s s i o n o f h o s t i l i t y

TWO f o c a l variables 1 r t h l s p a r t of t h e analysis a r e c o n f l l c t of I n t e r e s t a s d h o s t l l l t y . wblch a r e d e f l r e d a s r o l l o ~ s :

C o n f l i c t s f l p t e r e s t : hr. n o b j s c t r v € a s z t u a t l s r . I n which t w o o r more p a r t l e s ho ld contradictory s a l o e s and c l a l m s o v e r s c a r c e s t a t u s . power, and r e s o u r c e s .

8. P a r a d o x i c a l P a a i l y R e l a t i o n s h i p s Pags 117

T h i s d e f i n i t i o n of c o n f l i c t o f i n t e r e s t c o n c u r s v i t h e r ' s u s e o f p h r a s e s l i k e " c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n " o r c a s i o n s f o r c o n f l i c t ' t o r e f e r t o a s i t u a t i o n i n which

i n t e r e s t s of t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e o b j e c t i v e l y a t odds. r s h a r p l y d i s t i n g u i s h e s between s u c h a s i t u a t i o n and l l c t i t s e l f , which r e f e r s t o a p a r t i c u l a r k ind of 5 g f 6 ~ ~ e h a v i o r a l s t r a t e g y . T h i s d i s t i x c t i o n w i l l be f u ? t h e r o r e d when c o c f l i c t i t s E l f is d i s c u s s e d . R o s ' i l i t y a l s o

no? a b e h a v i o r o r a c t i o n , b u t i s a ~ c Q j ~ ~ f i v 3 f e e l i n g o f o s i t i o c , t h a t may o r may s o ? o c c u r when p e o p l = h a v s f l i c t i n g i n t e r e s t s .

i l y S t r u c t u r e and H o s x l l i t p

I n t i m a t e g r o u p s a r e by d e f i n i t i o n c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a l , r a t h e r t h a r segmented. p e r s o n a l i t y involvament 2nd bp i g h f r e q u s n c y of i n t e r a c t i o n (Coser , 1956:611). Fo l lowing

work o f Simmel and Freud, C o s e r a r g u e s t h a t h a b i t u s l o r t e n s e i n t e r a c t i o r " f u r n i s h e s f r e q u e n t o c c a s i o n s f o r n f l i c t ' (1956:62)--or f r e q u e n t c o n f l i c t s o f i n t e r e s t , i n rms of t h e p r e s e n t argument . I n r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h 3 h i g h equnncy o f i n t e r a c t i o n , c o n f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t w i l l b e

e d and numerous. I n c t h e r words. f r e q u e c t i n t e r a c t i o n u c e s b o t h a h igh number o r E S Z ~ B ~ P of c o n f l i c t i n g rests and a h i g h f r e q u e n c y w i t h which t h o s e c o n f l i c t s of

. r e s t w i l l a r i s e .

The r e l a t i o n s h i p be?ween degren 9f p e r s o n a l i t y Olvement and c o n f l i c t o f i n t e r e s t is s i m i l a r . "The more

r e l a t i o n s h i p i s basnd on t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n of t h e t o t a l o c a l i t y - - a s d i s t i n c t from s e g m e n t a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n " e r . 1956:62), o r t h e more b a s e s on which p e r s o n s a r e r a c t i n g v i t h Ens a r o t h s r , t h e g r e a t e r t h e v a r : D k Y and nency of t h e c o n f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t t h a t a r i s e . Two o s i t i o n s can t h e n be s t a t e d :

P , o ~ ~ b r & o p 1. The more f r e q u e n t :he i n t e r a c t i o n , t h e more f r e g u e n t and v a r i e d a r e C o n f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t .

P r o ~ o g z % g 2. The more t o t a l t h e p e r s o n a l i t y -- involvement i n a r e l a t i o n s h i p . t h e more f r e q u e n t and v a r i e a a r e c o n f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t .

c o s e r f u r t h e r a s s e r t s (1956:62):

P r o g % i r ; i m 3. C o n f l i c t s o f i n t e r e s t t e n d t o --- prcduca h o s t i l i t y .

T h i s proposition s t a t e s t h a t when p e o p l e a r e f a c e 3 w i t h o n f l i c t s o f i n t e r e s t , s n b j e c t i v e f e e l i n g s o f ill w i l l o r

p o s i t i o n a r e l i k e l y t o a r i s e . Bowever, t h i s r u l e i s n o t t h o u t r x c e p t i c n . For example, s u b j e c t i v e h o s t i l i t y map

n o t o c c u r when 'he p a r t i c i p a n t s d e f i n e a s l e g i t i m a t e a n --- A o b j e c t i v e l y n unequa l d i s t r i b u t i o n of r e s o u r c e s . Yet even though c o n f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t do n o t a l w a y s l a e d t o h o s t i l i t y , z t is a p p r o p r i a t e t o s t a t a p r z p o s i t i o n 3 a s a g e n e r a l tendency.

P r o e o s l t l o n 4. P r e q o s n t l n t e r a c t r o r t a d s t o -- - c r e a t e h o s t x l l t y .

P r o p o s - ? l o % 5. T o t a l p r r s o n a l l t y involvement t e z d s t c c r e a t - h o s t l l l t y .

To t u r t h e r s n m n a r i z e t h e a rgument t h u s f a r . if lrtrmate g r o u p s a r e t h o s e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by f r e q u e n t l n t e r a c t r o n and t o t a l personality Involvement . t h e n :

a=~s&&?; 5. I n t z m a t e r e l a t l o n s h l p s t e n d t> c r e a t e h o s t l l l t y .

P a m l l r S t r u c t u r e a n d Suppression o f A o s t z l i t y

I n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s t e n d n o t o n l y t o h o s t i l i t y , b u t a l s o t o c a u s e a h i g h a f f e c t i v e o r e x p r e i n v e s t m e n t i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t i n t u r n gene e f f o r t s t o s u p p r e s s h o s t i l i t y (Coser , 1956:EO-6 a f f e c t i v e i n v e s t m e n t seems t o i n v o l v s t v 3 e lements : p o s i t i v e l i k i n g o r a t t r a c t i o n t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p . a n a r e p l a c e a b i l i t y of t h e members o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p * l . Th t w o c o n c e p t s a r e r o u g h l y e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e c o n c e p t s Conpar i son L e v e l and Comparison L e v e l o f R l t e r n a t i v s s T h i b a u t and K e l l e y ' s exchange t h e o r y (1959).

I n a c c o r d a n c e v l + h Aomans' h y p c t h s s i s t h a t i o c r ~ a s e d i r t e r a c t i o n 1s r e l a t e d t o '*mutual s e n t l m e n t s o f l l k l n g , " C o s e r s u g g e s t s (1956:62) :

~ ~ = p o s l t l o n 1. The more f r e q u e n t t h e i n t e r a c t l o n . t h e g r e a t e r t h e p o s l t l v e a f f e c t among g r o u p members.

The s p e c i f i c e f f e c t s o f p e r s o c a l i t y involvement a r e e n t i r e l y c l e a r i n C a s e r ' s d i s c u s s i o n , b u t it s . . r e a s o n a b l s t o p o s i t t h a t t o t a l p e r s o n a l i t y i n v o l v e m e n i a 0 n o t have a n i m p o r t a n t d i r e c t e f f e c t on p o s i t i v e a f f e c t , b i n f l u e n c e s t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e r e p l a c e a b i l i t y of g r members. E r e l a t i o n s h i p c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t o t a l p e r s o n a i n v o l v e m e n t is l a r g e l y b u i l t on t h e u n i q u e c m t r i b u t i o n s e a c h p e r s o n a l i t y . B s Simmel p o i n t s o u t , t h i s is e s p e c i a t r u e i n d y a d i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s l i k e m a r r i a g e (1950:122-1 when t h i s o c c u r s . t h e r e p l a c e m e n t o f one g r o u p member a t t h e v e r y l e a s t s e r i o u s l y a l t e r t h e q u a l i t y of g r e l a t i o n s h i p s . Thus:

8. P a r a d o x i c a l Family F e l a t i o n s h i p s ?age 119

P r o . The more t o t a l t h e p e r s o n a l i t y -- i n v o l v e l e r t i r a r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h e l o w e r t h e r e p l a c e i b i l i t y o f g r o u p members.

P s s u g g e s t e d above, p o s i t i v e a f f e c t and low l a c e a b i l i t y of g r o u p meabsrs c l n be f u r t h e r r e l a t e a i n a n e c t i n g p r o p o s i t i o n .

r u m e n t a l DEpe2dency a r d S u p p r e s s i o n of E a s t i l i t y

The p r e c e d i n g d i s c u s s i o r t r e a t s o n l y t h e h igh af lgEf iEp s t m e n t i n i n t i m a t e g r o u p s a c d i t s s u b s e q u e n t e f f e c t on r e s s i o n of h o s t i l i t y . There a r e a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t r u e e c t a l i c v e s t m e c t s i n r e l a t i o n s h i p s . C o s 3 r v s D s p h a s i s n t i R a t E g ~ o u p s t h a t a r e based on v o l u n t a r y a s s o c i a t i o n

havs i n f l u f n c e d h i s l a c k o f a t t e n t i o n t3 t h e r u m e n t a l a s p e c t s o f i r t i m a t e r e l a t i o r s h i p s . T h i s i s n o t a r t h a t v o l u r t a r y r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e n e v e r based a: l e a s t i a l l y on i r s t r u m a n t a l concezcs . R a t h e r , we s u g g e s t t h a t relationships a r e r o c v o l u n t a r y t h e i r i n s t r u n e n t a l b a s e s

me more i m p o r t a r t and n o r e a p p z r e n t . T h i s seems ? a b e c + s e w i t h t h e f a m i l y .

rs s p r e y p o i n t s o u t , " p a r t i c i p a t i o n i r t h e f s m i l y i s a t r o l y v o l u n t a r y m a t t e r " (1969:702). I n t h e f i r s t

e. c h i l d r e n have no c h o i c e i n p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n f a m i l y t i o n s h i p s . Secard , f o r a d u l t s , m a r r i a g s is e s s e r t i a l l y o l u n t a r y i n t h a t t h e r e is "no r e a l a l t e r n a t i r e . . . 3 t h e i e d s t a t e as a l i f - c a r e e r " (Sprey, 1969:702). S p r e y €5 t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s have l i t t l e o r no cho:ce a s t o h e r t o e n t e r f a m i l y r e l e t i o n s h i p s i n g e n e r a l . Yet, + h e m m e r t a l d e p e n d e n c i e s i r f a m i l y r e l a t i o r s h i p s e r e - r e c o g n i z e d ( s s e S c a c z o n i . 1970; 1972:62-66): h s v i n g

2 e n t e r s d a p a r t i c u l a r f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p . I? i s a t b e s t

Proeg&r&ip 9 . The g r e a t e r t h e p o s i t i v s a f f e c t --- a r d t h e l o w e r :he r e p l a c - a b i l i t y of g roup members, t h e g r e a t e r t h e c f f ~ c t i v e o r e x p r e s s i v e inv=?:mert 1n t h e group.

c o s e r f u r t h e r s u g g e s r s (1956, 1962, 1968):

P r o E o s l f i o n 10. The g r e a t e r t h e a f f e c t i v s --- i n v e s t m e n t i n a r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h e g r e a t e r t h e f e a r of d i s s o l u t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p .

p=oEosi;t_Zor 11. The g r e a t e r t h e f e a r if d i s s o l u t i o n or a r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h e g r e a t m r t h e t e c d e n c y t o s u p p r e s s h o s t i l i t y .

Rnd f i n a l l y , t o summarize. we can s t a t e :

P r o p o s i t i o ~ 12. I r t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s t e n d t3 produce s u p p r e s s i o x o f h o s t i l i t y .

d i f f i c u l t t o 1 9 a v e it. Thus, f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r r e l a t i v e l y n o n v a l u c t a r y o r c o s x i v e a t t h i s l e v s l . d i f f i c u l t y i n l e a v i n g f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s s a y b4 due t o t h e a f f e c t i v e i n s e s t m e r t i n i n t i m a t e g r o u p s d i s c u s s C o s e r , b u t it i 5 a l s o due '0 t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l i n v e r f n e a e p e n d e n c i e s of f a a i l y members.

Tha t t h e h i g h i n a L r u m e n t a 1 i n v e s t m s c t t n f a s u p p r e s s e s h o s t i l i t y may a c C u a l l y he c o r t r a d i c t o r y . z f f s c t i r e i n v e s t m e n t , h i g h i n s t r u m e n t a l l n v e s m e n t i r e l a t i o n s h i p may i n c r e a s e f e a r of t h e r e l a t i o n s h d i s s o l v i n g , and i r t o m p r o d a c e a t t e m p t s t o s u p p h o s t i l i t y . Thus. wa s t e t e a p t r a l l e l t o P r o p c s i t i v n 10:

Propsa:loy 13. Th? h l g h e r Lhe ms:rumental l r v e s t n s n * IP a r e l a t l o n s h z p , t h e h l g h e r +he p e a r if d l s s o l u t l o n o f t b s r e l a t l o n s h i p .

S ~ C S P r o p o s ~ t l o n 1 1 f u r L h e r a s s a r t s t h a * f e a r I

d l s s o l u t l o n p r o d u c e s suppression of h o s t l l l t y , we can t h , s!lggest t h a t t h s g r e a t e r + h e l n s t r u m e n t a l l n v e s t m e n t i n r e l a t l o n s h l p , t h e g r e a t e r t h e s n p p r a s s l o n o f b o s t i l z t y .

on t h e o t h e r hand, a f a m i l y member may be aware of t t i r s t r u o e n t a l d e p e r a m c e of t h e o_t_hsy on t h e r e l a t i o n s h Z p a, t h u s may r e c o g n i z e t h e law p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h e o t h e r ' l e a v i n g . The p e r s o n may t h e n have l e s s f a a r o f t l r e l a t i o n s h i p ' s t e r m i n a t i n g ( p e r h a p s r i g h t l y s ~ ) acd mc t h e r e f o r e b e &== l i k e l y t o s u p p r e s s h o s t i l i t y . Thr6 f a c t o r s m i t i g a t e a g a i n s t t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y . F i r s t i n s t r u m e n t a l i n v e s t m e n t may i n c r e a s e t h e f e a r o f d i s s o l u t r r i n d i r e c t l y , by i n c r e a s i r g a f f e c t i v e investmen'. T h i s j S u g g e s t e d i!! S c a n z o n i ' s exchange modol o f mar r ia : (1970:16-25). Second, f a m i l y members may n o t r e z o g n i z e t t i n s t r u m e n t a l b h s e s o t t h E i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s . f hi n o n r e c o g n i t i o n may e v e r b e t h e norm f o r a a r i t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n which c u l t u r a l Emphasis on r o m a n t i c l s v a e t h e b a s l s f o r t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p may o b s c u r e t h e i c s t r u m e n t z a s p e c t s . T h i r d , evan when t h e p e r s o n d o e s r e c o g n i z e t E i p s t r u m e n t a l b a s e s of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p , a p e r t n z r voul p r o b a b l y r e c o g n i z e h i s o r h e r own d e p e n d e n c i e s b e f o r ? thoe o f t h e o t h e r , i f o a l y because one is more s e n s i t i v e t o a s i a m i l l a r w i t h o n e ' s own pred icament . Cons ider t h e p o s i t i c of a young woman u i r h s e v e r a l yourg c h i l d r e n and feu s k i l l r e l e v a n t t o employment o u t s i d e t h e home. Eer or i n s t r u m e n t a l d e p e n d e n c i e s on t h e m a r i t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s e e s o o b v i o ~ s and e x t r e m e t h a t s h e may n o t r e a l i z e t h 3 c he h u s b a n d ' s dependency nay be e q u a l t o h e r s . PErce i rFn h e r s e l f a s h a v i c g t h e most t o l o s e s h o u l d t h ? m a r r i a g e b r e a up, s h e w i l l f e a r i t s d i s s o l u t i o n and t h s r s f o r e a t t e m p t t s u p p r e s s h o s t l l i t y . r Z

Page 1 2 1

Thus, t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t b o t h ( o r ~ 1 1 ) msmbers o f g r o u p have an i n s t r u m e n t a l i n v e s t m e n t , e a c h h a s someth ing t 1 0 5 ~ i f t h e g r o u p d i s s o l v e s and s o each may b e f e a r f u l c e x p r e s s i n g h o s t i l i t y . F o r t h e above rPasons P r o p o s i t i o n 13 , t h a t ins:rumental i c r a s t m e n t i n c r s a s P s f e z o f d z s s o l u t i o n , s t a n d s - - a t l e a s t f o r t h e PreSsPt . 01 f u r t h e r commecf i s i n o r d e r . P r o p o s i t i o n s 10 an8 13 sugger t h a t b o t h a t f s c t i v e a r d i n s t r u e p n t a l i n r r s t m e n t s i n r e l a t i o n s h i p l e a d g r o u p members t o f e e r t t e d i s s o l u t i o n c t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p . Yet , o b j e c t i v e l y s p e a k i n g , it i s p o s s i b l t c a r g u e t h a t t h o s e v e r y l r s o s t m e c t s t h a t l e a d g r r u p s l s b e r t o f e a r d i s s o l u t i o n of t h e grGup a r e z l d r s d t t s strpn_gEQs c t h a t r e l a t i o n s h i p - - 8 c u r i o u s c o n t r a d i c t i o r i n t h e l i f e c i n t i m a t e g roups .

F i g u r e 1 summar izss i c d i e g r a m m a t i c form t h e mai o u t l i n e s of t h e model p r e s e n t e d t h u s f a r . I n t i m a t e g roups characterizes by f r e q u e n t i n t e r a c t i o n and t o t a l p e r s o n a l i t i n v o l v e s e n t , a r e p a r a d o x i c a l i n s t r u c t u r e , i r t h a t t h e promote b o t h s u b j e c t i v e h c s t i l i t y and a t t e m p t s t o s u p p r e s h o s t i l i t y . The i n s t r u m e n t a l i n v e s t m e o t s which C h a r a c t E r i z f a m l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s a l s o c o n t r i D u t e t o t h e s u p p r e s s i o c o h o s t i l i t y .

The p r o c e s s e s 1% i r t i m a t e g r c u p s c o n s i d e r e d t h u s f a p l a c e t h e a c t o x i n a s t a t e of a ~ b i v a l e n c e . On t h € one hzna he o r s h e is t a c e d v l t h a namber o f c o n f l i c t s of i n t s r e s and f e e l s r e s u l t i n g h o s t i l i t y toward a n o t h e r . Dn t h e o t h e hand, ha f e a r s t h c r e l a t i o n s h i p ' s d i s s o l u t i o n and a t t e m p t t o s u p p r e s s h o s t i l i t y . The i r . t imata g r o u p r e p r e s - n t s p a r a d o x l c s l s t r u c t u r e l i k e l y t o p roduce s u b j e c t i v ambiva lence o r t e n s i o n .

a + t h i s p o i n t it is a p p r o p r i a t e t o s h i f t 3 u r f o c u s f r o .. - c a u s a l c h a i n s t o t h e o p t i o n s o r c h o i c e s a v a i l a b l e s c d th c o n d i t i o n s ~ n f l u e n c i n g t h e s e c h o l c e s . The t h r e e b s h i v i o r a o p t i o n s examined a r e a v o i d a n c e and s x p r e s s i v s an i n s t r u m e n t a l c o n f l i c t . Coser d o e s n o t a s c l e a r l y p r s s e n t h i s s t a g e i n t h e c o c f l i c t p r o c e s s a s z d a c i s i o n poln: a whzch a number of o p t i o n s ere open t o g r o u p membsrs R a t h e r , h i s a n a l y s i s l n p l i e s an alnas: i c e v i t a b l ' progressLoK toward e x p r e s s i v e c o n f l i c t i n i n t i m a t e g r o u p s , Pur'her, C c s e r d o e s r o t e x p l i c i t l y i n c l u d e a v o i d a c c e a s i p o s ~ ~ b l e c h o i c e . a l t h o u g h he a c e s s u g g s s t some p o s s i h l l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a v o i d a n c e s t r a t e g i e s .

8. P a r a d o x i c a l Family F s l a t i c n s h i p s p3gc 123

ms of c o n f l i c t

EefOrE e x a m i n i r g t h e c o n d l t i o n s i n f l u e n c i n g t h e c h o i c e s t r a t e g y , w e need t o c c n s i d e r t h s meaning of som= key

~ e p t s . C o n f l i c t s of i n f e r s s : u s r e d s f i c e d e a r l i e r i s a n e c t i v e s i t u a ? i o n i r which t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s h o l d t r a d i c t o r y v a l u e s a n d c l a i m s , a i d uc n o t - 3 t h i i C o s e r * f u l l y d iS t iCgUlShJS between such an C h j F c t i v f s i t u a t i o n

b e h a v i o r a l s t r a f s g i e s l i k ~ c0r.f l i c t . ThLs d i s t i n c t i o n m a i n t a i n e d here .

C o n f l i c t : A c t i v e o p p o s i t r o n betweao p a r t i ? s -- - h o l d i n g c o n t r a d i c t o r y v a l u e s and c l l i a s o v e r s c a r c e s t a t u s , power, and r e s o u r c e s .

T h i s d e f i n i t i o n u n d e r s c o r e s t h e very r e a l p o s s i b i l i t y t p e r s o n s w i t h o b j e c t i v e l y a r t a g o n i s 3 c i n t e r e s t s l o r o t e s s a r i l y engage i n a c t e g o c i s t i c b e h a v i o r . It must hO

r e s s e d t h a t t h e term c o n f l i c t r e f e r s t o t h e a c t u a l h a p i p r o r g r o u p .embers. No m a t t e r how E e r i o n s t h s n f l i c t s o f i c t e r e s t amorg g r o u p members a p p e a r t o be. n f l i c t i t s e l f h a s n o t o c c u r r e d u n l e s s t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s t u a l l y engage i n some t o r n of a n t a g o n i s t i c bshav ior .

T h i s d e f i n i t i o n o t c o n f l i c t i s e q u i v a l e n t t o t h s t of s e r . a s a " s t r u g g l ~ o v e r v a l u e s and c l a i m s t o s c a r c e

.us, power. a n d ~ E S C U ~ C F S " (1956:8). H3wever. w e 5 i n g u i s h between two forms o f c o n f l i c t .

I n s t r u m e n t 2 1 c o n f l i c t : T a s k - o r i a n t e d c s n f l i c t .

he d i s t i n c t i o n between ~ x p r e s s i v e and ins?rumen+al o n f l i c t i s b a s e d cn C o s e r ' s m o d i f i c a t i o n d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e f h i s a n a l y s i s ct key c o n c e p t s and d e f i n i t i o n s . n o s t n p o r t a n t is h i s d i s c u s s i o n of " r ~ a l i l t i ~ ' and c o n - r e a l l s i i c " c o n f l i c t :

C o n f l i c t s which a r i s e from f r u s t r e t i o n of s p e c i f i c demands w i t h i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p and from e s t i m a t e s of g a i r s o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s , acd which a I E d i r e c t F d a t t h e presumed f r u s t r a t i r g o b j e c t , c a n be c a l l e d ze_aMs:ig confgcts i n s c f a r a s t h e y a r e means toward a s p e c i f i c r e s u l t . 4 p - r e a l i s t i c g ~ ~ f l Z : = - - . a re a 3 t o c c a s i o n e d by t h e r i v a l e n d s of t h e a h t a g o r i s t s , but by ?he need f o r t e r s i o n r e l e a s e of a t one o t them (1956:49).

C35er g o e s OE t o s t a t e that " h e n c e f o r t h , ' c o n f l i c t ' w i l l a p p l y t o r e a l i s t i c c o n f l i c t only"

Least

t h s term (1956:60).

&qzfs&c&: A s p s c r f l c s t r a - e g y w i t h t h e i n t s r t o r g o a l o f l n j u r l n g t h e o t h e r .

"Afc~: S p e c l f x a l l y p h y s r c a l a g g r e s s l o n .

C o n s i s t e n t wl?h + h e t h e o r i e s a t S t e i n n e t z an< S t r a r (1974:U) and C o s e r (1956:SO-51). a g g r e s s r o n c a n be s u n s t r a t e g y of e i t h e r i n s t r o m e n t a l c r e x p r e s s r v S c c n f l i c t I n o L h e r ~ o r d s , aggression i + s e l f can be c h a r a c t - r i z e d a l ~ s t r u m e n t a l o r e x p r e s s l r e .

D l s t r r g u l s h l n g I r s t r u m e n t a l a n d E x p r e s s r v e C s n f l i c t

I n s t r u m e n t a l and e x p r e s s i v e c o n f l i c t a;? p o r s t y , p e t h a t , i n r e a l i t y , o f l e n a r e mixed i c t h e same a c t (Coser 1956:53-54). S t i l l , c r i f e r i a by which we s h o u l d d i s t i c g u i s t h e s e two f o r m s of c o n f l i c t need examining. C o s e r i s co a l t o g e t h e r c o n s i s r e n t ox t h i s m a t t e r . On t h e s n e hand, h a r g u e s C h a t e x p r s s s i v e and i n s t r u m e n t a l c o n f l i c t c s n h d l s t i r g u i s h e d i r , terms cf t h - i r consegusPces: "wherea [ i n s t r u a e n t z l ] c o n f l i c t n e c e s s a r i l y c h a n g e s t h e p r s v ' tsms of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s , h o s t i l i t y [ n x p r e s 5 i v e c o n f l i c t ] h a s no s u c h n e c z s s e f f e c t s and may l e a v e t h e t e r m s o f t h e ; E l a t i o n unchangedn (1956:QO).

The f l a w i n t h i s a n a l y s i s i s t h a t i n s t r u n P n t a l c o r f i s e s s e n t i a l l y *f igs a s t h a c k i n d of b e h a v i o r a l e x p z e s a t h o s t i l i t y t h a t r e s u l t s i c c h a n g e o r is i n s t r u m e n t

8. P e r a a o x i c a l Pami ly B e l a t i o r s h i p s Page 125

c c e s s f u l . One d i f f i c u l t y is t h a t w h e t h e r a s t r a t e g y was eed i n s t r u m 4 n t a l O r e x p r e s s i v e c o ~ f l l ~ : must b e i r i c a l l y a s s e s s e d 2 2 ~ 2 facts a s t c w h e t t s r i l was c e s s f u l ( f o r a d i s c u s s i o n c f p r o h l e a s w i t h PZ ~ 2 % ; f a g o ~ Y S B S 1 2 a r e l a t e d c c n n e c t i o n , s e e S k i n n e r , 1953:31-35: erwood, 1957: 195-233). Second, t h e a n e l y s i s i m p l i e s t h a t

e v e r a n i n s t r u a e n t a l s t r a t e g y i s u s s d , a 5 u c c E s ~ f u l one is i n e v i t a b l e . T h i s c o n t r a d i c t s C a s e r ' s own p i t i o n t h a t even w b e r e c i c s t r u n s n t a l ccnfl:cL sta'egy s e a , t h e s p e c i f i c m?zns a d o p t p a 3 r a n o t n r c i s s a r i l y u a t e f o r r e a c h i n g t h e i n t e n d e d g o a l (1956:54). T h i r d ,

a p p r o a c h i m p l i e s t h a t f-xgresgr_ve c o n f l i c : is h q ~ ~ e s s f u l i n f o s t e r i c g t h e a t t a i n n a n t o f i r s t r u m e n t a l 5. P i n a l l y , confounding t h e p o t e n t i a l consequences o f a v i o r a l s t r a t e g y v i t h t h e v e r y d e f i n f t i o n of t h e s t r a t e g y l u d e s e m p i r i c a l l y e x a m i c i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s between ous s t r a t e g i e s and outcomes.

A second p o s s i b i l i t y f o r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g between s t r u m e n t a l and e x p r e s s i v e c o n f l i c t is t o examine t h e a l i t y of t h e a c t s performed. The major d i f f i c u l t y v i t h s p o s s i b i l i t y h a s a l r e a d y been s u g g s s t e a : t h a t

r t i c u l a r s t r a t e g i ~ s c a n o f t e n be used i n b o t h i c s t r u m ? n t a l e x p r e s s i v e C o n f l i c t . F o r example, a g g r e s s i o n is p r c b a b l y t o f t e n i n d i c a t i v e of p u r e l y e x p r e s s i v e b e h a v i o r , bu t can

a r a t i a n a l c h c i c e of b e h a v i o r i n p u r s u i t of s o n 2 t r u m e n t a l g o a l . T t u s , t h e a g g r e s s i v e q u a l i t y o f s o a c t

o a t sufficient e v l d e n o e t h a t t h e a c t n e c e s s a r i l y f a l l s o one o r t h e o t h e r t y p e s o f c o n f l i c t .

The t h i r d a p p r o a c h , "sad h e r e , i s t o d i f f e r e s t i a t e t r u m e n t a l and E x p r e s s i v e c o n f l i c t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i c t e n t g o a l s of t k e p a r t i c i p a n t s . T h i s approach is c o c s i s t e n r

t h t h e p o r t i o n s of CosEr 's a n a l y s i s t h a t do n o t b a s e t h e s t i n c t i o n CL s u c c e s s o r outcome. a s i n : n . . . c o n f l i c l is ewed by t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s a s a means toward t h e a c h i e v e m e n t

r e a 1 1 s t i c e n d s , a means which n i g h t be ahsodonad i f o t h e r a n s a p p e a r t o be more e f f e c t i v e f o r r a a c h i n g t h e s s e a end" 956:54). I n c o n t r a s t , e x p r e s s i v e c o n f l i c t h a s a s i t s g o a l he mere e x p r e ~ s i o r ot d i f f u s e h o s t i l i t i e s " (1956:51). Th? me e p p r o a c h i s a l s o used h e r e i n d e f i n i n g a g g r e s s i o n i n rms of one p a r t y ' s g o a l o f i n f l i c t i n g some i n j u r y on t h e her. T h i s g o a l can i r +urn b e a means toward a c h i e v i n g a r e g e n e r a l i n s t r u m e o t a l o r e x p r e s s i v e goa l .

The u s e of g o a l s is i t s e l f a r a t h e r s h a k y b a s i s f o r e s e i m p o r t a r t d i s t i n c + i o n s . S t i l l . it i s c o n s i s t e r t w i t h e of C o s e r ' s a p p r o a c h e s and a v o i d s t h e p rob lems of h i s h e r , outcome-based. approach. P i n a l l y , u s i n g , g o s l s i n f i n i n g a g g r e s s i o n i s i n t e r n a l l y c o n s i s t e n : v l t h o u r p roach t o i n s t r u m e n t a l a r d e x p r e s s i v e c o n f l i c t , s c d i s m p a t i b l e v i t h c u r r e n t l i t e r a t o r e on f a m i l y v io lence .*3

d i s c u s s i o n , and it s e s a s 1eg i : i aa te t o i n c l u d e t h i t h e o r e t i c a l l i n k i n t h e c o n f l i c t p r o c e s s . Thu s t a t e :

prQgEsltQr x. I f t h e t e n d e n c y tow+ b o s t i l i t ~ d o e s n o t ou tweigh t h e t e n d s n toward s u p p r e s s i o n o f h o s t i l i t y , a v o i d a r c e i t h e most l i k e l y outcome.

P v o l d a r c e s a y be d e f l n e d as :

avo idance : Any t a c t i c o r i e n t e d t o v a r - -- nonongagenent o r d i s=ngagament , i n C l u K p h y s i c a l , e m o t i o n a l , and i n t s l l E c t u nonecgagement o r wi thdrawal ( a d a p t e d f r o R c t a l i n g i n C h a p t e r 9 ) .

Coser s u g g e s t s t h a t i n i n t i m a t e g r n u p s 2 s t r a t 2 a v o i d a n c e il c o r : f l i c t s o f i n t e r e s t i s d E s t i c e d i (1956:62). I n r h s f i r s t p l a c s , i f no a t t s m p t is ma 6911 w i t h c o n t r a d i c t o r y i n t e r e s t s , t h e o r i g i n a l c o w i l l r emain u z r e s c l v e d . E t t h e same t i m e , new c e c f l i c i n t e r e s t w l l l a r i s e o u t o f t h e s t r u c t u r e c r e l a t i o n s h i p . Thus.

P r o ~ o s l i b o ~ 5. When an avoidance s t r a t s g y is used. Conflicts of I n t e r n s t W l l l aCCUmU1aAF.

P o r t h e r , s l n c F P r o p o s i t i o n 3 s u g g e s t e d t h a t c o n f l i c t ct i n t e r e s t c r e a t e h o s t i l i t y , us can s t s t e t h a t t 1 a c c u m u l a t i o n o f c o n f l i c t s o f i n t s r e s t i n d i c a t e 8 ! P r o p o s i t i o n 15 w i l l c a u s e f u r t h e r h a s t i l i t y . Combining t i t w o p r o p o s i t i o n s , vs can s t a t e i n summary:

P,!os1t~o3 ". When a r a v c l d a n c s s t r a t e g y 1s used, h o s t = l r + y I n c r e a s e s .

P s this s t r a t e g y of avoxdcnce continues, snd h o s t l l i t r n c r a a s e s , subjective h o s t r l l t y w r l l e v e n t u a l l y be t o o g r e a + o be s u p p r e s s e d , and a mor9 a c t l v e c o n f l l c t s t r a t e g y n i l

~ p 3 ~ : ~ & ~ ~ 12- T t e g r s a t e r + h z h0st;:;ty. L.hs more l l k e l y i s b o s t ~ l l t y t o outweigh suppression of h o s t l l i t y .

End, t h e c o r o l l a r y of P r o p o s i t i o n 14, which s t a t e d t h a t if h o s t i l i t y d o e s n o t ou tweigh s u p p r e s s i o r o f k o s t i l % t y *hen a v o i d a n c e is t h e outcome, f o l l o w s :

P r o p o s i t i o r 38. I f h o c t i l i t y o u t w e i g h s t b s s u p p r e s s l o r . of h o s t i l i t y , c o n f l i c t - - e i t h s r expressive o r i n s t r u m s n t a l - - i s t h e most l i k e l y outcome.

The l o g i c of C o s e r ' s a n a l y s i s s u g g s s ~ s t h a t any k ind o f a v o i d a n c e i n an i n t i m a t e = e l a t i o n s h i p w i l l e v e n t u a l l y f a i l i n t h i s manner. eovevsr . i n c o n t r a s t t o C a s e r , some k i r d s of a v o i d a n c e nay a c t u a l l y p r o v i d e a f a i r l y s t a b l a r e s o l u t i o n of c o n f l x c t s of i n t e r e s r , under c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c F s . Avoidance car. s l n p l y mean a v o i d i n g r e c o g n i t i o n o r d i s c u s s i o n of t h e s p e c i f i c c o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r e s t s t h a t h a s € c r e a t e d h o s t i l i t y . 0: a v o i d a n c e can i n v o l v e m 3 1 f g e n e r a l s t r s t e g i a s of r e d u c i n g t h e a a o n n t o f L n t e r a c t i o n o r p e r s o n a l i t y involvement i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p .

R e s o l v i c g C o n f l i c t s o f I r + e r e s t Through Avoidance

Reducing t h e amount o f p e r r 0 r ; a l i t y i c v o l v e m e n t a n d / o r i c t e r a c t i o n i n a r e l a t i o n s h i p may r e s o l v z a s p e c i f i c c o z f l i c t of i x t e r e s t ; p e r h a p s more i m p o r t a n t , i f we accep* P r O p O s i t i o n ~ 1 a n d 2 t h a t f r e q u e n t i n t e r 3 c t i o n and t o t a l p e r s o n a l i t y i n v o l v e m e n t sngender c o n f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t , t h e n r e d u c i n g t h e l e v e l t h e s e two e l e m e n t s s h o u l d lower The p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t new c o n f l i c t s of i n t e r a s t w i l l deve lap .

Even though t h e f a m i l y t e r d s t o be 3 c s s r c i v e institution i n t h a t it is r e l a t i v ? l y d i f f i c u l t t o " l e s v e t h e f i e l d , " r e g u l a r f a m i l y p a t t e r n s d o p r o v i d e f o r a c a r t a i n amount o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l wi thdrawal . For example, one s p o u s e may become imaersed i n work o r i n c h i l d c a r e , t h e r e b y 1 e s s e C i n g i n t e r a c t i o n a%d involvEment w i t h :he o t h e r . Such a c c o a n o d a t i o r s i n v o l v i n g p e r s o n a l w i t h d r a w a l a r e r e p r e s e n t e d i n Cuber a n d H a r e f f ' s (1965) t y p o l o g y of mar r iages . I c t h s "devitalized marr iage" c o u p l e s g r a d u a l l y d r i f t away f rom t h ~ i r i n l f i a l c l c s e n e s s , and ir t h e " p s s s i 7 e - c o n g e n i a l m a r r i e a e ' t h e c o u o l s v iews t h e i r m a r r i a s e a s 3 " c s c v e r i e r t - -~ .~ ~ -.- and c o m f o r t a b l e way t o l i v s w h i l e d i r e c t L n g ens's t r u e i n t e r e s t s and c r e a t i v e e n e r g i e s e l s e w h e r e " ( S k o l n i c k , 1973:239). I n g s n e r a l , m a r r i a g e s t h a t h a r s an o p e n l y r e c o g n i z e d i n s t r u m s n t a l r a t h e r t h a n e x p r e s s i v E emphas i s show l e s s i n t e n s e p a t t e r n s of involvement .

Ch.8. P a r a d o x i c a l Fami ly R e l a t i o r s h i p s

Whether s u c h m a r r i a g e s a l w a y s r e s u l t f rom an a S t r a t e g y i n c o n f l i c t s o f i n t = r e s t is noc :he p o i n t . B we s i m p l y wish t o n o t e t h a t f a m i l y p a t r e r n s comaonl t h a t a l l o w f o r r e d u c i n g t h e i n t e n s i t y o f i c t e r a t h e r e f o r e l o w e r i n g c o n f l i c t s of i r t e r e r t a n d ho S t i l l , C - r t a i n c o n d i t i o r s need t o 5 1 n e t i f in a s t r a t e g y i s t o a c t u a l l y r e d u c e , o r a t l s a s t n o t e x a c o n f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t a r d h o s t i l i t y . F i r s t :

of i r t e r e s t . "4

T h i s p r o p o s i t i o n i s r e l e v a n t b o t h t o t h e s t r a t e g i e s o f w i t h d r a w a l j u s t d i s c u s s e d and t o S p e c i f i c a v o i d a n c e o f particular i s s u e s t h a t d i n v o l v e g e n e r a l i n + s r p e r s o n a l wi thdrawal . When con l e g i t l m a t a , t h i s s p e c i f i c k ind of a v o i d a n c e may t a form of " a g r e e i n g t o d i s a g r e € . v As Sprey p c i n t " f a m i l i e s may l i v e t o g e t h e r i n m o t u a l r s s p e c t i n t h e g r e a t d l f f E r e n C e s i n b e l i e f s o r v a l u e s ' (1969:704) .

P r o p o s i t i o r 20. I£ an a v o i d a n c e s t r a t e g y is -- c o n s i d e r e d 1eg:timate and if it a c t u a l l y r e d u c e s involvement i n a r e a s where c o n f l i c t s o f i n t e r e s t t e n d t o d e v e l o p , t h e n t h e number o f c o n f l i c t s o f i n t e r e s t w i l l d e c r e a s e .

The b a s i c a rgument i s t h a t a l t h o u g h f a m i l i e s i n ge may be i n t i m a t e E r v i r o n a e r t s , some f a o i l i e s a r e i n t i n a t e t h a n o t h e r s . moreover , i n s o n s p a t t e r n s o f f l i f e l e g i t i m a c y is c o r f e r r e a on l e s s i n t i m a t e o r i n i n v o l v e m e n t , s u c h 25 t h e American m a r r i a g e s i d s n t i f i e Cuber and E a r o f i , and many of t h e E n g l i s h v o r k i a m i d d l e - c l a s s c o u p l e s B o t t s t m a i e d (1957) . *5 TJ t h e e t h a t a n i n t l m z t e r e l a t i o n s h i p becomes l a g i t i m a t e l g i C t i m a t e , t h e n t h e p r e s s u r e s toward h o s t i l i t y i n h e r e n i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o E s h i p s a r e l e s s e n e d .

8. P a r a d o x i c a l Fami ly R e l a t i o n s h i p s P'iqe 129

BOYeVer. ve r e e a p h a s i z e d t h i t , a s ? z o p = s i r l 3 n s 14 15 s u g g e s t , an a v o i d a n c e s t r a t e g y i n int ima'? f a a i l y

a t i o n s h i p s i n g e n e r a l v i l l n o t r e s o l v e e x i s t i n g c o r f l i c t s i C t e r e S t , and c o n f l i c t s of i n t c z r s ? and h o s t i l i t y w i l l mulate. I n a d d i t i o n , a v o i d a n c e s? ra teg ; ss , Even u n d e r

d i t i o n e o f l e g i t i m a c y and s p e c i f y c i t y , may have o n l y mited u s e f u l n e s s i n r e s o l v i n g c o n f l i c t s cf i n t e r = + a-a y e x a c e r b a t e p rob lems o v e r t h e l o n g ruz. In t h * f i r s ?

ce, a v o i d a n c e uspd r e p e a t e d l y and i n d i s c r i m i n e t e l y may d t o t h e " c o r r o s i o n " of r e l a l i o n s h i p s d e s c r i b e d by Blood

wol fe (1960:87-88). Second. avo idancE used f r e q u e n t l y become t h e c h a r a c t e r i s + i c s t y l e f o r a s a l i c g w i t h ggy

f l i c t of i n t e r e s t . Thus, when i n p a r t a n t i s s u a s con? o p which one o r more p a r t i e s c o n s i d e r a r o i d a n c s an

e g i t i e a t e s t r a L e g y , c o r t i n u e d a v o i d a n c e w i l l l e a d t o t h o e r a 1 + c c u m u l a t i o n of h o s t i l i t y d e s c r i b e d above. P e r h a p s . m p o r t m t , t h e l a c k of p r e v i o u s p r a c t i c e i n working o u t r i s s u e s w i l l make a t t e m p t s t o d s a l d i r e c t l y w i t h t h e

-.ect o n e s more d i f f i c u l t .

ACTIVE ANTAGOAISE: EXPBESSIVF ANTAGONISE IND COBPLIC?

TO t h e e x t e n ? t h a t p e r s o r a l i t y i n v o l v e m e n t i n a a t i o n s h i p is t o t a l , e x p r e s s i v e a n t a g o n i s m i s l i k e l y t o ur, p a r t l y b e c a u s e g r e a t e r knowledge of t h e o t h e r makes r g p e r s o n a l a t t a c k p o s s i b l e . Bs E o t a l i n g p o i a t s d o u t .

..intimates know how t o s u p p o r t t h e i d e r t i t i e s o f e a c h t h e r b e c a n s e e a c h knovs a b o u t t h e t h i n g s t h e t m a t t e r c r a r e m p o r t a r t t o t h e o t h e r . While t h i s e x t s n s i v e k l o v l e d ~ ? c a n E used t o S u p p o r t and enhance i d e n t i t i e s . st t h e 59Be t i m 8 t can be used t o damage t h e i d e n t i t y . ..." ( s e e Chapte r 9 ) .

11~0, where t i e s a r e " d i f f u s e and a f f e c ? . i v e m IC3ser .

u s e a common example, one c a n n o t e a s i l y d i s t i n g u i s h between an a c t i o n b e i n g "a mear t h i n g t o do" and t h e a c t o r b e i r g "a mean person,. v h e r t h e r e i s t o t a l p e r s o n a l i t y i c v o l ~ e m e n t . In a n o t h e r s e n s e , + h e e x p r e s s i v e and i c s t r u e e n t a l a s p ~ c t s o f

Ch.8. P a r a d o x i c a l Fami ly F l l a t i o ? s h i p s

t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p a r s s o i r t o r t v i r e d t h a t t h e y a r e t o S E p a r a t e . Thus. f o r example, r a i s i n g t h e . r e a s s i q o i n g i n s ? r U a e n t a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s may be i n t by r h e O t h e r a s an a c c u s a t i o n of l a z i n ~ s s - 9 a s e d c o n s i d e r a t i o n s :

p r o e o s i t i o f 21. 'be g r e a t e r t h e p e r s o r a l s i n v o l v e m e n t , t h e more l t k e l y i s c c ~ f l i c t t a k l t h e form of e x p r e s s i v e c o n f l i c t .

SECODB, if much h o s t i l i t y h a s accumula ted . conf n o r e l l X e l y t o be e x p r e s s i v e . P r o p o s i t i o n 1 6 d i s c u s s i o n of a v o i d a n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t h o s t i l i t y 1 a c c u m u l a t e i n i s t i m a t e g roups . I n c r e a s e d h o s t i l i ' g r e a t p e r s o n a l i t y Lnvalvement , may make it d i f f i c examine i s s u e s oh t h e i r m e r i t s . Thus,

ProEc&r&on 22. The g r e a t e r t h e a c c u s u l a t i o n --- h o s t i l i t y . t h e m o r e . l i k e l y is c m f l i c t f t a k e t h e e x p r e s s i v e form.

E f f e c t s or E x p r e s s ~ v e a?d I o s t r u s m t a l C o n f l l c t

C e r t a i n e f f e c t s o f a n a v o i d a n c e outcome h3ve a been c o n s i d e r e d . To sum.marize, u n l e s s an a v o i d a n c e s i s used i n a c t u a l a r e a s o f c o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r e s t s v i e x e d a s l e g i t i m a t e . i t v i l l f a i l t o r e s o l v e t h e C o n f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t : t h i s f a i l u r e o f r s s o l u t i o n . con w i t h t h e a d d i t i o r o f t h e a v o i d a n c e i t s e l f a s an i s w i t h t h e i h e v i t a b l e o c c u r r e n c e of rew i s s u e s , v i l l ca aCcumUlatiOr: 0 5 c o n f l i c t s o f i n t e r e s t acd an i n c r h o s t i l i t y . The i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r s u c c s s s of e x p r e s s i i s s i b u m e n t a l c o n f l i c t need s i m i l a r c o n s i d e r a t i o n .

c o n f l i c t . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , a s & s e r a r g u e s , t h e u e x p r D S s i r e COnfl icL 1 P S s e c s 'he l i k e l i h o o d t h s t t h e or' C o n f l i c t s o f i n t e r e s t w i l l h e r e s o l v e d . F i r s t , s u g g e s t s t h a t e x p r a s s i v s c o o f l i c t t e r d s t o i n c r e a s e i n ' e n s i t y o f t h e e n c o u n t e r . a l t h o u g h Coser d o e s F X p l i C i t l y d f f i n s " i n t e n s i t p . " it seems r o u g h l y e q u i v a l e t o a g g r e s s i o n and/or v t o l e s c e ( l956:69) . BggresrFcn he been d e f i n e d h e r a a s 'a s p e c i f i c s t r a t e g y w i t h t h e i n t e n t o g o a l o f i n j u r i c g t h e o t h e r , " a n d v i o l e o c e i s a s a b t y p s a g g r e s s i o r . I n l i n e w i t h c o s e r ' s d i s c u s s i o n of e x p r e s s C o n f l i c t a n d i n t e n s i t y , i t i s s u g g e s i e d t h a t :

PEPEOS~L-IOL 23. Expressive C o n f l l c t t e n d s ts l n c r e a s P a g g r e s s ~ o n . * 6

a r a d o x i c a l P a m l l y R e l a t i o n s h i p s P a g e 1 3 1

e r f u r t h e r s ~ g g s s t s ?I!+: vhCn a g g r e s s i o n is s s e d , e l l h o o d d e c r e a s e s t b a t c o c f l i c t s o f i c t e r e s t w i l l h e

f u l l y r e s o l v e d . Ths " z g g r e s s 5 V e o v e r t o n a s " 3? a n e r i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e p a r t i c i p a o t s ' a b i l i t y to

e r t h e o r i g i n a l c l + i a s o f c o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r e s t

P r o E s i t i o r : 2. A g g r s s s l o n t e n d s t o r s d u c ? t h s -- - l i k e l i h o o d o f S U C C E ~ S ~ U ~ r e s o l u t i o n o f c ~ r ~ f l i c t s o f i n t s r e s t .

y c o m b i n i n g P r c p o s i t i o c s 23 a n d 24, i t c3n b e f u r t h e r t h a t expressive c o n f l i c t t e n d s t o r e d u c e t h e

ood t h a t c o n f l i c t s w i l l b e r e s o l v e 6 s u c c e s s f u l l y . c o n v e r s e s h c u l d a l s o be n o t e d , t h a t i n s t r u m e n t a l

~ c t t e n d s t o i n c r e a s e t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f successful l i c t l e s o l u t i o n .

L e q i t i m a c n =qa s&&sz Besau+apg. P r o p o s i t i o n 1 9 -- rts C h a t i f a s t r a t e g y i s c o n s i d e r e d i l l e g i t i m a i s . t h e

a t e g y w l l l becoms e n e v i s s u e , t h e r e b y i o c r e a s i n g f l l c t s of i s t e r e s t and h o s t i l i t y . T h i s p r o p c s i t i s r was a n c e d i n r e f e r e c c s t o a v o i d a n c e , b u t it s e a m s = q u a l l y l i c a b l e '0 i C S t r ~ m e n t a 1 a n d e x p r 2 s s i v e c o n f l i c t a t e g i e s . E x p ~ e ~ s i v e c o n f l i c t s e a m s more l i k e l y t o b e

i d e r e d i l l e g i t i m a t e t h a n i n s t r u m e c t e l c o c f l i c t , and t h u s l i k e l y t o i n c r e a s e c o n f l i c t s o f i n t e r e s t . Bowever. a s

u s p o l n t s OUT (1974a:442) , t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s Ray view a s t l m a t e e x p r e s s i v e c o ~ f l i c t t h a t m i l l t a t s s a g a i n s t e a s i n g C o n f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t , o r may s e e i n s t r u m e n t a l

f l l c t a s i l l f g 5 t i m a + E , i n which c a s e i n s t r o m e n t a l . f l i c t wonla i n c r e a s e c c n f l i c t s o f i n t s r e s t .

Yet e v e n i f e x p r e s s i v e c o n f l i c t i s c o n s i d s r e d i t i m a t e and d o e r n o t a d d t o f u t u r e c o s f l i c F ; o f i c t z r e s t , may s t i l l be r e l a t i v e l y i n e f f e c t i v e i n r e s o l v i r g P r e s e n t

c o n f l i c t s o t i n ? e r e s ? . 8 5 P r o p o s i t i o n s 2 3 Bad 29 s u g g e s t . e x p T e s s i v e c o z f l i c x i n t r o d u c e s e l e m e n t s i n t o a n e n c o u n t s r t h a t i n t e r f e r e v i t h r a c i n g t h e i n i t i a l c o n f l i c t s o f i n t e r e s t . P u t a n o t h e r way, e x p r e s s i v e c o n f l i c t i n t e r f e r e s w l t h t t e p o s s i b i l i t y a t t a s k - o r i e n t e d c o n f l i c t O c c u r r i n g .

Under mos t c i r c u m s t a n c e s , i n s t r u m e n t a l c o n f l i c t is m a s t l i k e l y t o r e s o l v e c o n t l i c t s o f i n t e r e s t , r h r l e e x p r e s s i v e cOnf11ct a n d a v o i d a n c e a r e g e n e r a l l y l e s s ~ f f o c t i v e . E O V ~ V E T . any o f t h e t h r e e s t r a t e g i e s c o u l d b e e f f s c t i v e u n d e r c e r t a l n c o n d i t i o n s . The f i c a l p r o p 3 s i C i u n a s s e r t s t h a t r e g a r d l e s s c f t h e s t r a t e g y u s s d , i f c o n f l i c t i s r e s o l v e d s u c c e s s f u l l y , t h e n t h s s t r a t e g y employed w i X l h e r e i n f o r c e d .

gpr3s&pTcg 25. S u c c e s s f u l r s s o l u t i o n o f i n i t i a l c o n f l i c t s o f i n t e r e s t r e i n f o r c e s t h s s t r a t e g y used .

Ch.8. Paradoxical Family Relationships

ch.8. P a r a d o x i c a l Family R e l a t i o n s h i p s ?age 133

P i g n r e 2 s u n m a r i z e s i n d iagrammat ic form t h e o v e r a l l model.*7 I n * - i n a t e g roups , l i k e t h e f a m i l y . c h a r s c t a r i z e d by f r e q u e n t i n t e r a c t i o n and t o t a l p e r s o n a l i t y i n v o l v e m e c t a r e p a r a d o x i c a l i n s t r u c t u r e i n t h a t t h e y p r o n o t e bozh h o s t i l i t y and t h e s n p p r € s s i o n of h o s t i l i t y . If t h e t e n d e n c y t o w a r d h o s t i l i t y d o e s PO? c u + w ~ i g h t h 2 tender.cy t o s u p p r e s s h o s t i l i t y . t h a n t h e most p r o b r t l e outcome i s a v o i d a c c r . I n g e n e r a l , a v o i d a n c e i s c o t a n e f f e c ' i v e means of c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n and is l i k e l y te i n c r e a s e h o s t i l i t y . I f h o s t i l i t y c ~ t n e i g h s t h e t e n d e e c y t o s u p p r e s s h o s t i l i t y , t h e o u t c o n e w i l l b e one o f t w o f o r m s of c o n f l i c t . Of t h e s e , e x p r e s s i v e c o n f l i c t i s more l i k e l y t h a n i n s t r u m s n t a l c o n f l i c t . However, e x p r e s s i v e c o n f l i c t i s more l i k ? l y t o p roduce a 9 9 r e s s i o n and a s a r e s u l t is l e s s l i k e l y t o i 2 8 3 1 v e l n i t i a l c o n f l i c t s o f i n t e r e s t t h a r i s i n s < r u n e n t s l m n f l r c t . F i n a l l y , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e s t r s t e g y used, if t h e s t r a ' s g p i s c o n s i d e r e d i l l e g i t i m a t e . i r w i l l i n c r e a s p c o n f l i c t s o f i l t e r e s t , and i f ?he s t r a t e g y is ~ u c c e ~ s f u l , it w i l l be r e i n f o r c e d .

COACLOSIOBS

I n + h i s c h a p t e r we havE examined how c ? r t a i n c h a r a c t o r i s t i c s of i n t i m a t e g r o u p s a f f e c t ~ t r a t ~ g i e s f c r d e a l i n g w i t h c o n f l i c t s o f i n t e r e s t . It sfems wor thwhi le i n c l o s l r g t o b r i e f l y d i s c u s s o t h s r e l e m e r t s and approac'ms i m p o r t a n t t o such p r o c e s s e s , a s w e l l a s same i m p l i c a t i n n s o f t h e model o f f e r e d here. P d d i t i o n a l f e a t u r e s o f i c t i m a t e g r o u p s s h o u l d be i n c l u d e d : f o r example, t h e e f f e c t o f a t h i r d p a r t y o r m e d i a t o r on c o n f l i c t p r o c 3 s s e s . a n i m p 3 r t a r t elemex? i n C o s e r e s a n e l y s i s (1956:59-60) and i n r ~ c P r 5 work on f a m i l y v i o l e n c e (Ao+al ing i n C h a p t e r 9; w h i t e h n r s t , 1974). F u r t h e r . exchange p r o c e s s e s , power r e l a t i o n s . and ~ T C C E S S ? S u s r t l r q ! c : 2:d 2931.5: ~ L P B > ~ U * : X of r"12?i3r50:~5 a l l sro : r ca : r rc?b lp l l n k i d r a * h ? s:r=. '%gics cczs:der%d here ~ 2 a ccr:r:bu:e + o a t u l l e : u ~ 3 ? r s ? 3 r 3 : ~ . 7 of c o n f l i c t a n d v i o l e n c e i n t h e f a m i l y .

R e l e v a n t t o t h e p r e s c n t d i s c u s s i o n is t h e o f t e r c i t e d b a s i c t e c e t and c o n t r i b u t i o n of c o n f l i c t t h e o r y : t h a t c o n f l i c t is a n i n t e g r a l . i n e v i t a b l e p a r t o f a l l s o c i a l l i f e . Examina t ion o f t h i s e s s e r t i o n r e q u i r e s r s t u r n i n g ts t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between c o n f l i c t s of i n t e r D s t and c o n f l i c t . 1% seems q o i e e r e a s o c a b l e t o a s s e r t t h a t c_2~f&igtz af ir_+pzgst., ir t h e s e n s e of o c c a s i o r 2 s g e r e r a t i r g c o n t r a d i c t o r y c l a i m s . a r e i r e v i t a b l e - Yet cpzf&zc_i, e s p e c i a l l y t ask-c r i sn ' . ed o r i n s t r u m e n t a l c o n f l i c l , is c e r t a i n l y n o t i n e v i t a b l r . I n f a c t , t h e t h r u s t cf t h i s c h a p t e r i s t h a t i n i n t i n a t e g r o u p s l i k e t h e f a m i l y , c o n f l i c t i n t h i s s p e c i f i c s e n s s i s v e r y d i f f i c n l t t o c a r r y o u t and is t h u s h i g h l y l i k e l y t o b s a b s e n t .

Ch.8. P a r a d o x i c a l Fami ly E e l a t i o n s h i p s Pag

P l n a l l y , we t r u s t t h e a t t e n t i o n t o t e r m i n o l s g y h e l p e d keep c o n f l z c t a r d v i o l e r c e c o n c e p 5 u n l l y d i s P o p u l e r c o n c e p t i o n s o f t e n sesm t o e q n a t a

c a n f l z c t and v l o l e ~ c c , cz ?c v:ew c c n f l l c t a s prcducLnq

v i o l e r c e . In c o n t r a s t t o s o c h a view, ws a r g u e t h i s t h e a b s e n c e of s p e c i f i c a l l y i n s t r o m e r t a l c o n f l i f a m i l i e s t h a t l e a d s t o a h i g h l e v e l o f i n t e r p c r v i o l e n c e a n d a g g r e s s i o n .

NOTES

*I would l i k e t o e s p s c i a l l y t h a n k Dennis Poss GSra ld B o t a l i n g f o r t h e i r cornmeit on e a r l i e r d r a f t s of c h a p t e r .

1. P e r s o n a l i t y i c o o l v e n e n t and a f f e c t i v e i n v e s t m e n t b ~ r e l a t e d ( s e e P r o p o s i t i o n s 8 and 9 ) . b u t 5h.y c o x e p t o a l l y d i s t i n c t . The i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e o f p e r s o n a i n v o l v e m e n t i s i t s t o t e l i t y . A f f e c t i v e i n v e s t m e n t iaoo b o t h t h e s t r e n g t h of a t : rac t ion or l i k i n g and r e p l a c e a b i l i t y of menbers.

2. T h i s is n o t an e n t i r e l y s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s c l u t i o t h e c o c t r a d i c t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e i t i g n o r e s un exchange. Yet t o r e s c l o e t h i s q u e s t i o n f u l l y vould r e q a r i n t r i c a t e s e r i e s of p r o p o s i t i o n s a b o u t cxch p r o ~ ~ s s e s , which would t a k e u s f a r a f i e l d and would bs beyond t h e s c o p e a r d f o c u s of t h i s c h a p t e r .

3. R o t a l i n g d e f i n e s a g g r e s s i o n a s "a p h y s i c a l p s y c h c l o g i c a l a c t o r a c t s , o c c u r r i n g i n a n i n t e r p e r s i t u a t i o n , which a r e judged t o be i n t e n t i o harm-producirg" ( C h a p t e r 9 ) . S i n c e he f o c u s 5 s a t t r j b u t i o ~ cf a g g r e s s i v e i n t F r t i n f a m i l i e s , t h e emp ---- I n d s t i a i t i o r is on t h a p e r c e p t i o n by g s e ~ s of t h e p e r 5 i n t e s t . While t h e f o c u s h e r e i s n o t on p e r c a p t i o r s o t h e r s , re s u g g e s t t h c t t h e s e a p p r o a c h e s t o d ~ f i n a g g r e s s i o n a r e s i m i l a r i n emphas iz ing i n t e r ~ t o r q o a l s o f a c t o r s . The p o s s i b i l i t y o f u s i n g i n t e n t o r g o a l s a definitional b a s i s is a l s c r e c o g n i z e d i n t h e s u g g e s t i o n "...to t h e e x t e r t t h a t a c t o r s d e f i n e such b e h a v i o r n o r e a l a n a n o t i n r e n d e d t o i r j u r e . t h e y a r e c o t a g g r s s a c t s . ..* ( s t r a u s , 1974.3: 942) .

4. T h i s p r o p o s i t i o n i s s t a t e d i n g e n e r a l t a r n s , n i i t a p p l i e s n o t o n l y t o avoidance, b u t a l s o t o e x p r e s s i v e i n s t r U m E n t a 1 c o n f l i c t , which w i l l be d i s c u s s e d l a t e r .

Chapter 9

Attribution Processes in Husband-Wife Violence

Gerald T. Hotaling

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B c ? n t ~ a l t e n e t of t h i s c h a p t e r is

" i n t e n t " is imputed r a t h e r t h a n obse T h e r e f o r e , an a c t i o n is i n t e n t i o n a l l y a g q r s O r v i o l e n t o n l y when t h e i m p u t a t i o n is R t t r i b u t i o n t h e o r y a l e r t s ns t o t h e imp3 Of u n d s r s t a n d i n q why. a n d under what c o n d i on? p e r c e i v e s an a c t i o n a s a g g r e s s i v e r a t h a P a s o n i n t e n t i o r a l o r a c c i d e n t a l .

The c h a p t e r a t t e m p t s t o shov t h a t c e r t S t r u c t u r a l c b a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e f a m i l y prod c o n d i t i o n s t h a t i r c r e a s e t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t f a m i l y membsr w i l l a t t r i b u t e m a l e v o l e n t i n t e t o t h e a c t s o f a n o t h e r f a a i l y member. The a c t w e refer t o a r e t h o s e t h a t v i o l a t e f a m i l y r u l e H o t a l i n g p c i l t r t o what he f e e l s is a c e c t r i r o n y i n f a n i l y l i f e : t h s f a c t o r s t h C o n t r i b u t e t o t h e warmth and i n t i m a c y of f a m i l r e l e t i o n s h i p 5 . s u c h a s t h e s h a r i n g of s e c r e t and p e r s o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n . a l s o f l c i l i t a t p e r c e i v i n g r u l e v i o l a t i o n s a s i n t ? n t i o n + l l malevolen t .

A f i r !al s e c t i o n o f t h e c h a p t e r examines t h e Yay i n which a t t r i b u t i o n of a g g r e s s i o n o r v i o l e n c e s e r v e s t o s t a b i l i z e v i o l e n c e a s a r e g u l a r f e a t u r e o r f a m i l y l i f e .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V i o l e n t b e h a v i o r r e s u l t s from a p r o c e s s t h a t

p a r t i c i p a n t s c o n s t r u c t w i t h i n a s i t u a t i o n . S t r u c t t h e o r i e s o f v i o l e n c e have t e n d e d t o nPglec? i n t e r p e r s o n a l d e v e l o p n e n t o f v i o l e n t b e h a v i o r acd f

136

The r r e z e t 0 r n e : l o r c f ":rrr:al' ' 2 - 7 "s=rr?urqS n l r - o r s

I :":mate r ? l ~ + . i o : s C 1 p ~ . 1:ke tt.e farn:ly, i s s s e n is t e i - q t a c = l : t a t = d by c e r t a i ? 0 r c a r . l z a C i c r a l o r ~ t r u c : u z a l l = n ' u r c s

I :ne aar::al Scrd.

l o g i c a l s t a r t l n g p o i n t i n t h i s k i n d of s o c i a l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s is t h e e x a m i n a t i o n of t h e c o n t s n t i o r he "meaning ' of a g g r e s s i o n * l and v i c l a n c e is a t i c . The p e r c e p t i o n o f a n a c t a s i n t e n t i o n a l i o n o r a s a c c i d e n t a l herm-doins i s an t a p a r t a n t

, = t i o n i n a n a l y z i n g v i o l e n c e (e-g. , T e d e s c h i , $2 +i.,

I n many i n s t a n c e s , t h e p e r c e p t i o n of a g g r e s s i v e a c t i o n s onproblemat ic . C u l t u r a l v a l u e s and b e l i e f s g r e a t l y t t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of a g g r e s s i v e a c t s . i c t e n s i t y , o f f e n s i v e , and p a i n - p r o d u c i n g a c t i o n s a r e l y t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d a s s i g n s o f + g g r E s s i o n o r

a c e . But haaan a g g r e s s i o n need n o t t a k e t h e form of t p h y s i c a l damage; a g g r e s s i o n c a n be n a n i f s s t i n a l , i n d i r e c t , p a s s i v e , and s u b t l e f o r m s of p s y c h o l o g i c a l . It i s E s p e c i a l l y when harm-doing a c t i o n s t a k e t h e s e s t h a t judgmenta l c o n t r o v e r s i e s a r e l i k e l y t o a r i s e .

human a g g r e s s i o n is o f t h i s t y p e and t h e r e a r e good o n s why t h i s i s so. A s Bandura (1973:Y) s t a t e s :

P e o p l e o r d r n a r i l y r e f r a i n from d i r e c t p e r s o n s 1 a s s a u l t s b e c a u s e s u c h o b v i o u s a c t i o n s c a r r y h i q h ris1s of r e t a l i a t i o n . R a t h e r , t h e y f a v o r a i s g u i s ~ a modes of a g q r e s s i o n t h a t , b e i n g d i f f i c u l t t o i n t e r p r e t o r t o c o n s i d e r blameworthy, a f f o r d p r o t ~ c t i o n a g a i ~ s t c o u n t e r a t t a c k .

= - . - . - - - - r.-'-~ - - - -~ .---- ~~ ~ ~

: ive and n o c a g g r e s s i v e a c t i o n s . To t h i s end, - w i f e v i o l e n c e w i l l be examined w i t h i n t h e c o ~ t s x t of t i o r t h e o r y .

Ch.9. l t t r i b u t i o n P r o c e s s e s

LTTXIBUTION THEOBY

I n i*s s i m p l e s t f o r e , a t t r i b u t i o n t h e o r y d e s c r i b e p r o c e s s by which p e o p l e a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n and p r p d i c t b e h a v i o r . I n o t h e r words, it i n u s s t i g a t e s p e o p l e ' s f o r t h e n e a r i n g o r b e h a v i o r .

LS K e l l e y and Thibauc (1969) have d e f i n e d it:

A t t r i b u t i o n r e f e r s t o t h e p r o c e s s o f i n f e r r o r p e r c e i v i n g t h e d i s p o s i t i o c a l p r o p e r t i e s 3 e P t i t i e S . . . . B t t r i b u t i c n t h e o r y d e s c r i b e s t h PrOCESS by which t h e i n d i v i a u a l s e e k s an a t t a i r s C c n c e p L i o r s of t h e s t a b l e d i s p o s i t i o n o r a t t r i b u t e s (p.7).

While t h e r e a r e a t l e a s t t h r e e d i s t i r c t a t t r i b u t i o a p p r o a c h e s ( s e e Aeider . 1958: J o n e s and Davis. 1965: an 8. H. K e l l e p , 1967, 1971). a l l t h r e e p e r s p e c t i v e s hav common e lements . s h a v e r (1975) h a s i d e n t i f i e d some of t h c o m m o n a l i t i e s of t h e above t h e o r i s t s i n t e r m s o f t h r e s t a g e s i n t h e a t t r i b u t i o n p r o c e s s . The f i r s t s t a g e i n v o l v e t h e o b s e r v a t i o n of a n a c t l o n , e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r s o t l t h r o u g h t h e r e p o r t s of o t h e r s . The s e c o n a s t s g e . and t h , one t h a t is t m p o r t a z t t o t h e theme of t h i s c h a p t e r , i n v o l v e ; t h e a t t r i b u t i o n o f i n r e n t i o n . Ona a t t a m p t s t o i n t e r p r p t t h , a c t i o n s Of o t h e r s a s i n + e n t i o c a l a r d g o a l - d i r e c t s d o r a s +b, r e s u l t of a c c i d e n t . r e f l e x , o r h a b i t . T h e f i n a l s t a g c o n c e r n s t h e i m p u t a t i c 1 a " c e u s e m and s e a r c h e s f o r thl a n s v e r t o "why t h e p e r s o n a c t e d a s he/she did." The 3nswe: USna1ly t a k e s one of two forms: t h e a c t i o n i s a t t r i b u t e d t i

Causes i n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t o r t h e s i t u a t i o n ("Re's u n d e r i l o t of p r e s s u r e l a t e l y n ) O r t o t h s undef1y:ng a i s p o s l t i o n o: t h e p e r s o n ("He's j u s t i n aggreSSIve p e r s o n " ) . T h i s s e q u s n c e of e v e n t s nay r e q u i r e o n l y s e c o n d s t o c o m p l e t e 01 I n some c a s e s , s u c h a s j u r y d e l i b e r a t i o n s , s e v e r a l d a y s o! weeks-

The c o n c e r n w i t h a t t r i b u t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s , e s p e c i a l l ) t h e a t t r i b u t i o n o f i n t e n t i o n . h a s bDen e v i d r - n t i n t h ? work o r p s y c h o l o g i s t s i n work an a g g r e s s i o n and v i o l e n c e . 0ve1 t h e y e a r s , r e s e a r c h e r s have a rgued a h o u t how t h e y wouli d e c i d e when t o l a b e l a r e s p o n s e o r s e t o f r e s p o n s e s a: a g g r e s s i v e o r v i o l e n t (Bass, 1971; Eandura, 1973: ant T e d e s c h i , a., 1974). The emphas i s is t h e s e v r i t i n g s i: on t h e e x p s r i m e n t e r - s u b j e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p . 1 . . what c r i t e r i a a r Exper imEnter would u s e t o c h a r a - t e r i z e s u b j e c t r e s p o n s e s a s aggressive. U n f o r t u n a t e l y . t h e q u e s t i o n of hor a p e r s o n i m p u t e s i n t e n t i o n a l a g g r e s s i v e n e s s i n a v a r i e t y o f r e l a t i o n a l c o n t e x t s h a s r o t been f u l l y i n v e s t i g a t e d .

I n t h i s c h a p t ~ r , t h e a t t r i b u t i o n of a g g r e s s i o n a r d i t s r o l e i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n c f f a m i l y v i o l s c c e w i l l b e examined v i a t h e r u l e s y s t e m a n d s t r u c t u r e of tho husbaca-wife

t r i b u t i o n P r o c e ~ s e s Page 139

s h i p . A n a j Q r q u e s t i o n w i l l be: a r e t h e r e t i o n a l r f a t u r s s p e c a l i e r to t h e hushand-wife s h i p t h a * f a c i l i t a t e t h a t f r i b u t i c n of m e l e v ? l e n t

THE NATUEF OF BELATIOIRL RULES

g r o u p s have r u l e s and r e g u l a t i o n s , v ~ r i a t i o n i n t h e e x t e c t t o which - - -

~,h.r ,nr 1s con ' ro l led h r r u l e s . I n o r h e r words. o r o u ~ s * - - - ~ ~~ - . ,~ . '.heir r u l e s : (1) t h e i r s u b s t e n t i s e b e h a v i o r t h e y c o n t r o l : and (2)

ange. t h a t is. where a3d when t h s y axamole. workers i n a s t e e l p l a n t

)r wsrk. when t o 50 home. . .

err- m l e s f o r wte? t o show UD f < uFh work t o g e t docs , and hbv t o g e t . t h e work done: a r l y , i n g r a d u a t e s c h o o l d a p a r t m e n t s , r u l e s ( a t t i m e s c i t ) c o n c e r n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e amount o f work t o b 9 done n g i v e n p e r i o d s . These s o r t s of r u l e s a r e of l i m i t e d a c t i v e and s p a t i o t e m p o r a l r a n g e , i n t h a t t h e y a r e r c e d p r i m a r i l y w i t h i n e t t u m e n t a l b e h a v i o r an3 a r e c a b l e o c l y d u r i r g s p e c i f i e d t i m e s and i n s p e c i f i e d

3s. T h e i r s c o p e is not a l l -embrac ing .

I n t h e husband-wife r e l a t i o n s h i p , r u l e s a r e of b road s t a n t i v e scope. Rere, r u l e s e r e d e s i g n e d t o c o n t r o l b o t h t r u m e n t a l and e x p r e s s i v e behavior . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e y r a v i d s s p a t i o t e m p o r a l range : t h e y a r e a p p l i c a b l e ss S i t u a t i o n s and i n and o u t c f one a n o t h e r ' s p r e s e n c e . i o n s d i f f e r a s t o why r a l a t i o n a l r u l e s a r e o f such b r o a d

pa, b u t v a r i o u s a u t h o r s a g r e e t h a t t h e s e r u l e s a t t e m p t t o t r o l a l a r g e amount o f b e h a v i o r .

Both D. Cooper (1971) and R. D. La ing (1972) have r e s s e a t h * n a t u r e of r e l a t i o n a l r u l e s i n f a m i l i e s and

.ir i m p o r t f o r i n d i v i d u a l members. These a * ~ t h o r s p h a s i z e t h e p o l i t i c a l n a t u r e o f f a m i l y r u l e s : h o l d i n g t t h e f a m i l y a s an e x t e n s i o n of c a p i t a l i s t s s c i e t y a t e s r u l e s t h r o u g h which "dehumanizat ion" of t h e i v i d u a l t e k e s p lace . Prom t h e i r p e r s p e c t i v e , f a x i l y e s a r e a l l - i n c l u s i v e and r e s t r i c t i n d i v i d u a l growth and

v e l o p n e n t . Through r u l e s . f a m i l y menbars e r e f o r c e d i n t o l e s i n which a major p o r t i o r o f r e a l i t y is k e p t beyond

evezyday e x p e r i e n c e . w h i l e t h e i r i d e s l o g i c a l o r i e c t a t i o n map d i f f e r , t h e s e a u t h o r s b o t h h i g h l i g h t t h e f a c t t h a t t h e f a m i l y a t t e m p t s t o c o x t r o l a v i d s rangP of behavior .

From a somewhat d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e , Denzin (1970) 2nd T u r n a r (1968) o u t l i n e a set o f r u l e s , a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e huaband-wife r e l a t i c n s h i p , vhoss f u n c t i o n it i s t o p r o t e c t and e c h a n c e i c d i v i d u a l i d e n t i ? i e s . * Z Denzin a r g u e s t h a t " z u l e s o f r s l a t i o D S h i D " a r e g e n e r a t e d i n i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s

These r u l e s a r e : (1) t a s k mlrs, -0 s p e c i f y who dc?? vhak when, and w i t h whoa; (2) r u l e s s p e c r f y i n g d a f e r e n c e an demeanor; (3) r u l e s f o r r e g u l a t i n g knowledge, s e c r e c y , a p e r s o n a l problems; a n d (4 ) r u l e s s p e c i f y i n g p r o p e r c s n d n of ego and o t h e r vhen no t i n e a c h o t h e r ' s p r e s e n c S i m i l a r l y . T u r n e r (1968) s u g g e s t s two r u l e s t h a t v i l l d e v e l o p e d between i c t i m a t e s t o p r o t e c t t h e i d e n t i t i e s of o a r o t h e r . They a r e : (1) t h e a v o i d a n c e o f one a n o t h e r s e n s i t i v e z o n e s ; and (2) t h e d e c l a r a t i o n by t h e winner ?ha h i s / h e r v i c t o r y i s a t t r i b u t a b l e t o l u c k o r e x p a r i e r c e r a t h e t h a n t h e i n e p t n e s s of t h e vanquished.

T a k i c g Denzin and T u r c e r t o g e t h e r , we c o u l d s a y t h a t r e l a t i o n a l r u l e s a r e a g r e a m e r t s between i n t i m a t e s t h a t e a c h v i l l a v o i d b e h a v i o r t h a t t h r e a t e n s t h e s i t u a t e d i d € n t i t i e s * 3 of each. These r a l e s a r e n e c e s s a r y b e c a u s e each h a s r e v e a l e d t o t h e o t h e r i n t i m a t e knowledge. s s c r e t s , d e s i r e s a n d p e r s o c a l problems. i m p o r t a n t t o i d e n t i t y , t h a t are n o t a v a i l a b l e t o t h e p u b l i c a t l a r g e .

TO summarize t h e d i s c u s s i o n t h u s f a r we c a n c o c c e i v s of r e l a t i o n a l r u l e r a s b e i n g somewhat i r o n i c . For p e o p l e t o r e m a n i n p h y s i c a l and e m o t i o n a l p r o x i m i t y , r u l e s must b e d e v e l o p e d t h a t p r o t e c t and enhance s i t u a t e d i d e n t i t i e s , and t h a t a t t h e same t i m e restrict and c o n t r o l behavior .

TEE NRTORE OF RELATIONAL ROLE VIOL1TIONS

ncst r e l a t i o n a l r u l e s b e t v e e n i n t i m a t e s a r e gna$fig&, ing&&$t, and p b i q u o u s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e y a r e c o n s t a n t l y -- b s i n g n c d i f i e d a c c o r d i n g t o d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t F c n a 1 demands. F o r example, one s p o u s e may b e g i n t o i n t e r p r e t r u l e s d i f f e r e n t l y w i t h c u t i n f o r a i c g t h e o t h s r o f t h e changed p e r s p e c t i v e . I n s u c h a s i t u a t i c n , v i o l a t i o n s o f r u l e s a r e e a s i e r s i n c e t h e b o u n d a r i e s between r u l e c o n f o r m i t y end v i o l a t i o n become q u i t e p r e c a r i o u s . For example. a husband t z l k i n u t o a n o t h e r woman a t a D a r t v ma7 be COEsidared a r u l e > .

v i o l a t o r by h i s w i f e a c c o r i i n g t o h i s d i s t a n c e from t h e woman, t h e e x p r n s s i c r on h i s f a c e , and t h e c o n t e r t o f t h s C O n ~ P r s a t i C n . T h i s s a y be s o even though t h e husbacd n e v e r I n t e n d e d a v i o l a t i o n o f r e l a t i o n a l r u l e s . The p o i n t i s t h a t t h e ambiguous, u n d e f i n e d and i m p l i c i t n a t u r e o f r e l a t i o n a l r u l e s r a i s e s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t r u l e v i o l a t i o r s w i l l o c c u r .

S i n c e r u l e v i o l a t i o n s may be e i t h e r i n t e n t i o n a l o r a c c i d e n t a l , t h e n e a r i n g o f . t h e v i o l a t i o n t h a t t h ~ o t h e r a t t r i b o t e s t o t h e v i o l a t i n g a c t o r is s i g n i f i c e n t ( S c o t t and Lyman, 1 9 7 0 ) . The v i o l a t i o n o f r e l a t i o n a l r u l e s l e a d s i n t i m a t e s t c f e e l embar rassment , i r r i t a t i o n , annoyance, and , a t t h e e x t r e m e , s e l f - t h r e a t and p u b l i c l y d e s i g n a t e d d s v i a n c e (Denzin. 1970) .

T ~ E mannfr i n which a v i o l a t i c n 1s p e r c e i v e 3 h s s i m p o r t f o r t h e conseguences . A p e r s c n w i l l g i v e t h e r e r p o r s e a p p r o p r o p r i a t e t o a v i c l a t i o n , a c c o r d i n g t c h i s / h e r p e r c e p t i o f of t h e v i o l a t i o n a s " a c c i d e n t a l " harm-doing o r a s a g g r e s s i o n . Most i n t e r a c t i o n between f a m i l y membsrs is harmOniouS and c o o p e r a t t v e . Indeed , most r u l e v i o l 3 t i o n s a r e sf s e e n a s a g g r e s s i v e . b u t r a t h e r a s a c c i d e n t s , a s r e s p o n s e s t c s i t u a t i o n a l demands, o r a s r e s p s n s e s t o e x t r a n e o u s i n f l u e n c e s , s u c h a s a l c o h o l o r drugs. A c t u a l l y . r e l a t i v e t o t h e r a t e o f r e l a t i o n a l r u l e v i o l i t i o n s p f r c e i v e a a s a g g r e s s i v e , most r u l e v i o 1 a t i o r . s a r e d e n i e d o r d i s m i s s e d . I f t h i s were n o t so. n t i m a ' e r e l a t i o n s h i p s would be v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o m a i n t a i n .

THE R E L A T I O N BETWEEN TEE BTTPIBUTION OF RULE VIOLATIONS AS AGGRESSIVE BND INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE

B s mer.tLor.Ed p r e v i o u s l y , t h e a t t r i b u t i o n of r u l e v i o l a ? i o n s a s i n t e r t i o n a l l y a g g r e s s i v e is a n i m p o r t a n t s t e p i n t h e o c c u r r e n c e of i n t e r p e r s o n a l v i o l e n c e . R s T u r n e r (1968) p u t s it:

when e g o p e r c e i v e s t h a t a l t e r is a t t e m p t i n g f o c e g a t i v e l y a f f e c t h i s i n t e r e s t s . . . t h e c h a z a c t = r o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n is p e r v a s i v e l y a l t e r e d by h e i g h t e n e d p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h s s l f - i m a g e s . i n c r e s s e d use of ~ m p h a t i c and d i a g n o s t i c i n t e r p r e t a t l o c s o t g e s t u r e s . ..and c o n s t a n t e f f o r t s t o a s s i g n c r e d i t and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y (p. 106) .

A t t e m p t s t o l o c a t e t h e " i n t e n t ' of t h e r u l e v i o l a t i o n w i l l d e t e r m i n e t h e s u b s e q u e n t a c t i o n t a k e n t o r e d u c e t h e harm-doing o f t h e r u l e v i o l a t i o n . I f m a l e v o l e n t i n t a c t i s a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e r u l e v i o l a t o r , t h e p r 3 b z b i l i t y o f v i 3 l e n c e i s i n c r e a s e d . l a n y e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s have found t h a t t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f o p p c n e n t ' s i n t e n t i s a more i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e i n t h e i n s t i g a t i o r of a g g r e s s i o n t h a n a c t u a l p h y s i c a l a t t a c k . If a g i v e n a c t is s e e n a s a g g r e s s i v e , it d r a m a t i c a l l y e s c a l a t e s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of c o u n t e r a g g r e s s i o n (Bandura, 1973: E p s t e i n and T a y l o r . 1967: E a s e l l i and a l t r o c h i , 1969).

RESPONSE TO RULE VIFLFTIONS 9?TQIBUTFD YO 9 G S R I S S I 3 R

The a t t r i b u t i o n o f a g g r e s s i o n a l o n s is n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o r t h e i r l t i a t i c n o t i n t e r p e r s o c a l v i o l s n c e . P J l l o w i c g t h s i m p u t a a o n , t h e e t t r i b u t o r w i l l e v a l u a t e t h e s i t u a t i o c and t h e p o s s i b l e a l t . e r r + t i v e r e s p o n s e s he/she can make. 8 s p b u r n (1973) h a s s u g g f s t e d t h r e e p o s s i b l e t a c t i c s t h e a t l e i b u t o r c a n c h o o s e t o r e d u c e t h e harm-dolng c a u s e d by t h ? r u l e v i o l a t i o n ( s e e E l c u c h a r t ) .

&pp&ggd!c=. o re t a c t i c t h a t c a n be used t o d e a l uLth v i o l a t i o r s i s a v o i d a l c e . The t a c t i c of a v o i d a n c e ~ 8 c e s s i t a t ~ s e physLca l w i t h d r a w a l from t h e l o c a t i o n o r a n e i e o t l o n a l d i sengagement t rcm t h ~ e n c o u n t e r . The L a c t i c of avoFdance 1s d i f f i c u l t i n r n t i m a t e r e l a x i o n s h i p s v h - r s t h e r e a r e e x t o r r a l c a r s t r a i n t s on t h e p a r t i c i p a r t s tc r s m s i n i n t h e s l t u a t i o r (SSP Foss, C h a p t e r 8 ) .

Rcc??g$lQ~~. Another t a c t i c is a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e r u l e vio1a:ioc. Acceptance of r u l e v i o k t i o n is a l s o d i f f i c u l t ZP l n + i m a t e r e l a t i o n s t l p s , where 'ha r n l e s s e r v e t o p r o t e c r t h e l a e n t i t l e s o t t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s . A c c ~ p t i r . g tb.e r u l e v i o l a t i o n 2s a p p r o p x i a t ~ b e h a v i o r r ? c ? s s a r i l y a l t e r s t h e e ~ p ~ c t ~ t l o n ~ e a c h h a s toward t h e o t h e r . Dis rup tLng t h e s e s t a b l e and o r d e r l y i r t e r a c t i o r p a t t e r n s makss v u l n e r a b l e O P E ' S i d e n t i t y .

I f e i t h e r accept?.nce o r a v o i d a n c ~ is s s l s c t s d i s a t a c t i c by which t o r e s p o n d t o a g g r e s s i v e r u l e v i o l s ' i o n s , t h e likelihood t h a t t h e e n c o u n t e r v i l l end i n v i o l f r c s i s g r c i t l y d i a l n l s h e d .

It i s t h e t a c t i c of r e t a l i a t i o r t h a t i s l ~ a d t c i n t e r p e z s o n a l v i o l e n c a . Whnr a g o cf r e t a l i a t i o n h e l s h e r i s k s r e t a l i a t i o n by

o t h e r . I n i t i a l l y , ego v i l l l a b e l t h e r u l ? v i o l a t i o n a s a g g r e s s i ' r e , t h a t is , t r a c s m i t t c t h e v i o l a t o r tha ' hP/she a t t r i b u t e s i n r s c + i a n a l harm-doing t o him/her. Once t h e r u l e v i o l a t i o n i s l a b e l e d , e g o can l e g i t i m a t s l y s e e k r e + r i b u t i o n f r c ~ t h e r u l e v i o l a t o r . If t h e r u l e v i o l a t o r c a n n o t a a e q u a t e l y n e g o t i a t e t h e a g g r e s s i v e l a b e l , he/sh? may c o u n t e r r e ' a l i a t e rc a n a t t = s p t t o r i d h i a / h ? r s e l t of c h s a g g r e s s i v e l a b n l . T h i s p r o c e s s a c c o r d s w i t h SpEey ' s c o n t e r t i o n (1971) + h a t s u c c e s s f u l management of c o n f l i c t i~ t a m l i e s r E q U i r f S t h e a b i l i t y t o n e g o t i a + e , b a r g a i n , acd c o o p e r a t e - - t o m a n i p u l a t e a r a n g e o f b a h a v i a r a l s k i l l s . I f t h e p r o c e s s o f r ~ t a l i a ~ i o ~ - ~ ~ ~ n f e ~ r e ? a I i a t i o ~ c o n t i n u a s , t h e p ~ o b a b l l i t y of Y F O ~ E ~ C ~ i s i n c r e a s e d .

TC snmmarlze t h e p r e c s d l n g s e c t i m i n p r o p o s i t i o n a l t o m :

P r o ~ o s i t ~ ~ ~ 2. i f 2 r u l e v i o l a t i o n i s Z t T r l h u t e d a s a g q r e s s i v s , t h e t is, a s

Ch.9. R t t r i b u t i o x P T O C ~ E S E S Page 1 4 4

i n t e n t i o n a l harm-dorng, r h e p r o b a b i l i t y of i n t e r p e r s o n a l v i a l e r c e i s i r c r e a s e d .

If 'he a t t r i b u t i o n of a g g r n s s i v e n e s s is e a d e , a r e v a l u a t i O P o f t h e s i t u a t i o n w i l l determine a n a p p r o p r i a t e r e s p o r s e by w h i c h t o r e d u c e t h e harm-doing of t h e r u l s v i o l a t i o n . I t is p o s i t e d t h a t :

P r o p o s i t i o i i 2. The mare i n t i n e t e ' h i --- r e l a t i o n s h i p , 'he l e s s l i k s l y w i l l e c c e p t a c c e D r aVOld2nCE b e u s e d a s a t a c t i c t? r e d u c s t h e harm-doing cf r u l e v i o l a t i o n s .

S i n c e a c c e p t a n c e o r z v o l d a n c e is d i f f i c u i t f o r t h o s c i P v o l P e d i n e n a u r l c g i n t Z a a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s :

P r o p o s P ~ o r 2. Th9 Bore i n t i m a t e -- .b? r e l a t i o r s h i p , ?he more l i k e l y w i l l r e t a l i a t i o n b e u s e d a s a t a c t i c t o ? e d u c e t h ? ha rm-do i rg o f r u l e v io la? ions .

I f t h e r a c t i c o f r e L a l i a t i o n i s c h ? s e n , c h a n c e s i n c r e a s e t h a t v i o l e n c e v l l l e n s u e ; t h p norm of r e c i p r o c i t y will l e g i t i m i z e r ~ t a l l a t i c n .

P r l p . o s l t i 0 n u. I f t h e a t t r i b u t i o n o f a g g r e s s i o n -- 1s communica ted t o t h e r u l e v i o l a t o r , t h r p r o b a b i l i t y o f c o u r t e r r e t a l l a t i c n i c c r e a s e s .

P r o p o s i t i o z 5. The l o v e r t h e n e g o i i a t i o l --- a b i l i t i e s o f t h e a c t o r s i n v o l v e d , t h e h i g h e r t h e p r c b a b i l i r y 3 f c o m t e r r e t a l l a t i o n .

P r o p o s i t i o n 6. The mOZE t h e Z D t 3 1 1 2 t i O P - -- c o u n t e r r e t a l i a t i o n , :ha hTgher i h 8 probability o f v i o l f r x e .

CE2BRCTEPISTICS OF BOLES E N D ROLF VIDLBTIONS TBIT ENERBCE AGGPESSIVE ATTPISOTIOA

Whether a r u l e v i o l a t i o n i s a g g r e s s i v e i s t y p i c a l l y i c f e r r e d f rom, amocg o t h e r t h i n g s , c h a r a c t s r i s t i c s s f t h e r u l e v l o l a t o r (e.g., power 3 r d s t a t u s ) , c h a r a c t s r i s t i c s 3f

t h e s i t u a t i o n ( p r E s s r c e c f a l c o h o l o r c s a r c i o c ) , and c h e r a c t e r i s t i c s o r t h o r u l s v i o l a t i o n i t s c l f . T h i s l z ' r s r c a t e g o r y i s of I n t e r e s t h a r e . C e r t a i l c h a r s c t e r i s t i c s o f r u l e s and t y p e s o f r u l s v i o l a t i o n s do sesm t o l e a d L 3 t h e v ~ o l a i o r ' s b e i n g SEEP as e g g r e s s i ~ e . The c h 3 r 3 c t e r i s t i c s o f r u l e s t o b e c a h r l d s r e d i n t h i s c o r n e c r i o n a r e t h l s e t h a t : (1) c o n t r o l o r r e s t r i c t . b e h a v i o r , ( 2 ) t h z e i t e ? . s i t u a t e d i d o n a t i e s , (3) a r c h l g h l y c c h n e c i e d 'a o t h e r r u l e s . ica (9) d i s r u p t p s t a b l i s h e d c l a i m s . I n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f e a c h o f t h e s e C h a r a c t f r i s t l c s ~e w i l l a t t e m p t t o d e m o n s t r a t ? how

ch.9. R t t r l b u t l o n P r a c e s s r s Pao= 7115

c c r ' a i r s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s o f t h s h u s b i n d - u i f ? r e l a t i o n s h i p may e c h a n c s t h e a t t r i b u t i o r o r a g g r e s s i o n f o r r u l e v 1 0 1 a t i o n s .

E x p e r l m e ~ t e l s t n d i e s h a v e f o u n d t h a t a c t i o n s t h s ? c o n t r o l t h ~ b e h a v t o r of a n o t h e r , o r c o r s t r a i r a n a t h ? r r s b e h a ~ i o r a l a l ? s m a t i V F S O r OUtCOmeS, 2r? m O r C l i k e l y '3 b e a t % r i b u t e d a s a g g r ~ s s i v e (Brown and T e d s s c h i , 1 9 7 4 ; Cimezon end J a n k y , 1972 : T e d e s c h i . c t a&., 197Y). Wh?n an i c t i o a f o r c e s a p e r s o n ~ n t o a p o s i t i o n i n which a l t e r n a t i v e c s u z s e s of a c t i o n a r e s e v s r e l y l t m i t e d , t h e a c t o r p r o b a b l y w i l l e u a l o a t e t h e a c + i o n a s g a a l - d i r s c t e d . Ere r u l l r i a l i t i c n s t h a t o c c u r between I n t i m a t e s more l i k e l y to b e p a r c e i v e a a s ont trolling t h a P r u l e v i o l a + i o n s i c o t h e r s c c t a l r d a t i o r s h l p s ? S t h a s a l r e a d y been n e n t i o n f d t h a t a v i a o v a r i e t y o f r u l e s b e t v e e l i n t i n a i e s a r e u n d o f i n s d and a x S i g i i o n ~ . Eu?, i r a d d i t i o n , ac a r g a n ~ z e t i o c a l E e a t u r e o f t h e husband-wife r e l ~ t i o n s h i p s a y i l c r e a s c t h e d s q r e e t o which z z u l e n i c l a t i n n of o n e s p o u s e i m p i n g e s oc t h e paTt7~FT.

I n n a r y i n s * i < u t i o n a l s p h e r e s . t h e v i o l a ' i o n of r u l e s is u s u a l l y examined by some f c r m o f c i v r l a u t h o r i t y whose f u r c t l o n is 56 r e l d e r zc o b j e c t i v e judgment. For e x s a p l e . i f l a b o r a c c u s e s Danagemert o f v i o l a t i n g c ~ r t a i n c o n t r a c t u a l a r r a n g e m e n * s a b o u t o v f r t i m s pay and b o t h s i d e s r e m a i r r e s o l u t e ? b o u t t h e i r " r i g h t n e s s , " o b j e c t i v e r 2 g o t i a t c ; s w i l l be c a l l e d 12 t o n e d i a t s t h e d i spu t ' . The r e s o l u t i o n of it* d L s p u t e by r e c o u r s e t o t h i r d p a r t y a r b i t r a t i o r w i l l ' s r n p o r a r i l y h a l t r a c h side's f e e l i n g p ' c c n t r o l l e d * b y t h e o t h e r . I n more i l t i a a f s s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , as m a r r r a g ? , t h 4 z e 1 5 10 i n s t i t u t i o n i l i z e d t h i r d p a r t y a r b i t r a t i o n d f s i q ~ e d t o h e n d l e r u l e vio1a:ioEs. F o r example , i f a h u s b a r d r l o l a t e s a r n l s t i o r . a l r u l e by h a v i r g s e x u a l r e l a t i o ~ s with s r o t h e r ~ o m m , t h e w i f e h a s x c a u r s a o n l y 5 9 t t 4 husband . Zc e f f e c t , t h e v i f e i s under t h e c o n t r c l of t h e r u l e v i o l a t o r . O t t e r a l t e r P a t i r e s a:e t o b a v c someone t a l x + o t h e husband, o r +c d l s s o l r e t h e n a r r i a g e , b u t ro d i r e c t e u t h o r i t y c e n manda te an s r d t o rhs v i o l a t i o r .

A s s p r e y (19711 r s n a r k s : " C o r j u g a l l o v e , t h e bond o f m a r = i a g ~ , i s t h e most ~ X C ~ U S ~ Y ~ o f a 1 1 in O U T s o c i s t ~ " (p. 7 2 3 ) . T h e c l o s 9 r t h a p a r t i c i p a n t s i n 2 s o c i i l r ? l a t L o ! i x h i p , t h ? more e x c l u s i v e o r s t r a n g e r s i t becomes. P 3 r our ?UzposeS. a n d t o s u a n a r i z e t h i s set-ior:

P r ~ P C s i t i o L 8. The l o v e r < h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f -- i n s t i t n t l c c a l i z e d t h i r d p a r t y a r b i t r a t i o r on r u l e v i c l a t i o n s , t h e more one is undez COPtrOl o f t h e r u l e v i c l a c o r .

P r o g p f r c g 2. It a r u l e v i o l a t i o n o c c u r s , 'h- --- B O X i n t i m a t e t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n a s o c i s l r e l a t i c n s h i p , t h e more oce i s und?r t h ? c c n t r o l ot 'hp r u l e v i o l a t o r .

R u l e v i o l a t z o n s t h a t threaten t h e s i t u a t - a i a e n t i ' y o f a p e r s o n h a v e a h i g h p r o b a b i l i t y a f h ? i n g l z b i l s d a s a g g r e s s i v e . F l ~ p b u z ~ (1973) s t a t e s :

The p e r c s p 5 i o c 3 f a t h r e a t t o t h e s i t u a t e d

f o r it is . ~ ~ . t r a n s f o r m s a h a r m

~

i n t e r a c t i o n i n t o e n c o u n t e r (p .423) .

T h i s c h a p t e r h o l d s t h a t t h e a t t r i b u t i o n of e g g r e s s i o n is t h e i n i t i a l s t e g e i n a p r o c e s s of i n t e r p e r s a n a l v i o l i c c e . P u l e ~ l o l a t i o r s p e r c e i v e d a s t h r s a t e n i c g t o t h e s : t u a t e a l d e ~ t l t i e s o f p a r t x c i p a r t s f a c i l i t a t s t h a a t t x l b u r i o : of a g g r e s s i o n , b u t a r e n c t t h e s o l e d e t e r m l n a r t .

The f o c u s h e r e is n o t 02 t h r e a t as a v e r b n l o r c a n v e r b a l message p r o m i s i n g u n f a v o r a b l e c o n s s q u e n c e s i f demands a r e n o t n e t , b u t on r h e p e r c J p t i o r c f t h r l a t n t o s i t n z t e d i d e n t i t i e s ; t h a t is, t h e p e r c e p t i o n t h a t o l e ' s i d e c t i t y i s b e i n g j e o p a r a i z s a , o r t h s p e r c e p t i o n o f a P e g a t i v e s v a l u a ' i o n of worth . The t h r e a t may be i n t e c - L o c a l O r u n i n t e n t i o n a l ; what is c r u c i a l is chat t h e t h r = a ' is p e r c e i v e d 2 s h a r m f u l tc o n e ' s s s n s e of who h e l s h e is F r a r e l a t i o P s h i p .

A S msnt ioCed . i ~ t i ~ a t s r e l a t i o n s h i p s i a v o l r ? a % u l n a 1 c o n c s r n t o r t h e i d e a t i t l c s o f p a r t i c i p a n t s . I d s n t i t i e a ars s u p p o r t e d a r d Enhanced t h r o u g h i n ' e r a c t i s n . T h i s s u p p o r t i n f a c i l i t a t e d b e c a u s e e a c h i r t i a a t e has an e x t e n s i v e k n o v l i d g e cf t h e o t h e r ' s c o l l e c t i o n of s o c i 2 1 i d e n t i t i e s I o r s 3 c i a l b i o g r a p h y . Ir e f t e c t , l c t i a a t e s k r c v how t o s u p p s r ' t h ? i d e n t x t i e s o f e a c h o t h e r b s c a u s e e a c h hews a b c u t + h c . h i r g s t h a t m a t t e r t o e a c h o t h e r . l l t h s u g h +.his E X ~ F C S ~ V ~

knowledge car be u s e d t o s u p p o r t a n d e n h a n c e i d e n t i t i ~ s , st t h e s2me ?lID5, it caC b e u s e d ;o damage t h a n .

T h i s p ~ o c e s s i s h i g h l z g h t e d r n t h e f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e by W i l l l a m Dear P C W F ~ ~ S :P C i s n o v e l 24. R&sq sf si&hz &=pb_al i n a d i s c u s s i o c o f t h e n a t u r e o f m a r r i a g e :

Two people by no means reckless of eact othsz's righfs and teelings, hut ever tender cf them for thc 805t part, may tcar at each other's heartstring^ in this sacred bond with impunity: though if +hey uerc acy other twa they uould not Sp28k or look at each other again after th? ootrages -hey exchange....If the hushnd a23 wife 32E blunt, outspoker people Like 'h? Laphams, they do lot weigh their words, if they ars more refined, they wsigh them rsry carefully, srd krov accuratsly just tow fnr thlv "111 vary 3rd in what most s?ns~tiue spot they may be plarted ulth the mast effect (1964:SO).

Bssides possessirg kraviedge of other nemh?rs that can be "sed to do harm, intlaetes a r e predisposed to inpux; harm where DO nalevoler,ce 15 nFCESSarily irtendcd. For ~xnmple. lf 1n the pressice ot cthers, 2 wife sxprssses tha lesire tor certain material goods th+t are bayond her aezns. a hushand vho is sersltive about his aarring p3tential may teil threatened by such a statement. while her ints2t nay have been to share her feelings about 'hings she uould likq to hav2, the COmeFxt may be threatening to tte kushand because he knows :hit she knows that te is sensitivs about such thlngs. Fecause she knlvs ho is sensitive about such things, he :s likely to feel, she would not have szld ir unless sh? meant to commenr o n his earning capscity. Lf 2

PonlntimatF had exp:essfd :he same desire for azrerial goods, +her? would have heen no reason f a r the hushan3 t o p ~ ~ c e i v e such i statenent 2s threatening t5 his self-ldfLtlty.

If a norlntlmate asks, "Why d c n q c you ~ v s r taka your wlfe aut Lo drr?er?qs ths question may cat be percsived as thriazening even when it ==s meant salevolfntly. The perceiver cannot he crrtail that rhe nonintinate kn3xs he is ~FTsiriVe about such ramazks. Because he knovs :hat his wife COPS he 1s sensiti~e t3 such thl?gsr the sa.4 remark by her vlll be more lik~ly perceived as threztaning.

Bttr~botion theory offers scne empirical evidence that this sort of situatlor say indeed occur. Jonss in6 Davis (1965) pr3vide ~xp~rimental ~fsezrch 0 2 the knowl~dge pe9ple use In deciding wish certainty an acr's intsr.tion+liiy. Two of the:= COCC~US:OIS are 3f direct corcern to intlmate TJlatlODShipS:

Rnovledgf end ahility are preconditions for th2 esslgrment cf ~~~~~~~~~s. Each plays a rcl? ic enablirg the perceiver tc decide uhe'hcr en effect or CO~SE~USCCF of action was accidsatsl (1965:221-222).

Ch.9. A t t r i b u t i o n P r o c e s s e s

P r o & g Z & 11. The a o r e e x t e n s i v e t h e -- k n o v l e d g e o f s o c i a l b i o g r a p h i e s , t h e h i g h e r t h e c e r t a i n t y t h a t o t h e r ' s r u l s v i o l a t i o n was i n t e n t i o n a l -

H i g h l y Connec ted P u l e s

The v i o l a t i o n of a r u l e t h a t i s h i g h l y c o n n e c t e d t o o t h e r r u l e s i c c r e a s e s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h 2 r u l e v i o l a t i o n w i l l be p e r c e i v e d a s a g g r e s s i v e .

When a h i g h l y c o r n e c t f d r u l e is v i o l a t e d , i t h a s t h e p o t e n t i a l t o d i s r u p t t h e e n t i r e f u n c t i a n i r g of t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . For example, i r t b e m i l i t a r y a s i r many b u r e a u c r a c i e s , r u l e s a r e c l e a r l y s p e c i f i e l and h i g h l y d l f f e r e n t i a t e d . The v i o l a t i o n c f a r u l e i s h a r d l a d an a s t a t u t e b a s i s . The v i o l a t i o n i s coded. 3na " s u i t a b l e p u n i s h m e n t ' i s p r e d e f i n e d . The r u l e s a r e s o f ragmented t h a t it is d i f f i c u l t t o v i o l a t e h i g h l y c o n n e c t e d r u l e s : though t h e r u l e s a r e connec tPd , e a c h r u l e is a l s o d i s t i c c t from o t h e r s .

I n i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s , r e l a t i o n a l r u l e s 3:s n o t d i s x l n c t f rom one a n o t h e r , b u t vague, u n d e f i n e a , and Ear t h e n o s t p a r t h i g h l y c o r n e c t e d t c o r e a n o t h e r . As an example, a T U l E v i o l a t i o n i n which e husband r e f u s e s t o f u l f i l l 2 t a s k t u n c t i o c . by n o t h e l p i n g a r o u n d t h e house may g e n e r a t s +r argument i n which t h e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n is made t h a t he i s l a z y a n d d o e s n ' t c a r e whax happens a r o u n d t h e hosa. 92 may r e t o r t t h a t h i s w i f e d c e s c o t a l w a y s p l e a s e him w i t h what s h e d o e s a r o u n d t h e house and, b e s i d e s , he works and s h e d o e s n ' t . R e f e r e n c e t o p a s t e v e c t s may ba b r 3 u g h t i n , a s v e 1 1 a s r e c o u r s e to d i s p c s i t i o r a l t r a i t s t c b o l s t e r a r g u m e n t i v e p o i n t s . To summarize:

P z E E L : ~ ~ ~ . The more i n x i m a t e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h e more vague and undefFnsd

ch.9. P t t r l b o t l o n P ~ C C C E S ~ S Page 149

s i n . Th* more vagu* a r d u n d s f i n e d t h e r u l e s , t h e h i g h e r t h e c o n n e c t e d n e s s of t h e r u l e s .

P r o E S i t i O n 19. The more i n t i m a t e t h e -- -- - --- - r s l a t i c n s h i p . t h e h i g h e r t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t r u l e r i c l a t i o r s w l l l b s v i o l a t i o n s o f h i g h l y c o n n e c t e d r u l e s .

o i o 2 . The v i o l a t i o n o f a h i g h l y c c c n e c t e d r u l e h e i g h t e n s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e r u l e v i o l a t o r w i l l b? p e r c e i v e d 3s a g g r e s s i v e .

D i s r u p t i o n o f Cla ims

S t a b l R i n t e r a c t i o n p a t t e r n s , d e v e l o p e d o v e r t h e c o u r s e o f a r e l e t i o n s h i p , o r d e r a n d make p r e d i c t a b l e t h e e x p l c t a t i o n s c f e z c h p a r t i c i p a n t toward t h e o t h e r . P a t t e r n s o f " c l a i m i n g b e h a v i o r ' d e v e l o p and become s t a h i l i z a d . C l a i m i n g b e h a v i o r , a s t h e p h r a s e i m p l i e s , r e f e r s t o Raking c l a i m s o r demands on a n o t h e r b e c a u s e of y o u r s o c i a l p o s i t i o n r e l a t i v e :O t h e o t h e r . I n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a s c c n p a r e d v i t h C o n T n + i m ~ t e r e l a t i c n s h i p s , c a r be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by E & a i & g g g CoBDlacence, where in p a t t e r n s of c l a i m i n g b e h a v i o r become t a k e n f c r g r a r t e d . R e l a t i D c a l complacence is 1.55 l i k e l y t o o c c u r i n g r o u p s i a which p e t t f r n s o f c l a i m i n g b e h a v i o r a r e based s o l e l y on s e c o n d a r y o r exchange c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ; f o r example, i n employ2r-employee o r l a n d l o r d - t e n a n t r e l a t i o n s .

R e l a t i o n a l r u l e v i o l a t i o n s t h a t d i s r u p t e s t a b l i s h e d p a t t ~ r ~ s o t c l a i m i n g b e h a v i o r have a h i g h p r o b a b i l i + y o f b e i n g p e r c e i v e d a s a g g r e s s i v e .

The i n a u g u r a t i o n of a s y m m e t r i c a l c l a i m s i n t o a r i n i t i a l l y d e f i n e d e g a l i t a r i a n ( s y m m e t r i c s l ) r e l a t i o n s h i p , o r o f s y m m e t r i c a l c l a i m s i n t o an i n i t i a l l y d e f i e d a u t h o r i t a r i a n ( a s y m m e t r i c a l ) r e l a t i c n s h i p w i l l d i s r u p t t h e harmony of t h e i n t s r a c t i o n and t h r e a t e n t h e i d 9 n t i t i e s o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s (Eepburn, $773: 27).

The l i t e r a t u r e i l l u s t r a t e s t h e e f f e c t of i l t r o a u c i n g s y m e t r y Lnto i n i t i a l l y d e f i n e d a s y m m e t r i c a l r e l a t i o c s h i p s . R e i s s (1968) p o i n t s o u t t h a t a l m o s t h a l f o f t h e c a s e s o f p o l i c e b r u t a l t t y i n v o l v e an open d e f i a n c e of t h e c f f i c ? x ' s a u t h o r i t y . Tha t is, t h e a r r e s t e d p a r t y sough? t o d i s r u p t t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d c l a i e s - - i n t h i s c a s e , a r e j e c t i o c of t h e o f f i c e r ' s a u t h o r i t y - Wes t ley (1953) r e p o r t s c h a t whDn a s k e d t o i n d i c a t e t h o s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n which t h - y deem v i o l e n t t e c h n i q u e s a p p r o p r i a t e , t h e p o l i c e most o f t s c c i t e d t h o s e i n s t a n c e s i T ~ which t h e i r c l a i m s were d e f i e d by u n c o o p e r a t i v e p e r s o n 5 SO t h a t c o e r c i o n had t o be used t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r

ch.9. B t t r l b o t i o ~ P r o c e s s e s Page 150

s e l f - i n t s r e s t . T e d e s c h i , gi =l. (197U) 2rgllE t h i i o r = t a c t o r t h a t l e a d s p c r s m s t o l a b e l e c t s a s a g g r s s i v c i s t h o advancernext of s e l f - i n t e z e s t . I d i s i u p t i o ? 3 f e s t a b l i s h e d c l a i m s is l i k e l y t o b e p e r c e i v e d as t h e a d v a n c s m s n t 3f t h e O r h e r ' s s e l f i s h i n t ~ x e s t s by t h e p a r t y whose i n t e r e s t s a r m b e i n g n e g a t i v e l y e t t a c t e d .

I n i n t i m a t ? r e l a t i o n s h i p s , r e l a I l o n a 1 c o a p l a c e c c s r a y p r a d i s p o s n o n e p + r t y t o v iew d i s r u p t i o n s o f c1a i . s a s a t t e m p ' s t o f u r t h e r s e l f - i p t e r e s t o f t h e o t h f r . For example , a p r e v i o o s l y l o n v o r k l n g w i f e who d e c i d ? s t o g e t 3

j o b c o u l d be p e r c e i v e d es a t t e m p t i n g ts d i s r u p t p r e v i a u s l y e s t a b l i s h e d c l a i m s . H e r i n I e n t nay be s s s e r t i v e . r o + a g g r e s s i v e , b u t i t may b e p e r c s i v e d a s 2 g g r P 5 5 i v E by hex h n s b a n d who s e e s s u c h an a c t r a n a s n e g a t i v e l y a f f € c L i r g h i s s e l f - i n t s r e s t . T h l s p r o c e s s is i l l u s t r a t e d i i r C h a p t F r 10 o f ' h i s volume i n R a l p h I a R o s s a ' s c a s s s t u d y c f J3c afid J e n n i t ? ~ .

T h e s e f o u r c h a r a c t f r l s t i c s o f r u l e v i o l a t i o n s a r r h e l d t o facilitate 'he p e r c e p t i o n o f r u l e v i a 1 a t i o r . s a s m a l e v o l e n t . I f r u l e v i a l a t i c r s o c c u r t h a t h a v e one 2r more o t t h e s e C h a r a c c e r i s I i c s , t h e p r o b a b i l i t y is h i g h t h a t s u c h r n l ~ v i o l a t i o n s w t l l be p e r c e i v e d a s i n t e n t i o n a l l y hz rm-produc ing .

Up t o now, W P h a v e been p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d v i r h t h c i n p o t a t i o n o f i r t e n : i c o a l i t y t o t h e a c t i o n s o f 0 t h ~ : ~ ecd i t 5 r o l e i r f a c i l i t a t i n g v i o l e n c e . ? . n o t h e r l a r g ? c c n s l d e r a t i a n i n a t t r i b u t i o n t h e o r y c0ncer r . s l o c a b i n q t h e "cause' . of t h e ac- ion. Tt:s p e r c ~ i v s : w i l l sOmczin?s 3' tsmpt t o l r t e r p r e t a n a c t i l r by l i n k i n g it t o t h e = n v i r m n + r : o r t h e p e r s o n a l d i s p o s i t i o r o f t h e a c t o r .

A good d e a l of e v i d e z c s f r c m a t t r i b u t i o n t h e o r y shows t h a t p r e s s u r e s = x i s % t o a t t r i b u t e : e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o t h - p e r s o n , t h a t is, t o h i s / h e r p e r s o c a l i t y o r d i s p o s i t i o n , t h r more t i m e s a g g r e s s i v e E c t i o n s o c c u r o r a r e p e r c s i v a d a s occurr:rig. R e l e t i o n a l r u l e v i o l a t i o n s t h a t r e s u l t i~ i n t e r p e r s o n e l v i o l e n c e r e i r . f o r c e t h e p e r c e L v 2 r i n v i ? w i n g t h e v i o l a t o r 3s an a g g r e s s i v e person. E x p e r i a a n t a l s v i a e n c e f rom K e l l e y , si =A. (1962) s u p p o r t s t h i s c0r ten: ion:

En e f f e c t is a t t r i b u t e d t o o r e o f i t s p s s s i b l ? CBUSPS w i t h wh ich , o v e r t i n e , i t c o v a r i e s .

A s t h ~ a s s c c i a ? i o n between r u l e s i o l s ? i o n s 3 r d i r : e r p e ~ ~ O n a l v i o l e n c e t o c o E e s s i r o n g e r , a n d o c c u r s u n d e r d i f t e r e c t c o n d i t i o n s , s o d o e s t h e c e r t a i n t y r h a t t h e r u l e v l o l a t o r i s an a g g r - s s i v e p e r s o n .

o t h e r p r o c ? s s e s a l s o a r e a ? work t h a t i r f l u e n c e t h e p e ~ c ? l ~ e r t o v iew t h e r u l e V i o l a t o r a 5 ax a g g r e 5 s i v e p2rsOn r a t h e r t h a n 2s 2 v i c t i m of h i s / h e z env izonment . F a r ex tmple , a n e x p e r i a e r t by KarousD s n d P a n s o r (1971) dpmons t ra+ed t h a t p e o p l e a r e g f r s r a l l y c o s t - o r i e n r c d in t O r a i r g O v e r a l l eYBlua t ionS . When an o b j s c t 3r a v e c t h a s b a t h p o s i f i v € and r ? g a - i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , p ~ o p l e v 3 i g h t h o

n o r e t h a i 'he p o s l t i v e . Ir t h e f s m i l y s i t u s t i c n , preVlOuS r u l ? v i o l e ' i o n s h a v e c a u s e d i n t ~ ~ p e ~ s o ~ a l

V ; ~ l e n ~ ~ , s u b s e q u e n t a c + i o n s t a k s n by :he r u l e v i o l a t c r . c o n t a i n i r g b o t h p o s l t i v e e n d l q a t i v e f a a l u r s s , nap

be m g r ~ 1:kely t o b e s e e ? a s a g g r e s s i v e .

n o r e i m p o r t a n t t o o u r d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e Lapn*a t ion of a g g r e s s i o n t o t h e p e r s o n a l d i s p o s i t i o ~ o f t h e s c t a r i s t h = n a t u r e o f v i o l e n c e i t s e l f . v:olence is u s u a l l y s h i g h i n t e n s i t y . p a i c - p r o d u c i n g a c t . I f i n t h = p a s t a + t = ~ . p t s t o ~ e e o l v e r u l e v i o l a t i o c s h a v e e s c a l a t e d t o v i s l e n c - , t h e p r l b a b i l i t y i s g r e a t e r o f s e e i o g t h e o t h e r a s agg:crsive. E x p e r ; a e n t a l ev;dcsc€ f r o m b o t h KEl ley (1967) s n d P a l s t s r (1966) p o l n t s o u t 'ha t t h e p e r c e i v e r h a s a n i n c r e e s i c p l e e d t o a t t r x b u t e r s s p o n s i b l l i f y a s t h e ou tcomes o f s c t i o c s become n o r e s e v e r e .

I n a s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l s a n s o . t h e c o n s e q u e c c a s f o r t h e r o l e v x a l a t o r c a r b e S E V ~ ~ P , i n t h a * c h a n g e s i r s e l f - c o n c e p ' may o c c u r a s a t t r i b u t i o n s t o 'he p e r s o n a l ~ h a z z ~ t e r ~ s t i c ~ a r e t r a r s a i t t e d . The r u l e v io la ' s ; s a y b e g i n t o see h i a / h e r s ~ l f 8 s a g g r e s s F v I o r v i o l e n t an0 ic: I n t o x s o f t h e l a r q e r c u l t o r a l meac ing 3f b e i o g an a g g r ; s s i v e OT v i o l e n t p e r s o n .

l f f e c t m e ' s i t t r i b n t i o r . . T h e a c t i o n n b s e r v s d h a s air-cL p o s i t i v e o r l a g a t i v s c o r s e q u e c c e s f o r 'he p c r c s i v e r - - r ' i s h e d o r i s t i c a l l y r e l e v a n t . a l s o , p e r c e i v e r b i a s may o c c u r b e c a u s s o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f a c t o r :a p e r c e i v s r . whar t h e p E r C e i r e r be lLeVes t h a t ths a c t i o n he/sh? c b s e r r s s h s s been c o n d i t r o n e d by h i s / h e r p r e s e n c e , pe : sona l i sa w i l l a f f e c t d i s p o s i t i o r a l a? : r lbuf ions .

E e c a u s e o f t h e h i g h i n t e r d s p e n d e n c e cf tts c 3 a p l e . t h e s e two f a c t o r s *re e s p e c i a l l y r e l e v a n t to i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s . R f l a t i ~ n a l r u l e v i o l % ? i o r s a r e

Ch.9. B t t r l b u t i o ~ P r o c e s s ~ s Page 152

h a d o n i s t i c a l l y r e l e v a n t aria p e r s o n a l i s t i c t o intimates and miy b i a s t h e a t t r i b u t i o n p r o c e s s . I n c i a a t e s may be r e l u c t a n t t o l e b e l a s p o u s e rs a g g r e s s i v s o r v l o l e n t b?causs t h ~ a t t r i b u t i o c h e s l a p l i c a t i o n s f o r b o t h . T 3 l a b ? l a n i n t l m a t e a s an a g g r e s s x v a c r v i o l s - t p e r s l n may be t o o d i f f S c u l t t o r e c o n c i l e ulth t h e image of s p o u s e 3s a f r e e l y c h o l q n , c l o s e e m c t i a n a l p a r t c e r . The p e r c e i v 9 r m a y t e n d t o e r r LP t h o d x r e c t i o c o f n o n r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e s p u s s ~ s X e ~ p O X S i D ~ l i t y =Pa a c ' r i b u t e r u l s v i o l s t i 3 r . s $ 3 t h e e r ~ i r o n m e n t o r s i t u a t i c r r a t h e r t h a n t c t h o p a r t c e r q r p e r ~ o n a l i * y . ? i n d i n g s f rom a s t u d y by Yl r row, 2: gi. [1955), o f wives ' d e f i n i t i o n s cf h u s b a n d s ' + m ; t i o n a l p r a b l 4 m s c a n be t h u s i r t e r p r e t e d . They r e p c r f a g r s s t r a l u c t 3 c c ? on + h e p a r t o t wives to l a b s 1 t h e i r h u s b a n d s a s m s n t a l l y ill. Not w t i l a 1 1 p 9 s s i b l e i n + . e r p z = t a t i o n s o r t h e i r hushaf ids* behav10r a r e Examired and f o u n d w a n t i n g is t h e attribution t o p s r s o n ~ l d i s p o s i t i o n made. I n o t h s z words , t h e e v i d e c c e h a s t o b ? o r s r ~ h e l m i n g b e f o r e t h e husbecd l s s e e n as a m e n t a l l y 111 p e r s o n i n need of p r o f e s s i o n a l he lp .

The o t h e r concep; r e l e v a n t t o a t t r i b u t i o n b i a s amcng I r t i n a t e s i s what X e l l e g (1971) c a l l s p l u r r l i s t i c i g n o r a n c e . T h i s v & r l a h l P T F ~ ? X S t o t h e l a c k of c o n s e n s u s an an attribution t h r o u g h e i t h e r t h e a b s e n c e o f c o n p a r i s o o 3 r t h e l a c K of o t h e r observers. The p r i v a t e n a t u r e o f t h ? f r m i l y i n s t i t u t i o n ( L a s l e t t , 1373). i? v h i c h most a c t i v i t i e s t a k e p l a C B 0 ~ t 05 v i s u ct onf family menh?:s, h e i g h t = n s t h e l i k e l l h c a d ot p l u r a l i s t i c i g n o r a n c e . I t t r i b u t i o n s a 2 d s i c t h e f a m i l y s e t r i r g u s u a l l y 'ak? p l a c e w r t h o u t f e e d b a c k f rom o t h e r s . The l a c k o f 'bird p a r r y o b s e r v e r s a n d t h e i n s h i l i t y t o o b s e r v e O t h e r s e t s o f = n t i m a t c s d u r i n g t h e r e s o l u t i o n if r u l e violations l e a d s t o e l a c k o f c e r t a i n t y a s t o 'ha p r o p e r a t ' r z b u t i a n . B e c a u s e o f t h i s l a c k o f c e r t a i n t y and t h e p o s s i b i l j t p of e r r c r . d i s p o s i t i o r a l a + t r ; b n t i o n s s a p be made i n + c o n s e r v a t i v e d i r e c t i o n , b l aming t h ? s i t u a t i o n r a t h e r t h r n t h e s p o u s e .

Bs was m e ~ t i o n ~ d i? referents t o l a h e l i c o m e n t a l i l l n e s s . a t t r i b u t : ~ ~ b i a s C C U ~ ~ b c a n i n p o r t a n t v a r i e b l ? il a c ~ o u f i t i n g f o r t h e r e l u c t r n c e of many m a r r i e d p e r s o n s t o s e e k h e l p when i ~ v o l v e d i n v i o l e r t r s l a t i o n s h i p s , u n r i l t h e o u t c o m e s becon? s e v e r e tcr e v e r y o n e i n v o l v e d .

CONCLUSION

The r e l a t l o r s h l p between husband-wi fe v i o l e n c e and t w o a s p e c t s o f a t t r i b u t i c n t h e o r y were examined i n t h i s c h l p t e r . The f i r s t o r t h e s e a s p e c t s , t h e a t t r i b u t i o ~ . o f i l f O P : i 3 n a l a g g 1 ? s s i o n , was s e e n a s ac r m p o r t a r t v a r i a b l e i n t h e o c c u r r e n c s o f i n t e r p e r s o r a l v i o l e n c e . It was l r g u e d t h a t t h e v i o l a t l o r of r e l a t i o n a l r u l s s , v h i c h a r s d e s i g n ? & t o p r o t e c t t h e i d e ~ t i t i e s of p i r : i c F p a c t s i n L n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s , c a n t n i t - a t e + p r o c e s s w h e r e i n r h e v l l i d i t y

~ h . 9 . R t t r l b u t l o n P T O C G S ~ E S Page 153

Of t h e r u l e is n e g o t i a t e d , a n d a t t e m p t s t o Toduca t h e harm-doing o f z h s violation a r e bsgun. l 'hs s i c l a t i o n o f iela;:onal r u l s s may be i c c i d 9 n t a l o r d e l i b e r a t e , t h e s l g ~ ~ t i C a n ? f a c t o r b e i z g t h e msan ing of t h e v i s i a f i n r t h + t t h e o x h e r a t t r l b u t e s -a t h s v i o l a t c r .

FJUr k i r d s of r u l = v l o l a i i o o s mos t l i k e l y t s be p e r c e i v e d 2 5 a g g r e s s i v e a r e (1) r u l e v i o l a t i c c s ? t a t c 3 r t r o l b e h a n o r , (2 ) r u l e v i o l a t i o n s seer a s t h r a a t s t c s l t u a z s d i d e n t i r r e s , ( 3 ) v i o l a t i o n s o f r u l e s t h a t 2re h i g h l y

t o o t h e r r u l e s , a n d (9 ) r u l e v i 3 1 1 t i o r . s t k a t dlsznpt. e s t a b l i s h e d c l a i m s .

The s e c o n d a s p e c t oE a f ! r i b u t i o n t h e o r y examioaa was t h a t c o n c e z n e d w i t h t h e p r o c e s s o f l o c a i i n q t h e "cause" o f t h e a c t i o c . 0 9 c e a perceiver a t t r l b u t e s i r . t e n t l o n a l i 2 y t o a n o t h s r ' s a c t i c n s , h e / s h e a t t u r n p i s t o i n t e r p r e t t b e c a u s e o f t h 4 a c t i o ? . P t t r i b u t i o n s a r e made t o t h e e n v i r c c a - s t o r s l r u a t i o n , o r t o t h e p e r s n r a l i t y s f t h e a c t o r . C e r t a i n f e i z u r e s of l n t x m s t e r e 1 z t i o ~ ~ h : p s were seen a s p romac icg a t t r r b u t r o ~ a l bias, w h e r e i ~ . s l t u a t ~ o c a l a i 3 e ? . v i r ~ c m e n t a l t a c 1 0 ~ 5 IFF blamed t o r v l o l e n t a c t i o n s r a t h e r t h i n t h e p e r s o n a l d r s p o s l t l o r o f + h e a c t o r .

NOTES

+ A V ~ T S ~ O X ~f th+s c h a p t q r was p r e s e r t e d s t r h e T h e o r y C o n s t r n c t i o ~ Workshop a t t h e Z C X U Z ~ m e e t i ~ g o f tk4 BlfioPal C o n n c l l on F a m i l y B e l a + l o r s , August 1 3 - 2 0 , 1975. The p r e p a z a r r o r o f t h i s c h i p t e r was s u p p o r t s a by N 3 t i o n 2 1 I ~ s t i t u t r o f n e ~ t ~ l n e a l t h g r a n t No. 13050. I w o u l d l i k e t o r h a n k Es. J o y c e E. FCSS B P ~ 8 5 - S i u ~ d r a L. E t w - 1 1 fo r many h e l p f u l s u g g e s t i o n s t h r o u g h c u t t h e f o r m u l s t i o x of t h i s c h a p t e r .

1. RggrEss iCn 5 5 h e r e d e f i n e d a s a p h y s i c a l O r p ~ y ~ h o l o g i c a l act. o r a c t s , o c c u r r i r g i n 3r i c t e r p - r s a r a l situation, t h a t a r e judpcd t o he i r t = c ? i 3 r a l l y

harm-produc ing . The d d s t i c c t i n n betvofr: a g g r e s s i o r and v i o l r r c e i s s o p r c b l e m a t l c + h a t i t would t a k e a n r c t i r c c h a p t e r t o d e a l w i t h thr e a e t s r ( s s e G ~ l l e s e r a S f r a u s , 1 9 7 8 ) . his c h a p t e r f o c u s e s ox hcu a t t r i b u t i o n p r o c e s s e s f a c l l i i a t e v i o l e n c e b y p r o d u c i r g a c y c l e o f e s c a l s : i n q a g g r e s s i o r .

2. I d e n ? . i t y is s e e r h F r e 8 5 a s o c i c l pheccmenon. T h r o u g h OUT p o s i t ~ ~ n - S B + S , iz t h e s o c i a l structure i n r E l a t l O h t o o t h e r p o s i t r c n - s e t s , it i s e s t a b l i s h e d where and what we a r e . Mas? b a s i c a l l y , i a e i r i t y i s t h e answar ts t h p question, "Who am I?"

3. S l t u ~ t e d ~ d e n t i t y t o t h e l c c 3 t i o n o f ace's s o c i a l s e l f i n r s l a t l o n t o e s p ~ c i r i c s o c i a l p o s < t i 3 r . Fo r e x a m p l e , a h u s b a n d i n r e l a t i c r t o h i s wife, c r a s t u d t c f i n r e l a t i o c * o h i s / h e r t e a c h e r .

art IV The Interplay of Culture and Social Organization

T h t c h a p c e r s i n t h e p r e c ? d i n g s e c i i o r e m p h a s i z e t h a t c e r i z i n a s p a c t s o f f a s i l y O r g a n i z a t i o n i n c r e a s s the p = o h a b i l i t y a£ C 0 3 f l i c t . But c c n f l i c t 1s n o t t h s same i s violence: the:? a x many n a n v i o l e n + u s y s 3 f s e r t l i n g c o n f l i c t . E O V B V ~ T , i n a g roup c h a r a c - e r i z e d by a h i g h d e g r e e o f c o n f l i c t , where P O ~ S l e g i L i m i z s the u s e o f p h y s i c a l f o r c e ( a s shown i n P a r t 11). t h e *?age i s s e t f a r 3

h i g h ~ F V E ~ o f V i o l e n c e . T h i s c o a b l n a t i o c of s o c i a l O r g a r i z a t i o ~ a l a n d c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s f o r m s t h e ~ O C U S ot a l l t h r e e c h e p t e r s i n P a r t IT.

The t h r e e c h a p t e r s h a v e s o m e t h i n g alse i o COmmoC. A l l i l l u s t r a t e what Al l ?n and s t r a u s i n C h a p t e r 12 c a l l t h e " u l t i m a t e r e s o u r c e t h e o r y of v i 0 1 ~ r . c e . " T M s t h e o r y s t a t a s t h a t v i s l e n c e w i l l b e u s e d a s a r e s o u r c e when o t h e r r e s o u z c s s s r r lacking. Thus 2 t a n i l y member w i t h l i t t l e power , mor-y, o r s t a t u s i s n o r e l i k e l y t o r e s o r t t o v l o l e r c e as a means o f w i n n i n g a c ~ c f l i c t .

The c h a p t e r s i n i h l s s e c t i o n u s i v a s t l y d i t t s r e n t rn+%hods, b u t e a c h comss t o g z i p s "5th t h e t y p e o f q u e s t i c n s j u s t l i s t e d . ?<:st, s c a s e s t u d y i s p r e s e n t e d t h a t e n a b l e s u s t o g r a s p t h e d y n a m l c s o f m a r i t a l c o n f l l c t and v i s l s n c e by s h a r i r g t h = s x p e r l s n c f s o f 2 young c o u p l a . T h i s h i s t o r p i s f a l l o w e d by a c h a p t e r t h a t t r a c e s i h t l 0 g i c B l i m p l l ~ a f i l n s f c r m a r l t a l v i o l s c c e cf t h e c h + n g e s i r employmal t of m a r r i e d voaer. a33 C h s c g e s i f t h ? v2y m a s c u l i n t t p i s d e f i n e d . P i l a l l y . *he t h i r d c h a p t e r i n f h e s e c t i o n u s ? s statistical a n a l y s i s cf a l a r g e simple cE ClUplES t O 5952 t h B " ~ t l i . i t E T A S C U T C E tkEOrj"' of m z r l t a l v l o l e n c ~ .

e Haven't Since": Conjugal Violence

olitics of Marriage

Ralph LaRossa

JOE a n d J e n n i f e r , t h e c o u p l e whose s t o r y we f o l l o w i n t h i s c h a p t e r , i s n o t t h e s t u i y o f a " d i s t u r b e d " c o u p l e . They, l i k e o t h e r c s u p l e s i n v a r y i n g d e g r e e s , h a v e c e r t a i n c o n f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t - - s o m e o f which may end i n v i 3 l e n c e . T h s l r s t o r y g i v e s u s a n i n s i d e v i e w o f t h e i n t e r p l a y o f c u l t u r a l and s o c i a l o r g a n i z n t i o n a l f a c t o r s i n p r o d u c i n g w a r i t s 1 v i o l e n c l . Is p o i n t e d o u t i n e a r l i e r c h a p t e r s , t h e f a c t t h a t c u l t u r a l no rms p e r m i t v i o l e n c s amsrg f a m i l y membqrs d o e s n o t a u t o m a t i c a l l y mean t h a t v i o l ~ n c e w i l l b e u s e d t o r e s o l v ? c 3 n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n s . we must a l s o u n d e r s t a n d t h e s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o c o f t h e m a r r i a g e . T h i s i s v i v i d l y i l l u s f r a t e d vhen J o e r e l a t e s t h e t i m e he s l a p p e d J e n f l f e r " t h r e e o r f o u r t imes." T h i s o = c u r r e a d u r i n g a p a r i o d in t h e i r n a r r i a g e when J o a p e r c e i v e d J e n n i f e r a s a t t e m p t i n g t o d o r i c a t e t h e ~ r r e l a t i o n s h i p . J o e r e s p o n d e d t o t h i s a t t e m p t e d c o u p w i t h v i o l e r c e b e c a u s e h e f e l t h s "had t o do s o m e t h i n g t o s t o p t h e bad p r o g r e s s i o n of e v e n t s . " I n s h o r t , v i o l e n c a was u s ~ d vhen o t h e r f a c t o r s t h a t i n h i s mind v o u l l v a l i d a t e h i s claim t o d o m i n a n t power u e r s l a c k i n g .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

I n a n a t t e m p t t o h e l p f i l l t h e n e e d f o r e t h r s g r a p h i s s 3 f R n ~ ~ i c a n m a r r i a g e s , I r e c e n t l y c o 2 d u c t l d a q u a l r t a t i v e s t u d y Of S i x t e e n m a r r i e d c J u p l e s e x p e c t i n g t h e i r f i r s t c h i l d (LaBossa. 1977) . t1 B y c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h t h o s e c o u p l e s l e d m e t o c 3 n c l u d 9 t h a t , c o n t r a r y t o p o p u l a r o p i n i o n , c o n f r o n t a t i o s a z d s t r u g g l o a s w e l l a s c o n s s n s u s a r d e q u i l i b r i n m a r e a t t h e r o o t o f t h e m a r i t a l un ion . The i d e a t h l t m a r r i a g e is a c c r f l L c t s y s t e m is h s r d l y nova1 ( s e e

S p r e y , 1969. f o r e x a m p l e ) . what e v i d s n t l y h i s been l i c k i c g however i s e m p i r i c a l s u p p a e t f o r t h i s c o n t e n t i o n . * 2

he p u r p o s e of t h i s c h a p t e r i s t o p r e s e n t a. i l l u s t r a t i o n of t h e c o c f l i c t theme. The c a s a s t u d y t h a t f o l l o w s t e l l s t h e s t o r y of J o e a n & J e n n i f e r (Pseudonyms) , a c o u p l e whose power s t r u g g l s i s m a n i f e s t e d i n 1 v a r i s t y of ways. heir s t o r y i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g c i f i c s o t b a c a u s s of t h e v i o l e n t s i d e t o t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p . Through ; h e i r e x p e r i e n c e , t h e c o l d war me taphor , i a p l i c i t i n t h o c o n f l i c t a p p r o a c h , t r u l y comes t o l l f e .

JOE A N D JENNIFER

Th? f i r s t p r e g n a n c y meant e s s e n t i a l l y two z h i n g s t o J o + a n d J e n n i f e r . It mean t t h a t a f t e r h a v i n g w a i t e d P e a r l y f o u r y e a r s t h e y were f i n a l l y s t a r t i n g a f a m i l y , s o n s t h i n g t h e y h a d a l u a y s wan ted t o do. It a l s o s i g n a l e d a chaogf i n t h e i r work s t r n c t u r e . F o r t h e f i rs t t i m e s i n c e t h e y ware m a r r i e d J e n L i f s r would n o t be u o r k i n o . nor? inoor t . in t . f o r t h e f i r s : :=me s m c e t h e y sere marri;d J o e would be ;he s o l e wage e a r n e r . The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s l a t t e r p o i n t i s t h a t J o e i n t e n d e d t o a s e h i s new p o s i t i o n t o m+ke a c l a i m f o r dominance i n t h e m a r r i a g e .

J o e was a m e t a p h o r i c a l s p e a k e r . DftEn, v h i l e d i s c u s s i n g a n i s s u e , h e u o u l d ( t o " c l a r i f y a a p o i n t ) b r l n p i n a n e c d o t e s f rom h l s p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s o r r e l a t s t h e i s s u e t o t h e i n ' e r n a t i o n z l s t a t e o f a f f a i r s . T h e r e were tmss d u r i n g my i r t e r v i e w s w i t h t h i s c o u p l e . I a u s t c c n f e s s , when I w i s h e d he v o u l d h a v e b e e n more s p e c i f i c i n h i s answers . I l e a r n e d however t h a t I h a d t o a c c e p t , a s o t h e r s h a d , t h a t J o e u a s j u s t "deep."

Jennifer: J o e is a v e r y d e e p t h l n k e r , a r d h s a l w a y s h a s s o e e t h l n g o n h l s m ~ n d . P e car. d r l v e you r i g h t up a w a l l !

Though J o e d i d mos t o f t h e t a l k i n g , J e n n i f e r was n o t a r a 1 0 5 5 f o r words. Scmet imes s h e f o u n d i t d i f f i c u l t t o g e t a word i n e t g e u ~ s e o r remember wha t q u e s t i o n I had a s k e d a f t e r J o e had p l c k e d i? u p a n d r u z w i t h i z f o r a u h i l s , b u t t h e n SO dFd I. Phen J e n E i f e r d i d s p e a k . s h e s a i d % h a t was on h e r mind--as d l d J o e : b u t , a s s h e o n c e s a i d , wha t it t o o k J o e t o s a y i n a p a r a g r a p h , s h e s a i d i n a s e n t e n c e . On a number o f c c c a s i o n s d u r i n e ~ X F i n t e r v i e w s v h i l e J o e was b u i l d i n g an a r g u m e n t ( a n d t h i s v a s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e i f 3 3 e ' s a r g u m e n t mas an attempt t o j u s t i f y why h e s h o u l d b e i n c h a r g e ) a f e u w e l l p l a c s d u c r d r by J e n n i f e r a n d J o e ' s e d i f i c e u o u l d come t u m b l i n g d e w .

Ch.(~- E a v c n ' t 5 a d any P r c b l e m s S i n c e Page 159

JOE a r d J e n n i f e r had knoun e a c h o t h e r s i n c e h i g h S c h ~ o l . T h e i r f i rs t r a a c t i o c t o e a c h o t h e r was, a s J e n c i f e r put ~ t , ' m n t n a l d i s g u s t . " Bo th a t t r i b u t e t h i s t s t h e f a c t ? h a t t h e y a r e e a c h h o n e s t t y p e s - - i f t h e y a s n ' t l i k e you, t h e y t e l l you-ard, i n t h e b e g i n n i n g , t h e y t o l d e a c h o t h e r m o r e o f v h a t 'hey d i d n ' t l i k e t h a n o f v h a t t h e y l i P e 3 . I n t l o e , t h e i r h a t r e d t u r n e d r o l o v e . #ha: a t t r a z t a d t h p e t o each o t h e r was t h s i r s i m i l a r i t i e s - - t h e i r o p e a n e s s , t h e i r a g g z e s s i v e n e s s , a n d , i n t e r o s t i r g l y , what t h e y saw a s t h e i n a b i l i t y o f e i t h e r t o d o m i n a t e t h e o t h e r . i t was a r e l a t i o n s h i p b u l l t explicitly or. c o r f l i c t and h o n e s t y . ( J o e once d e s c r i b e d J e n n i f a r a s h i s " c o n f e s s o r , ' +nd h e h e r s . )

T ~ E c o u p l e c o u l d n o t r e c a l l a n y s p e c i f i c p a i n t a t v h i c h the7 d e c i d e d t o g s t m a r r l e d . "Someplace a1or.g t h e l i c e , ' it " a s j u s t assumed. Though t h e y nay n o t h a v e g o n e t h r o u g h t h e r a r r ~ a g e p r o p o s a l r i t u a l , t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e m a r r i e d s t a t e was 0 x 3 t h e y t o o k v e r y s e r i o u s l y . J o e and J e c n i f e r y e r e a r e l i g i o n s c o u p l e . Joe . I n p a r t i c u l a r , p r i d e d h i n s e l f on h l s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h s B i b l e . They d i d n o t b e l i e v e i z d i ~ o r c s . They f ~ l t i t r e f l e c t e d u e a k n ~ s s - - a c o u p l e ' s i n a b i l i t y t o f a c e l l f e ' s p r o b l e m s .

when t h e y g o t m a r r i e d , t h e y l i v e d s o l e l y o n J e n c i f e r ' s income. B a v i t g g r a d u a t e d f rom h i g h s c h o o l w i t h a b u s i n e s s a l p l o m a , s h e worked as a bookkeeper . J o e was j u s t b e g i n n i n g h l s t h l r d y e a r o f c o l l e g e , s t u d y i n g t o be an a c c o u o t a r t . A c t u a l l y . f o r rhE t i r s t t h r e e and a h a l f y e a r s o f t h e i r m a r r i a g e , J e n c i f e r would be t h e p r i m a r y wage e a r n e r . T h i s yas b e c a u s e a f t e r J o e was awarded h i s b a c h e l o r ' s d e g r e e , he v e n t on ;o a t t a d a p o s t g r a d u a t e b u s i n e s s s c h m l which t o o k h l m a y e a r and a h a l f t o c o m p l e t e .

~ o t h b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e vay t h e y s e r e a a c h r a i s e d e x p l a i n e d t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t i e s and uhy ,hay c o m p l e m e c t e l e a c h o t h e r . J e n n ~ f s r d e s c r i b e d h c r p r s - m a r r i a g e f a m i l y l i f e a s o r e i n v h i c h s h s was t h e p r i m a r y d e c i s i 3 n - m a k e r .

Jennifer: I u a s a l w a y s v e r y i n a e p e n d e c t b s f o r e I g o t BaXrlEd. BS a m a t t e r of f a c t , my p a r e n t s were n e v e r my r u l e . I was t h e 1 8 1 2

o f my p a r e n t s .

J o e , on t h e e t h e r haad , was b r o u g h t up i n i patriarchal home--al l d e c i s i o n s Mere made by h i s f a t h e r .

502: ... Bnd a t my h o u s e i t % a s j u s t t h e o p p o s i t e . ny f a t h e r was a v e r y s t r o n g f a t h e r Image. ? r a d l t l o c a l . "Come t o him, your f a t h ~ r w i l l d e c i d e f o r Y O U ."... E s r s u l d n % g i v ~ m r a n y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .

J e n n i f e r ' s i i d e p e n d e r c e , t h e y f e l t , was a E u n c t i c c o f h e r t a n n g been f o r c e d t o b e i n d e p e n d e n t a l l a l c n g . 309's was a a a n i f c s t a t i o r of h i s r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t h i s f a t h e r ' s

Ch.10. K a v e n ' t Had Any ProDlems S i n c e Page 16,

a u t o c r a t i c s t y l e ( " I had t o s o r t o f a s s e r t n y s z l f * ) , A c c o r d i n g t o J o e , J e n n i f e r c a a e t o t h e m a r r i a g e w a n t i n g t , "ge+, r i d o f " some o f h e r power , a n d he c a a e " w a n t i n g s:re,l s o t h e i r r e l a t l o c s h i p "worked o u t a l l r i g h t . " N e i t h e r v o u l , t r y t o d o m i n a t e t h e o t h e r .

R l t h o u g h J o e c l a i m e d t h a t J e n n i f e r wan ted l e s s p a r e : a n d ;ha? s h e would n o t t r y t o d o m i n a t e him, t h i s e v i d e n t l : was &sf t h e c z s e . Soae t5me d u r i n g t h e f i r s t t u ~ y e a r s o j t h e i r m a r r i a g e , J o e and J e n n i f e r g o t i n t o i n a rgum2nt t h a i e n d e d i n v i o l e n c e - - J o e s t r u c k J e n n i f e r . The c o n f l i c t was I power s t r u g g l e : J o e s u p p o s e d l y h i t J e n n i f e r b e c a u s t J e r n i f e r was t r y i n g t o domina te . HE r e s p o n d e d u i t h f o r c r b e c a u s e h e t e l t he "had t o do s o m e t h i n g p h y s i c a l t o s t 3 p th ' bad p r o g r e s s i o n o f e v e n t e . " The s e q u e n c e o p e n s u i t h m j a s k l n g J e n n i r e r w h e t h e r s h e t h o u g h t s h e r a n t h i n g s now--that 15, d o e s s h e D e l i e v e s h e i s " t h e r u l e f of J O E 35 s h s was " t h e r u l e " at h e r p a r e n t s and s i s t o r s .

I n t e r v i e u e r : DO you t h i n k you r u n t h i n g s now?

J e C n l t e r : N O , I t r i e d h a r d , though!

Joe: She t r i e s . One d a y we had a c o n f l i c t and s h e mare o r l e s s t r i e d t o r u n me a n d I t o l d h e r n3, a r d s h e g o t h y s t s r i c a l and s a i d , "I c o u l d k i l l YOU!" And I g o t r a t h e r a n g r y a n a s l a p p a d h e r i n t h e f a c e r h r f e o r f o u r t i m e s a n d I s a i d "Don ' t you 2 V 9 1 5+y t h a t t o me aga in . " And we h a v e n ' t had a n y p r o b l e m s s i n c e . s o s h e ' s s o r t o f l e a r n e d t h a t s h e ~ s n ' t g o m g t o d o m i n a t e .

J e r n i t s r : Yes, aT.6 1 k r n d o f l l k e 'he i d e a , t o o .

Joe: S h e threw a t e m p e r r a n t r u m when s h e r e a l i z e d t h a t s h e c o u l d n ' t d o m i n a t e a e , and "he r sha s t a r t e d g e t t i n g h y s t e r i c a l , ... t h a t ' s t h e l a s t t i m e , k i d ! Yeah t h a t ' s t h ? w o r s t a r g u m e n t ue e v e r had! T h a t u a s a drawn o u t bang o u t f i g h t . It l a s t e d a b o u t f o u r hours . It s o r t o f b u i l t and b u i l t . . .

I n t e r v i e w e r : Were you s u r p r i s e d uheo J o e h i t you?

Jo?: Oh, b e y , was she .

J e ~ c i f e z : Yeah.

Joe: She s t a r t e d c r y i n g n o t b e c a u s e I hur ; h e r b u t b e c a a s e s h e v a s shocked--"How l a r e you!'

I t t a r v l e w e r : uhg d-d you h x t he:?

10. E a ~ e r ' t Bad A c ~ P r o b l e m s S i n c e Page 161

j e n n l f e r : T h a t was a l o n g t i m e ago.

~ o e : T h a t was a r e a l l o n g t i m e ago. I t ' s j u s t L i k e i f you want t o do som?th ing l i k e t e a r down a h o u s e , wha t do you use? Do you u s e ao a tom bomb. o r do you os? a c r a n e s n d hammers a c d s t u f f l i k e t h a t ? I t ' s j u s t l i k e p h y s i c a l f o r c e . You d o r ' t u s e it u n t i l y o u ' r e f o r c G 3 t o u s e it. A t t h e t p o i n t , I f e l t I had t o a 3 s o m e t h i n g p h y s i c a l t o s t o p t h i bad p r o g r e s s i o n o f e v e n t s . I t o o k my c h a n c e s with t h a t and i t uorkad . I n t h o s e c i r c n n s t a n c 9 s , my judgment was c o r r e c t and i t W C ~ ~ E I .

~ e c n i f e r : J o e a o e s n ' t u s u a l l y u s e f o r c e . Tha t U a 5 t h e f z r s t a n d t h e l a s t t i n € h e ' l l ? V E X a3 t h a t . It was my f a u l t . I was t r y i c g $ 2

d o m i n a t e him, t h a t ' s f o r s u r e . But I was a l w a y s t h a t t y p e o f p e r s o n . Chzt's vhy. I a l w a y s had t o be t h a t t y p s o f p e r s o n , becausE I a l w a y s had t o naXe my o v r d e c i s i o n s . I n e v e r had anybody e l s e make my d e c i s i o n s .

Joe: I'm a v e r y d o m i n a t i n g p s r s o n , t30. $3

t h e r e was a c o n i l i c t t h e r e .

J e n l i f e r : I t h i n k r h a t ' s o n e o f t h e r e a s o n s v? g o t a l o n g s o w i l l , b e c a u s e h e was t h e f i r s t p e r s o n I v e n t o u t w i t h t h a t I c o u l d n ' t d o m i n a t e . So h e was a c h a l l e n g e .

J09: T h a t was a s e v e r e c o n f l i c t . I d o n ' t know Lf we h a d n ' t s o l v e a t h a t p rob lem, i f w a w ~ u l a s t i l l be m a r r i e d , b e c a u s e o f t h e tension. I ' m n o t t h e k i ~ d o f p e r s o n t h a t ' s g o i n g t o b? a o m l n a t e d .

J e ~ n l f e r : R c ~ I'm n o t e i t h e r .

JOB: 50 v e ' w had t o a g r e e , t h r m g h s p r o c e s s o f compromise , and t a l k i n g t h i s 3 u t . We'ra l:ving on r e c o n c L l i a t i o n a n d compromise and u n d e r s t e n d i r g .

Though l e n g t h y , t h e Sequence i s i m p o r t a n t . I t i s I m p o r t a n t n o t o r l y f o r what is s a i d , b u t f o r how a s v s l l . F o r example , t h e t e n o r o f J o e ' s comnents--he s p e a k s 2 s if ~ e n n i f e r were a u i l t y o f d i s r e s p e c t or e v e n i n s u b o r a i n s t i o n ( " D m ' t you E v e r s s y t h a t t o me again!".. . "Tha i ' s t h e l a s t t i m e . kid!"). ?"en more, t h e r e is u c d o u b t 2 d l y a c s r t a i n amount o f p r i d e expressed- -he Gsx he had won 7h.t a r g u a s r t . J e n r l f e r , o n t h e o t h e r h a i d , i s q u i c k t o p o i n t o u t " t h a t was t h e f i r s t a_= t h e 68t t i m e f e e l 1 e r e r d o t h e t [ h i t h?r]." S h e wan ted t o make it p e r f e c t l y c l e a r t o me, b u t more

ch.10. H a v e z ' t Had s n y P r o b l e n s s i n c e Page 16

i m p o r t a n t l y t c JOE, t h a t s h e t o o had no i n t e n t i o n o f b e i t dominated--and. p e r h a p s . t h a t shs considered J o a ' s g l c a l i n a 2 a t t e m p t t o do j u s t t h a t ! S h e g o e s on t o a d m i t t h a t sb married J o e b e c a u s e "he was a c h a l l e n q e . ' Does s h e mean b t h i s t h a t s h e c o z s i d e r s J o e h e r o p p o n e n t ? Ths c o n f l i c P a t n r s o f t h e l r m a r r i a g e rs e x p l i c i t l y acknowledged whsn jo

c o n c l u d e s by s a y i n g t h a t t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p works " r e c o n c i 1 i a : i o n and compromise" (words which c o n n o t , " c o n f l i c t ' a s w e l l a s " u c d s r s t a n d l n g . "

BS n o t e d , J o e was a s t u d e o f f o r t h e f i r s t t h r e e and h a l f y e a r s o f t h e i r m a r r i a g e . When h e g r a d u a t e d , h, a c c e p t e d a n o f f e r t o work as a n a c c o u n t a n t w i t h a lo=*: f i r m . O l e month a f t e r J o e t c o k :he j o b , t h e c o u p l e begal t r y i n g t o c o n c e i v e a c h i l d . Four months l a t e r t h e y founr o u t t h a t J e n c i f e r was p r e g n a n t . They u e r 2 w i d e r a y jus : b i d i n g t h e i r t i m e , w a i t i n g f o r J o e t o f i n i s h school--the p o i n t a t v h i c h +hey f e l t i t would b e t i m e t o s t a r t a f a m i l y . They a l w a y s i n t e n d e d t o h a v e c h i l d r e n . R s J e n n i f e r p u t i t , t h e y n e v e r " r e a l l y s e r i o u s l y ' c o c s i d e r r d n 3 t hev in : c h i l d r e n .

Joe: I t h i n k h a v i n g c h i l d r e n is a f l f l l e t P e o p l e t h a t a r e n a r r i s d and d o n ' t h a v e c h i l d r e n t e n d t o g e t more s e l f i s h a s t h e y g e t o l d e r . And I t h i n k t h e r e ' s a l o t o f t r u t h i n t h a t .

J e n c i t e r : If you s e e p e o p l e w i t h o u t c h i l d r e n , t h e y t e n d t o be v e z y s e l f i s h , s e l f - c e n t e r e d p e o p l e .

JOB: I t h l n k p e o p l e uho h a v e c h i l d r e n t e a d t o h e more o u t g o i n g , a c d h a v e a h e a l t h i e r a t t i t u d e t o w a r d l i f e .

They a l s o b e l l e r e d t h e c h l l d would b r l l g them c l o s e r '3 e a c h c t h e r .

Joe: I t h i c k it 's g o i n g t o p u l l u s t s g e t h e r more... Each a n d e v e r y l i t t l e i t e m t h a t you d o t o g e t h e r o r c a c d i s c u s s t o g e t h e r o r have il Conmon b r i n g s you c l o s s r t o g e t h s r .

In a n d i t l o n t o t h e s e r e a s o r s , t h e c o u p l e o f f e r e d y e t % o t h e r r e a s o r vhg t h e y o p t e d t o h a v e s c h i l d . They wan ted t o star* 3 f a m i l y b e f o r ? J e n n i f e r g o t " i o o a m b i t i o u s " i n h e r j cb . The f a c t is t h a t w h i l e J o e may h a v e j u s t b e e n s t a r t i n g h : ~ c z r e e r , J z ~ n i f e r had become q u i t e e s t a b l i s h e d i n h e r s . S h e bad b e c a n s tt.e s u p e r v ; s o r o f t h e b z o k k e s p i n g d a p a r t m e n t i n t h e company s h e had b e e s w o r k i n g f o r SLnce t h e y were m a r r i e d .

J ~ l z i f ~ ; : I f i g n r f d I b e t t e r h a v e o n e b a r o r * I g a t t o o a m b i t i o u s i n my job. I was g e t t i n g i

l o t o f p r o e o t i o L s a n d I d e c i d e d i f I g o t t o o a m b i t i o u s I may n o t wan t c h i l d r e n . I m i g h t g e t t o o i n v o l v e d 1 n m a t e r i a l t h i n g s .

ind i n a n o t h e r i n t e r v i e * - -

J e n n i f e r : Tters's a p o i n t i n your l i f e " h e r you s h o n l d h a v e 3 f a m i l y - . . I f y s u w a i t t o o l o n g , you s t a r t t o b e l i e v e t h a t money i s m3re impor tan ; t h s n f a m i l y l i f e . I've seer. r h + t h a p p e n t o some o t h e r peop le .

508 a n d J e n n i f e r ' s d e e m p h a s i s o f " s a t e r i a l t h i n g s " a n d the:r p o s i t l v r r e g a r d f o r " f a m i l y l i f e ' was, t o a l a r g e degree , an Outg rowth o f t h e i r r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s . B t t h e COrs of t h e s e b e l i e f s is t h e n o t i o n t h a t work ing is f o r p e i ~ o n a l f u l f i l l m e n t a n d c o t f o r t h e mone ta ry r e w a r d s it may br=ag. J e n n l f e r s p o k e o f b e i L g a f u l l - t i m e m o t h e r , s o I asked her w h e t h e r s h e b e l i e v e d s h e would e v e r r e t u r n t o wort. She a s s u r e d me s h e would, t h a t s h e would l i k e t o work z s a c o n s u l t a c t e v e n t u a l l y , i f o r l y p a r t - t i m e . S h e f e l t it was i m p o r t a n t f o r h e r to p u r s u e h e r c a r e e r , t h a t " i n t h i s day and age . you n e e d more t h e n j u s t t h e family ." It was a p p a r e n t t h a t J c n c l f e r ' s c o r c e p t o f s ~ l f was r e l a t e d t o h e r c a r e e r a s w e l l a s t o h e r f a m i l y . So u e s J o e ' s . Whi le 533c:rer 's a m b i t i o n s ware b e i n g s t i f l e d , J a e ' s a m b i t i o n s " e r a b e i n g r a l g e d . J e n n i f e r o n c e s a i d t h a t when h e r "quiet," "subdued ' f a m i l y f i r s t met J o s , t h e y were "sh3ckedt ' by h i 5 f f a n k 3 e s s . The i m p r e s s i o n t h e c o u p l e g i v e h s w e r e r When t h e y s p e a k o f t h e e f f e c t u h i c h moving f r o s s t n d s n t t o v o r k P r had on J o e is t h a t h e had l o s t some o f h i s a ~ ~ e r t l v e ~ e s s i C t h e i n t e r i m . Through h i s work h e 115s e r i d i n t l y r e g a i n i n g h i s i n d e p e c d e n c e 3nd s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e .

J e o r i S e r : I t h i n k JOE is g e t t i n g more i n d e p e n d e n t ... He's been work ing w e l l w i t h a l l t h e b u s i n e s s p e o p l e h e ' s beEa d e a l i n g w i t h l a t e l y . RS 'S g s t t i ~ g more s e l f - c o n f i d e n t . . .

I n t e r v r e w r : Do you f e e l t h a t J o e l a c k e d s e l f - c o n f ~ d e n c e ?

J e n c i i e r : I t h l n k t h a t "hen you f i r s t g e t o u t o f s c h o o l Y O U do. You're n o t ussd t o b e i n g -11-h h a s i n e s 5 p e o p l e . You ' r e u s e d t o be=zg w i t h s ~ u d e ~ t s .

I D ~ ~ ~ Y I E W ~ ~ : Fhat do you t h i n k a b o u t y o u r s ? l f - c o r f S d e r c e , J o e ?

Joe: I t h i c k I ' m g a i r i i g more s e l f - c o n f i d s n c e . W i t h more e x p e r i e n c e you know wha t t s do.

a n o t h e r s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e b u i l d e r which J o e was r n r c l v f d w i t h

Ch.10. Haven" Had Eny P r o b l e m s S i n c e Page 16Y

w a s s t u d y i n g f o r t h e C e r t i f i e d P u b l i c B c c o u n t a n t (CPA) exams. Ee d i a n q t went t o b e a CPB. B E j n s t w a ~ t e d t o p a s s t h e exam and. a s he s a i d , " s t i c k my t o n g u e o u t . " ( .st whoa? He d i d n ' t s ay . ) J e r n i f e r a l s o w a r t e d him t o t a k e t h e exam s o t h a t h e would be more f l e x i b l e . I f h e d i d n ' t l i k e one j o b , h e would. b e a b l e t o move t o a n o t h e r w i t h more e a s e .

The f a c t t h a t b o t h J o e a n d J a n n i f e r ' s i n d i v i d u a l c o n c e p t s o f s e l f were s o r e l a t e d t o t h ~ i r r s s p e c t i v e c a r e e r s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g . When t h e s u b j e c t o f a r g u i n g came up ( I a s k e d a l l t h e c a u p l e s vhar t h e y u s u a l l y a r g u e d i b o u t ) , J o e a r d J e n r i f e r s a i d t h a t t h s t h i n g t h e y a rgued . a b o u t t h e mos t was a c c o u n t i n g and bookkeep ing . When I a s k e d them why t h e y a r g u e d s o much a b o u t a c c o u n t i n g and bookkeeping, it became a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e y c o n s i d s r themSE1Ves. s o r e 01 l e s s , i n t h e same b u s i n e s s - - t h e b u s i n e s s o f h a n d l i n g money--and t h a t i n t h i s b u s i n e s s t h s y b a t h h a r e t h e i r own ideas. A c t u a l l y , t h e y seam t o a p p r o e c h t h e b n s i n e s s f ~ o m t w o airferDnt m i n t s of view. ~ o e . as an ---.-. ~ A - ~ - ~, ~~-

a c c D u n t a n t , r e p r e s e n z s ~ h e a b s t r a c t o r r h s o r o t i c a l v i e w p o i n t . J e n n i f e r , a s a b o o k k e c p s r , r e p r e s e n t s t h e c o n c r e t e (down t o e a r t h ) v i e u .

I n t e r v i e w e r : Why do you t h i n k you end up arguing a h o u t i t?

J e n n i f e r : I t h i ~ k r h a t l s s o m e t h i n g we b o t h have o u r own i d e a s o r .

Joe : Somet imes I ' m i n c o n s i s t e n t and s h s p o i n t s it o a t . E t O t h e r t i m e s h e r k n J w l s d g e a b o u t t h e subject i s L o r a s h i g h a s mine, s o I h a v e t o s o r t Of E d u c a t e he r .

J e n r i f e r : I ' m more a c c u r a t e a n d h e ' s s o r e k n o v l s d g e a b l e . P u t i t t h a t way.

R L ~ l a t e r on,

Jennifer: H E ' S an a c c o u n t a n t , a n a I'm a b o o k k e e p e r -

Joe : Yeah. s h e ' s + bookkeeper . B o o k k e e p e r s c a n fLnd e r r o r s , a n d a c c o u n t a n t s c a n make up s y s t e m s 2nd can d e c i d e hou t h e s y s t e l s can z u r o r why, a n d t h e b o o k k e e p e r s c a n f i g t i e r r o r s .

J a n ~ : f e r : E o o k k e e p e r ~ c a n c o r r e c t a c c o u n t a r t s ' m i s t a k e s .

Tt~' c l a s s i c ~ o z t f l i ~ t - - ~ d u c a t i ~ n V B ~ S U S s x p e r i e ~ c e - - seems t o b e a t t h e r o o t o f t h e i r d i s c u s s i o c . D e s p i t e what may a p p e a r t o mos t o f u s a s a n intellectual ? x s r c i s e , t h e f a c t t h a t J o e and J e n n i f e r ' s i n d i v i d u a l c o n c e p t s o f s e l f a r e

ch.10. H a r ~ n ' t Had Any P r o b l e m s S i n c e Page 165

s o r e l a t e d t o t h e money h a n d l i n g b u s i n e s s makes t h e i r c o n 2 r o n t a t i o n s more t h a n a d i r e r s i a s . They " e r a , I b e l i e v e , m a n 2 f e s t a t L o n s of t h e same c o n f l i c t t h a t had bean g o i n g on be'vsen them s i c c e t h e y n e t i n h i g h school--who d o a i n s t e s whom?

Given t h a t t h e o n s e t o f p r e g n a n c y s i g n a l e d a c h a n g e i n t h e work s t r u c t u r e o f t h e c o u p l e ' s m a r r i a g e , on? migh t a l s o s u s p e c t t h a t t h s l r p e r e n n i a l c o n f l i c t v o u l d d e v e l s p i n t o some i n t e r e s t i n g power p l a y s a n d p a r r i e s . T h i s i s , i n f a c t , e s s e n t i a l l y whet happened. J o e may h e v e r e b e l l e d a g s i r s t h i s f a t h e r ' s a t t e m p t t o exE:t c o n t r o l ss t h e h u s b a c d - f a t h e r . The74 r e r e , however , l n d i c z t i o n s t h a t J o e t o o would h a v e l i k ~ d t o command J e r n i f e r ' s r e s p e c t a n 3 s u b o r a m a t i o n b e c a u s e te t o o v a s no* t h e a a n o f t h e house.

Joe: Hell, I'm a p u r e male c h a u v i n i s t p i g . and I ' l l a d m i t it.

J e n n i f e r : Yeah.

JOE'S c h z n v i n i s m , o r more p r e c i s e l y h i s b e l i e f t h a t h e s h o u l d d o n i n s t e J e n n i f e r b s c a u s f t h a t ' s t h e way i t s h o u l d be. was o f t e n n o t e s e x p l i c i t a s t h e a b o v e adaiss :on, b u t t h s r e was no m i s t a k i n g i t s E x i s t e n c e i n some of J o e ' s o t h e r comments. P o r e x a e p l e :

Joe: 1 d o o ' t r e a l l y d i s c u s s t h e p r e g n a n c y t h a t much w i t h o t h e r s . I l e t J e n n i f e r do a l l t h s a i s c u s s i n g . . . my b a c k g r o u r d w i t h t h e p e o p l e I n this a r e a : %he nsn j u s t d o n ' t d i s c u s s pregnancy...ve l e t t h e women t a k e c a r e of tha t .*3

Joe: It seems l i k e t h e r e ' s a breakdown i n T O ~ E S , if you know what I ' m g f t t i c g a t . It s e e m s like z l l t h e women " a n t t o ba c o a l a l n e r s z l l of a sudden. I t seems r o be t h ? t h i ~ g t o do. Ey t h e o r y is: t h a t t h e vomEc would be b e t t e r o f f t o s t a r home and t a k e c a r e of t h e k i d s and t a k e c a r e o f t h a s o c i a l c l u b s a n d t h a t s o r t o f s t u f f . And t h e men 93 o u t znd e a r n t h e money... I t h i n k t h e b a s i c p rob lem r i t h j u v e r i l e d e l i n q u e n c y a n d t h e * h o l e mess t h a t t h i s c o u n t r y is i n i s t h a t t h s mar g o e s o u t and works , and t h s woman ~ O E S OE* and works , and t h e c h i l d r e n are l e f t Dome...

U n f c r t u n a t e l y f o r Joe, J e n n i f e r w o u l d n ' t b u y h i s i d e o l o g i c a l ( t h e c u l t u r e s a y s t h a t ' s :he way i t ' s SUDPOSEB t o be) t h e o r y o r who d o a i n a t e s whom. To b e a m a s t e r , o n e mus t h a v e a s l a v e . S a t t h e b y p r o a w c t o f

Ch.10. A a v e h ' i Had Eny P r o b l e m s S i n c e Page 166

~ > ~ ~ ~ - ~ -.--- ~.~ ~- ~- ~ - - -. c a l i & t h e n s o u r c e t h e o r y o f pouer . his t h e o r y a r g u e s t h a t t h e a l l o c a t i o n o f t a s k s and power is b a s e d ( o r s h o u l d b e basod. it y o u ' r e u s i n g it a s a maxim which J o e was) o r t h e c o m p a r a t i v e r e s o u r c e s o f t h e members o f a s o c i e t y and by t h e l i f e c i r c u w s t a n c s s w i t h i n which t h e v l i v e . I n more - ~~~

s z n p l e t e r m s , w h a t t h i ; means f o r t h e ' m i c r o s o c i e t y . m a r r i a g e , is t h a t t h e d i v i s i o n o f work m a , mos t i m p o r t a n t l y . power i s d e e s r m i n e d n o t by i d e o l o g y b u t by who b r i n g s i n more r e s o u r c e s . R r e s o u r c e is d e f i c s d a s a n y t h i r g t h a t o n e p a r t n e r may make a v a i l a b l e t o t h e o t h a n , h e l p i n g t h e l a t t e r s a t i s f y h i s o r h e r n e e d s o r a t t a i n h l s :r h e r g o a l s ( B l o o d a n d Xalfe. 1960:12). Boney a n d e x p e r t i s e . f o r example , m i g h t q u a l i f y a s r e s o u r e s .

R i t h i n t h e r e s o u r c e t h e o r y s y s t e m . J o e ' s c l a i m t o p o u e r wou ld b e s t r u c t u r a l l y b a s e d on t h e a s s s r t i c n t h a t h f was b r i n g i n g i n what some c c u p l e s c o n s i d e r t h c most i a p s r t a n t resource--money. P e r h a p s J e n n i f e r t r i e d t o u s e t h i s justification t o d o m i l a t e J o e a u r i n g t h e f i r s t t h r e e a c d a h a l f y e a r s of t h e i r m a r r i a g e . She was t h e n t h % b r e a d w i n s e r . Rod p e r h a p s J o e , t h o u g h h e ( l i t e r a l l y ) f o u g h t h e r a t t e m p t s d u r l n g t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f t h e i r m a r r i a g e t o make s u c h a claim, e v e n t u a l l y was c o n v i n c e d of h ? r d e f i c i t i o n o f t h e s i t u a t i o n . would t h i s e x p l a i n h i s l o s s o f self-confidence t h a t g e t t i n g a j o b ( r e s o u r c e s ? ) h e l p e d him t o r e g a i l ? F h e r h e r o r n o t J o e was making a c l a i m b a s e a on r u l e s which had e x i s t e d a l l a l o r g , i t was o b v i o u s he a n t i c i p a i , e d u s i n g u h a t h e saw as h i s c a e p e r a t i v e l y g r e a t e r r e s o u r c e s t o s u p p o r t h i s d o m i n a t i o n . Wi*h t h e t r a n s i t i o x t o p a r e n t h o o d h e would become t h e b r e a d w i n n e r , h e would h a v e t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , a n d h e would b e i a charge. . .cr s a h e hoped.

Joe: I ' m s o r t of p r o u d and happy now t h a t my wife's p r e g n a r t a n d we ' re g o i n g t o have a c h i l d . a n d it was t h e m o t i v a t i n g f a r c e i n t e r m s of me t h i n k i n g a b o u t b e i n g t h e b r e a d w i n n e r , a s s u m i n g a s p e c i f i c r o l e . S h e ' s g o i n g t o b e s t a y i n g home. B e f o r e , I was j u s t a n o t h e r p e r s o n g o i n g o u t a n d WorKing a n d nav I ' m g o i n g t o b e t h e b readwinner . . .

I c f e r v i s v e r : Do ycu l i t e t h a t ?

JOF: I t h l n k i t ' s n i c e t o f e e l t h a t y o u ' r p r a k i n g c h a r g e . .. V h ~ n you h a v e r e S p O n E i b i l ~ t i e s , you e n d u p b e i n g i n c h a r g e .

OPCS a g a l n , t o J o s ' s f r u s ~ r a t i o n . J e n n i f e r v o u l d n ' t buy h i s t h e o r y o n who d o m i n a t e s whom. She mads i t c l e a r a number o f t i m e s d u r i n g t h e i n t e r v i e w s t h a t s h e had n o i n t e n t i o n o f e n d o r s i n g J o e * s c l a i m . The s e q u e n c e which

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f o l l o w s i l l u s t r a t e s J o e ' s moves a n d J e n n i f e r " c o u n n t z r o v e s i n t h e l r n e g o t i a t i o n o f power.

I n t e r v l e v e r : I n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of y o u r m a r r i a g e , a r e you t h e b o s s ?

Joe: I n t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s h e r e , i n t h e uay w e ' r e d i v i d i n g t h e a u t h o r i t y , now s h e ' s go fng t o b e t h e h o u s e w i f e and I'n g o i n g t o b € t h 2 p r i n c i p a l b readwinner . T h a t mores me u p 2

n o t c h i n terms o f b a i n g t h e b r e a d w i n n e r a n a h a v i n g t h e s a y i n f i n a n c i a l m a t t e r s . S h 3 ' s g o i n g t o b e i n c o n t r o l of t h e house e x ~ l o s i v e l y . S h e ' s g o i n g t o h a v e more s a y i n wha t g o e s on v i t h i t , e v e n mare s o v i t h t h e f u r n i s h i n g s o f t h e house.

J e n c l t e r : I d o n ' t t h i c k h e ' s t h e b o s s , b ? c a n s e I n e v e r t h o u g h t of ~ ~ y s e l f a s b e i n g t h e b o s s e i t h e r .

I n t e r v i e w e r : What do you t h i n k o f 502 '5 n o t i o n t h a t if h e ' s making t h e aoney , h e ' s a n o t c h u p on you?

J e n n i f e r : Oh, t h a t ' s h i s i d e a .

Joe: Well. I t h i n k when. . .anybcdy d o e s s o m e t h i n g t o a s sume r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n a s p e c i f i c a r e a , t h e r e is s o r t of a r a i s i n g o f him t h e r e i n e u t h o r i t y i n t h a t a r e a . ?ha:'s 211 I'm t r y i n g t o g e t a t . B e c a u s e I w i l l be t h e s o l e b r e a d v i n n e r , my a u t h o r i t y w i l l go u p slightly.

I r t e r v i e v e r : S o y o u r a u t h o r i t y i s g o i n g up h s r e and J e n r i f e r ' s i s g o i n g dovn h e r e . [ I m o t i o n e d v i t h my h a n d s t o i n d i c a t e two a i t t e r e n t l e v e l s . 3

J e c n i f s r : I ' d sti l l work on t h a t one... I t ' s s t i l l g o i n g t o work t h + t mine v i l l go u p t h e r e . [ T r a n s l a t i o n : I "ill st i l l h a v e 3s much a u t h o r z t y a s he h a s . ] Re t h i n k s t h a t r a y [ b u r I know b e t t e r ] .

I n f E r v L e v a r : Do you b e l i e v e h e ' s t h e b o s s b 4 C 2 ~ 5 9 h e r s t h e b r e a d v r r r e r ?

J e n n i f e r : 60 c a n t s l i s u e it i f he wants .

I n t e r v i e v e r : What d o you t h i n k he b e l i e v e s ?

Jennifer: I t h l n k h e ' s more o f a h s u s e h c l d e r . T h a z ' s a b e t t e r word.

Ch.10. H a v e c ' t Bad Any P r o b l e m s S i n c e p a g e 168

Joe: Yeah. I g e t s t e p p e d upon! [Laugh te r ] . . . f o r example , i t t h e r e s h o u l a be a p r o w l e r i n t h e h o u s e a n d t h e y had a gun, I would p r o b a b l y a s sume r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n t h a t c i r c u m s t a n c e b e c a u s e I ' m i n c h a r g e sf t h e weapons. a n d I'm t h e more p h y s i c a l , v i o l e c t p e r s o n a l i t y ? [ L a u g h z e r ] So I would t a k e mars r f s p o n s i b i l i ~ y 1 n t h a t c i r c u m s t a n c e b s c a u s e I am more k n o v l e d g e a b l e . Now i f s h e was gung-ho on g u n s , I ' d say . "Here , you go downstai rs . . . " [ L a u g h t e r ] T h a t s o r t o f t h i n g . I n times o f emergency I t a k e over. . . We e a c h assume o u r own r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s i C o u r o u r a r e a .

I n t e r v l e v e r : But y o u ' r e g o i n g t o be h e a d o f t h e h o u s e h o l d .

Joe: Yeah. [ L a u g h t e r ] I l i k e t h e way you s a i d t h a t !

I n t e r ~ i e w e r : wha t d o e s it mean t o be head of t h e h o u s e h o l d ?

J e n n i f e r : It n e e n s n o t h i c g . [ L a u g h t e r ]

Joe : T h i s is what it means. It means n s t h i r g , b u t when a j o b i s b o t c h e d up, t h e buck s t o p s h e r e . T h a t ' s what i t means! [ L a u g h t e r ] ... What I ' m s a y i n g is i f I t h e s o l e b r e a d w i n n e r . I t h i n k o v e r a p e r i o d o f t i m e I'll b e f e e l i n g more a u t h o r i t y i n s p e c i f i c a r e a s d o e t o t h e C i r c u m s t a n c e t h a t I ' m f a m i l i a r wi th . I f s h e s h o u l d g e t a j o b , my responsibility as s o l e b r e a d w i n n e r woold have t o g o down. And h e r s w i l l s t a r t t 3 r i s e . S h e ' s t h e o n 9 who's g o i n g t o be i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e k i d more t i m e t h a n I a n , so 1'8 g o i n g t o h a v e t c l e a n o v e r and say . "OK, s h e ' s t h e b o s s when i t comes TO t a k i n g c a r e o f and making d e c i s i o n s a b o u t t h i s l i t t l e k id ." S e e what I'm g s t t i n g a t ? Because t h i s t u r n s t h e a r e a o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , b s c a u s e s h e ' s more i n t o u c h w i t h it. a n d s3 Jn a n d s3 f o r t h . S o wha t h a p p e n s is t h a t t h e r e a r e many a r e a s o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . So a t a n y g i v e n p c l n t i n t i m e , you a s s u s e " b o s s if t h e caz.'> " b o s s o f t h e u e a p o n s , " " b o s s f o r hone d e f e n s e . " " b o s s f o r b e i r g b r e a d w i n n e r . ' ' boss t o r h e a v y manna1 l a b o r , " " b o s s f o r r e p a i r s a n d r e p 1 a c e a e n t s . n " b o s s o v e r t h e tool^.^ Her--"boss f o r c h i l d b e a r i n g , c h i l d c a r i n y , f o o d , s h o p p i n g , h o u s e h o l d d e c i s i o n s * . . . I was j u s t t r y i n g t o e x p l a i n t h a t b e c a u s e I an e a r n i n g t h e money s o l s l y t h a t I p r o b a b l y w i l l

ch.10. A a v e n ' t Bad Any P r o b l e m s S i n c e PagE 169

e n d up h a v i n g n o r e d e c i s i o n making p o u e r in t h a t a r e a .

J e n n l t e r : Yeah. b u t I know hov t o h a n d l e it more.

TherE 2re a number o f t h i n g s w o r t h n o t i n g i n t h e a b o v e s e q u e n c e . P l r s t of a l l , J o e ' s c l a i m i s bound t o r u n i r t o t r o u b l e f rom t h e s t a r t . Ee i s a t t e a p t i n g t o a r g u e t h a t s i n c e he is t h e b r e a d w i n n e r , h e i s t o h a r e " t h e s a y " i n f i n a n c i a l B a t t e r s . Given t h e i r s e n s i t i v i t y t o money h a n d l i n g . Jennifer's f i c a l r e p l y , "Yeah, b u t I know how t o h a n d l e it [money] more [ b e c a u s e I ' m a b o o k k e e p e r a n d y o u ' r e an a b s t r a c t a c c o u n t a n t ] , " is p r e d i c t a b l e . S B c o r d l y , a l t h o u g h J o e e l a b o r a t e s on h i s c l a i m by a r g u i n g t h a t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y I m p l i e s a u t h o r i t y , and t h a t J e n n i f e r w i l l , b e c a u s e of h e r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , be "boss" of Some a r e a s t o o , t h e t a c t i s s o a e a r e a s h a v e more v e i g h t t h a n o t h e r s . The a r e a i n t h i s h o u s e h o l d which c a r r i e s t h e most v e i g h t i s t h e f l n a n c i a l a r e a . J o e k n o v s t h i s , b u t t b e n s o d o e s J ~ r n l f e r . She r e t u s f s t o g i v e J o e ' s c l a i m v a l i d i t y by d e r y i n g rt a c c e s s t o t C E i r w o r l d of c o n s e o s u l l r u l e s ("Oh. t h a t ' s h i s idea..." "Re c e n b e l i e v e it i f h e wants..." "It means n o t h i n g " ) .

Toward t h e end o f t h e p r e g n a n c y , it a p p e a r e d Cha t J o e had n o t g i v e n u p on a n i d e o l o g i c a l c l a i m t o power , t h a t h e i n f a c t u o u l d r e s o r t t o b o t h i d e o l o g y a n d r e s o u r c e s t o s u p p o r t h i s p o ~ e r p l a y . By t h e f o u r t h i n t s r v i e u , J e n n i f e r had q u i t work a n d was t r y i n g t o a d a p t t o b e i n g a housewi fe . It was d i f f i c u l t f o r h e r . She t o o k a g r e a t d e a l o f p r i d e i n t h 9 work s h e had dons , t h e b o o k s s h e had s e t up, t h e d e p a r t m e n t s h e s u p p o s e d l y had s t r a i g h t e n e d ou t . when she l e f t , e v e r y t h i n g i n t h e d e p a r t m e n t s t a r t e d t o " f s l l a p a r t . " The p e r s o n who t o o k J e n n i f E r q s p l a c e d i d n ' t want t o l e a r n what t o do, so t h e y c l a i m e d , and a s a c o n s e q u e n c e J e n n i f e r had been c a l l e d a number o f times t o g i v e s s s i s t a r c e o v e r t h e phone. The whole a f f a i r p r o v o k f d a c o n f l i c t b e t v e e n J o e and J s n n i f e r . I n s p i t e o f J e n n i f e r ' s a t t a c h m e n t t o h e r p r e v i o u s j o b , J o e wanzed h e r t o " l e t go." He was a c t u a l l y q u i t e vehemen; a b o u t it. H i s t h r e a t o f r h a t he u o u l d do " i f t h e y [ J e n n i f e z ' s f o r m e r c o - u o r k s r s ] c a l l up" i s i n t s r e s t i n g . A 9 s a y s he i s g o i 3 g t c " a c t l i k e a f a t h e r " when he t e l l s :hem t3 s t o p call:,g. Is it h i s f a t h e r h e is g o i n g t o a c t l i k e . h i s E i t h e r t h e p a t r i a r c h who maae a l l t h e d e c i s i o n s f o r J c e ? Erd f o r vhon i s h e a c t i n g - - J e n c i f e r V s f o r m e r co -worker s o r J e n r ~ i f e r , h e r s e l f ?

Joe : ... If t h e y c a l l up h e r e , I ' m g o i n g t o g e t o n t h e phone and a c t l l k e a f a t h e r . Bnd 1's g o l n g 70 t e l l them, "Hey, you 'd b e t t e r h o l d u p now, and i f you c a l l o n c e a c r e , I ' m g o i n g t o punch you lr t h e mouth." and I'n g o i r g t o h a n g up a n them. End I know t h e y a r e g o i n g t o b o t h e r he r . I d o n ' t wan t t h a t t o happen.

Ch.10. Haven ' t Had I n y P r c b l e m s S i n c e Pags 170

J o e once s a i d t h a t h e f e l t t h e p regnancy made him more of a man and J e r n i f s r more of a mornan. P e r h a p s what he n e a t by t h i s i s t h a t f i r : a l l y h e c a n draw t h a t l i n e a s h i s f a t h e r drew t h e l i n e . whether J e n n i f e r w i l l be a b l e t o c o n t i n u e t o r e s i s t r e m a i n s t o b e s e e n .

CONJUGAL VIOLENCE A N D T H E POLITICS OF N A R R I A G E

J o e and J e n E i f e r ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p a p p e a r s t o b e b u l l t on r n t a r p e r s o n a l c o n f l i c t - - " a n i n c o n p a r i b l e 8 i f f e r s c c E of o b j e c t i v e . . . a d e s i r e cn t h e p a r t of b o t h C o n t e s t a n t s t o a t t a i n Ghat is a v a i l a b l e o n l y t o one, o r o n l y i n p a r t w (Dahrendor i , 1959:135). The c o n f l i c t between them may be viewed i n e s s e n t i a l l y o c e of two ways-as a s i g n of a " d i s t u r b e d " o r ' #s ick" r e l a t i o n s h i p , o r a s a normal COnSEquenCe cf t h e m a r i t a l bond. The f i r s t c o n c e p t i o n , t h e c o n s e n s u s approach . assumes t h a t t h e husband-wlfe union i s a r ; l a t i o n s h i p based an agreement and homeos tas i s . Thf s e c o n d c o n c e p t i c n , t h e c o n f l i c t a p p r o a c h , assumes t h a t d i s s e n s u s and s t r u g g l e s f o r power a r e i n h e r e n t q u a l i t i e s of a marriage. The f i r s t c o n c e p t i o n is t h e p o p u l a r one. m u e v e r , t h e v a l i d i t y of t h i s c o n c e p t i o n h a s been q u e s t i o n e d i n many of t h e c h a p t e r s of t h i s book and b y s o c i o l o g i s t s s u c h a s s p r e y . s p r e y (1969) . f o r example, a r g u e s t h a t t h e ~ o ~ s e n s u s a p p r o a c h is based on two f a l l a c i e s : (1) t h e b e l l E f t h a t p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e f a m i l y i s a v o l u n t a r y m a t t e r . and (2 ) t h e n o t i o r t h a t t h e f a m i l y i s a b u f f e r berween t h e i n d i v i d u a l and s o c i e t y .

TO d i s p n t e t h e s e c l a i m s , S p r e p n o t e s f i r s t t h a t membership i n o n e ' s r a t s 1 f a m i l y i s o b v i o u s l y n o t by c h o i c e , and t h a t t h e r e is no r e a l n o r m a t i v e a l t e r n a r i v e t~ t h e marhied s t a t e a s a l i f e c a r e e r i n o u r s o c i e t y , and s e c o n d l y t h a t conceiving t h e f a m i l y a s a world i n t o vh ich one may withdraw from t h e c o n f l i c t s o f everyday l i f e e r r o n s o u s l y assumes t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s a r e somehow a p a r t f r o a r a t h s r t h a n i n v o l v e d i n s o c i s t y . A c o n f l i c t approach i s o f c o u r s e n o t new t o s o c i a l s c i e r c e (cf . ,Robbes. n a r x , Simmel). For some r e a s o n , however, it h a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y been r e s e z v e d f o r e x p l a i n m a macro l e v e l r e l a t i o n s ( f o r example t h e c l a s s s t r u g g l e ) end n o r f a m i l l a 1 o i c r o e n c o u n t e r s ( t h e p r e s e c t e t i o n o f s e l f i n e v e r y d a y l i f e ) . The a p p r o a c h i s just b ? g i n n i n g t o g a i n s l g n i f i c a r t s u p p c r t among f a m i l y r e s e a r c h e r s .

P r e s e n r e d h e r e a s a n i s o l a t e d c a s e , J o s and J e n n i f e r ' s s t o r y may cams a c r o s s a s a d o c o a s n t of a "d i sLurbsd" relationship. C o n s t d e r e d ic c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e o t h e r c o n p l e ~ i= t h e l a r g a r s t u d y f r o a which t h i s c a s e s t u d y was t a k e n , however, J o e and J e n n i f e r s ' s m a r i t a l e x p e r i e n c e d o e s n o t seem t h a t o r u s n z l . The f a c t i s a l l t h e s a n p l e c o u p l e s , i n one way o r a n o t h e r and i n v a r y i n g d e g r e e s , were i n v o l v e d i n an ongoing i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o n f r o n t a t i o n . What a b o u t J o e ' s v i o l e n c e t o w a r d J e n n l f e r d n r i r g t h e f i r s t two y e a r s of t h e i r

ch.10. Raven' t Bad hny Problems S i n c e Page 171

, , ,arriago? Is t h i s "usua l?" I t is t r u e t h a t o f t h e s i x t e e n c o u p l e s i n my sample o n l y two d i s c l c s e d a V i o l e n t ~ n c o u n t e r ( t h e o t h e r c o u p l e a l s o s a i d t h e v i f e u a s t h e v i c t i m ;

s s e s e d t o be a p r e c i p i t a t o r ) . Not t 3 be o v e r l ~ o k e d boxever i s t h e f a c t t h a t r e c e n t m q u i r i e s i n t o t h e i n c i d e n c e ~f t a a i l y v i o l e n c e s u g g e s t t h a t c o n j u g a l v i o l e n c e may i r d e e a be a u s u a l o c c u r r e z c e ( s e e C h z p t s r s 1 and 2 ) . The r e s e a r c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t J o e a r d J s n n i f e r r s m a r r i a g e may b e s o r e t y p t c a l t h a n we r e a l i z e , o r would l i k e t o b e l i e v a .

Recen? a t t s a p t s t o E x p l a i n f a m i l y v i o l e n c e have. i n f a c t . r e s u l t e d i n t h e dsve lopment o f t h e o r i e s u h i c h c o a p l e a e n f t h e c o n f l i c t approach . The c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s proposed by A l l s r . and s t z a u s (Chapte r 1 % ) a n d by Brown (Chaprer 11) a r e c a s e s i n p o i n t . Each of t h e s e t h e o r i e s s e e s husband-wife v i o l e n c e a s a consequence o f an i n t s r p l a p bBtYeen c u l t u r a l and s o c i a l s t r u c t u r a l v a r i a b l e s r a t h e r t h a n p s y c h o p a t h o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s . I m p l i c i t i n e i c h i s t h e a s s e r t i o n t h a t s o c i a l c o n f l i c t is t9$2 t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e c o r j u g a l sys tem and of t h e l a r g e r s o c i e t y v i t h u h i c h t h a t sys tem t r a n s a c t s .

Drawing from t h e work of Goode ( l Y 7 l ) , Rodman (19721. and R O ~ E T S (1379) . B l l e o a r d S t r a u s ' c h a p t e r p r o p o s e s t h 4 nUlt5rnate Resource" t h e o r y of c o n j u g a l v i o l s n c e . E s s e ~ t i a l l y t h e t h e o r y s u g g e s t s t h a t i n an i n d i v i d U a l l s t i c a l l p o r i e n t e d u r b a n - i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t y ( f o r example t h e Uni ted S t a t e s ) where male s u p e r i o r i t y norms a r e weak and somewhat ambiguous and where t h e pr?sumption of male s a p e r i o r i t y must be v a l i d a t e d by sup?r ia r i :y i c " r e s o u r c e s " ( s u c h a s m a t e r i a l goods and v a l u e d p e r s o n 5 1 t r a i t s ) . v i o l e n c e w i l l b e invoked by an i n d i v i a u a l who l a c k s o t h e r r e s o u r c e s t o s e r v e a s a b a s i s f o r power. I n o t h e r words, 9 i o l e n c e may be u n d e r s t o o d a s t h s " u l t i m a t e r e s s u r c e " f o r s u s t a i n i n g a power c la im. E l l e n arc7 S t r a u s ' t h e o r y o f f s r s a c o g e n t e x p l a n a t i o n o f why J o e r e s o r t e d t o v i o l e n c o t o s t o p what he saw a s " t h e bad p r o g r e s s i o n of e v e n t s . " &: t h e t i m e o f t h e e n c o u n t e r , J o e l a c k e d t h e r e s o u r c e s t o ground h i s p a t r i a r c h a l i d e o l o g y ( " I ' m a p u r e male c h a u v i n i s t p i g , and 1 1 1 1 a d m i t i t " ] . Economica l ly s u p p o r t e d by J e n n i f e r , h e c o u l d n o t r e l y on any " e x t r i n s i c " r e s s u r c e s ( sccnomic acd p r e s t i g e c o n f f r r i c g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ) i s a b a s i s f o r power. Purthezmore, J e n n i f e r i m p l i e s t h a t J o e ' s

. . - ans ic" r e s o u r c e s ( v a l u e d p e r s o n a l t r a i t s ) m r e a l s o low d u r i n g t h l i t i m e when s h e r e m a r k s l a t e r on t h a t J o e seemed t o b e " g e t t i n g more i n d ~ p e n d e n t . . . s o r e s e l f - c o n f i d e n t * a s a r e s u l t o f h i s (now) b e i n g w i t h " b u s i n e s s people" r a t h 4 r t h a n " s f ~ f i 4 n l s . " f U G ~ Y E ~ t t is ieba lance- -husband d0minar.t i d e o l o g y v % r s u s v i f e dominant r e s o u r c p s t r u c t u r e (st m b a l a n c e t h a t A l l s n and S t r a u s s e e a s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h ~ worklng c l a s s ) - - o p e would e x p e c t (assuming t h e v a l i d i t y of t h e " U l t i m a t e Resourcen t h e o r y ) t h a t J o e weald r e s o r t t o 3 S l a p in t h e f a c e " t h r e e o r f o u r t i m e s " t o show J e n n i f e r t h a t d e s p l t e h i s l a c k of " e x t r i n s i c ' and " i r t r i r s i c " r e s o u r c e s , h r is " n o t t h e k i n d of p e r s o n t h a t ' s [ s i c ] g o i n g t o be

Ch.10. H a v e n ' t Aad hny P r o b l e m s S i n c e Page 172

dominated."

J o e ' s t h r e a t o f v i o l e n c e d u r i n g t h e f i n a l r e e k s o f t h e p r e g n a n c y may p e r h a p s a l s o b e i n t e r p r e t e d w i t h i n t h e R l l e s a n d S t r a o s f ramework. Was J o e t h r e a t e n i n g J e n n i f e r q s c o - w o r k e r s ( " I f you c a l l o n c e more, I ' m g o i n g t o punch you i n t h e mouth") 31. was h e i n f a c t i n d i r e c t l y t h r e a t e n i n g J e n n i f e r ? A s l o n g a s J e n n i f e r h e l d o n t o h e r j o b , J o e c o u l d n o t b a s e a c l a i m f o r power on h i s g r e a t e r economic p o s i t i o n . The E d u c a t i o n v e r s u s e x p e r i e n c e d e b a t s makas i t c l e a r t h a t J e n n i f e r d i d n o t see h e r o c c u p a t i o n a l s t a t u s a s below J o e ' s . Was h e commuLica t ing t o J e n n i f e r t h a t if h e r c a r e e r was g o i r g t o c o n t i l u e t o i n t e r f e r e h e would h a v e n2 c h o i c e b u t t o f a l l b a c k o n t h e " u l t i m a t e r e s o u r c e " t o show h e r h e i n t E n d e d t o be "boss?"

J o e and J e n n i f e r a l s o i l l u s t r a t e t h e p r o c e s s e s describes i n Brown's c h a p t e r on " 8 i f e Bnp lopmant , f l a r i t a l E q u a l i t y , a n d Rusband-Wife V i o l e n c e " ( C h a p t e r 1 1 ) . B r o v ~ n o t e s t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e number o f working w i v e s i n A o ~ r i c a a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g d e c r e a s e i n husband p o u % r t h a t th is c h a n g e i m p l i e s ( "S ince money is a r e s o u r c e i n m a r r i a g e , ve may assume t h a t a s more w i v e s c o n t r i b u t e d ts t h e f a m i l y i n c o m e t h e p a v e r o f t h e husband was a f f e c t e d i n v e r s a l y " ) . Brown d e v s l o D s a t h e a r v t h a t " t r a c e s o u t t h e known and - - - ~ . ~ - - ~ ~ ~ - - L ~ - ~~~ -

t h e o r s t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f v i f e employment a n d s e e k s t o a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n o r w h e t h e r o n e of t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f u i f e ~ m p l o p m e n t is a n i n c r e a s e d l e v e l a f h u s b a n d - w i f e c o n f l i c t a n d v i o l e n c e . "

The a r g u m e n t is made t h a t o n e c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e i n c r e a s e d economic i l d s p a n d e n c s o f t h e u i f e is a c h a n g e i n h e r a u t h o r i t y e x p e c t a t i o n s f rom h u s b a n d d o m i n a n t t o e q u a l i t a r i a n . S i n c e t h e ma le h a s t r a a i t i o n a l l y been a s c r i b e d s u p e r i o r s t a t a s i n o u r s o c i e t y , t h i s a t t i t u d e s h i f t l e a d s t o a c o n f l i c t be tween t h e w i f e ' s e q u a l i t a r i a n a u t h o r i t y e x p e c t a t i o c s a n d t h e h u s b a n d ' s ma le s u p e r i o r i t y norms. The c r i t i c a l q u e s t i o n f rom B r o u n l s p o i n t o f v iew is "Does t h e h u s b a n d a c c e p t t h e e q u a l i t a r i a n a u t h o r i t y s t r o c t u r e ? ' I f t h e a n s w e r t o t h i s q u e s t i o n is n2 , t h e c o n f l i c t w l l l b e s e e n a s i l l e g i t i m a t e a n d t h e husband v i l l r e v e r t t o t r z d i t i o ~ a l d o m i c a t i n g t e c h n i q u e s i n c r e a s i n g t h e likelihood o f v i o l e n t c o n f l i c t . I f t h e a n s w e r t o t h e q u e s t i o n is y e s , t h e i n t i m a c y i n t h e c o u p l e ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i l l i n c r e a s n (owing t o s h a r e d a s p e c t s o f l i f e ) a2d t h i s i n c r e a s e w i l l i n t u r n i s c r e a s e t h e c o n f l i c t i n t h e m a r r i a g e . ( " I n c r e a s i n g i n t i m a c y b r i n g s w i t h it a n i n c r e a s i n g a w a r e n e s s cf, a n d c o n f r o n t a % o n u r t h , t h e u n i q u e n e s s o f t h e o t h s r . " s p r e y , 1971r729 . ) 59vevar . t h e c o n f l i c t b r o u g h t o n by t h e I n c r e a s e d i r t i m a c y w i l l be s e e r a s l e g i t i m a t e - t h a t is, C o n s t r u c t i v e a n d h i g h l y d e s i r a b l e - - d e c r e a s i n g t h s l i k s l i h o o d o f v i o l e n t c o n f l i c t . Whether J e n n i f e r ' s economic i n d e p e n d e n c e p rompted a c h a n g e i n h e r a u t h o r i t y e x p e c t a t i o n s i s n o t c l e a r . She may h a v e h e l d e q u a l i t a r i a n o r v i f e d o m i n a n t e x p e c t a t i o n s E p y e s h e became a b s o k k e e p e r . Be

ch.10. H a v e n ' t Had I n y P r o b l e m s S i n c e Page 173

t h a t a s it may. t h ~ r e is no d o u b t t h a t J e n n i f e r ' s i d e a s on who s h o u l d b e i n c h a r g e c o n f l i c t e d w i t h J o e ' s t r a d i t i o n a l t h o u g h t s o n t h e s u b j e c t . C o n f r o n t e d w i t h the c o r f l i c t be tween J e n n i f e r ' s a u t h o r i t y e x p e c t a t i o n s , and h i s own male s u p e r i o r i t y norms, how d o e s J o e r e a c t ? 9e c o n t i n u a l l y r e f u s e s t o a c c e p t t h e a u t h o r i t y s t r u c t u r e which J e n n i f e r p r o p o s e s . It c o u l d b e s a i d ( a s s u m i n g t h e v a l i d i t y o f nraun's t h e a r v l t h a t J o e ' s s l a o was o n e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f h i s -- ~

~ ~- . . ~~- ~ ~ . ~~

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r e s o r t i n g t o t r a d i t i o n a l d o m i n a t i n g t e c h n i q u e s vhen h i s s u p e r i o r i t y was t h r e a t e n e d .

P a r r i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t i s t h e n e a n i n g which Joz and J e n n i f e r i m p u t e t o t h e v i o l e n t i n c i d e n t . Bo th s e e t h e e n c o u n t e r a s an a c t t h a t was a p p r o p r i a t e , g i v e n t h e s i t u a t i o n ( Joe : "1 had t o do s o m e t h i n g p h y s i c a l ..." J e n c i f e r : "It was my f a u l t . " ) T h e i r r e s p o n s e s p r o v i d e a n example o t wha t G e l l e s (1974:59) c a l l s "normal ~ i o 1 e n c E " - - v i o l e n c e t h a t i s a c c e p t e d , a p p r o v e d , and e v e n mandated i n f a m i l y i n t e r a c t i o n . The e x i s t e n c e o f t h i s t y p e o f v i o l e n c e i s y e t a n o t h e r d e m o n s t r a t i o n of how s o c i a l c o n f l i c t c a n be b u i l t i n t o t h e o r g a c i z a t i o x o f a B a r r i s g e .

It i s L o t e v o r t h y t h a t m a r i t a l v i o l e n c e is b e i n g c o n c e p t u a l i z e d by t h e s e r e s e a r c h e r s a s a n a c t t h a t h a s b o t h i d e o l o g i c a l and s o c i a l s t r u c t u r a l a n t e c e d e n t s . T h e i r d u a l ~ C C U S 1s i r a c c o r d v l t h s y c o n c l u s i o n s ao t h e c o n f l i c t approach . S p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e c o n f l i c t a p p r o a c h s u g g e s t e d by t h e i n t e z v i e u s d o e s n o t i m p l y s i m p l y a n e x c h a n g e f ramework. R a t h e r , t h e c o n f l i c r p r o c e s s e m e r g e s as a sys tem*5 i n which t h e m a r i t a l symbol s t r u c t u r e ( c o n v e r t i o n a l s i g n s t r u c t u r e ) a5 w e l l a s t h e m a r i t a l e x c h a n g e s t r u c t u r e ( r s s o u r c e s t r u c t u r e ) i n f l u e n c e . ar.d a r e i n f l u e n c e d by, t h e m a r i t a l p o v e r s r r u c r u r e ( t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e husband t o a f f e c t m a r i t a l l i f e v e r s u s t h e z b i l i t y o f t h e w i f e t o a f f e c t m a r l t a l l i f e ) . I n o t h e r words , m a r i t a l p o l i t i c s ( t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n +nd e x e r c i s e o f power) i s n o t b a s e d s i m p l y o n i d e o l o g y ( f o r example . t h s husband i s i n c h a r g e b ~ c a u s e t h a t ' s " t h e vay i t ' s s u p p o s e d t o be") o r o n e x c h a n g e ( t h e husband i s ir c h a r g e b e c a u s e h e i s b r i n g i n g t o t h e m a r r i a g e rewards--money. s t a t u s - - t h a t s a t i s f y h i s v i f a ) , b u t o n a s y t h e s i s o f t h e tuo.*6

Ch.10. i l a v e n ' t Had Rny Problems S i n c e Page 174

NOTES

*I am i n d e b t e d t o Baureen LaRossa and Howard 8 . S h a p i r o f o r t h e i r h e l p f u l comments o r an e a r l i e r d r a f t o f t h i s c h a p t e r . T h i s e x c e r p t i s r e p r i n t e d from C o n f l i c t and pQvEr La e a r r r a a e : a s c $ L r g f& p=rz$ BLLP by Ralph Laxossa. S a g e L i b r a r y o f S o c i a l Research , Vol. 50. (c) 1977, pp. 69-82 by p f r m i s s i o n o f t h e P u b l i s h e r . Sage P u b l r c a t i o n s . Inc . ( B e v e r l y E i l l s / L o n d o n ) .

1. The r e s e a r c h i s e s s e n t i a l l y two s t u d i p s il one. m a n i f e s t l y , i t i s a s t u d y of haw m a r r i e d c o u p l a s respond t o t h e f i r s t pregnancy-- to t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o paren thood . n o r e i m p o r t a n t , and a t a h i g h e r l e v e l o f a b s t r a c t i o n , i t i s a s t u d y of t h e s t r u c t u r e a n d pheoomenologp of t h e husband-wife r e l a t i o n s h i p . S i x t e e n m a r r i e d c o u p l e s v e r e i n t e r v i e w e d d u r i n g t h e t w e l f t h , t r e n t i e t h , t v e c t y - e i g h t h , t t i r t y - s i x t h weeks o t t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e f i r s t p r e g n a n c i e s . The i n t e r v i e w s v e r e c o n j o l n t (husband and w i f e t o g e t h e r ) and u n s t r u c t u r e d ( n o n s t a c d a r d i z e d ) . They were c o n d u c t e d i n t h e c o u p l e s ' homes, were t a p e d and l a t e r t r a n s c r i b e d . A n a l y s i s o f t h e i n t e r n e " t r a n s c i p t s was q u a l i t a t i v e ( t h e c o n c e p t u a l components o t e x p l a n a t i o n v e r e deve loped . f o r t h e most p a r t . from t h e d a t a ) .

2. S p r e y (1969) c i t e s r e s e a r c h t h a t he f e e l s " c h r o n i c l e s " o r " i l l u s t r a t e s " t h e c o n f l i c t framework (Bach and Qydsc, 1968; Brim a&.. 1961; x a u k i n s , 1968: L e v i s , 1967; Scanzonl . 1968). To t h e s e one c o u l d add L a r s o n (1974) a n d Rausch g . (1974). Each of t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t o r s d o e s o f f e r some f i n d i n g ( s ) t h a t may be i n t e r p r e t E d a s s u p p o r t f o r t h e c o n f l i c t approach. None of t h e s e s t u d i e s . however. c o n f r o n t s t h e major a s s u m p t i o n s of the c o n f l i c t approach. I n o t h e r words, none a d d r e s s e s t h e q u e s t i o n o f how c o n f l i c t is i n t r i n s i c t o f a m i l y l i f e , o r how f a m i l i e s manage r a t h e r t h a n r e s o l v e c o n f l i c t s . l o n e of t h e s e s t u d i e s f o c u s e s on t h e p o l i t i c a l d imens ion , t h e n u c l e u s . ir . my o p i n i o n , of t h e f a m i l y a s a c o n f l i c t system. of t h e s t u d i e s c i t e d , Bach a n d uyden (1968) p e r h a p s comes t h e c l o s e s t t o a d d r e s s i n g t h e s e i s s u e s . T h e i r r s s e a r c h is, howevEr, based o r c l i n l c a l i m p r e s s i o n s .

3. J o e ' s r e f e r e n c e t o " t h e p e o p l e i n t h i s a r e a " i s i r t e r e s t i n g . Bosn and r a i s e d i n r u r a l New England. J o e seems t o be c l a i m i n g t h a t t h e r e e x i s t s a g e a g r a p h i c a l l y based s u b c u l t u r e and t h a t h e is p a r t of it.

4. The i d s n t i t i c a t i o ~ of ' e x t r i n s i c ' a r ~ a " i n t r i n s i c ' r s s o u r c e s i s from Blau (1964:20-22).

5. The d e f i n i t i o n of a sys tem s u b s c r i b e d t 3 i s Buckley ' s (1968:493). "Re d e f i n e a sys tem i n g e n e r a l a s a complex of e l e m e n t s o r components d i r e c t l y o r i r a i r e c t l y r e l a t e d i n a c a u s a l ne twork , s u c h t h a t a t l e a s t soma 3f t h e components a r e r e l a t e d t o some o t h e r s i n a n o r e o r 155s

Ch.70. Xaven' t Had Any Problems s i n c e Page 175

s t a b l e way at af.p 2 3 GE, The i n t e r r e l a t i o n s may b e m a t u a l o r u n i d i r e c t i o n a l , l i n e a r , n o n - l i n e a r O r i n ? - r r n i A t e n t . and varvixo i n d 6 4 r e e s of c a u s a l e f f i c a c y o r - ~ ~ - . , p r i s r i z y . The p a r t i c u l a r k i n d s -o f more o r l e s s s t a b l e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s o r components t h a t become e s r a b l L s h e d a t a n y t i m e c o n s t i t u t e t h e p a r t i c u l a r s = u s ; s " f t h e s y s t e l a t t h a t time."

6. S p r e y (1972:237) makes t h e p o i n t t h a t a c o n f l i c ? a p p r o a c h " i m p l i e s a framework of exchange." He d o e s n o t e x p l a i n r h a t he meaxs by t h i s . I f however he is s a y i n g t h a t c o g n i t i v e s o c i o l o g y ( symbol ic i n t e r a c t i o n , phanoaans logy) h a s no p l a c e w i t h i n a c o n f l i c t approach , t h e n I must d i s a g r e e . I n my o p i n i o n (and I b e l i e v e f a m i l y v i o l e n c e r ~ s e a r c h e r s would c o n c u r w i t h me on t h i s ) , a more a p p r o p r i a t e way o? s t a t i n g t h e c a s s i s t h a t a c o n f l i c t a p p r o a c h i m p l i e s p o l i t i c s ( t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n and a r e r c i s e of power) , a n d p o l i t ~ c s e n t a i l s n o t o n l y t h e a b i l i t y t o a f f e c t r e i l f o s c e n e n t c o n t i n g e n c i e s (exchange) b u t a l s o t h e a b i l i t y t o a f f e c t t h e d e f i r l t i o 7 . o f t h e s i t u a t i o n ( symbols ) . F o r a d i s c u s s i o n of t h i s i s s u e a s it a p p l i e s t o t h e s t u a y o f m a r i t a l power, s e e S a f i l i a s - R o t h s c h i l d (1971).

ife-Employment, Marital Equality, and Husband-Wife Violence

Bruce W. Brown

A t h e m e i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r t h a t p e r v a d e d t h e d i a l o g u e between J o e and J e c n i f e r was t h e i s s u e c f w i f e employment. I n t h i s c h a p t e r . Frown s u g g e s t s t h a t on2 c o n s e q u e n c e o f V ~ I E S VOrkiPq is a n i n c r e a s e d l e v e l of husband-wi fe c o f f l i c ? a n d v i o l e n c e . The i n c r e a s e d econDmic i n d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e m a r r i e d woman c h a n g e s h e r a u C h o r i t y e x p e c t a t i o n s from husb3nd dominan t t o e q u a l i t a r i a n , ana l e a d s t o s c o n r l l c t betUEPn t h e w i f e ' s F E Y au thor i ' y e x p e c t a t i o n s m d *he h u s b a n d ' s ma le s u p e r i l r i r y norms.

A c r u c i a l c o c t i c g e n c y i n Brown's f o r m u l a t i o n is w h e t h e r t h e husband a c c e p t s t h e e q u a l i t a r i a c a u t h o r i t y s T r u c t u r e . If n o t , a t t e m p t s t o d i s r u p t h i s power c l a i m s may b e mst w i t h v i o l e n t r s s i s t z n c s , e s p e c i a l l y i f h e i s l a c k i n g i n o t h e r r e s o u r c e s . Ic t h e c a s e of J o e +nd J e n n i f e r , J s n n l f e r ' s a c t e m p t t o a l t e r t h e z u t h o r i t y s t r u c t u r e o f t b = i r marTiZgE c a u s ~ d J?E t o u s e v i o l e c c e .

1 f o r t h e r c o n + r i b u t i o n o f B r c u n ' s c h a p t s r 15 h i s i r v e s t i g a t l o n o f t h e f a c t z r s ?haL ~ n f l u e n c e t h e h u s b a n d ' s a c c e p t a n c e o r r e j e c t i o b o f e q u e l i t a r i a n 2uAh3r5'y p a f z e r n s . l a ?b.= r e a d e r w i l l a o t s . many of t h s f a c t o r s he l i s t 5 a r e bourd u p i n a a i s s e x r o l e E x p e c t a r i o n s t h a t l e 3 V e men u n p r e p a r e d f a r d o v e l o p i n 3 r e l a t i o c s t i p s t h e ? c a l l f o r s h a r e d pnvEr a n 3 e q u a l t a s k a l l o c a t i o n w i L h women.

R e s e a r c h on f a m i l y p o v e r h a s emphasized :he h s c s f i c i a l e f f e c t s o f t h e e q u a l i t a r i a ? m a r r i a g e s t y l e . It h a s been h e r a l d e d i n t h e p o p a l a r c u l t u r e as a c u r e - a l l f o r *h3 a i l m e n t s of c o n t e m p o r a r y s a r r i a g e s . Aovever , o t h e r s s u c h as s t r a u s i n C h a p t e r 6. Kolb and S t r a u s ( 1 9 7 4 ) . and w h i t s h u r s t (1974) who have s t u d i e d t h e Emerging e q u a l i t 3 r i z n s a r r i a g - s t y l e c o n c l u d e d t h a t , v h c t e r e r t h e u l t i m a t e b e n e f i t s . S u r i c g t h e t r a n s i t i o n p e r i o d , t h e move t o w a r d e q u a l i t y b e t v e e n t h s s e x e s may c a u s e many p r o b l m s .

Such a c h a n a e t o w a r d "re s e x u a l e q u a l i t y i n t h e f c m i l y , l i k e a n y o t h e r d r a s t i c c h a r g e ir t h ? s o c l a l s t r u c t u r e , pose s p r o b l e m s , a t l e a s t d u z i c g t h e t r a r s r t i o n p e r i a a . I n a i v i d u a l s s o c i a l i z e d +.o o p e r a t e i n 028 s y s t s m of f a m i l y o r g a n i z a t i o n m3y h a v e d i f f i c u l t y o p s r s t 5 n g u n d e r new s t a z d ~ r d s ( R c l b and S t n a u s . 1974 :756) .

The f o c u s of t h i s c h e p t e r is e n e x p l a n a t i s n o f c7.e c t h e f a c t o r s t h a t l e d W h i t e h u r s t (197U:76) t o sugger " . . . t h a t t h e c o c f l i c t b s t u e e n t h e e m s r g i n g e q u a l i t a r F e s o c i a l s t r n c t u r e znd t h e c o r t i n u i n g m a l e - s u p 9 r i c r i t y noro w i l l t e n d tc i n c r e a s e r a t h e r t h a c d c c r e a s s c o n f l i c t a1 v i o l e n c e b e t y e e n h u s b a n d s End wives." T h i s c h s p t - r ?rat€ o u t t h e known a n d t h e o r e z i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s c w i f e - s a p l o y m s n t and c c n s i d e r s t h e q u e s t i o n of w h e t h e r o n e c t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of wife-cmploympct i s an i n c r e a s e d l e v e l c husband-ulEf c o r f l i c t a r d v i o l e n c e .

LEGITIBRTION OF SERITBL POWER

Blood and Wolfe ( 1 9 6 0 : l l ) t h i n k t h a t no c h a n g e i c t h e American f a a i l y i s more s i g n i f i c a n t t h a c t h e s h i f t f rom ore-sided male a u t h o r i t y t o t h e . s h a r i n g of pover P r d / o r a u t h o r i t y by t h e husband a a d u i f e . P ~ Y C T a n d a o t h o r i t p a r e i ~ v o l v e d i n p r z c t i c a l l y ? v e r y a s p e c t o f m e r r i a g e . * l PS Kolb a n d s t r a u r ; (1974:757) s t a t e :

... t h e d e g r s e of c o n t r o l ~ x e r c i s e d by f a m i l y m e m b ~ r s o v e r a c e a r a t h e r i s an E lement o f f a m i l y s:=ucture a f f e c t e d by 8 x 6 i r t u r n e f f a c t i n g macy o t h e r a s p e c t s c f f a m i l y i n t e g r s t i l n aod ~ n t e r z c t ~ c r .

Blood and Wol fe ' s (1960:12) a n a l y s i s c 9 n t r a s : i t v ? s o ~ r c e s of power i r 'ha o a r i t a l r % l 3 + i o n s h i p : " c u l t u r e a n a c o n p e t n n c s . " B r i e f l y . t h e i r c u l t u r a l E x p l a n a t i o n of p a c e r s t e t s s t h a t Dover l i e s i n t h e ha-ds o f t h e p a r t n e r "ha t h e c u l t u r e d i c t i t ; s s h o u l d h a v e t h a t pouPr. I o t h i s c a s e , E lood and U o l f e z p p h r e n t l y a r e s p e c k i n g o f i u t h o r i t y , t h e r i g h t t o e x e r c i s e power. I n o u r own c u l t u r e , t h e p o p u l a r v i f v h a s b e e r t h a t " t h e men s h o u l a be t h e h e s 3 of t h ? house . "

Ch. 11. Ulfe-Fmploymert Psg= 178

FnPLOYnENT BND POWER

flacy r e s e a r c h e r s t h i n k t h e t no o t h e r f a c t o r h a s a f f e c t e d t h e b a l a n c e of p c u e r i n A m s r i c a r m a r r i a g e s mcrc t h a n t h e i n c r e a s e i n ? h e number o f v o r k i c g v i v % s . k l a o u s (1974 :232) , f o r example . s a y s t h a t :

... w i t h 65.7 p e r c e n t o f a a r r i n d vomec p r e s e c r l y e n g a g e d i r g a i n f u l employment . i n c l u a i n g 20.6 p e r c e n t of u o w n w i t h c h i l d r e c u n d c r s i x y e a r s o f age , p e o p l e n c l o n g e r a r e w i l l i n g t o a c c a p i t h e r o r m s l e g i t i m a t i n g and p r r s c r i b i r q s s e g r e g a t e d c o n j u g a l r o l e o r g a n i z s t i o r .

AcCordiLg t o t h e r e s c u r c e t h ~ o r y of pcvEr ?he i n c r e a s e d r e s 3 u x e s o f work ing w i v s s h a v ~ i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o r s f o r m a r i t a l power and f o r i d e o l o g y c o n c e r n i n g m a r i t a l a u ' h 3 r i i y . S i c c e s o c e y i s a r e s o u r c e i n m a r r i a g e , a s t h e w i f e ' s r e s o u r c e s i n c r e a s e . h e r pow== p r s s u e a b l y a l s o i n c r e a s e s and s h e i s i n a b e t t e r b a r g a i n i n g p o s i t i o n t o s u g g e s t o r demand a more equalitarian + u ? h o r i + y s t r o c t u r e .

LS t h e c a s a o f J o e and J e n n i f e r i l l u s t r a t e s , t h i s transition t o a more FqU3l s h a r i n g o f a n t h o r i t y a p p s 3 r s t o be p a r t i c u l a r l y d i f f i c u l t f o r husbacds. PC I c u b t , many C O P t ~ m p O r e r y h u s b a n d s a r d w i r e s v i ? v 'he w i f e ' s r r p l c y m e r t e s a n e c e s s a r y income s u p p l e m e n t . T h i s , however , d o ? s no? g u a E a r t e e t h e t h u s b e n d s w i l l f i n d some o f t h e l 'u: . ictirded c o r s e q u a n c e s " of w ~ f e - e m p l o y m e n t easy '3 % & j u s t t o . P u r k s a n d W21r (1976 :28Q) . f o r example , t3ur.d t h a t h u s b a n d s of w o r k i n g w i v e s were less s ? t i e f i a d w i t h = h a i r n 3 r r i Z " n s *tr2 h u s b a n d s o f nonwork ing u i v s s . FurT.hermore, a ? e r p r o f c m i r i s t me? seem t o p r e f e r 3 r f a m i l y woman" t o ' c a r e e r womer." ( S t a p p a n d P i n e s , 1976) . T h e r e a s o r f o r h u s b a c d s ' d i f f i c u l t y w i i h a 2 e q u a l s h a r i r g o f a u t h o r i t y i s e s s e n t i a l l y a c s r f l i c l b e t u e e c +he two b a s e s o f p o v e r j u s t d i s c u s s e d - - c u l t u r a l no rms 2 n d i n d i v i d u a l r e s o u r c e s . I n t e r n s o f i n d i v i d u a l r e s o ~ r c e s , employed Y ~ V E C s h o n l d s h a r e i n t h e a u ' h o r i t v s t r u c t u r e a t ?h+ m i r r i a g e . ~ o v e v e r , t h = p o p u l s r c u l t u r e and t h e l e g a l s y s t e m ( v e i t z m a n , 1975) t a l l h u s b a n d s j u s t The

Opposite. K c l b a n d S+raus (197r1:761) c i t e a r e c e n t B a r r i s P o l l t o s u p p o r r t h e i r s t a t e m e n t t h a t " b o t h i n law ?nd i n p o p u l a r o p i l i o c , t h e h u s b c n d is st i l l e x p a c t s a t o b s t h e t a m r l y ' h e a d ' o r l e a d e r . "

WIPE-EBPLOYBZNT A N D TEE CAELLSAGE TO XSCRIBSD EELE BUTAORITY

The r e m a l r d e r o t t h i s c h a p t e r i s c o n c e r n e d v t t h e n ~ x p l a r a t i o r o f t h e h y p o t h e s i z e d r e l a t i o n s h i p b s L u e e n wife-employment a r d h u s b a r d - w i f e n i o l e n c s . "Violent-," a s = s e a i n t h i s c h a p t e r , r e f e r s t o @?ys:cg& v i o l e n c e b g t w e e r h ~ 5 b 2 n d 6 a n d wives .

Ue b e g x v i t k t h e p r c p a s i t i a n r h a t smplaymant o f t h e w r f e p r o v i d e s h e r w i t h i n c r e a s e d r e s o u r c 9 s . These r a n a u r c e s 12 turn l e a d t o i n c r e a s e d power. I n t h e m a j o r i t y o f s t n d i e s , power 232% been c o r s t r u e d a s d e c i s i o r - a a k i r g and + h e t w o c c n c e p t s have come t o b s U P & i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y ( s a t i l i a s - P o t h s c h i l d , 1 9 7 0 ) . B numbex o f t h e s e s t u d F e s t o m d t h a t x a r k l n g w i v e s e x e r t n o r e i n f l u e n c e i n d e ~ i s : o ~ - r n + k l ~ g . * 2 W i t h = h i s s h i f t t o w a r d s c r e e q u a l p o v e r between h u s b a r d i c d v i f e , t h e w i t ? comes t o e x p e c t a c h a n g e t o s q u a i i t a r i a n a u t h o r i t y (B lood a n d Bambl i r , 1 9 5 8 ) . To t h e e x t e n t t h a r t h i s c h a n g e o c c u r s , w i f e - s a p l c y m e n t may l s i d t o a n u r d e r m r n i n g of a s c r i b e d ma le a u t h o r i t y p l t r e r c s . R F s c z n z o r . i ( 1 9 ' l o : l s s ) s t a t s s , "The w i f e i s more m0t ivat .a ? o ' g o a l o n g ' w i t h him, t o ' g i v e i n * t o h i m , t o l e t ' h i s h a r e hLs way' t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t h e p r o v r a e s maximue z c 3 n o n i c r e w a r d s . ' I f t h e husband 1.5 c 3 l a a g e r p r o v i s i n q nzximum economic r e u e r d s , b e c a u s e t h e v i f e is now i n v o l v e d t c %His f u n c t : ~ ~ . s h e 1s c o t i5 i r c l i n e d " ' 5 go z l o n q w i t h him." Eomans (1961:287) p u t t h i s i d e a more g e r . f r a l l y i n '.he p r o p o ~ i t i o r t h a t " t h e most i m p o r t a n t single 53ctoz i n rn8kir.g a man a l a a d e r r s . . . t he a b i l i t y t o p r o v i d e r a r e a n 8 v a l u e d r e w a r d s f o r h i s f o l l o w e r s . " I f a husband c0 l c n g e r p ~ 3 0 F d ~ ~ r a r a a n d v a l u e d r e w a r d s for h i s " t o l l o u e r , " S e c t u s - s h e h e r s e l f D O V pmv:des %hem. t h e husband n o l o n g e r i s i n a p o s i t i o n t c b e t h e u c q u e s t i o n s d l e a d e r . The r e s u l t i s a n a t t e m p t t o s h i f t f rom a d o m i n a n t - s u b r i s s i v e t o a n e q u a l i t a r i a c a u t h o r i t y s t r u c t u r s w i t h i n t h e m a r r i a g e .

Ch.11. w ~ f e - z m p l o y m e p i Page 180

norms. E m p i r i c a l d a t a s h c v t h e e x i s t e n c e o f s u c h c o n f l i c ' s . S p e c i f i c a l l y , G i a n o p u l o s a n d a i t c h e l l ( 1 9 5 7 ) . Bye (1958 and 1 9 6 3 ) . a c d G l i l z e r - B a l b i r (1975 :Tab le 7) f o u n d t h z t r n - r i t a l c o n f l i c t i s more f r e q u e n t emcrg c o u p l e s i n u h i c h t h e v l f e is employed. A s s t a t e d e ~ r l i f r , W h i t e h u r s t t h i n k s ' h s t t h s c o n f l i c t be tweex t h e e m e r g i n g e q u a l i t a r i a n a u t h o r i t y s t r n c t u r e a n d male s u p e r i o r i t y norms u i L l i n z r e a s a husband-wi fe v i o l e n c e . he r e m a i n d e r o f t h i s c h a p t ~ r a e a l s w i t h t h e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r u h i c h U h i t e h u r s t ' s a s s e r f i ? n may b e c o r r e c t .

FACTORS INFLUENCING EUSBAND ACCEPTANCE OF THE EQUALITPRIAN AUTHORITY STRUCTURE

The h u s b a n d ' s a c c e p t a x c e o r r e j e c t i o n o f 'he e q u a l l t a r - a n a u t h c r l t y s t r u c t u r e is c l n t i n g e c t upon a cumber o f v a r i a b l e s . The PX&SFP? t h e c r y d e a l s w i t h f ~ u r of t h o s e v a r i a b l e s :

1. d e g r e e c f c o m p u l s i v e m a s c u l i n i t y 2. d e g r e e o f a n t i c i p a f o r y s o c i a l i z a t i o c 3. d e g r 4 9 o f r o l e c l a r i t y 4. d e g r e e + C which t h e t r a n s i t i o n f a c i l i t 3 t e s g 3 a l

a t t a i n m e n t .

C&"E~&~XB n a s c u l i n i t ~ . P a r s 3 n s (1947) s e e s " ~ O ~ p u l s i ' r ~ masculinity" as t h e r e s u l t o f t h e e f f o r t 2n t h e p e r t of man t o a s s e r t t h e i r m a s c u l i n i t y a n d x ~ p u d i a t e a ~ a i n r 8 . l i d e r : i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h e i r mothe r s . E l e a e n t s sf t h e c c m p u i s i v e m i s c o l i r l t y s y r d r o ~ e h a v e bsen a n a l y z i d by a number of o t h e r s o c i o l c g i s t s . F o r e x a m p l e , S e l s u i c k and P e e k (1971) t h i n k t h a t E w e r i c a r msa a r e s c c i 3 l i z e d t o b e t o u g h aPd t o a v o i d s h o v i r g e m o t i o n s . E v i d e n c e f3r t h e i d e a l o f t o u g h n e s s T n men i s s u p p l i e d i n a C a n a d i a c s u r v e y c o n d u c t e d b y G o l d f a r b (1970. a s c i t e d i n U h i t ? h u r s t , 1974:80). i r which 61 p e r c e n t of t h s r p s p o n d e o t s f e l t men s h o u l d ba t o u g h and n c t back away from a f t g h t . R o s s (19721, i n a t o p - s s l e c t i o r s t u d y , c o l f i r s e d t h e erarmous p r e s s u r e s by f a m i l y a n d s o c i e t y fo: b o y s t o behave lr. t h e a c c e p t e d m a s c u l i n e way. Uhen bops were g ive r . s t o y a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e o p p o s i C e sex, t h e y s h o v e d a c x i e t y , l ~ d i c a t l n g t h a t a n i n a p p r o p r i a t e t o y u 3 u l d mean e m b a r r a s s m e n t and p o s s i b l y pur.ishment.

One a s p e c t c f t h e w a c c ~ p ~ e d m s s c ~ l i ~ ? m y " is f c r h n ~ b ~ c d s t o be domznant c v e r t h e i r wives . Fsr many h u s b a r d s , aL e q u a l s h a r i r g o f a u t h o r i t y v l t h i n t h e m a r r i a g s may b e v iewed 2s a " l a c k o f m a s c u l i n i t y # * o n t h e i r p a r t . We a re moving t o w a r d a n a g e o: e o u a l i t y be tween t h e s e x ? = , and c u r d i f f i c u l t y i n a e k l n g t h i s t z a r s i r l o x d e p e l d s i n p a r t o n t h e d e g r e s c f c o m p u l s i v e m a s c u l i n i t y e x h i b i t e d by h u s b a n d s i n o u r s o c i e t y .

Ch.11. W l f e - E ~ p l o y m e n t Pagr 181

B ? . t i c i E t m so&cii;=gy:op. A n t i c i p a t o r y s 3 c i a l i z z ? i o n ------ i s d e f i n e d a s t h l a d o p t i o n of t h e norms a n d s a l u p s of ? r o l i b e f o r e b e i n g i n a s o c i a l s i t u z t i o n " h e r s i t i s a p p r c p r i a t s ( B e r t o n , 1957:265 and B u r r , 1973:125). Husbands i r Rm?rican s o c i 9 t y h a v e n o t r e c e i v e d much a n t i c i p a t o r y s 3 c i a l i z 2 t i a n f o r an e q u a l s h e n i n g o f m a z i l a l a u t h 3 r i t y . I n f a c t . j u s t t h e o p p o s i t e s e e m s t o b e t r u s of S m e r i c a n boys , who h o l d ~ ~ ~ 1 s t a t t i t u d e s by t h ~ t01?d.fr a g e o f two (Kuhn, 1 9 7 6 ) . Eovever , t c t h e e x t s n t t h a t a r e u and more e g u a l L t a r i a n m a r i t a l i d e o l o g y p e r m e a t e s t h e c u l t u r e t h r o u g h t h s mass media , t h ~ t e m l n i s t m o v e m ~ n t , and f a m i l y a r d sea a d u c a t i o c i n t h e s c h c c l s , men w i l l f i n d it e a s i e r t o a c c a p t t h i s new m a r i t a l a u t h o r i t y s t r u c t u r e u h e r f a c e d w i t h t h e Lssu4 il t h F i T 3 % ~ m a r r i a g e .

R o l e C l a r a . C a t t r e l l (1992:6181 d e f i r c s r c l e c l a r i t y - -- - ---- a s ' t h e d e g r e e t o which t h a r a :s a s e t o f e x p l i c i t d e f i n l ~ i o n s o f t h ~ r e c i p r o c a l b e h a v i 3 r e x p e c t e d . " B s m e n t i o n e d p r e u i o u s l y , t h ~ t r a r s i t i o n t o e q u a l i t a r i m m a r i t a l authority s t r u c t u r e s i s a d i f f i c u l t one. e s p s c i a l l y f o r husbands. Komarovsky (1973) t o u n d t h a t a l t h o u q h m a l e s a q r e s v e r b a l l y v i t h e q u a l i t y b e t v e e n t h o sexes, * h i y a r e s t i l l a t t a c h e d e m o t i o n a l l y t o t r e d i t i a n a l a t t i t u d e s a n d p 3 t t e r c s of b e h a v i o r . S i n c e t h e amouct o f r o l e c l a r r t y i n f l u e n c e s t h c E a s E of t r a n s i t i o n i n t o r o l e s ( B u r r , 1973:127) , o n e o f t h e r e a s o x s h u s b a n d s ere e x p e r i e n c i n g d i f f i c u l t y n a y be t h ? l a c k o f c l a r i t y c o n c e r n i n g t h e i r r o l e s es m e r i t e l p a r t n e r s i n an e q u a l i + . a r i a r a u r h a r i t y s t r u c t u r e .

R r o l e - m o d e l of an e q u a l i t a r i a n h u s b a r d is h a r d l y t o be f o u n d i n o u r c u l t u r e and , t h e r e f o r e , no e x p l i c i t s = t o f definitions e x i s t s f o r + k c husband t o f o l l o w . n s z i t s l r o l e p r e s c r i p t i o c s . a l t h o u g h moving i n t h s d i r e c t i o n s f i c c r + a s e a E q U a l i t a T i a n i s m s i n c e 1900, s t i l l t e n d t o r e l e g a t e h u s b a n d s t o t h e p r o v i d e r r o l e a n d v i n e s t o t h e h o a e r n a k ? ~ a c d c h i l d - r e a r e r r o l e s (Brcwn, 1 9 7 8 ) . The mass a s d i a , i n p a r t i c u l a r , a d v e r t t s i n g d u r i n g s p o r t s evec;s , e m p h a s i z e t h o " r e a l man" image ( B r o v r , 1 9 7 3 ) . The " r e a l msr" is p h y s i c a l l y t o u g h , is d c n i R a n t o v e r wonen, axd has t h e f r eedom ?O do what h e D l e a ~ e s when h s 019a565. The58 C h a r a ~ t e r i s t i c s a r e i n d i r e c t o p p o s i t i o n t o c h s r a c t e r i s t i c s n f e d e d t o r e v i e b l s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h v t r e s who s u b s c z i b e t o an e q u a l i t a r i a n m a r i t a l a u t h o r i t y s t r o c t o r . ? .

F a c i l l t a t i o F o f Go21 :<ya;l;neF;,. Ps B u r r (1973:134) - -- - - --- - - - -- - p o i n t s o u t , t h e amount t h a t a r c l e f a c i l l t a t ? ~ a t t a i n i c g s g o a l i n f l u s n c e s t h e e a s e o f t r a n s i t i o n i n t o a rsls. I n O t h e r words , i f t h e r e s u l t o f a r o l e t r a r s i t i 3 r i s d e s i r a b l e , i t makes t h e t r a n s i t l o n e e s i o r . nany lmsrican h u s b a r d s b e l i e v e t h a t by s h a r i r g a u t h o r i t y s q u a l l y w i t h t h e i r w l v e s , t h e y h a v e n o t h i n g t o g a i n and much t o 1:s;.

S u b l i m i r a l l y , t h i s a c s s a g e is b r o u g h t a c r o s s i n 'he media . Rcshcnds who a r e n o t dominan t t e n d t o be p o r t r a y e d On t e l e v i s i o n a s s c r n ~ w h a t r i d i c u l o u s , i n c o m p e t e n t , and

Ch.11. Wife-Smployeent Page 182

c o n f u s e d ( L e n a s t e r s , 1971) . The c o m i c s c a t o n l y r r f : e c t , b u t a l s o Shape h u s b a n d s ' a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s h a r i n g m a r i t a l e u t h o r i t y .

Dagwocd Rumstead : e p r e s o c t s an i m p o r t a u t a r c h e t y p e i n :he American psyche- th? i r r s l e v a s t male. DagwOOd LS b rowbea ten by a d o n i n e a r i c g and a s s e r t i v e w l f e . is a b u s e d by h i s b o s s . and 15 g e n e r a l l y a f a l l u r e i n e v e r y t h i n g h e t r i e s ( B e r g e r , 1979:lOS).

F a i l u r e and r o n a r t a l r a e c : , t h e l . a r e b e l i s v f d f o be + h e O U ~ C O Q O f c r h u s b a n d s wh3 l e t t h e i r w i v e s s h s r e ~ g u s l l y i n m a r l t a l a u t h o r i t y . n n f i l men come t o p s r c e i v e 53me of ?he a d v a c t a g e s t o ;QP_~&&J%~ o f an e q u a l i t a r i ~ n r e l a t i o n s h i p + h e y w i l l reslst c h a n g e i r t h a t 6 i r ec : io r .

Eeiecrinc o r +4$ E s g $ l _ ~ r ; ~ ~ ~ + s S:!S&:ty S~;~_!&UE$. -- T h e s e f o u r v a r ~ a b l e s - - d e g r e e o f c o m p u l s i v e n a s c u l I L i t y . d e g r e e of a n t i c i p a t c r y s o c i a l i z a t i o c , d f g r a n of r o l e c l a ~ i t y , a n d d s g r e e t o which t h e t r a c s i t i o n f a c i l i t i t - s g o a l a t f a ~ r m e n t - - a l l p l a y a p a r t i c t h e h u s b a n d ' s 3 e c i s i o n t o a c c s p t o r r e j e c t t h e e q u a l i t m i a n m a r i t a l a u ' h s r i t y 5 t r " C t " r e .

Een a r e t r y i n g t o c a p e w i t h t h e c h a n g e s t h r o u g h t h e t r a d i t i o ~ a l a t t i t u d e s . R h 4 ~ %he 511 d o m i n a t i n g t e c h n i q u e s n o l o n g e r p r o v e ~ f f s c t i v e . men becomc I n s e c u r e and a n x i o u s b s c a u s s o f t h s ominous s p e c t e r o f ' f a i l u r e . '

wha t a r c t h e s e " o l d d o m i n a t i n g t e c h n i q u e s ? " G r s a t a r m o n e t a r y r e s o u r c e s is o n e , b u t t h s e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g p r o p o r t i o n ct employed v i v a s makes t h i s r e s c u r c ? l e s s and l e s s a v a i l a b l e . 9 h i g h e r l e v e l o f e d u c a t i o n i s s n o ' h e r , b u t w i t h t h e i n c r s a s i r g e c r o l l m - ? t of women i n c a l l o g ~ , t t ~ t a l s o is i n c r e a s i n g l y l e s s t r u e . I n f a c t , i rcrs isss i r e d u c a t i o n a l a t t a i n m e n t may be 02.2 c f th? c a u s a l f a c t o r s o f t h e e m e r g e n c e of p r e s c i p t i o c s f o r j o i n t a i r i t a l d e c i s i o n - m a k l s g ( B r o v r , 1 9 7 7 ) . I f n o t h i c g e l s e , a t l e a s t men nsed t o h a v e t h e n o r m a t i v e p r e s c i p r l m s c o c c = r n i n g m e r i t a l a u t h o r i t y cn t h e i r s i d e , b u t t h a t a l s o h a s been s l o w l y b u t s u r e l y c h a r g i n g (Brown, 1 9 7 8 ) . Hovevr r , one adVaPtagE t h a t h u s b a n d s stil l h a v e o v e r t h e i r w i r e s i s t h e i r g r e a t e r p h y s i c a l s t r e r g t h . As W h i t e h u r s t (1974:78) n o t e s :

ch.11. Wife-Employment P i g e 183

when a l l o t h e r r e s o u r c - s o f a a s c u l i n s i f l e n t i t 7 f e i l . mer c a n a l u a y s r e l y o n b e i n g ' t o u g h ' a s a s i g n of manhood. H a r d l i c g u i v s s i n a g g r e s s i v s ways is 1 2 some r e s p e c t s a n ? x t e n s i o n o f 'he n c r m a l ways men l e a r n l o h a n d l e a v a r i e t y o f p rob lems . . ..

Similarly, Koolaravsky 's (1962:227) s t u d y o f b l u e c o l l a r f a m i l i e s l e d h e r '0 coCClUde t h a t t h e t h r e a t o f v i o l s c c e i s a n c t h e r g r o u n d o f R a s c u l i n C p c v e r . P i c a l l y . R o l f g a c g (1969) p o i n t s o u t t h a t " v i o l e r c e :s 2 msans o f s e e k i C q pow-r and may be d e f i n e d as a ? a c t o f d c s p a i r c o m m i t t e d w h s a t h e a o o r 1s c l o s e d t o a l t e r a a t l v e r e s o l u t i o ~ s . " No S o u b l . m i r y c o n t e m p o r a r y h u s b a n d s f e e l t h a t t h e do324 n o t o n l y h i v e b s o c s h u t , but a c t u a l l y s l a a n e d i n t h s i r f a c e s .

VIOLENCE I N T H E FQOALITBRIEN AUTHORITY SlRUCTUPE

u p t o t h i s p o i n t , the c h a p t e r h a s been c o n c e r n ~ 3 w i t h t h e c o r f l l c c e v e r t h 9 t r a n s i t i o n t o e q u a l i t a r i a n m a r i t a l authority s t r u c t u r e s . Bowever, t h i s is n o t t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e h u s b a n d ' s r e j e c t i o n o f an e q u a l i t a r i a n a u t h o r i t y s t r u c t u r e is t h e o r 1 7 s o u r c e of c o n f l i c t +Ed v i o l a r c e . e u s b a 3 d s who aCCBpt F q ~ a l i t y i n a u t h a r i ' y f i n d t h a t t h i s l e a d s t o i r c r e a s e d i n t i m a c y a n d c o e p a n i o c s h i p i n t h e i r m a r i t a l relationship awing t o t h e l n c r e a s e ir s h a r e d i s p e c t s o t i i ts . Blood End A o l f e (1960:160) fOursd t h a t t h e s o r e decisions were s h a r e d by t h e husband a n a w i f e , t h s a c r p s a t l s f a c t i o c was e x p r e s s e d w i t h m a r i t a l compao ionsh ip .

T h i s i n c r e a s e d i a t i e a c y would a p p s a r t o b% a p l u s f o r e q u a l i t a r i a c m a r r i a g e s , b u t C o s e r (1969) a n 6 S p r e y (1971) c a u t l o n t h a t t h e more i n t i a a t e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s e r e , t h e more l i k e l y t h a y a r e t o g i v e r i s e tc c o n f l i c t . ireer (1941) f o u n d t h a t i n e t h n i c g r o u p s i c which t h e r e a r e l s w e r ~ x p B c t a t i o n s o r ~ m o t i o r a l a t t i c h n s n t s be tween h n s h a a a and if%, m a r r i a g e s t e r d LO be mote s t a b l e . Goode (1962) c o n c l u d e s t h a t m a r i t a l s t r a i n is l i k e l y be r s d u c e d when * h e p a r t n e r s l a v e r t h F i r e x p e c t 3 t i o p s 3f c m o t F o c a l p e r f o r m a n c e and comply v i t h m i n i s e l r o l e 3 b l i g a t t o 3 s . T h e : ~ t o r e ( a z d someuha t p e r a d o x i c a l l y ) m a r i t a l c o n f l i c t car he e x p e c t e d io a s t h 4 n a r i t a l p s r l n r r s s h i r f n o r ? a s p e c t s o f l i f e .

Ch. 11. @FEE-Employmln~

~ h . 1 1 . Wlfe-Employm+~+ Pege 185

APOther a s p c c t a t t h i s p a r a d o x i s t h s * i f a n ~ q u a l l t a r l a n a u t h o r i t y s t r u c t a r e is a c c e p t i d by b o t h ~ p o u s e s . c c r f l l c ? "111 b' r i e w ~ d a 5 l e g ~ r i m e ~ ~ , b a c a u s e b o t h p e r t n i r s h a v e e q u a l r i o h x s r o h ~ v e t h r i r v i a v s p r e v a i l . Bach a n d Wyden (1968:98) s u g g e s t :h+t " v r z b a l c c c . f l i c t b e t w e s ~ i n t i m a t g s 1s n o t o n l y a c c s p x a b l ? , e s p e c i a l l y be tween h u s b a ~ d s ~ r d w i r e s ; lf is c o n s t r u c < i ~ e 3 r d h i g h l y desirable." S i n c e t h e c o r f l i c t i s r i a v e d a s lsgikims:r , t h s l i k ~ l ~ h o o d 02 h u s b a ~ d - v i f e ViCle?.ce as a m e e r s o f c o n t l i c t r s e o l u t i o n is d e c r e a s e d . Ir s h o r t [ and a g a i n s o w e u k a t p a r a d a x i c i l l l p ) . t h e h l g h e r 1 E T e 1 o f c ~ n f l i c t i s l i k i l ~ t3 b ~ . associated v r t h &pas p h y s l c a l v i o l e n c e . * 3 Fswsver , s t t h e same ;lme, t h e i ? - c r e a s e d c o n f l i c t n a y l e a d '0 a d a c r e a s G d s t a b r l i t y of t h e m a r r i a g e . Pf;er e x p s z l e n c i n g what m i ~ h t b e t e r m e d " i n t i m a t e c o r f l i c t , ' t h e c o u p l e may come t3 the C O ~ C ~ O S L O P t h a t d i v o r c e is t h e i r b e s t o p z i o n . R % o a r d l ? s s o f t h e 3 r g m 3 ~ : s " f o r azd a g a i C 5 t " d i v o r c e , i t s e e m s obv:ous t h a t d i v o r c e is a more d e s i r a b l e s o l u t i o c t o m e r i t + l c a n t l l c t t h a r husband-wi fe v i o l e n c P .

F a t h e r f h a n a t t e m p t -o summar ize t h ~ c o n t e n t s o f t h i s c h a p t e r i c r u n n i r g t e x t , a more u s e f u l d s r l c e i s '3 SE* to:th t h e main e l e m e n t s o f t h e t h 4 o r y I n a s s r i e s of propositions. 1s a f i r a l s u m m a r i z i n g ~ F Y L C S , F i g u r e 1 p r e s + n t s t h e c a u s a l c o n a f c f i o n s s p e c i f i e d i c t h e t h e x y i n t h e tsrm of a € l o x c h e r t .

ErPEQ~i~iQ~~: E m p l o y n f r t o f t h s w+fe lesCs '3

i r c r e a s e d r e s o u r c e s o f t h e x i f e .

I f c r e a s e d r e s o u r c e s o f t h e w i f e l e a d fl i x c r e a s e d power o f t h e wi fe .

I ~ c r e 3 s e d power o f t h e v l f e l z a a s r n e V I ~ E t 3 c h a g e to e q u a l i t a r i a n a u t h o r i t y expec- t a t i o n s .

Thf h u s b a n d ' s d o c i s i o n w h e t h e r o r n o t t 3 a c c e p r ?he e q u a l i t a r i a n a u t h o r i t y s t r a c i u r e I S ~ ~ E ~ U R P C E ~ by:

1. c o m p u l s i v e m a s c u l i r i : ~ 2. a n t i c i p a t o r y s o c i a l i z a t i a n 3 . r o l e c l a r i t y 4. t a c l l i t a t i o n o f g o a l a t t a i n m e n t .

I f ;he h u s b e r d d o e s a o t a z c e p t t h e

R e v e r t i n g t c t r a d i t i o n a l d o o l i r a t i n g t e c h n i q u e s by t h e h u s b a t d l e i d s t o an i r c r e a s e d 1 i k o l L h o c d of husband-wi fe v i o l e n c e .

A c c e p t a n c e o f t h e e q u a l i t a r i a n authority s t r u c t u r s by t h e h u s b a n d l e a d s t o i n c r e a s = 3 i n t i m a c y b e t v e e r . t h s h u s b a n d a c d w i f e .

I n c r e a s e d i n t i m a c y be tween t h e t u s b a n d aca w i t s l e + d s t o i n C T e a s ~ d l e q i l r ~ 8 f e c o r f l r c t ~ E ~ Y E J P t h e husband a n d v l f e .

L e g i t i m a t e c o c f l i c r l e a d s t o a l e c r s a s s d l l k e l i h c o d o f h u s b a n d - w i f e v i o l l n c e as 3

meas o t c o ~ f l i c t ~ e s o l ~ t i o n .

NOTES

* R e v l s ~ O n of 2 p a p e r p r f s e n t ~ d a t t h e z n n o a l o e o t i c g of t h e N a t i o n a l C o u n c l l or F a m i l y R e l a t i o n s , S a l t Lake C i t y , Utah. a u g u s t 20-23, 1975. The p r ~ p a r a t i o ~ . of t h i s p a p s r was s u p p o r t e d by N a t i c n a l I n s t i r u t e o f n e a t a l e e i l t h g r a n t No. 13050. The c a r m e r t s and criticisms o f Lee C r a n d e l l an4 Deac Knudson a r d s d i r t h e r e v l s i o a o f t h e p i p e r .

1. As used LT t h i s c h a p t e r , "paver" r s f e r s t3 t h e p0tsf i t :a l a b i l i t y t o c o c ? r o l a n o t h e r ' s b ? h a v i o r , a l d " a u t h o r i t y ' r e t s r s t o l e g i t i m i z e d power (B lcod 2 ~ d W31fe. 1 9 6 0 : l l ) .

2. 3ahr. Boverman and Gecas , 1974:366; P l o o d , 1363:294; B lood , 1965:lYS: B lood inif R 5 l f a . 1960: 40: tee:, 1958:397; E c K l n l e y , 1964:lQY; S c a a z s n i , 1970:160; Wolfs , 1959:109. The studies just Ci-.?d z r 1 a l l i n v e 5 t i g ~ t 1 0 ~ 5 o f Rmer lcan f a n l l i s s . E l t h 3 u q h E i m i l a r r e s u l t s h a v e b e f n f o ~ n d i n some c r o s s - c u l z u r a l s t u d i e s (xbbatt, 1 9 7 6 : l l z ; ~ l o o e , 1361:159; > u r i c i n a J e c s v i c . 1967:328; L u p r i , 1969:144; i l i c h e l , 1970:159; Oppoxg, 1970:678; Pichmond, 1976:262; S a f i l i o s - R o t h s c h i l d . 1967:346; W e l l e ~ , 1968 :439) . c o r t r a d i c t o r y ~ e s u l t s wefa f o u n d by C e r t e r s . Raven. a n d R a d r i g u e s , 1971:276; B ~ f f e a . 1960:224; R a n d f l a n d l e s s e r , 1972: 134; n i l d l e o n and Pu-nsy, 1960:608; a n d S t r z u s . 1977.

3. The v a l l d l t y o f t h i s a s s e r t i o n d e p e n d s a n d l s z m g u i s h i n g b e t v e s n c o n f l i c t ( i n t h e s e n s e o f " c c n f l i c ? of l u t e r e s t " a s d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e f 8) a n d a g q r e s s i s n ( i n t h e s e n s e o t a m a l e v o l e c t a c t ) . If Each a r d Wyain 's

a s s e r t i o n i s r c a d a s s u g g e s t i n g t h a t v p r b a l a g g r e s s t a n h e l p s avcid phyS:Cal a g g r e s s r o n , t h e cvidenCF is o v e r v h r l s i n g l y t h e o p p a s i t e (Straus, 197ua).

Chapter 12

Resources, Power, and Husband-Wife Violence

Craig M. Allen and Murray A. Straus

Both LaRossa ' s c a s e s t u d y and Brown's t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s i s s u g g e s t t h a t " r e s o u r c e s " l i k e t h e i r c o m s p r c v i d o d by a w i f e ' s emplcymect o u t s i d e *he home i n c r e s s e s h e r power, gpg i n c r e a s e s t h e l i k e l i h o o d t h a t t h e husband w i l l u s 9 v i o l e n c e t o " s t o p t h e bad p r o g r e s s i o n of e v e n t s , " a s J o e p u t s it i n C h a p t e r 10. But n e i t h e r a c a s e s t u d y n o r a l o g i c a l d e d n c t i o n a r e s u f f i c i e n t e v i d e n c e f o r a s c i e n t i f i c c o n c l u s i o c . Snch a c o a c l u s i o r d e p e n d s on a d d i t i o n a l d a t a . and t h a t i s what R l l e n and S t r a u s ' s s t u d y of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 400 c o u p l e s p r o v i d e s .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s t a t i s ' i c a l f i o d i c g s . t h i s c h a p t e r t a k e s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l 3 n a l y s i s ~f LaRossa and Rrowr one s t e p f u r t h e r . It p u t s f o r w a r d t h e " u l t i m a C 3 r e s o u r c e t t p o r y " * 5 e x p l a i n t h e relationship between power and v i o l e r c e by t a k i r g i n t o c o n s i d e r ? + i c n c u l t u r a l norms r e g a r d i n g f a m i l y power. Tha t h e o r y h o l e s t h a t i n i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c , a c h i s v s m e ~ t - o r i e c t t d s0ciet:es. ~0r.s s u p p o ~ t i ~ g male s u p e r i o r i t y a r e weak o r ambiguous. F o r ?. hasbznd t o be ocrg t h a n a c e n s u s * i l l y i n t h ? s C a t i s t i c s cc "household heads." he h a s t d v a l i d a t e h i s p o s i t i o n by s u p e r i o r " r e s o u r c e s " s u c h a s oonsy , o c c u p a t i o n a l s t a t u s , o r v a l u e d p e r s o r a l t r a i t s . I f t h e husband l a c k s s u c h resources, and f e a l s e n t i t l e d t o a p o s i t i o n o f dominance, v i c l P n c ? may be used a s t h e "u l t imaCe r e s o u r c e " t o back up r e e l i n g s o f power e n t i t l e m e n t . Data f r c n a p p r o x i m a t e l y 400 c o u p l e s s u p p o r t t h e s e i d e a s . b u t o n l y t o r Workjng c l a s s c o u p l s s .

ch.12. R e s o u r c e s a n d Power Page 189

E n m b e r o f s o c l a l o g i c a l t h e o r i s s of f a m i l y v i o l e n c e . s u c h a s t h o s e by G i l (1975) . Goods (1971) , a r d S t r e u s ( C h a p t e r 6 ) . hold ? h a t t h e u s e of p h y s i c a l f o s c e i s t h e u l t i n a t e s a n c t i o r t h a t underlies t h e main tenanc? of t h e p r e s e c t male-dominan' p a t t e r n o f f a m i l y o r g a n i z a t i o n . Al though t h e a n a l y s e s o f t h e s e a u t h o r s may seem p l a u s i b l e , t h e y rest on p i e c i n g t o g e t h e r s c a t t e r e d , o f t e n impress ion i5 t :c ev idence . We r e e d s p e c i f i c t e s t s of t h e i d e a t h a t t h e t h r e a t o f p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e o n d a r l i s s t h e e x i s t i n g f a m i l y s t r u c t u r e . These d a t a , a l t h o u g h l i n i t = d i n s e v e r a l ways, a r e a s t e p i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n .

THEORIES OF RESOURCES A N D POWER

P o l l o w l n g t h e work of French a c d Raven (1959) . Blood a n d Vol fe i n t r o d u c s d t h e " r e s o u r c e t h e o r y " of f a m i l y power. They d e f i n e d a r e s o u r c e 2s ".. .anything t h a t one p a r t n n r may make a v a i l a b l e t o t h e o t h e r , h e l p i n g t h e l a t t e r s a t i s f y h i s n e e d s o r a t t a i n h i s g o a l s " (1960:lZ) . The Blood 2nd WOlfe s t u d y found t h a t t h e s p o u s e w i t h t h e g r e a t e r cumber o f r e s o u r c e s t e n d s t o have more power o v e r h i s o r h e r p a r r n e r . * l However, Radmin's (1967) s n a l y s i s 3 f d a t a from s e v e r a l c o u n t r i e s fouxd t h e t h e o r y t o be s u p p s r t e d i n t h e Wnited S t a t e s and P r a n c e . b u t n o t conf i rmed b y Safa from Greece a n d Yugoslavia . I r t h e l a t t e s two c o u n t r i e s . t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s o f f a t h e r ' s e d u c a t i o n and o c c u p a t i o n with power were i n t h ~ o p p o s i t e direction from t h a t p r e d i c t e d by t h e r e s o u r c e t h e o r y . Rodmar. c o n c l u d e d t h a t , t o e x p l a i n t h e distribution of m a r i t e l pouer , t h e c u l t u r e 1 c o r t e x t f rom which norms d e f i r i n g a p p r o p r i a t e r e s o u r c e s a r e d ? t e r a i n e d mus t be t a k r r . i n t o a c c o u n t ( s e e a l s o Pox. 1973). I n a s u b s e q u e n t comprehens ive r e v i e w o f f i n d i c g s r e l z t e d t o t h e r e s o u r c e t h e o r y , Rodman (1972) d e v e l o p e d a t h - o r y of n r s s o u r c e s i n u c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t " i n which h e s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e dynamics of e x c h a r g e i n t h e marital dyad c a r b e u n d e r s t o o d o n l y i n f h h cor . t fx t Of t h e c n l t a r e o f ~h:cb t h e dyad i s a p a r t :

The b a l a n c e of m a r l t a l power is i n f l u e z c 3 d by t h e i n t e r a c f i o n o r (1) t h e c a n p a r a r i v e r e s c u r c % s of husband and w i f e a r d (2) t h e c u l t u r a l o r s u b c u l t u r a l e x p e c t a t i o n s a b o u t f h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of m a r i t a l p o u e r (1972:60).

TRE ULTIMATE RESCWRCE TEEORY

Goode (1971). Podmar (1972). and Rogers (1974) s u g g e s t t h a t v i o l e r c e i s a r e s o u r c e i r v o k e d when i n d i v i d u s l s l a c k o t h e r l e g l t i m z ? e r e s o u r c e s t o s e r v e a s b a s e s f o r t h e i r power.*Z Bccord ing t o ~ o o d e (1971). a s p o u s e who l a c k s t h e p r e s t i g e , money, o r s k i l l n e c e s s a r y t o i n d u c e t h e o t h e r

Ch.12. AeSoUrces a n d Power Page 190

s p o u s e t o p e r f o r m scme b e h a v i o r m i g h t r e s o r t '0 v i o l e n c e a s a f i n a l r e s o u r c e , e v e n t h o u g h t h e e x e r c i s e of v i o l e n c x i s a n i l l e g i t i m a t e c r n e g e t i v e l y s a n c t i o n e d mode o f e x e r c i s i n g p a v e r . Rodman (1972) a s s e r t s . however , t h a t t h i s p a t t e r n w i l l b2 f o u n d o n l y i n a soci€:y i n which (1) t h e norms which l e g i f i m a t i z e t h e c x s r c i s e o f power a r e weak and somewhat ambiguous. ( 2 ) t h e a c + u e l e x e r c i s e o f l e g i t i m s t ? p s x z r mus t b e v a l i d a t s d by t h e r e s c u r c G s i n t h e form of p e r s o n a l q u a l i t i e s a c d m a t e r i a l p o s s e s s i o n . The O n i t e d S t a t e s t p p i f i e s t h i s k i n d o f s c c l e t y , b e c a u s e (1) e q u ~ l i t a r i a n norms a r e rep1ac:cg p e t r i a r c h a l o c r m s i n t h e m a r i t a l dyad , (2) a s 2 c O n s 2 q u e ~ c e . t h e r e is n o r m a 1 i v s ambiguity a b o u t :he d i s < r : b u t i o n o f m a r i t a l p c u e r ; 8r.d (3 ) a d d i t i o n s 1 pow?; c a n be o b t a i n e d by i n c r e a s i n g o n e ' s r e s o u r c e s r e l a t i v e t o t h o s e o f h i s s p o u s e .

These c o ~ ~ i d e r a t l o n s c o n s t i t u t e what c a n be c a l l e d t h e n u l t l m a t e r e s o u r c e ' t h e o r y o f v i o l e n c e , s u g g ~ s t i c g t h a t r i o l t n c e w i l l be i n v o k e d by a p e r s o n who l a c k s o t h e r r s s o u r c e s t c s e r v e as a b a s i s f o r pover . T h i s t h e o r y I m p l i e s a c o r r e l a t i o n between power and v i a l e n c a o n l y u n d e r c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c s s , s l n c ~ power c a n b e m a i c t a i n r d by t h e u s e Of r e s o u r c e s o t h e r t h a n v i a l e n c a . I n s h o r t . , t h e r e l a t l o n s h i p be-ween power a n d m a r i t a l v i o l e c c e i s c o n t i n g e n t on what r e s o u r c e s o t h e r t h a n v i 3 l e c c e are a r a r l a b l e . These c o n s i d ~ r a t i o n s a r e t h e b a s i s f o r t h e main h y p o t h e s e s t o b e t e s t e d .

1. When r e ~ o u r c ? ~ o f i s p o u s e a r e low, t h s greater t h a t s p o u s e ' s power , t h e g r e a t e r h i s o r h e r u s e o f v i o l e n c e .

2. When TeSOUrCBS 2x4 h i g h , t h e r e is C 3 r e l a t l o n s h i p be tween p o u s r end violen:G.+3

L i p s ~ t f f 9 r ~ n C e s . P l t h o u g h e l u a l i t a r i s n corms e r e r e p l a c i n g p a t r i a r c h a l norms of a u t h o r i t y i n o u r s o c i e t y , t h e work ing c l a s s l a g s b e h i n d 'he m i d d l e c l a s s ir. t h i s n 3 r m a t i v e t r a r i s i t l o n (Kcffmar., 1960: Romarousky, 1962 ; B c K i c l s y , 1964; L o p i t a , 1971:108; S c a r z o n i , 1975: Yooog and m i l l m o t t , 1 9 7 3 ) . Is a c c n s e q u s a c c , h u s b l n d s in t b ? w r k i n g c l a s s a d h e r e more t o t r a d i t i o r a l o r p a t r i a r c h a l co rms o f a u t h o z i t y t h a n do h u s b a n d s i n t h e m i d d l e c l a s s . AdwPver, t h e i r a c t u a l power + e n a s To be l c w e r t h a n t h a t e x e r c i s s d by m i d d l e c l a s s husbands . T h i s c o n t r a d i c t i o n a r i s e s c u t 3 f o n e o f t h e c r u e l t r l c k s o f t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t o r e : work ing c l a s s husband5 , whose i d e o l o g y e m p h a s i z e s ma le power , t s r d t o POBSBSS f e w e r r e s o u r c s s t t a t c a n s e r v e a s + b a s i s f o r power t h a n do m i d d l e c l a s s h u s b a n d s . The i n t e r a c t i n g e f f e c t o f f ew% F E S O U T C J S w i t h St rOng' r adh?zPnCe t o p a t r i a r c h a l f i O T m 5 l e a d s o s -.o e x p e c t t h a t 2 s i g y p ~ +& g,EUE$f&gn=& sr$:ls ~f

G s x ~ e ~ E & ~ P T ZQe m r z c & + t g n b g y x p n z p s _ p ~ $ e s , poYgr, 3n_d X L g l E s ~ f . L a c k l n g m o n e t a r y , p r e s t i g e , a l d e d u c a t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s o r which t o b a s e power, low s t a ' u s men a r e more l l k e l y t o c o m p e ~ s a t e b y u s i n g a c t u a l o r t h x s t s n e d

ch . 12. R e s o u r c e s end Power

p h y s 1 c a l f o r c e as a b a s i s f o r power.

s a n e i s . The d a t a t o b e r e p o r f e d a r e f rom a s t u d y o f --- t h e t a e i l i e s of s t u d e r t s i n i c t r o d u c t o r y s 3 c i o l c g y and a n t h r o p o l o g y c l a s s e s a t t k e U n i v ~ r s i t y o f New H a n p s h i r e i n t h e f a l l o f 1972. The d a t a w a r € o b t a i n e d by q u ? s t i o r . n a i r e s c o m p l e t e d on a v o l u r t a r y b a s i s d u r i n g a c l a s s p e r i o d . Of t h e 583 q u e s t i o n n a i r e s d i s t r i b u t e d . 555 o r 9 2 p e r c l c t were comple ted . S i n c e t h e a r - a l y s e s t o b e p r e s e n t i d 3+pended on b o t h t h s s t u d e r . t q s and b o t h p a r e n t ' s l i v i n g a t t o m s l u r i n g t h e s t u d e n t ' s s e r l o r y e a r i n h i g h s c h o o l , f u r t h e r c a s e s v e r e 105t b e c a u s e + p a r e c t o r t h e c h i l d v a s n o t l i v i n g e t home t h a ' y e a r . I n a d d i t l c n . t h e r e was t h e i r e v i i a b l e l a s s o f some c a s e s b e c a u s e c e z t a i r q u ~ s t i o e s v e r e n o t s n s v e r l d . The r e s u l t i n g f l n a l s a m p l e s i z e r a n g e s f x m 324 3 437, d e p e n d l n g o r t h e v a r i a b l e s i r c l u d s d i n a g i v e n t 3 b l e - Of t h e s e C a s e s , 26 p s r c e n t a r e f a m l l i e s i n v h i c b t h e husbacd i s a manual worker .

K e g g E Z I ~ V i o l e ~ c e . Data 03 h u s b a n d - u i f e v i o l e r c ? was -- s e c u r z d f rom on* of t h e c c u p l e ' s c h i l d r e n b e c a u s * o f (1) t h s d l f f l c u l t y Of d i r e c t l y O b s e r v i ~ g t h e o c c u r r e > r e o f v i s l e n t b e h a v i o r b s t v e e n s p o u s e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e more e x t r e m e forms: (2) t h e e t h i c a l p r o b l e m s e n t a i l e d Lr. d e v i s i ~ g a n e x p e r i n € n t a l s i t u a t i o ~ i n which v i o l e n t b e h a v i o r between h u s b a r d s a n d w i v e s c o u l d be p r e c i p i t a t e d ; a n d ( 3 ) t h e f e a r t h a t t h e s t r o n g c e g a t i r e s e n c t i a n s i n o u r s o c i e r y a g a i n s t t h e u : a c t i c ~ and EVSP t h e e d a i s s i o n o f v i o l e n c e would l e a d t o r e f u s a l s a n d / o r U n d e r r e p o r t i P o by h u s b e n d r a 2 3 wive=.

The v a l i d i t y o f i n t e r v i e w d a t a on f a m i l y p a t t p r r s is a l w a y s o p e n t o q u e s t i o n ones o n e g o s s beyon? s u c h s n b j s c t s as 'he a g e s a r d s e x o f c h i l d r e n , a n d son; r s s e a z c h l r s f s s l t h a t t h i s p r o c e d u r e is e v e n more guss : ionab le when a c h i l d i s t h e s o u r c e o f t h e d a t a . Bowever. C a l o n i c o and Thomas (1973) r o u n d t h a t c h i l d r e n caE p r e d i c t t h e i r p a r e n t s ' b e h a v i o r u n d e r c e r t a x . c i x u m s ' a r c e s s l i g h t l y B P E ~ a c c ~ r a t e l y t h a c t h e l r p e r e n t s c a r o f c n e a n o t h e r . They a t t r i b u t e d t h ~ f i r d i n g t o t h e f a m i l i a r i t y c f t h e c h i l d r e c w i t h the11 p a r e r t s q p a s t b e h e v i o r . Bahr , 3 9 v c r m a r , axd Gecas (1974) f o u r d t h a t a d o l e s c e n t s a c r o s s v a r i o u s a g e c a t e g c r i 9 s v e r e q u i t e c o n s i s t e n t i n r e p o r t i n g t h ? i r p a r e n t s ' b e h a v i o r . They s u g g e s t 'ha t it would be e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t t o r p a r m t s t o h i d e t h r i r b e h a v i o r f r o a a d o l e s c e n t c h i l d r e n o v e r a l o n g p e r i o d of t i m e . R more comp:ehsnsive e x a w i t b t i o r of t b l s i s s~9 , t o g e t h z r w i t h d a t a 32 t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e v i a l e r c e m e a s u r e used i n t h i s p a p e r . i s g l r e n i n E u l c r a f t and S t r a u s (1975) . T h a t e r a l y s i s shows a h i g h d e g r e e o f a g r e a m e c t be tween s t u d e n t r e p o r t s o f husband-wi fe V ~ O ~ E L C B aPd d a t 2 p r o v i d o d i n d e p s n d ? n t l y by t h e s p o u s e s t h e m s e l r e n .

Ch.12. R e s o u r c e s and power Pa3e 192

The s p e c l f i c t e c h n i q u e u s e d t o measur? p h y s i c a l v i o l e P C e 1s t h e V i o l e n c e s c a l e o f t h e f a m i l y C p g f l l ~ f T z c t i c s S c a l e s (cTs) i n s t r u m e n t ( S t r a u s . 1974a:15; 1 9 7 9 ) . ------- ------ I n this t s c h r l g u e . t h e r e s p o n d s n t i s f i r s t a s k e d t o idsc ! i fy t h e m a j o r s o u r c e s o f d i s a g r e e m e n t and c o n f l i c t d u r i n g t h e r e f e r e n t y e a r . P o l l a v i r g t h i s , a s e r i e s o f q u e s t i o n s a r e a s k e d c o n c e r c i c g p a r t n e r ' s r e s p o n s e s t o c o n f l i c t s 3 u r i r g t h a t y e a r . T h e s e q n e s t i ~ ~ s a r e a r r a n g e d i n g r a d u a l l y i n c r e z s i C g o r d e r o f c o e r c i v e n e s s o f r e s p o c s e s , bPgir .n ing w i t h d i s c ~ s s i ~ g t h i n g s c a l m l y , a n d ? n d i c g w i t h h i t t i n g t h e o t h e r p e r s o n ~ i t h s o w e t h i P g h a r d .

The V i o l e n c e i n d e x c c n s i s t s of t h e f i n a l f i r e i t e m s . E c o ~ p 1 e t . e l ist o f t h e CTS q u e s t i o n s i s g i v a r i n S t r a u s (1974a: 1 9 7 9 ) . t o g s t h e r w i t h d a t a c n t h s i n i ~ r n a l consistency r s l i a b i l i t y o f e a c h i n d e x . V a l i d i t y d a t a e r e q i v e n i c B u l c r o f t a n d S t r a u s (1975).*4

p x g r neasurg . The c n n c e p t u a l l z a t i s c a r d measurement o f c c n j u g a l p o w e r h a s p o s e d many d i f f i c u l t i s s , a s a v i d a n c e d by s e v e r a l c r i t i c a l s t u d i e s (Cromwell and O l s o n , 1975 ; R ~ e r , 1963: O l s o n , 1969: O l s o n and Rabunsky, 1972; S a f i l l o s - R o t h s c h i l d . 1970: and Turk a n d B a l l . 1 9 7 2 ) . Our d ~ f l n i t i o n 1s s x p l a i n e d i n S t r a u s , 1977 and S t r a u s and Ta11m2n. 1971. The s p e c i f i c n % a s u r s u s e d i n t h i s chap:=r is t h e D e c i s i o r Power I n d e x o f E l c o d e n d WYlfe (196D).*5

R l t h o o g h i t h a s b e e n w i d e l y c r i t i c i z e d ( i n p a r t b e c a u s e i t i s t h e most w i d e l y used m e a s u r e ) . B lood a n d w ? l f e ' s m e a s u r e seemed b e s t s u l t e d t o t h i s r e s o 3 r c h f n r t h e f o l l o v r r g r e a s o c s : (1) It u s e s a c o n v e n i e n t l i s t o f i n d i c a t o r s i n which power ls t h e o r e t i c e l l y mos t l i k e l y e e i d e ~ t - - w h o h a s t h r f i n a l s + y i n i m p o r t e n t 2nd t y p i c a l f a m i l y d e ~ i s i o n s . (2 ) Its wide USE in t h e p a s t d s c a d e 2 n d a h a l t p ? r m i t s c o e p 2 r i s c n w i t h many p r e v i o u s s + u d i = s . (3) The many c o r r e l a t e s o f p a v e r a s measured by t h i s s ~ r i o d p r o v i d e v h a t is, i r sftect, " c c r : s t r u c t v a l i d a t i c n " a v ~ d e n c a , a n d a r e c e n t p a p e r by S t r a u s (1977) p r o v i d e s e u t d e n c e of c o n c u r r e n t v a l i d i t y . ( 4 ) R e s e a r c h on power l o tilniliss t.35 i n c r ~ z s i n g l y d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e a u l t i d l m e n s i o r . a l n n t u r e o f t h e CCP.COPI..

The t h e c r y b F i r g t e s + e d r e q u i r a s a m f e s u r e r e s 7 r i c t e d t o what Cromwell and O l s o n (1975) c a l l r h e " p a v e r OutcYnes" d t e e n s l o n . T h i s , o f course, d e l i b e r a t e l y o n i t s o t h c r c r u c i a l d i m e r s i o r s s u c h a s t h o p r o c e s s e s by which d e c i s i o n s a r e r e a c h e d . Al though f o r c o n v e n i e n c e i n e x p o s i t i 2 r ws f o l l o w t h s c o l v e n t i o n o f u s i n g t h e word eaE.ez Esr t h e p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t measured , f h e r e a d e r mus t b e a r i n micd t h a t t h i s a s s r e f e r s Only t o who makes c e r t a i n som:vhat arbitrarily s e l e c t e d d e c ~ s i o n s . I n p a r t i c u l a r . t t e n e % s u r e e x p l i c i t l y e x c l u d e s v h a t F r e n c h and R a r e r (1959) c a l l t h e " b a s i s " of power, s u c h a s " r e w a r d power" ( t h e a b i l i t y t o p r o v i d ? r e w a r d s b e c a u s e o f c o c t r o l o f m n € y o r 0 2 h ? r v a l u e d g o o a s sr s e r v i c e s ) . " e x p e r t p o s e r v 8 b a s e d on p s r c e p t i c c cf

s u p e r i o r knowledge, exc. 4 ' p o w e r ourcome" t y p ? measu i - was c e c e s s a r y b e c a u s e :he t h e o r y b - in? t e s ted c n r c e r n s t h o r e l a t i o C S h i p S between c s r ' a i r o f F r e n c h a n d R a v e n ' s " b a s a s " of power (which we p r e f e r -3 i d e n ' i f y a s w r e s o u r c = s n ) and pOW4X ou tcomes , i n t h e s e r ~ s e of who makes c r i t i c a l d ~ c i s i o n s .

S i n c e t h e F lood a n d U o l f e t e c h n i q u e e x a m i n e s a n s w e r s t h a t i n d i c a t e "who h a s t h l f i n a l s a y " i n r e s p e c t t o t h c s i x 6 e ~ l S 1 0 n ~ . and s i r c e t h e m e a s u r e is s c o r e d so t h a t h i g h s c o r e s show t h a t ? h ~ b a l a r c e o f poue? is o r th - . s i d e 3f t h e husband a n d l o v s c o r e s shcv t h a t t h e xi*? h i s r ~ l s t i v e l y more d e c i s i o c power , up w i l l s o s e t i m e s u s e t h e t e r n " F i n a l Say Power I n d e x " o r V e l a t i v 1 Powei I n d e x ' ?a i d s n t i f y t h i s i n s t r u m e n t .

ReSOUrCE f l easure . POT e a c h S ~ J U S F , a2 R b s a l u t e - - - -- -- - - R B S O U I C E I n d e x and a R ? l a t i v e REscurca I n d e x %#?re c ~ n s t z ~ c l e d . The B b s o l u t e R e s o u r c e I n d z x c a n s i s t s of t h e snm o f f o u r i t e m s r e f e r r i r q t o 2san_ogir Ezes;ao conf=rr_&r,g c h a r a c ? e r i s t i c s ( e d u c a t i o n , o c c u p a t i n . incams . s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h income) and f o u r i t e m s r e f s r r i n g t o v a l u e a r , ~ ~ ~ g g & & '~_Q+;s ( h i g h s e l f - e s t e e m , a c h i e v e m e n t o r i - n t s ' i o n a n d s o c 1 a b ; l l t y . a r d l c v a n x i s i y ) . T h e f o r m e r c e c b e t h o u g h t o f a s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o what 31au ( 3 9 h u : Z O - 2 2 ) would c a l l ' m ~ x t r i n s i c ' z r e s o u r c e s , and t h e l a t t - z e s " h a t h e i d e n t i f i e s a s " i n t r z n s i c " r e s o u r c e s . A p a r a l l e l P - l n t i v s Re50DTC9 I n d e x vas a l s o computed f o r F2Ch Sp3U5EI by f i r s t calculating t h e e x t e n ? t o w h i c h a p a z i i c u l a r J ~ U S P h 2 a E

h L g t e r s c o r e on e a c h r 2 5 o n r c ~ and t h s n sumnic.g ?ktf p o s i t i v e s c o r e s . * 6

POUFP AND VIOLENCE

The mos t e l e m s n t a r y e m p i r i c a l d a t a o r t h e i s s u s o f t h i s p a p s r is t h e c o r r e l a t i o n O p t v e e r the b a l a r c e o f power i n t h e r a m l l y (+s measured b y o u r v e r s i l r . o f t h e 31036 a n a W>lf= ' * D e c i s i o n Power Index" ) ac3 :he f r e q u e n c y 3E p h y s i c a l v i o l e w e bezwsen s p c u s e s . Howerer, a s was e x p l a i ~ r a i~ t h e i n i r o d u c t i o r , a r d a s w e n o r e agai3. b o l o v , s n c h c o r r e l + ' i o n s a r e n o t an a d e g u a t e ?@s% of u l t i m a t e r e s o u r c e ' hac ry b - c a u s e t h e y d o c o t t a k e ~ n - o a c c o u n t t h s r e s o o r c s s t h ? i g i v e l f g i C l o i c y t o e a c h a c " o r T s p c v f r p o s i t i o c . N e v e r t h e l a s s , t h s S 4 s i m p l e ~ o ~ r ~ l a t i o n s are a ~ 2 p p r o p r i a t e p o i ~ i a? which to b a g i n t h e d a t a a n e l y s l s , i r f o r co a t h f r r s a s o n t h a t t o d e m o n s f r a t e t h e i r i n a d a q u a c y .

Ch.12. ResO~rce6 and Power Page 19I1

T ~ E uppe; arrow of Figure 1 give5 the orr re let ions between the relative pow7 index acd t h s us? of violence by tho total sznplr, by the working class par? 3f +t.e sample, and by fhe mlddle cless part of th; sample. The ~orrelatio?~ betweer the Re1er:vs Power Irdox and the wife's violenc~ are s h o w in the lover arrow. In gecsrsl, Figure 1 6hox5 C P ~ Y low and variable correlations between pcusr and violence. However. to the extext that Cocclusions can be drawn, Flguze 1 suggests that in the middle class. ch=re is ro relationship betweer relative power and t h e PASbBgCP VIOI~PCF, but a5 Lhe husband's paver increases, i& x:EQL~ violence decreases (-.16). The pattern is reverse* t3r ?he vorklng class, "here there is a slight tendency E l r the husbz~d's Violexce to increase as his power incr~asCS. but nc relatiocship is shown between his porsr and violence. The pattern for the Latal sample is 'he same as i h c p3ttern to= ?he middle class, largely because the preponaersnce of Case5 are middle class (75 to 80 percent, depending 2n the variables ic a qiven set of tabulations).*7

c h . 1 ~ . Resources and Power Page 195

Ch.12. R e s o u r c e s and Power Page 196

RFSOURCZS P W D POWER

g&gcs9= R 9 s o u r c ~ s - P a r ? A o f F i g u r e 2 shows t h a t f c r a l l S a B p l s s , a s t h e h u s b 2 x d l s r e c a u r c s r i c c r e a s e , t h ~ r ? i s a t e c d s n c y f o r h i s p o u e r t o i n c r e a s e (r = 0 . 1 9 ) . E a e a l y any r e l a t l o r i s s e e p be tween Che vifglj r e s c u r c s s and t h e b a l a n c s o f power i n ? h e f a m i l y . 30% t o t h e e x t P c t - h i t z r e1a ' : lonsh ip e x l s t s , t h e n e g z t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s s u g g e s t %he o t h e r s i d = o f t h e c o i n s h o u n by t h e f i x d i n g s f o r t h e husband : t h a t is, t h e n o r e t h e w i f e ' s r e s o u x c r s t h a l e s s t h e hUSband'5 POWET.

P f l a t i v s Resources . C o r r r l a t i o r s be twesn r$&gd&lg -------- ----- r e sOUrCes a x 6 t h e h u s b a n d * ~ b a l a n c e of p o u e r a r e g i v s r i n Par': B o t F;gure 2. T h e s e c o r r e l a ? i o n s r r v e a l t h s same p a t t e r n a s was t o u n d f a r a b s o l u t e r e s o u r c e s € x c ? p t Zh3t t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s a r e l a r g e r ( s n a v e r a g e of 7 3 p e r c s n t g r e a t e r ) . T h e r 9 t o r e Chese d a t a show t h a t b a t h a b s o l u t e and r e l a t i v e ~ E S O U T C ~ S a f f e c t t t . ~ b a l a l c e cf powzr i n fhe f i m i l i e s s t u d i e d . Acuever , Evan w i t h i n t h e c o > t = x t o f t h e l o r c c r r e l a t i c r s t h a t o r e E X P F C ~ S i n a n a l y s a s o f a s r ~ g l e c a u s a l factor, o c l y t h s h u s b a c d . s r e l a t i v e r e s o u r c e s se?m t o h a v s a s u b s : z n t i + l r e l a t i o ~ a h i p t o who h a s t h e final say. F ~ r t h ~ r m o z e . f o r b o t h h u s b a n d s s c d wives . t h e c c r r + l a t i o n between r e s o u r c e s and power i s s t i o n g e r ~ L t h i c t h e work ing C l a s s t h a r u l + h i n t h e m i d d l e c l a s s p a r t o f + h a s s n p l e . Despite i h e s i qualifications, t h s c o r r e l a t i o n s il e a c h s a m p l e , f o r b o t h h u s b a ~ a s and w i v e s , and f o r b 3 t h t y p e s o f r e s o n r c e s . a r e i r the same d i r e c t i o n a s T h a t p r e d i c t P d by t h e r e s o u r c e thea ry .*8

TAEORIES OF RESOUSCES A N D VIOLElCF

n p t o :his p o i n t ve have shown o n l y a u s ~ k a n d = r r a r i c r E l a t = O ~ . ~ h ~ p b e t w e e p n o l s n c e a r d t.h? h a l a r c ? o f p a v e r i n f a m i l y d e c i s l o n i . We s u g g e s i e d t h a t t h ? s i n p l e c o r r e l a t i o n be tween power B S ~ v i o l e n c e f a l l s '0 ~ a k e i n t o i c c o o a t t h e dimension o f legitimacy ;r, e x e r c i s i n g power. i n a modern ~ n d u s r a a l s o c l e t y , a s i n aosz o t h e r s o c i e t i e s , p o u s r i s u s u a l i y a s c r i b e d '0 t h s husband. But t h e husband mus? a l s o p o s s s s s t h e p e r s c c a l a l d m a c e r i a l r ; souzces t h a t a r 3 v a l u e d in such a s o c l e t y . I n s h o r t , i t was a r q u ~ d t h a t d s s p i < - t h e n c r m a r i v s a s s u n p t i c n t h a t t h e h u b a n d w i l l he t h e f a s i l y l e a d e r , t h i s s t a t u s must he v a l i d a t e d by m=irs of apprap2 ia t . e r e s c u r c e s . T h e r e f o : ~ , p a g e r i ~ d v i o l e n ~ e w i l l h c r e l a t e d o n l y i t t h e e x e r c l s e o f power i s i l l s y i t i a a i e .

A s a f i r s t s t e p i n t e s t i n g t h i s n o r e s p e c i t i c t h s o r y o f t h e relation b e t v e e r power a n d v i o l e n c e , racail :ha? t h e p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n s h o v e d r e s o u r c e s t o be c o r z a l a t r d w i t h power; t h a t is, o r + h e a v e r a g e , h u s b a r d s ~ x r r c i s i r g s ~ p 9 r i o r power h a v e v a l l d a i s d t h i s p s s i t i o n by s u p e r i o r

ch.12. Resanrces and power PagE 197

Cb.12. Resources and Power Page 198

a b s o l u t e Resources . The c o r r e l a t i o n s i r t h e t o p l i n e of F i g u r e 3, p a r t A , show t h a t ?he g r e a t e r t h e h u s b a n d ' s a b s c l u t e r e s o u r c e s . t h e less h i s u s e of p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e . F o r wives, t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s shown i n t h e l o w e r a r row o f p a r t A a r e s m a l l b u t i n ?he same d i r e c t i o n 3s t h o s e f o r husbands: t h e g r e a t E r h e r a b s o 1 n t e ~ e s o u r c e s , tb .e l e s s h e r v i o l e n c e . F o r bo th s p o u s e s , b u t e s p e c i a l l y f o r t h ? husbands . t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s a r e s t r o n g e r f o r t h e w r k l n g c l a s s t h a n f o r r h a middle c l a s s .

T u r n i n g t o t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s between h u s b a n d ' s r e s o u z c e s and t h e life15 v i c l e r c e , t h e u p p e r d i a g o n a l a r r o w of p a r ? P i n d i c a t e s t h e same t r e c d : a s ?he h u s b a n d ' s a b s o l u t e r e s O u r c E s i n c r e a s e , t h e w i f e ' s v i o l e n c e d e c r e a s e s . T h i s same t e n d e c c y i s e v l d e n t from t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s of w i f e ' s r ~ s o u c c e s w i t h 'he husband ' s v i o l e n c e , e x c e p t t h 3 t t h e c c r r e l a t i o n s . a l t h o u g h a l l n e g a t i v e , a r e a l s o a 1 1 n e a r z e r o iT magnitude. It a p p e a r s from t h e s e d a t a t h s t t h e h u s b a n d ' s a b s o l u t e r e s o u r c e s a r e more r e l e t e d t o t h s w i f a ' s ana h i s own v i o l e n c e , t h a n t h e w i f e ' s a b s o l u t e r e s o u r c e s a r e r e l a t e d t o h e r h u s b a n d ' s ard h e r cwn v i o l e n c e .

R e l a t i v e - - Resources . A t f i r s t g l a n c e it seems a s thong~h p a r t B of F i g u r e 3 shows c n l y low a n d e r r a t i c r e l a t < o r . s h i p s . TO a c e r t a i n e x t e n t . t h i s i s c o r r e c t . a o u a v l r , p a r t of what seems a t f i r s t t o be e r r a t i c v a r i a t i o n s t u r h o u t t o be t h e o r - t i c a l l y m e a n i r g f u l r e v e r s a l s i n t h e " s i g n " of t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s . L e t ' s b e g i n w i t h t h e t o p arrow. T h i s shows e s s e n t i a l l y P O r e l a t i o n s h i p b ~ t v e e ~ t h e exCent t o which t h s h u s b a n d ' s r e s o u r c e s e x c e e d t h o s e o t h i s =if€ icl h i s ues o f p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e . However, t h e bot tom arrow s h 3 u s a s l i g h t t e n d e n c y t o r s p z whose r e s o u r c e s exceed t h o s e of t h e i r h n s b a n d s t o u s e p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e . Although t h e s e c o r r e l a t i o n s a r e low, WE s u g g e s t t h a t t h e y i n d i c a t e r e b c t i o n s t o a s i t u a t i o n t h a t g o e s a g a i n s t t h e l e a a e r s h i p norms i n A e e r i c a r s o c i e t y .

T u r n i n g t o t h e r e l a t i o n of e a c h s p o u s e ' s r e l a t i v e r e s o u r c e s t o t h e v i o l e n c e qf q:&x, f o r husbanas , we f i n d a g a i n t h a t t t e r c i s l i t t l e r e l a t i o n s h i p . Bowever, f o r wives , t h e l o w e r d i a g o n a l a r r s w shows t h a t t h e more h e r r e s o u r c e s e x c e e d t h o s e of h e r husband, t h e g r e a t e r v i o l e n c e . Our i c t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h i s f i n a i n g i s t h s t t h e c o u n t e r n o r m a t i v e S i t u a t i o n of a x i r e h a v i n g g r e a t e r r e s o u r c e s t h a n h e r husband is a s s o c i a t e 3 w i t h g r e a t e r r l o l e n c e on t h e par' o f b o t h s p o u s e s . bu t e s p e c i a l l y by t h e husband whose a s c r i b e d p o s i t i o n is b e i n g threa$en;d. Ln o t h e r words, t h e f i n d i n g r e f l e c t s e f f o r t s b y wives t o a s s e r t power on t h e b a s i s o f h a v i n g s u p e r i o r r e s o u r c e s , i c t h e m i s t a k e n b e l i e f t h a t s u c h s u p e r i o r i t y i n r e s o u r c e s makes e q u a l o r s u p e r i o r pow=c legitimate. T h i s i s a r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n i n view o f t h e r e q u i r e m e c t t h a t husbands v a l i d a t e t h e i r a s c r i b e d s u p e r i o r p o s i t i o n by a p p r o p r i a t e s u p e r i o r i t y i n r e s o u r c e s . S u t a s c o u n t l e s s women h a r e d i s c o v e r e d . s o c i r t y s t a c k s t h e c a r d s a g a i n s t them by

Ch.12. RasO%nces a n d P o u e r Page 199

c r e a t i n g a d u a l s e t of r a g 0 S a t i s t y : t o e x e r c i s e 1s f a m i l y , o n e must b o t h h a v e O b v i o u s l y o n l y h u s b a n d s can

i r e m e 1 , g i t i m t s u p e r :

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BESOUPCES BND T E E LEGITIMlCY OF POVEB

l l t h a u g h t h e f i r d i n g s i n t h e p r e c s d i c g t h r e e s e c t i o n s a r e i n t e r e s t i n g in t h e i r own r i g h t , t h e y were p r ? s e n t r d p r i m a r i l y 70 l a y t h r groundwork f o r a a x e s p e c i f i c t e s t o f t h e t w o main h y p o t h e s e s d e r i v e d f rom t h e u l t i m s t e r s s s u r c e t h e o r y . S p e c i f i c a l l y , i n en i c d i v i d u a l - a c h i e v e m a r t o r i e n t e d S C C i E X Y s u c h 1 5 t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , t h e p a t t e r n o f r o r m a t i v s l y p r e s c r i b e d ma le f a m i l y l e a a e r s h i p t h a t c h a r a c t e r r z e s s o many s o c i e t i e s i s s u p p l e a s n ' s d by ths f o r t h e r r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t t h e husband d e a o n s ' r e % r h i s e l i g i b i l i t y t o o c c u p y a l s a d s r s h i p p 3 s i t i g r i n p o s r z s s i c q v a l u e d p e r s o n a l c h a r e c t f r i s t i c s and p r o v i d i n g e c o c o m i c goods. I f he d o e s n o t , t h e n t h e l e g i t i n a c y o f h i s p o v r r is undermined . u n d e r t h e s e c i r c u n s t a c c e s , w e s u g g e s t , a a l e POW47 w i l l be asSOCia?ed w i t h v i o l e n c e .

ch.12. R e s o u r c e s a n d over P s g e 200

Th4 f i n d i n g s can be summarized u n d e r two h s a d i c g s : e h i g h r e s o u r c e g r o u p and a low r e s o u r c e g r a u p - f l 0 C c r r e l a t i o n s between P O Y I ~ a n d v i o l e c c e v e r e t h s c computed w i t h i n e a c h o f t h e r e s o u r c e g r o u p s . T h i s p r o c P s s was r e p e a t e d f o r e a c h o f < h e f o u r r e s o u r c e i c d € x ? s .

8 u 5 b a ~ d ~ s v i o l e m . T a b l e 1 g i v ? s t h e c o r r a l a t i o n s between Our m e a s u r e s o t power and v i o l e n c P s e p a r a t ? l y f o r t h o s e h i g h and low i n e a c h of t h r r e s o u r c e i n 3 a r e s . S t a r t i n g v l t h t h e t o u r c o r r e l a t i o n s s b 3 u r i n t h z u p p e r l s f t Under " h u s h a d ' s v i o l f n c e , " w i t h i n r h e m i d d l s c l a s s p a r t o f t h i s s i m p l e , e s s e n t i a l l y no r e l a t i o n is s c e n b e t u s e n t h e b a l a n c e o f power i r t h e f i a i l y a c d t h s Pg&+=zgL~ Q i D l s n c e . fiavev+r. v l r h l n t h e w o r k i r g c l a s s (next f o u r c a r r s l s 5 i s n s i n t h e l e t t p a n e l ) . t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s o f - 0 . O Y t o r t h e h i g h reE3UrCe h u s b a l d a n d 0.49 f o r t h e low r e s o a c e h c s b a c d p r c v i d e s:ronq s u p p o r t f o r t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t ma le p o v e r is n o t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h ~ i o l e n c e if t h e husband h a s r e s o u r z e s t o v a l i d a t e h i s p o s i t i o n , bu* i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h v i 3 l e r c e whec t h e husband l a c k s s u c h r e s o u r c e s .

what e f f e c t s d o t h e w i f e ' s z e s o u r c e s h a v e on t h e relation b e t u e e n p o w r a r d t h e h u s b a n d ' s v i a l e n ; e ? wa h a v e n o t s p e c i f i e d a h y p o t h e s 5 s f o r t h i s i s s u e , s o t h e c o z r e l a t i o n s shown i n p a r t E of t h e l e f t p z ~ ~ l o f t h e t a b l e + r e p u r e l y J x p l a r a t o r y . The b l o c k o f f 3 u r c o r r e l a t i l r s f o r t h e m i d d l e c l a s s , l i k e t h e s q u i ~ a l e n t b l o c k f 3 r t h e h u s b a r d ' s , s h o ~ s t h a t f a r t h i s s o c i a l c l a s s g r o u p , t h e 11~31 of t h e w i f e ' s r e s o u r c e s d o e s i c t a l ' e r tt.9 f i n d i i g cf c o r e l a t i o n b s t w e e n power a n d v i c l c ~ c r cn t h e p a r t of husband. B u t v l t h i n t h e work ing c l a s s p a r t o f t h i s s a m p l e , t h c r e i s a s m a l l bu: ccnsis?een' ' e rdency f a r male pow?= t 2 b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h ma le v i o l e n c e .

O v e r a l l . t o summar izs t h e da'l or. h u s b a n d ' s T i e l r n c 2 shown i n t h e l e f t c o l u m r s o f T a b l e 1 , it sesus a s :bough L r t h e middle Cle.55. v i o l e n c e 1s n o t a s s o c i i t e d ~ i t h ma le p c u e r . T h z s i s e l s o t r u e f o r t h c s e work ing c l a s s m?n who 219 h l g h i n r e s o u r c e s . But f o r v o r k i n g c l a s s r . w h 3 a r e ~ C Y i~ r e s o u r c e s m a i n t a i n i n g a s u p e r i o r p v e r p o s i t i o n i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e US% of p h y s i c a l f o r c e . Tak inq i n t o a c c o u x t t h e ~ ~ S C U Z C B S a t t h e w i f e a c e s n o t a l t e r t h e s e c c n c l u s i m s t o r t h e m i d d l e c l a s s . But f a r t h e u s r k i n g c l a s s . i n e a c h o f t h s w i f e r e s o u r c e g r o u p s , a smsll b u t c o x ~ i s t e n t t e n d e n c y e x i s t s f o r ma le power t o be a s s s c i a t e f l ~ i t h b a l e v i o l e n c e .

n i t . ? % V:C~EFCE. The r i g h t p a n e l 3f T a b l e 1 shows + h ? c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t u s e n t h e d y a d i c b a l a n c e o f pJwnr z r d "ha f requer .cy w i t h which &p~ u s e p h y s i c a l v i s l o n c ? . T h e s e c o r r e l a t i o n s v e r e a l s o computed f o r e x p l o r a t o r y p u r p a s e s . s l r c e we d l d r o t f o r m u l a t e any s p e c i f i c h y p o t h e s e s r sgz rd iP .5 t h 9 way l o w v e r s u s h i g h r e s o u r c e s e i g h t a f f e c t t h e r = l a t l o n o f power t o v i o l e r c e on t h o p a r t o f wivps.

Ch.12. R e s o u r c e s and P o v e r ~ a g ~ 201

w i t h i n t h e middlE c l a s s ( t o p f o u r c o r r e l a t i s n s ir. th. r i g h t p a n e l ) t h e r e g e c i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s s h c v t h a t t h s more t h e b a l a n c e o f power is i n f a v o r o f t h e husbsnd , ?he l e s s t h e w i f e ' s v i o l e n c e . T h i s t e r d a r c y i s p r e s e n t b a t h whe? t h e h u s b a n a ' 5 X E S O U r C E 5 a r e h i g h a n d when t h e y 2 r E l o w s but t h e c o r r e l a t i o n is s t r o ~ g e 1 i n t h e l a t t e r c a s e . W i t h i r t h e ~ o r k l n g C l a s s p a r t o f t h e s a m p l e , C o n t r D l l L n g f a r t h e 3 u s b a o d ' s r e s o u r c e s ( s e c o n d b l o c k o f f o u r c o r r e l a t l o c s i n t h e r i g h t p a n e l o f T a b l e 1) p r o d u c e s a much more c o i n p l i c a f e d set o f c o r r s l a t i c r s : Wher t h e h u s b a n d ' s r s s a u r c e s ir= h i g h , t h e r e i s a s l i g h t t e c d e r c y f o r h i g h h u s b a n d p>wsr t o h e a s s o c i a T e d u:th low x i r e r i o l s n c s ( a s i r t h a f i n d i n g s f o r t h e m:ddle class)- But when t h e h u s b a n d ' s a b s a l a t e resOUICES a r e low, rF.en "he g r e a t e r h l s power* t L e maze ~ P T

u l o l e r c e ( r =0.31). Both t h e s e f i r d i n g s , and e s p e c i a l l y t h e d i f r e r 2 n c a be tween t h e C o r r e l a t i o n s f o r low and h i g h r E 5 0 U r C O h u s b a n d s v a r e c o n s i s t f x t w i t h t h e t h e o r y t h a t s p ~ c z t i e s t h a t v i o l e n c e w i l l o c c u r when h u s b a n d s u h 3 l a c k t h e ~ P S O U ~ C S E to legitimize t h e i r a s c r i b e d power t r y t o E X ~ T C L S E t h a t power. On t h e o t h e r hand. we have no? a s y e t f o r m ~ l a t e d a n y s a t i s f a c t o r y e x p l a n a t i o n t o r t h e f i n d i n g t h a t v h e c t h e c c n t r o l f o r r e s o u r c e s i s on t h e b 2 5 i 6 o f t h e rf&=$hpg E g e r s s o f husband znd v i f e , t h e c o r r s l a t i a n s a y e P e a r z e r o , e v e s t h o u g h t h e y show t h e same s h i f t f r o m n e g a t i v e f o r t h e h i g h r e s c u r c e g r o u p t o p o s i t i v s f o r ? h ? low r e s o o r c o g roup .

The t w o r i g h t co lumns i n P+rt B of T a b l ~ 7 shsw t h s c c r r e l a t i o n s befweec t h e h w s b a ~ d ' s p o z e r i ~ d 5 t e W L ~ S ' S v i o l e n c e V ~ E P c o r t r o l s a r e i n t r o d u c e d f o r t h e w i f e ' s l e v e l c f resou:cE+. The a i d d l ? c l s s s b l n c k c f f 2 u r c o r r e l a t i o r s shows a p a t t e r n s l m i l a r t c t h a t t o u r d wher ?he c c r t r C L was on t h e b a s i s o r f h e h u s b a n d ' s r e s o o r c e s : c s m e l y , f 3 r 211 r e s O n r c e g r o u p s 1 t h e n o r e t h e Lusbz?d ' s p3vsz. *kC less v i o l e n c e o n t h e p a r t c2 ?he wife . eut "he? we l o 3 k a t t h e 125: f o u r c o r r e l a t i o n s i n t h e lowe: r i g h t c o r r a r o f T a b l e 1 , s t i l l a d : f t e r e n t p a t t e r n i s r ? v e a l e d . Firs:. t h e C C r r e l a t i o P s a r s a l l v e r y low. Aouevs r , t h e p a t t p r n o f t t e s e c o r r s l a t i o c s t i ts o u r t h e o r y e x a c t l y : whan t h 5 w i v e s a r e h l g h i n resources. h i g h power on % h e par: 3f t h e husband 1s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a t e z d e c c y t o w a r d s o i o l a n c a on i h s p a r t o f t h e wi fe - -porh+ps a s a means o f r s s i s t i n g msls a o s i n a c c e o r t h e p a r t o f uoner. whose r e s o u r c e s l e a d thsm t o ' 3 9 s i r e a g r e a t e r s h a r e o f t h e pover . Conversely, whec r e s o u r c n s a r e low, h i g h p c v n r on t h s p a r - of t h e h u s b a r d i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h l e s s ~ i o l f n c ~ an t h e par: o f h i s w i f e ( a l t h o u a h + h s ~ e g a t z v e c o r ~ f l e t i o n ~ hetween male power and t h s w i f e ' s v i o l e n c e a r e l o w ) . we c a r s p e c u l a t e t h ~ t t h i s c o r r s l a t i o n represents an a c c e p t a n c e o f t h ~ t r a d i t i o n a l f a m i l y power h l E r a r C h y an t h e p a r t of women who l a c k t h e r e s o u r c e s t o c l a i a g r e a t e r e q u a l i t y .

O v e r a l l , t h e d a t e on v i o l e n c e i n i t i a t e d by wives a r e l i k e t h o s e f o r ma le v i o l a n c n . I n b o t h i n s t 2 n c a s . t h z d a t a a x e c o n s i s + ~ r t w i t h t h e ~ O B O U ~ C E t h e o r y o n l y v i t h i o t h e

Ch.lZ. R e s c u r c e s a n d P o u e r PagP 202

w o r k i n g c l a s s p a r t o r t h e s a m p l e . S p e c i f i c a l l y , when t h e h u s b a c d ' s r s s c a f c e s a r n h i g h , h i g h ma le p o v e r is no+ n e t by v i o l e n c e on t h e p a r t of t h e w i f e ; w h e r e a s i f t h e h u s b a n d ' s I E S O U Z C E S a r e low, ma le power t e x a s t c b e met by f e m a l e ViolOLCe. The o t h e r s i d e o f t h e c o i n is shout xhen t h e w i f e ' s r e s o u r c e s a r e c o n i r o l l e d , b u t t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s i r e ------ a l l v e r y low. N e v e r t h e l e s s , ve i c t e r p r e t t h e p o s i t i v e c o r r s l a t i o n be tween malv p a v e r and w i f e ' s v i o l e n c e a s r e f l e c t i n g r e s i s t a n c e t o m a l e d o m i n a t i o n on t h e p s r t o f w o r k i n g c l a s s w i v f s v i t h h i g h r e s o u r c e s , and t h e low n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s a s r e f l e c t i n g a c c e p t a n c e s f ma le d o a l n a n c e on t h e p a r t o f w o r k i n g c l a s s w i v e s v i t h low reSOUrCOS~

SUnflRRY B N D CONCLUSIONS

The r e s e a r c h p r e s e c t s d i n t h i s p a p e r vis d e s i g n e d t c e x p l o r e t w o c l o s ~ l y r e l a t e d i s s u e s c o r c e r n i n g p h y s i c a l V i o l e n c e i n m a r r i a g e . The f i r s t o f t h e s e i s s u e s is t h e e x t e n t t o v h i c h t h e u s e c f p h y s l c a l f o r c e i s a s s o c i a t e d v i t h t h e m a i c t e n a n c e o f ma le dcminance i n t h a f a m i l y . The s s c o n d i s s u e i s a test o f -he i d e a t h a t h u s b a n d s who l a c k c e r t a i n v a l u e d p e r s o r a l t r a i t s a n d m a t e r m 1 p o s s e s s i s r s ( c a l l e d " r e s o u r c e s " ) t e c d t c s u b s t i t u t e p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c s t o m z i n t a i n a p o s l r l o n o f s u p e r i o r i t y . T o g e t h e r ;hs se two i d e a s form t h s c o r e a f what ve c a l l t h e " u l t i m s t e r s s o u r c e t h e o r y " of i n t r a f a m i l y violence.

S i n c e t h i s is c r c s s - s e c t i o r a l r e s s a r c h , 'he c a u s a l r e l a t i o c s h i p s i n h e r e n t i n t h e u l t i n s ' e r c s o u r c e t h e o r y c a n n o t be t e s t e d i n any d e f i n i t i v e way. R a t h e r , we c o a p u t e a c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t v e e n pcvs: +Ed v'ole2ce a7d s i m u 1 5 3 ~ ? 3 u s l y h e l d c o n s t a n t c e r t a i n o t n e r v a r i a b l a s as + mnacs of d i s c o v e r i n g i f t h e r e s u l t i n g p a t r e r n o f r a l a t l c c s h i p s z c c o r d s w i t h t h e i d e a t h a i v i o l e n c e i s t h e u l t i m a t e r e s o u r c e u n d e r l y i n g male d c m i n a n c e i n l m e r i c a h f a m i l i e s .

The r e s u l t i n g c o r r a l a t i o n s were u e n e r e l l y low. T h e r e f o r e . what c o n r i d e r c e c r e c a n h a v e ic t h e s e r e s u l t s d e r i v e s t rom t h e c a n s i s t e r c y v i t h v h i c h we f o u n d p a t t e r c s 3f p o s i t l r e a n d n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s c o n c o r d s n t w i t h t h e t h e o r y , and a l s o f rom t h e f a c t t k t t h e l a r g s s t c o r r = l i t i o ? . s (0.49 and 0.31) were f o u n d f o r t h o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e d t h e m o s t c r u c i a l t e s t o f r h e t h e o r y . With t h e s e qualifications i n mind, t h e f i n d i n g s c a a b e s u a m a r i z c d a s fellows:

1. L l t t l e o r co r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s b e t v e e n t h e c o n j u g a l b a l a n c e of power a n d t h e u s e 3 f v i o l e n c e by e i t h e r s p o u s e . T h i s f i r d l s g i s c o n s i s t e c t w i t h t h e u l t i m a t e r e s o u r c e t h e o r y i n t h a t t h e t h e o r y s p e c i f i e s t h a t ma le dominants w i l l l e a d t o u l c l s n c e o n l y i f t h e husband c a n n o t l e g i t i m i z e h i s S U p e r i o r p ~ e r p o s i t i o n t h r o u q h t h e

ch.11. P P S O U ~ C B S and Power Page 203

possession o f va1:dstlng r e s o u r c e s .

2. The g r e a t e r t h e h u s b a n d ' s r s s o u r c e s , t h e l e s s h i s USE of p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e . S i m i l i r l y , t h s g r e a t e r t h e v ~ f e ' s r e s o u r c e s , t h e less h e r u s e o f v i o l e n c e . Thes2 f ind i r !gs a r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e u l t i m a t a r e s o u r c e t h e o r y i c t h a t t h e y s u g g e s t t h a t t h o s e who c a r c a l l on r e s o u r c e s t h a t do n o t h a v e t h e c o s t l y s i d e e f f e c t s of violent= "ill u s e l e s s v r o l e n c e .

3. s u p e r i o r l ? y i n r e s o u r c e s cqdgf&~p f & peegap Was a l s o examined f a r p o s s i b l e a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h v i o l e n c e . T h i s a r a l y s i s r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e E x t e r t t o which a h u s b a n d ' s r e s o u n c e n c n c e e d t h o s e o f h i e w i f e h a s l i t t l e o r n o r = l a t i o n ...~---~- ~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~

t o v i o l e n c e bp e i t h e r spouse . R o r e v e r , t h e sore t h e ghfplp r r s o o r c s s sXceFd t h o s e c f h e r husband . t h e r o r e l i k e l y Che - - - ~~ ~~~ ~

h n s b a r d 1s to h a v e u s e d o h v s i c a l f o r c e d u r i n o t h e r s f e r e n ' ~~ - ~ . . y e a r . T h e s e f i n d i n g s s u g g s r t h a t t h e w i f e ' s p o s s ? s s i o n o f SUpEr1OT r e s o u r c e s c a n u n d s r m i n e t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e h a s b a n d ' s r e s o u r c e s t o v a l i d a t e s u p e r i o r p o i f ~ r , t h u s l ~ a d i n g to t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f 2 r e s o u r c e i n which w i v e s c e n r a r e l y b e s ~ p e ~ l c r t o t h e l r husbands : p h y s i c a l V i o l e n c J .

4 . F i n a l l y , t h e s p e c i f i c h y p o t h e s s s d e r i v e a f r n e t h e u l t i m a t e r e s o u r c e t h e o r y p r e d i c t e d a t e n d e n c y f o r male power t o b e a s s a c i a t e d w i t h v i o l e n c e o n l p when t h * husbacd l a c k s v a l i d a t i n g r e s o u r c e s . R ? f o u n d t h i s h y p o t h e s i s t r u e , b u t o n l y t o r w o r k i n g c l a s s husbands . Po: h u s b a n l s h i g t i n T F S D U ~ C E S . a s p r ~ d i c t ~ d , t h e r e was n o c o r r e l a t i o n b ? t v e e n power a n d u s e o f v i o l e n c e . But f o r t h o s e v o r k i c g c l a s s h u s b a n d s low i n r e s o u r c e s . t h e grea 'er ? h e h u s b a n d ' s p3uer . t h e more l i t e n he u s p a p h y s i c a l f o r c e o n h i s s p o u s e i c s i t u a t i o n s o i c o n f l i c ? .

5. I n a l m o s t a l l t h e a n a l y s e s r s p o r t - l i n t h i s papez . ard e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e most d i r e c t test of t h e u l t i m a t e : I S O U T C ~ f h e o r y summarized i n t h e p r e c e d i r g p s r a g r a p h . 'he c o r r e l a t i o l s were s t r o n g e r i n work ing c l a s s f a m i l i z s , o r s o m e t i m e s p r e s e n t o n l y i n v o r k i n g c l a s s f a m i l i e s .

what c o u l d a c c o u n t f o r t h e f a c t t h a t t h e u l t i m a t e r e s c u r c e t h e o r y se?as t o a p p l y o n l y w i t h i n work ing c l a s s f a m i l i e s ? TWO p o ~ s i b i l i t i e s ccme io mind. The f i r s ? i s b a s e d on s o c i a l c l a s s d i f f e r e n c ~ s i n mals a u t h o r i t y r o r a s a n d can be c a l l 9 6 t h e " m i d d l e c l a s s e q u a l i t a r i a n norms" e x p l a n a t i o n . The s f c o r d i s b a s e d on c l a s s d i E f o r e n z e s i n t y p e s of v i o l e n c e and c a n be c a l l e d t h e " u o r k i n g c l a s s i n s t z u m e n t a l v i o l e n c e " e x p l a n a t i o n .

B r d d l e C l a s s ? o v e r Aores . T h i s e x p l a n a r i o c l s s u m f s ------ ----- ----- t h a t w l t h l r t h e m i d d l e c l a s s a s i g n i f i c a n t d s g r e e o f s u p p o r t no l o n g e r e x i s t s t o r l o r m s t h a t g i v e s u p e r i o r a u t h o r i t y t o h u s b a c d s . I f t h i s is c o r r e c t , t h e n few m i d d l e c l a s s h u s b a n d s w i l l a + t e m p t t o c l a i m t h e t r i d i t i o n a l B a l e a u t h o r i t y . T h e r e f o r e , p h y s i c a l f a r c e i s not needea t9 b a c k

u p ac a s c r i b e d p o s i i l a l o f a u t h o r i t y i f t h e husband l a c k s o r h e r r e s o u r c e s t o v a l i d a t e h i s a s c r i b e d a u t h o r t t y . U ~ f o r t u n a t ~ l ~ . vs f i n d t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n d i f f i c u l t t o i c c e p t . b e c a n s e o u r p e r s o n a l o b s e r v a t i o n o f f a ~ i l i e s , t n g e t h ? r w i t h much o t h e r e v i d e n c e (Bahr , Bowerman, and Gecas , 1974 ; Blood a n d Y o l f e , 1960 ; Kolb a n d S t r a u s , 1979; S c a n z o n i . 1970; S k o l n i c k a n d S k o l n i c k . 197Y: C h a p t e r 6 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t d e s p i t e C o n s i d e r a b l e l i p s e r v i c e t o s e x u a l e q u a l i t y , t h e a c t u a l s t r u c t u r e of m i d d l e c l a s s f a m i l i e s r e m a i n s b a s i c a l l y ma le -dominan t .

R o r k i n q c l a s s I ~ s t r u a c g t a l x z ~ & g c = . T h i s e x p l a n i t i o n b e g i n s f rom t h e a s s u m p f i o n t h a t what we h a v e c a l l e d n i n s t r u m e n t a l Tioler .cc*l (SSP C h a p t e r 1. f o o t n o t e 2 ) is more a c c e p t a b l e w i t h i n t h e work ing c l a s s , v h n r e t h e r e i s a c c n t i n u r n g t r a d l t i c n a l s a p h a s i s on t h e 'macho17 o r 'he-man." By c o r t r a s t , t h e r e j e c t i o n o r weakness o f s u c h norms m a v a l u e s i n t h e m i d d l c c l a s s may l e a d m i d d l e c l a s s h u s b a n d s t o r e s t r i c t t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l u s e o f v i o l e n c e t o a s i g n i f i c a n t d e g r e e .

T h i s d o e s r o t mean t h a t p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e be tween husband a n d w i f e i s a b s e n t i n t h e m i d d l e c l a s s . T h e r e i s , i n f a c t . 3 g r o w i n g body o f s v i d e r c s t h a t c o c j u g l l v i o l e n c e is p a r t or t h e r e a l i t y o f American s l d d l s c l a s s f a m i l y S t r O C t u r e . a l t h o u g h less f r e q u e n t t h a n i n t h e work ing C l a s s . * l l But t h e Px3+ure o f t b . i s v i o l e n c e may b s d i f f e r s c t . I t nay be l a r g = l y wha t we h a r e c c l l p d " e x p r e s s i s 2 v i ; l&nce . " I n t a c t , t h e c u r r e n t p o p u l a r i t y o f " c r e a t i v e a g g r e s s i o n , " " c a t h a r s i s , " and t h e i d e a t h a t i t is h ? i l t h y f o r t h 3 i n d ~ o l d u a l and good f o r t h e m a r r i a g e t o " l e t i t a l l hang o u t . ' t e n d s t o legitimize e x p r e s s i v e v i o l e n c e a s s o m e t h i n g t h a t must be go' o u t o f o n e ' s n y s + e n ( S + r a u s . 1 9 7 4 s ) . I f t h e f o r e g o i n g i s c o r r e c t , ? h e r m e r i t 3 1 r i o l e n c e i n t h e a i d d l e c l a s s v o u l d be p r i m a r i l y e x p r e s s i v e . u h r r s a s n a r i r a l v l O l Q n c e i n t h e w o z k i r g c l a s s would be p r i m a r i l y i n s t r u m e n t a l . T h e r e f o r e . sirce t h i s s x p l a n a t i o n o f i n s t r u m e n t a l v i o l e n c e i s t h e f o c u s o f t h e u l t i m a t e r e s o u r c e t h e o r y , It t o l l o ~ s t h a t t h i s t h e o r y s h o u l d a p p l y o z l y w i t h i n t h e a0rk:P.g c l a s s . b e c a u s e f h a t is t h e ~ 1 2 ~ 5 i which I n s t r u m e n t a l v i o l e n c e is presumed t o be t h e p r e d o m i n a a t t y p e of v i o l e n c e .

U n r o r t u n a t e l p , t h i s s e c o n d e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e f i r d l r g t h a t t h e u l t i m a t e r e s o u r c e t h e o r y a p p l i e s o n l y i o t h e work ing class is a l s o d i f f i c u l t t o a c c e p t b e c a u s e o u r p e r s o n a l i m p r e s s i o n i s t h a t u h i l e t h e r e a a ? b s l e s s i n s t r u m e n t a l v i o l e n c e i r m i d d l e c l a s s f a m i l i e s , i t i s f a r t rm C o m p l e t e l y a b s e n t . E o u e o r r , a l t h o u g h n s i t h e r m i a d l e C l a s s E q u a l i t a r i a n norms n o r work ing c l a s s i n a t r u w e n t a l v L o 1 e ~ c e by t h e m s e l v e s 50Em s u f f i c ~ z n t t o s x p l a i n t h s s u p p o f t o f t h e u l t i m a t e r f s o a r c e t h e o r y o n l y f o r w ? r k m g c l a s s t a m i l i e s , t h e combined ~ f f e c t s o f c l a s s d i f f = r s r c e i n power norms and i n r o r m s c o r . c e r n i n g i n s t r u m e n t a l v i o l e n c e nay be s o f f i c i e r t . S p e c i f i c a l l y , b e c a u s e of t h e weaken ing

Ch.12. R ~ S O U ~ C P S and Power P3ge 205

c f male-dominar.ce norms i n t h e m i d d l e c l a s s , a c h a l l e n g e t o 2 h u s b a n d ' s s u p e r i o r a u t h o r i t y may be less o f a t h r e a t t o t h e i d e n t i t y a n d m a s c u l i n i t y o f m i d d l e c l a s s h u s b a n d s t h a n o f t h e work ing c l a s s h u s b a n d s . B i d d l e c l a s s h u s b i r d s may b e a b l e t o a d a p t t o what t h e y f o r m e r l y p a i d l i p s s r v i c ? , and s t i l l r e t a i n t h e i r s e l f - e s t e e m . I f t h i s i s t h e c a s e . h u s b a n d s i c t h e m i d d l e c l a s s h a v e l e s s n e e d t o d ? f a c & an + s c r i b e d p o s i t i o n o f a u - h o r i t y . I n a d d i t i o n , t 3 t h s e x t e r r t h a t i n s t r u a s n t a l v i o l w c s is s u b j e c t t o more r ? v s r e l i m i t a t i o n s i n t h e m i d d l e c l a s s , it v i l l b e a h r g h e r " c o s t w r e s o u r c e b e c a u s e o f mcr4 x e g a t i v e s i d e e f f e c t s . T h s z ~ f o r e , 'h2 l E s S e r n e e d t o Use t h i s u l t i m a t e r e s o u r c e c a n b i n p a w i t h t h e g r e a t s = c o s t o f u s i n g v i o l e n c e nay a c c o u n t f s r t h e t i z d i n g t h a t t h e u l f i a a t e r e s o u r c s t h e o r y i p p l i e 3 o r l y w i t h i n t h s work ing c l a s s sample .

*we a r c i r d e b t e d t o J o h c 8. S c a n z o n i f o r comments and c r i t l c i s m t h l t a i d e d i n t h e r e v i s i o n of t h i s p l p e r .

1. " R e s o u r c e t h e o r y w is a s p e c i f i c i n s t a c c s o f "exchange t h e o r y " ( F a h r , 1974 ; R e s r , 1 9 6 3 ) . I n e x c h a r g e ? h e n r y t e r m s , t h e r f a s o r r n g j u s t p r e s e n t e d 1s t h t t ac i r d l v i d u a l w l l l a t t e n p t t o a b t e i n a d s s i r e d ou tcoms o r r e n a r d a t mlninum c o s t . Thus, i f o n e s p o u s e d e s i r e s comp1:ance t r o n t h e o t h e r i n a p a r t i c u l a r eackange s e q u a c c l , t h e l e s s c o s t l y t h e u s e o f t h e p a r t i c u l a z r e s o u r c s s o r v i n g a s a b a s l s f o r h i s power , t h e mo:e l i k e l y i t i s t o b e i P v o k e d , d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r s c ~ l y . Eovevsr , In t h s abscccE c f "minimum c o s t " ~ ~ S O U Z C ~ S , i t is L R C B S E B Z Y + O Invoke more c o s t l y r B s o u r c e S t o a c h i e v e a g o a l . T h s u s e o f v i o l e n c ? (as i l l e g i ? i n a t e r s s o u r c e ] t c r c l s g a n o t h e r t o comply v i t h o r e ' s r e q u e s t s i s p r o b a b l y much more c o s t l y t o +n i r . d i v i d u a l t h a n t h e USE o f mare l e g l t i m a t s r e s o u r c e s s u c h e s o c c u p a t l o r a l s t a + u s , p r e s t i g e , e d u c a t i o r a l a t t a i n m e x t s , p e r s o n a l a t t r i b u t e s , e t c . , v h i c h e n r l c e t h e o t h e r t o c o l p l y woes VOluDtan i ly .

2. F o r e a s e o r c c m a u c r c a t i o r . f rom t h i s p o i n t on, when t h e t e r m " ' r e sources" i s u s e d i t s h o u l d be t a k s n a s w a n i n g " v a l u e d m a t e r r a l p o s s e s s i o n s a n d p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o t h e r t h a n p h y s l c a l s f r e r g t h , " t h a t is, r e s o u r c e s o t h f r t h a n -- - - - - -- - + h e a c t u a l o r p o t e c t i a l use of p h y s i c a l f o r c e .

3. S l m i l a r i d e a s ~ + V E been e x p r e s s e d many t i m e 5 b e f o r e and k e e p r e e m e r g i n g . F o r example , i n P a r s o n s ' 1947 s s s a y on " C e r t a i n e r i m a r y SourCPs a n d P a t t e r n s of R g g r e s s i o n i c t h e S o c 1 3 1 S t r u c t u r e o r t h e R e s t e r n world ," i n P o l l o n a y ' s eeYg= a n d I n r o c e r c e (19721, ir r e s e a r c h o n " l o c u s af c a r t r a l " --- (Goods tad? a n d R j e l l e , 1 9 7 3 ) , a n & i n van den s e r g h e (1974:778-787). P 2 r s o n s ' a n a l y s i s n o t o n l y a s s e r t s t h e

Ch.12. R e s o u r c e s a n d P o v e r Pa3e 206

b a s i c p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t a g g r e s s i v e a c t s a r s c a r r i ? d o u t "...mare o u t of weakness a n d h a n d i c s p t h a r o u t o f . . . s t r e n g t h , " b u t a l s o m e n t i o n s s e v e r a l o f t h a f s c t o r s i n c l u d e d i n t h e m e a s u r e o f i n d i v i d u a l r e s o u r c s s u s e l f o r t h i s s t u d y . S p 2 c i f i c z 1 1 y . he d i s c u s s ~ s t h e u s s o f a g g r e s s i o n a s a n o d e o f r e s p o n s e t o a n x i e t y , a rgu i r .9 t h a t t h e s e c u r e and n o n a n x i o u s p e r s o r i s l e s s l i k e l y t o a g g r l s s . He 8150 a s s e r t s t h a t i n a s o c i e t y v a l u i n g i n d i v i d u a l a c h i e v e m e n t , * a l l u r e t o + c h i e v e i s a po'ent s o u r c e of f r u s t r a t l o c and h e n c e a g g r s s s i c n .

9. The i t e m s i n d s x i r g v i 3 l e r c e i n t h e v e r s r o r o f t h e CTS u s e d v r t h t h i s s a m p l e a r e : I. Threv s o a ~ t h i n g ( b u t c o t a t t h e o t h e r ) o r smashed s o m e t h i n g , J. T h r e a t e n e d ts h i t o r t h r o w s o m e t h i n g . K. T h r e v s o m e t h i n g a t t h e o t h o r , L. Pushed, g r a b b e d , o r shoved , 8 . H i t o r t r i e d t o h l t t h e o t h e r p e r s o n , b u t rot w i t h a n y t h i n g . N. H i t o r t r i e d t 3 h i t t h e o t h e r w i t h s c a e t h i r g h a r d . The f o l l o w i n g r D s p o n s e c a t e g o r i e s and s c o r e w e i g h t s a r s u s e d f o r ill ifsss: Never = 0, Once t h a t y e a r = 1. Two o r t h r e e t i a s s = 2, O f t e n , b u t l e s s t h a n o c c e a month = 3. About o n c e a month = 9, Mor? t h a n o n c e a mocth = 5. The V i o l e n c e I n d e x c o n s i s t s o f t h e sun o f t h e s e r e s p o n s e c a t e g o r y w e i g h t s . T h i s l n d e x h a s a r a c g e o f 0 t o 25. However, t o a v o i d g i v i n g E x c e s s i v e w i g h t t o a r e v o u t l y i n g c a s e s w i t h exz remPly h i g h l e v e l s o f v i o l e n c e , t h s T ~ Y E C O f 9 S were rmc01+d i n t 3 a modification o f t h e " g g r ( * score n l r m z l i z i n g ~ D C ~ . P : ~ U ? v i t h a r a n g e o f 0 t o 8 ( s e e S t r a u s . 1 9 7 4 a : f o o t c o t ~ 6 ) .

5. B e c a u s e oi t i n e L i m i t a t i o n s 13 *.!is q u a s t i o n ~ a i r e , o n l y s i x i t e m s were u s e d , r a t h e r t h a n t h e e i g h t u s l d by Blood a n d Wolf€: what c a r t o g e + ? How fani .19 i r r c n s i s s p e n t i n g e n e r a l ? Rherc t c g c on a r a c a t i o r ? Which h o u s e o r a p a r t m e n t t o t a k e ? w h e t h e r m o t h e r s h o u l d work o r q u i r work ing? T h i L g s c o n c e r r i n g t h e c h i l d r e n ' s a c t i v i t i e s ? The r e s p o n s e c a t e g o r i e s u s e d were: mothe r a l w a y s = 1, n o t h e r mar? t h a n f a t h e r = 2. F a t h e r and m c t h e r e x e c t l y t h e s a n s = 3, F a t h e r more t h a n mothe r = 9. F a t h e r a l v s y s = 5.

6. T h e s e f o u r i r d e x e s ( i - e . , B b s o l u t e and R s l a t i v s f o r h u s b a n d s a n d f o r w i r e s ) were a r r i v e d a t on t h e b a s i s s f a n e m p i r i c a l s e a r c h i c g p r o c e d u r e . S p e c i f i c a l l y , we f i r s t S e a r c h z d t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e t o i d e n t i f y e v e r y t h i n g t h a t seemed a s t h o u g h it would f i t t h e i d e a of an l n t r i c s i c o r e x t r i n s i c r e s o u r c e . S i x t e e n s u c h i t l n s o r s c a r e s were i d e n t i f i e d . We t h e n c a r r i e d o u t a n " s x t e r n a l c r i t e r i o n i t e m a n a l y s i s " ( S t r a u s . 1964:354) t o f i n d t h c s e i t e m s t h a t Were i n f a c t c o r r e l a t s d v i t h ou r p a v e r o e a s u r e . Each s f t h s e i g h t i t e m s makrng up t h c s e i n d e x e s was s e l e c t ? d b e c a u s e i t was f o u n d t o be c o r r e l a t e d v i t h power f o r t h e husband 3r t h e v l f e , o r both . The i t e n s were s t a r d a r d i z e d t o a r a n g 5 o f 0 t o 100. Each r e s p o n d e n t ' s s c o r e on a g i v e n i n d e x t h e r c o n s i s t s o f t h e mean o f t h e e i g h t s t a n d a r d i z e d i t e m s and can t h e r e f o r e r a n g e f r o m 0 t o 100.

ch.12. R e s o u r c e s a n d power Psqe 207

a n o t h e r way of t h i n k i n g e b a u t t h e s e s c o r ~ s r s c h a t e a c h is e x p r e s s e d as p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e maxiaum p a s s i b l ~ s c o r e . Thns. a r e s p o r d e n t w i t h an A b s o l u t e R e s o u r c e i n d e x o f 28 h a s an a r a r a g e of 28 p E r c e n t of 'he maximum p o s s i b l e p o i n t s f o r t h e s i g h t r e s o u r c e s . B = e s p o n d c r t v i t h a s c 3 r e 3 f 28 oc t h e R ~ l a t L V e R e s o u r c e s i n d e x h a s 28 p e r c e n t 3 f t h e raw s c o r s o b t a i n e d by t h e r e s p o n d e n t whose r e s o u r c e s e x c s e 5 e d t h a t o f h i s o r h e r s p o u s e by t h e g r e a t e s t amouct.

F i n a l l y , i t i s r n p a r t a n t t o n c t s t h a t b e c a u s e o f t h e w ~ y i n v h l c h t h e s e i n d e x e s were a r r i v e d a t , t h e y a r e s i m p l y a way o f s u m m a r i z i n g i n t o one c o n v e n i e n t measure what would o t h e r w i s e r e q u i r e f l g h t c o r r e l a t i o n s o r e i g h t t a b l e rows. I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e s e i n d e x - s c a c n c t b e used t o " t e s t ' t h e r e s o u r c e t h e o r y h e c a u s e t h e y i n c l u d e o n l y i t e n s z l r s a d y knOwP t o b e a s s u c i a t e d v i t h p c v e r .

7. F o r PUIPOSES o f t h i s s t u d y we d l v i d e d + h e s a m p l e r n t o O c c u p a t i o n a l c l a s s g r o u p s b a s e d on t h e h u s b a n d ' s o c c u p a t i o n . If t h e h u s b a n d was e r g a g e d i n macual vork , ve c l a s s i f i e d t h e f a m i l y a s v o r k i n g c l a s s . I f t h e husb3nd was e r g a g e d i n n o n n a n u a l v o r k , t h e f a m i l y was c l a s s i f i e d a s m i d d l e c l a s s .

R s a d e r s s h o u l d h e evare o f t h e f o l l o v i n g two c r i t i c i s m s o f t h l s p r o c e d u r e . (1) Some would fir .d i t p r e f s r a b l e t o u s e t h e c o n c e p t s o f " b l u e c o l l a r " v e r s o s " u h i t e c o l l a r * , b s c a u s e o f t h e c o n t r o v e r s y o v e r what c o c s t i t e * ? s a s n c i l l c l a s s and t h e b a s i s f o r a s s i g n m e r t t o c l a s s e s . (2) B e s i n g t h e classification o f t h e cpmelg OP a c h a r a c t e r s t i c o f t h e husband h a s a b u l l t - i n s e x u a l b i a s ( S t e i n w e t z a n d S t r a u s , 1 9 7 3 ) . Our u s e o f t h i s p z c c e d 3 n 4 l e f l e c t s ??.a l o v p e r c e n t a g e o r v i v e s who v e r e employed c u t r i d e t h ? homo. ?ad we t r i e d t o u s e b c t h o c c u p e t i o c s , t h e number o f u n ~ l a s ~ z f ~ a b l e c a s e s would h a v e r e s n l t e d i" a n e x c e s s i v e 1055 of C a s e s * r o o t h s a r a l y s i s .

8. The p r o d u c t moment c o r r e l e t i o n s g i v e n i n F i g u r e 2 u n d ~ r s t z t s t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e s e d a t a a r a c o c s i s t e n t v l t h t h e r e s o u r c e t h e o r y . i s 2 c h e c k t o s e e i f c u r v i l i n e a r p a t t e r n s v e r e p r s s e r t (which of c c u r s E v c u l l s h 2 v up a s c o r r e l a t i o n s r e a r z e r o ) , we p l o t t e d t h e mean p o v e r s c c r ? f o r e a c h d e c i l e c f t h e reSOUrce SCOrES . The r e s u l t i n g g r 3 p h s r v l t h t h e e x c e p t i o n s t o ha n l t e d l a t e r , d i d n o t i n d i c a t e c u r v l l l n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p s . However, t h e y d i d s u g g e s t a c l o s e r a s s o c l a t l o n o f r e S o u r c E s w i t h v i 3 1 e n c ~ t h l f 1s shown by t h e c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s . We t h i n k t h a t c o r r e l a t i o n s E r e low b e c a u s e o f t h e l a r g e v a r i a n c e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e means we p l o t t e d . Ir a d d i t i o n . o c c a s i o n a l n o n l i n e a r r e l i t i o n s a r s s e e r . F o r example . t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s of t h e h u s b a c d ' s power v i t h t h e w i f e ' s r e l a t i v e r e s o u r c s s i s Only -0.09 f o r t h e m l d a l e c l a s s sample . w h i l e t h i s is i n t h e d i r e c t i o r t h e r e s o u r c e t h e o r y p r e a i c t s , i t i s a l s s no: S t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a n d v e r y low c o e f f i c i e n t . Houcver, t h e p l o - f o r t h i s r s l a t i o n s h i p shows a g r a a u a i

Ch.12. R e s o u r c e s a n d Power ?age 208

d ~ c r e a S 9 i n h u s b a r d ' s p o u e r a s t h e w i f e ' s r e s o u r z e s i n c r e a s e r e l a t i v e t o h i s , u n t i l t h e n i n t h aec:le, a t which p o i n t t h e r e i s a p r e c i p i t o u s d r o p i n h u s b a n d ' s power. Thus, t h e l o x c o r r ~ l a t i o r . r e p o r t e d i n F i g u r e 2 i s due t o t h i s t h r e s h o l d e f f e c t , a c d a l s o v a r i a n c e a r o u n d t h e t e n means. The o n l y o t h e r n o n l i n e e r r e l a t i o n s h i p we were s b l e t o d i s c e r n i s t h a t b e t ~ ~ n powsr 2nd t h e h u s b a n d ' s v i 3 l s n c e w i t h i n t h e m i d d l e c l a s s sample . Busband ' s v i a l ~ c c c was f o u n d t o h e g r e a t e s t i r w i f e d o m i n a n t f a n i l i s s , h u t a l s o t e n d s t o b e h i g h i n e x t r e m e l y husband dominan t f a m i l i e s . So. i t Seems 5 s t h m g h m i d d l e c l a s s h u s b a r d s r e s o r t t o p h y s l c a l f o r c e b a t h when t h e i r a s c r i b e d s u p e r i o r p o s i t i o n h a s been t a k e n away, 2r.d a l s o when t h e y h a v e 3 power p o s i t i o n t h a t g o e s b e y o r d mere S u p e r i o r i t y t o o n e i r which t h e n w i v s s h a v e + l m o s t no d e c i s i o n pouer . S e e S t r a u s , 1973, F i g u r e 2, f o r a p l o r o f t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p and f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n .

9. It is i m p o r t a n t t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t r h e s u p e r i o r reSOUrCFS o f huSbaPdS were n 3 t a c h i e v e d i n open c o m p ~ c i t i a n . b e c a u s e o f t h e i c ~ . u m e r a b l e i m p e d i m e n t s t o a c h i e v e m e c t f o r Yomen i n n o s t s o c i e t i e s . T h e r e f o r e , Even i f o n s a c c e p t s s u p e r l o r r e s o u r c e s a s p r o v i d i n g a mora l j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r s u p e r i o r power. t h e serist s t r u c t u r i n g o f o p p o r t u r i t y F r ~ t h e s o c l e t y r e n d e r s s u c h an e t h l c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o ~ i n r s X d .

10. T h o s e b ~ l o v t h e median o n e a c h r e s o u r c e i x d s x v e r e c l a s s i f i e d as low a n d t h o s e above , a s h i g h i n r e s o u r c e s . Working c l a s s a r d m i d d l e c l a s s f a n i l i s s Vera c l a s s i f i e d s e p a r a t e l y t o r e f l e c t t h e l a r g e c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e s e r e s o n r c e s , and on t h e a s s o n g t i o n + h a t b e i r g "high" 2 r "low" i n r e s o u r c e s i s r o l a t i v o t o the a v e r a g e l ? v e l 3f res3u:cns i n t h e s e c t o r o f s o c i e t y i n v h i c h o n e p a r t i c i p a i a s .

11. A g r a p h i c illustration v a s r e c e n t l y p r o v i d e d is t h e Bergman f l l m , P'gn a &rrL+qq. Numerous i l l u s t r a t i o n s , t o g e t h e r w i t h s t e t l s t i c a l d a t a , a r e i n c s l l e s ( 1 9 7 9 ) . I n t h e p r s s s n t s a m p l e , t h e mean v i o l e n c e s c a r e is 0.90 t o r w o r k l n g c l a s s and 0.33 f o r m i d d l e c l a s s h u s b e n d s , 3 r d 0.65 f o r work ing c l a s s and 0.39 f o r m i d d l e c l a s s wives . E x p r e s s e d a s a p e r c e n t a g e vhc u s e d n i o l e n c s i n rhs r e f e r e n t y s a r . t h e f z g u r e s a r e 20.5 p e r c e p t f o r work ing c l e s s +Ed 9.6 p e r c e n t f o r m i d d l e c l a s s c o u p l e s .

art V an icy ns

The i d e a s , r e s e a r c h n e t h o d s , a n d r s s e a r c h r e s u l t s i n t h i s book c o u l d be summarized i n 2 number o f ways. P o i example , we c o u l d p o i c t o u t and f u r t h e r i l l u s t r a t e c e r t a i n t h e m e s which r u c t h r o u g h a l m o s t a l l t h e c h a p t e r s , s u c h a s t h e c u l t u r a l no rms l e g i t i m i z i n g v i o l e n c e , o r t h ? c o n f l i c t s i n h e r e n t I n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o r of t h a f a m l l y . 01 t h e 1019 of p h y s t c ~ l v i o l 3 n c e i n " a i n t a l n l n g ma le dominance.

The method t i r a l l y c h o s e n ts h i g h l i g h t an6 summarize Some i f t h e main t h e m e s is t o a s k what t h e p r a c t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s a r e o f t h e t h e o r i ? ~ and f a c t s c a r , t e i n e d i n t h i s book. C o n s e q u e n t l y . t h e t i n a l c h a p t e r i d e n t i f i e s s i x c h a r e c t e r i s t i c s o f B m s r i c z n s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e t h a t , t o g e t h s r . b r i r g a b o u t t h e h i g h l c v e l of husb3nd-" i f= v i o l e p c e . F o r e a c h o f t h e s e f a c t o r s L h s r e is = d i s c u s s i o n o f what c a n b e d o n s t o c h a n g s t h i n g s t o r e d u c e * h e l e v e l of r a r F t a l v i c l r n s e . I n a l l . 2 1 d i f f e r e n t " p o l i c y i m p l i c a t i s r s " wpre deduced . C o n s i d e r a b l e e v i d e n c e ? x r s t s t h s t som? o f t h e s e ? o L ? c i a s would r e d u c e v io l%? .c? : t h e o t h e r p o l i c l ~ s i r e p r o p o s e d on t h e s t r e n g t h o f r e a s o n a b l e s p e c u l a L l o c . F o r t u n a t e l y fs: t h o s e s e e k i n g t o r s d u c a t h e l e v e l o f m a r i t a l v i o l e n c l , t h e q u e s t i o n o f v h e t h e r p r o o f c a n be g i v e n t h a t t h e p o l i c i e s w i l l a c t u a l l y a c h x e v e a r e a u c t i o n is a l m o s t b e s i d e t h e p o i n t ; s o s t o f t h e 21 p o l i c y r e c o m m e r d e t i o n s a r s s t e p s t h a t a r r s o c i a l l y d e s i r a b l e i n t h e i r orr r i g h t . Psr example , we d o n o t know how much a l o u ? r l e v e l o f e c o n o m i c i n s e c u r i t y and u n ? n p l o y @ e n t w i l l r e d u c e a s s a u l t s by h u s b a n d s on t h e i r wives . But s i n c e f u l l aeploymen: and a b a s i c a l n i m u n i n c o n e is a s o c i a l good. we "111 has* g a i n e d e v e r i f movement t o w a r d t h a t s o c i a l good h a s n J E f f e c t on t h e l e v e l of m a r i t a l v i o l e n c e .

Chapter 13

A Sociological Perspective on the Prevention of Wife-Beating

Murray A. Straus

Our i d e a s a b o u t t h e c a u s e s o f w i f e - b e a t i n g o b v i o u s l y i n f l u e n c e t h e s t e p s v e t a k e t o p r e v e c t it. I f w i f e - b ' s t e r s a r e t h o u g h t t o b e m e n t a l l y ill. t h s n p s y c h o t h e r a p y is c l e a r l y n e e d e d . If h u s b a n d s h i t t h e i r w i v e s b e c a u s e moder r s o c i e t y p u t s e x c e s s i v e a t r a i r s o n t h e n u c l e a r f % m r l y , t h e n some r e o r g a z i z a t i o n i s n e e d e d o f t h e r o l e s i n t h s f a m i l y and t h e f a m i l y ' s r e l a t i o n t o t h e s o c i e t y . 1'. is i m p o r t s n t t o recogn:ze t h a t t h i s c h a p t e r is c o ? c ? r n e a o n l y v i t h t h e s o c i a l c a u s e s o f h u s b a r d - v l f e v i o l e n c s , and o n l y v i t h c h z n g e s i n s o c i e ? y ' h a t m i g h t p r e v e n t m a r i t a l r i o l e r c c .

With t h i s i n mind, t h e c h a p t e r w i l l s ummar ize some o f t h e ways i n which v i f e - b e a t i n g i s p r o d u c e d by t h e v e r y n a t u r e o f o u r s o c i s t y and i t s f a m i l y s y s t e m , and a t t h o same t i m e a t t e m p t t o f o r a u l a t a p o l i c i e s a imed a t r e d u c i n g t h o l e v e l O t husband-wi fe v i o l e n c e .

Some recommenda t ions below a d v o c a t e g e n e r a l s o c i a l c h a r g e 5 r a t h e r t h a n t h o more s p e c i f i c a s p e c t s of " F i e i l y P o l i c y A n a l y s i s . ' a s d s f i n e d b y Wi l son and BcDOnala (1977) . I n mos t c a s e s , however. t h e s u g g e s t i o c s l i s t e d below a r e c l e a r l y D a r i p u l a b l e by l aw o r p r a c t i c e i n t h e p u b l i c r e a l m , O r by t h e p o l i c i e s a c d d e c i s i o n s af b u s i n s s s and o t h e r p r i v a t e o r g a r . x z a t i o n s .

CULTURAL NORBS PERBITTING WIPE-BEITING

E f u n d a m e n t a l z s p e c t o f E a e r i c a n s a c i a l s t r u c t u r e t h a t must b e u n d e r s t o o d and c o r f r o n i e d i s t h e e x i s t p r c e o f t h e c u l t u r a l norm t h a t , a s r o t s d i n Chapcer 3 and e l s e w h e r e . Bakes t h e m a r r i a g e l i c e n s e a l s o a h i t t i n g l i c e c s e . But C ~ P c o c c e p t o f m a r r i a g e l i c e n s e a s h i t t i n g l i c e n s e is c o n t a i n e d r o t o n i y i n t h e f o l k c u l t u r e . Nore i m p o r t a n t , e s n o t e d i n C h a p t e r 3 a n d 6. i t r e m a i r s embedded i n t h e l e g a l s y s t e m

d e s p l t e many r e f o r m s t a v c r i n g uomen.

A g r e a t d e a l o f o t h e r e v i d e z c e s u p p o r t s t h a e x i s t P n c s of t h e ' h i t t l n g l i c e n s e * norm. I v i l l h a v e t o assume r h a t t h e i 7 : t o r m a t i o n p r ~ s ~ n t s d i n C h a p t e r 3 m d 6 makes t h c c a s e p l a u s l b i e . What t h e n a r e tb.e i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r p r e v + o t i o n ? T h e r e seem t o be e t l e a s t two p a r a l l e l " p o l i c y i m p l i c a t i o n s " ( P I S ) .

P I 1. Bake t h e p u b l i c a w a r e s f t h i s l e r g = l y u n p e r c e i v e d norm.

T h i s p o l i c y implication h a s a p a r a d o x i c a l q u a l l t y , b u t i t i s p r o p o s e d on t h e + s s u e p t i o n t h a t a w a r e n e s s c a n c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e d e m i s e o f t h e " h i t t i n g l i c a x s c n9re . " b e c a u s e S U C ~ 3 norm i s c o n t r a r y t o o t h e r norms and v a l u e s a b o u t t h e f a x i i y . It w i l l pave t h 9 u a y t o v a r a + s s c o n d p o l i c y i m p l l c a t i o n , o f s p e c i f i c b e n p f i t t o h u s b a r d s and w i v e s , b u t E s p e c i a l l y t o t h e l a t t e r .

P I 2. R e d e f i n e t h e o a r i t a l r e l a t i o l s h i p a s one i n which a r y u s e of p h y s i c a l f c r c e i s as u n a c c e p t a b l e a s it is be tween o r e s e l f and t h o s e w i t h whom o n e works , bowls , or p l a y ? t e n n i s .

The s p e c l f i c p o l i c y c h a r g e s l m p l i e d by P I 2 a r e i l l n s r r a t e d i n t h e c o n s f r t d e c r e e r e c e n t l y s i q n n d by * b e N-w York C i t y P o l i c e Depar tmen t (New York Times. 27 J u r s 1 9 7 8 : l ) . T h i s d c c r e e c b l f g a t e s t h e P o i i c a Dapar t Ins r t t o a r r e s t men who commlt f e l o n i ~ u s a s s a u l t s c r o t h e r f 3 l $ n i e s a g a i n s t t h e i r w i r e s when t h e r e i s r e a s c r a b l e c a u s e t o b e l i e v e t h e husband c o m m i t t e d t h e czime. I n a a d i t i a r , t h e a g r e e m e n t p r o v i d e s t h a t t h e p o l i c e n 3 t i f y ?ha w i f e s f h e r r i g h t s . i n c l u d i n g t h e r i g h t t o make a c z t i z e n ' s a r r e s t w i t h t h e a i d o f t h e p o l i c e . The p o l i c e a l s o w i l l be r f q U i r E d t o r e m a i n a t t h e s c e n e o f t h e c r i m e t e m p o r a r i l y t o p r o t e c t t h e y i f e O r t o a s s i s t h e r i n o b t a i n i n g m e d i c a l a s s i s t a x c e i f s h e r e q u e s t s it. If t h e husband h c s l e f t t h e s c e n e , t h e p o l i c ? mus t t r y t o l o c a t e him a n t h e y would a n p o t h e r s u s p e c t .

B more d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f c h a n g e s i n t h e c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s y s t e m v i l l b e f o u n d i n t h e d i s c u s s i o c of P I 19. POT t h e i n d i v i d u a l w i f e . t h i s means making c l e a r t o h e r h u s b a n d t h a t p h y s i c a l f o r c e s i m p l y v i l l n o t bz t o l e r a t e d . I n a n u n k l o v n , b u t p e r h a p s o a t i n s i g n i f l c a r t p r o p o r t i o r o f c s s e s . t h i s a 1 0 2 8 c o n l d s e r v e t o a l t e r t h e s i t u a t i o n b s c a u s e t h e " h ! t t i n o 1icsPse~f es~ect o f m a r r i a o e i s s o nuch a r

2 &~~~

n ~ p e r c e i l r e d " t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d " norm, i n d is 50 c c n t r s r y t o O t h e r w i d e l y acknowledged a n d v a l u e d norms c o n c e r n i n g t h e marr;age r e l a t i o n s h i p .

By t h ~ m s ~ l v e s , s u c h i c d i v i d u a l a t t e m p t s 2t r e d c f i c i c g t h e m a r i t a l r e l a t i c n s h i p t o r e n d e r v i o l e n c e i l l e g i t i m a t e a r e u n l l k e l y r o b e s u f f i c i e n t . I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , n o r m a t i v e

Ch. 13. W i f e - E e a t i n g Page 213

r u l e s a r e o n l y o n e s t r u c t n r a l d e t e r m i n a n t of h a h a v i s r , afid o f t e n a m i n o r a e t s r m i n a n t . I n t h e s e c o n d p l a c e , s u c h r u l e s d o n o t a r i s e f rom t h i n a i r . R e t h e r , t h e y r e f l s c t , a n a t e n d t o be i n t e g r a t e d w i t h , a n e t w o r k o f o t h e r c u l t u r s l a l r e p n t s . P e r h a p s e v e r more, t h e y r s f l e c t t h a r e e l i t i e s o f d s i l y l l v l n g . C o f s e q u e n t l y . I t r u l y u s e f u l a p p r o a c h t o t h e p rob lem of w i f e - b e a t i n g must e d d r e s s t h e s e more f a n a a m ~ n t a l c a u s e s . T h e s e e l e m ~ ~ t ~ a r e s o c l o s e l y i n t e r w o v e n t h a t i t is n ~ a r l y a s d i f f i c u l t t o d i s c u s s them s e p a r a t e l y a s i t w i l l he t o c h a f g s t h e n . Eonever . t h e y c a n a t l s a s t be groupFd i r t c somewhat n e a n i n g t u l p a t t e r n s .

WIFE-BEATING 1.5 R FEFLECTION OF SOCIETeL VIOLENCE

T h e s s e x a m p l e s of g o s e r f n s n t a l v i o l e n c e p r o v i d e p o w ~ r f u l m o d ~ l s f o r t h e b e h a v i o r o f i c d i v i d u a l c i r i z e n s . Thsy form er i m p o r t a n t p e r t of a mors g e r a r a l norszt:vp sys?am t h a t h l l d s t h a t u i o l € r c = c a n and s h o u l d h e u s e 3 t o a t t a i ~ S o c i a l l y d e s i r a b l e e n d s (B lumsc?ha l c: $1.. 1972, 1 9 7 5 ) . Of COUTSE, it i s s x t r ~ m E l y d i f f i c u l t t o p rova t h a t g o ~ a r n m e n t a l v i o l e r c e p r o v i d e s a r o l e model f o r i c d i v i a u a l ~ i c l e f c s , b u t o n e t y p s of e v i d e n c e s u p p o r t i n g t h i s c o n c l u s i o n is e x E m p l i f i e d i n C h a p t e r 4 and i n A r c h s r and G a r t c e r (1976) .

s u g g i n s a n d S t r a u s ' s t u d y ( s e e C h a p t e r 4 ) l o c k e d a t a s a m p l e o f E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e c h i l d r e n ' s b o l k s c o v e r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1850 t o 1970. The o r i g i n a l p u r p o s e v%s t 3 s e e if t h e ~ E P B ~ o f i n w r p e r s o n a l v i o l e n c e d e p i c t e d i n t h e s e b o o k s s h o v e d a n upward o r doucward t r e n d o v e r t h i s 1 2 0 - y e a r p e r i J d . The r e s n l t s showed no t r e n a o f t h i s t y p e . e 3 v e v e r . e v e n :bough t h e r e were c c "war s t o r i e s ' i n t h e s a n p l r o f hooks , d u r i f g 2 r d i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o u i n g szch msjor v a r t h e f 1 E g ~ F n c y of L c t ~ r p e x s o r a l v i o l e n c e r o s e d r a m a t i c a l l y . S i m i l a r l y , a r c h e r and S a r t n e r (1976) found a p 3 s t w a r i n c r e a s e i r h o m i c l d a r a t e s f o r a l a r g e s a m p l e o f c a t i o n s . They c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e i n murder r a t e s was d u e t o a c a r r y o v e r o f t h e x e r - t i m e a u t h o r i z e d o r s a s c t i o n e d

Ch. 13. R i f e - B e a t i n g Page 214

k i l l i n g . T h e r e f o r e :

P I 3. Reduce t o t h e maximum e x t e n t p o s s i b l e t h e u s e of p h y s i c a l f o r c e a s an i n s t r u m e n t of government.

tlegra Violence . v i o l e n c e 11 t h e mass media b o t h r e f l e c t s t h e e x i s t i n g h ioh l e v e l of a g g r e s s i o n a n d r i s l e n c e i f American s o c i e t y and h e l p s p e r p e t u a t e t h a t p a t t e r n . The t y p i c a l c i t i z e n w a t c h e s "prime time' TV i n which more t h a n h a l f of a l l c h a r a c t e r s a r e i c v o l v e d i n some v i o l e n c r , and o n e of t e n i n k i l l i n g (Gerbi lsr and Gross. 1976) . The a o o u n i o f g r a t o i t o u s v i o l e n c e i n c u r r e n t motion p i c t u r s s is a l s c e x t r e m e l y high. The s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e s e f a c t s h a s b e e r e x p l o r e d by i n t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h , i n c l o d i n g a number o f e x c e l l e n t l o n g i t u d i n a l a c d e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u a t s s , d u r i n g 'he p a s t 10 y e a r s . These s t u d i e s have l e d a l m o s t a l l s c i e n t i f i c r e v i e w e r s o f t h e accumula ted e v i d e n c e t o c o c c l u d e t h a t v i o l e r c e i n t h e media i s p a r t o f i s o c i e t a l p a t t e r c t h a t k e e p s America a h i g h - v i o l e r c e s o c i e t y (Surgron G e c e r a l . 1972) .

The message of t h e mass a e d i a is c l e a r l y t h a t p h y s i c a l f o r c e can and s h o u l d be usod t o s e c u r e s c c i a l l y d e s i r a b l e eras, n o t j u s t i n t h e " v i l d west." bu t i n a l l c s i a l l a s p e c t s of con temporary l i f e . l l t h o u g h it is r a r e t o r t h e media t o d e p i c t h u s b a n d s u s i n g p h y s i c a l f o r c e on wives, t h ? more g e n e r a l message is e a s i l y ? r a n s f e r r e d t o ? t e m a r i t 3 1 r e l a t i o n s h i p . A t p r e s a n + , I know of r3 d i r e c t s r i d s n c e %tat t h e high v a l u s i n p l i c i C l y p l a c e d 02 b o t h i n s t r u m e n l s l and e x p r e s s i w v i o l e n c e i n t h e mass media i s t r a c s f e r r e d t s t h e m a r i t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p : however, t h i s t r a n s f e r r a l seams s o l i k e l y i n view a t t h e e x t E n s i r e e v i d e n c e o f t h e phPnomenon t h a t p s y c h o l o g i s t s c a l l ' * t r a n s f e r of t r a i n i n g ' t h i ' *he f c l l o u i n g p o l l c y i m p l i c a t i o n seems warzac tea :

P I 4. L i m i t v i o l e c c e i n t h e mass media a s much a s is c o n s i s t e c t w i t h p r e s e r v i c g f r e ? d c n of e x p r e s s i o P and a r t i s t i c i n t e g r i t y .

E s s e n t i a l l y , P I 4 c a l l s f o r r e a u c i c g t h e e x t e r t t o which t e l e v i s i o n and f l c t i a n and n o n f i c t i o n works " e x p l o i t " v ~ o l < n c e , t h a t is, u s e v i o l e n c e t o c a p t u r e a s l a r g e art +ndienCe as p o s s i b l e .

Domes+c Dissgpmam+. I t is by now commonly a c c e p t e d t h a t Bmerica i s a v i o l a r t s o c i e t y . Eut t h i s e c c e p t a n c e d o e s C C ~ a u t o m a t i c a l l y e x t e n d to t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t , f o r t h e t y p i c a l c i t i z e n . t h e problem is n o t v i o l e n c e i n t h e s t r e e t s , b n t v i o l e n c e i n *he home. The l a r g e s t s i n g l e c a t e g c r y of m u r d e r e r - v i c t i m r s l a t i o n s h i p is t h a t o f members o f t h e same f a m i l y . T h e r e a r e complex r e a s o r s f o r t h i s f a c t ( G e l l e s and s t r a o s , 19781: however, f o r t h e moment I v o a l d l i k e t o FOCUS on t h e "gun- to t ing" a s p e c t o f h a s r i c a n v i o l e n c s . one r e a s o n t h a t domPst ic murders a r e s o coaeon is t h a t more t h a r

Ch.13. W l f e - B e a t l ~ g Page 215

h a l f o t a 1 1 American h o u s e h o l d s c o l t a x a gun, mos t of which a r e "hand guns%$ r a t h e r +han " s p o r t i n g guns ." The f o l l o w i n g p r o p o s a l i s add:assaa t o + h i s s b t u a t i o n :

P I 5. E n z c t s t r l r g e n t gun c o n t r o l l ; g i a l a t i o ? , p a r t i c u l a r l y r e s t r i c t i c g h a c d g u n s , h u t a l s c r e q u i r i r g t h a r a l l g u n s h e k e p t 1 3 c k e d acd u n l o a d e d .

P I 5 h a s h s e n ep'ly t e r m e d " d o m e s t i c a i s a r m a m p r t " by R e a t a i E t z l o r i . T h i s p o l i c y c o u l d g o a l 2 n g way t o w a r d r e d u c i n g t h e most e x t r e m e a s p e c t o f d o m e s t i c v i o l - n c e : a u r d e r . Of c o u r s e , domes tFc d i s a r m a m e n t w i l l 3 a t r s d u c e v i o l e r c e ES s:, s i r c e o r e can s t i l l punch, k i c k , c h o k e , o r k m f e . B u t a n a t t a c k w i t h t gun is much m3r? l i k s l y t o b e f a t a l t h a n a r e o t h e r modes of a t t a c k .

". .HE FRETLP PS T W I N I N G GROUND FOR VIOLENCB

What h a s b e f c s a i d 50 f e r ~ n p h a s r z E s t h e e x t a n t t o which r i o l e r c e ir t h b f a n l y r e f l e c t s t h e l e v a 1 o f v i = l e r c e i!! t h e s o c i e t y . But t h e c t h e r s i d e o f t h c c o i n i s a t l e a s t e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t ; t h e l e v e l o f v i o l e n c e i n a l l a s p e c t s o f t h e socis 'y , i n c l u d i n g t h e f a m i l y i t s e l f , r e f l e c t 3 what i s l e a r n e d a n d g r r e r a l l z e d frQm v h a t h a p p e n s ;?. t t e ? z % i l y . b e g i n r i n g w i t h i c f a n c y .

P f i s i s & P U T i S h n e x . The i m p l i c i t mode l s f o r h f h a v i o z - p r o v i d e d by a c t i o n s of t h e g a v f r n m s r t ar.d d a p i c - e d i c t h e mass 6ed1a fo rm two l e g s o f t h e s t o o l s u p p o r t i n g R ~ e r i c a I ! v i c l e r c e . The t h i r d l e g i s t h e f a m i l y i t s e l f . I n f a c t , t h e f a m i l y may p l a y t h e most c r u c i a l r o l e , b = c a u s e t h e f a m i l y i s t h e s s t t i r g i n v h l c h most p e o p l e f i r s t e x p e r i e n c e p h y s i c a l OiOlencD, and h e c a u s e t h a t . v i o l e n c e i s e x p s r i ? n c e d ir a s t r o n g e m o t i o n a l c o n t e x c . S p e c i f i c a l l y , a t l e a s t 90 p s r c e n t o f p a r e n t s USP p h y s i c a l p u n i s h m e n t i n t h e i r c h r l a r s r ' ? e a r l y y e a r s . Noreover , f a r t h o u * h a l f of a l l c h i l d r e n . t h i s c o n t i n u e s t h r o u g h t h e end o f h i g h s c h o o l - - e s s e n t i a l l y u n t i l t h s c h i l d l e a v e s hone (Bachman. 1967: S t e i c m e t z . 1974: s t r e u s , 1 9 7 1 ) .

The i m p o r t a n c e o f p h y s i c a l pun i shment ic t r a 5 n i r . g t h e n e x t generation o f v i o l e n t c i t i z e n s was d s s c r i h s d i n C h a p t s r 2. I2 t h e f o r t h c ~ m i n g bcok g i v i n g t h e r e s u l t s o f O U T c a t l o n a l s u r v e y of v i o l e n c e l c f a m i l i e s ( S t r a u s . G ~ l l c s . a ~ d s + . e i n a e t z . 19791. 0r.e c h a ~ t e r sives d e t e i l e a s o i d e n c ? . . . s u p p o r t i ~ g t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p . We f o u n d * h a t t h = mare p h y s i c a l p u n i s h m e n t a c h i l d e x p e r i e n c e d , t h e m3r% ~ i 3 l ~ ~ t h i s / h e r m a r r i a g e y e a r s l a t e r . T h i s c o r r e l a t i o n i s p r e s e n t f o r " o r d i n a r y ' p h y s i c a l p u n i s l m e n t , b u t it is p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r o n g when p h y s i c a l p u r i s h m e n t i s used h a a v i l y . P h y s i c a l pun i shment , t h e n , l a g s t h e groundwork f o r t h s D a r n a t i r e l s g i t i e a c y o f i n t r a f z a i l y v i o l e n c e a r a p r o v i 3 e s a

Ch. 13. W i f e - B s a t i r g PSgc 216

r o i P - r n o d e l - - i r ~ d 8 ~ d a s p e c z f i c " s c r i p ? " (Gagno3 a r d S imon , 1973: B u g g i n s a n d S t r a u s , C h a p t s z 4 ) - - f o r b a t h t h o p e r p e t r a t o r s a s :& q&=:i~s of s u c h a c t i o c s . G e l l e s ( 1 3 7 6 ) . f o r F x a m p l s , f o u n d t h a ' One Of t h e t h r = = ma in t a c t o z s l i n k e d Lo a u r f e ' s t o l e r a ? i n g a b u s e f r o m h e r h u s b a c d i n t h e e x i e r t t o w h i c h h e r p a r e n t s h i t h e r a s a c h i l d ( s e e a l s o L e f k o x i t z pi.. 1 9 7 6 ) . an i m p a r t s c t p o l i c y I m p l ~ c z t l o n o f t h e f e c t s j u s t p r ~ s f r r e d s h o u l d be:

PI 6. G r a d u a l l y s l i m i n a i e p h y s i c a l p u n i s h m e r t 2s a mode o f c h i l d r e a r i r g .

I h a v e u s e d + h s +erm * ~ g r a d u a l l y W i n f a r m u l a t l n g t h i s p o l i c y i m p l i c a t i o r e v e n t h o u g h my own v 3 l u e s f s v s r ? m m = d i a t s c e s s a t i o n o f p h y s i c a l p u n i s h m e n t . n s n y p r s c t i c a l d r f f i c u l ? l e s s f a n d i n t h e way o f l o m e d i e t s c s s s a t i o n , d i f t r c u l t l e s t h a t , i f d i s r e g a r d e d , c c u l d h a v e s s r i c u s C o n s e q u e n c e s . S p e c i f i c e l l y , ve c s u l d n o t e x p - c ? t o e l i n r r a t e p h y s i c a l p u n i s h m e n t u n t i l p a T 3 n t S 530 b e p z ~ v i d e d a l ? e r n a t i ~ e t e c h ~ i q u e s f o r c a r i r o l l i n g t h e b e h a v i 2 r o f c h i l d r e n , t o p r o t ~ c t t h s m f rom d t n g q r a n d Zo t e a c h t h e p r a c t : c 2 1 s k r l l s a r d s t h t c a l v a l u e s f o r wh ich s o c i e t y h o l d s p a r e n t s r ? s p o n s i b l s . T h a t a feu p a r P n * s n + r l g ? t o b z i c g u p c h i l d r e n w i t h o u t p h y s i c e l p u n i s h a s r * d o e s ro: i m p l y t h a t m o s t p a r e n t s c a n do s o . S u c h m e t h o a s must b s v a l i d a t + d b e f c r e VB r i s k u n d s r m i r i r g t h e v i t a l t s s k s s f s 3 c i a l i z a t i o n c a r r i e d o u t b y p a r e n t s . F o r t u r a t r l y , s o r a s f f s c t ~ r e t e c h a z q u e s a r e b e g i r n i n g ts e m e r g e (see r = f e r = n c e s f o l l c w i n g PI 8).

slQ&go xi&ggc_q. E l a o s t a s u c i v e r s a l ss p h y s i c a l p u n i s h m e n t is p h y s i c a l f i g h t i r g b e t v a s n c h i l d r e n i r t h e f a m i l y . P e r h z p s s u c h f i g h t i n g is i c e v i t a b l ? i n e a r l y c h i l d h o o d . B u t i t i s r o t l n e r i t a b l e t h a t i i t a c k s or e a c h O t h e r by b r o t h e r s a s d s i s t e r s b e r e g a r d e d a s much less repreh??!Sib le t h a c a t t a c k s o r o r by u c r e l a t e d c h i l d r e n . T h i s d i f f ? r e r c e zr. 'he way i d e n ' i c a l a c t s o f v i o l e n c e a r e e v a l u a t e d a n d h a n d l e d s y a b o l i z e s a n d r u i n f c r c ? ~ t h e l e g l f i m a c y o f r i o l e n c ~ betweer f z m i l y eemb?.rs. 4 s a r s s u l t , V ~ O ~ P P C ? t o w a r d s i h l i n g s c o c + 5 r u e s l a n g a f t ? r v i 9 l a n c e t o w a r d p e e r s h a s d i s a p p e a r e d . For s x a m p l e , amsng .he s a m p l e s t u d i e d by S t r a u s (197Ua) . a l m o s t t u o - t h i r d s h s d h i : o r b e e n h i t by a b r o t h s r o r s is ter d u r i n g 'he y e a r t h e y Her? skgLgg~ 1 h h i g h s c h o o l , c a n p a r e d w i t h t h - o n e - t h i r a who r ? p > r t ; d h i t t r ~ g o r b e i n g h ~ t b y s o m e m e outs id^ t h e f a m i l y . T h u s , r i g h t t h r o u g h h i g h s c h o o l , many youcg p e o p l e ? x p e r i ? n c 9 a 5EC3nd a s p e c t of i r t r z f a m i l y v i o l e r c s t h a t i m p l i e s t h a t n o t h r n g 15 i e r r t b l y wrong a b o u t t h e u s e o f p h y s i c a l f o r c e b s t w e e n f a m i l y a s n b s r s . To t h e sx 'ent t h a t t h i s o c c u r s , t h e n :

P I 7. F n c a u r a g e p i r e p t s t o c o n t r o l a c t s o f p h y s i c a l f o r c e b e t w e e n t h e i r c h i l d r e n a n d t o a v o i d e r p l i c i t l g ?r i m p l i c i t l y d e f r n i n g s u c h 2 C t S 26 p ? ~ . 1 S 5 i b l e .

R S i n t h e cans o r p h y s i c a l p u l i s h a e n t , i s p l ? m = c t i r g P I 7 i s n o t w e r s l y a mat'er o f c e a s 5 n g Fo d o someth ing . One of t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s highlighted by t h e s o c i a l ~ g i c a l pe r s : ec t ive 1s t h a t E l e m e n t s o f t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e a r e i n t ~ r w c ~ e n . a n d r h ~ r e f o r e one o f them Canno t h i t r i a i E a i n i S 0 1 + T i O ~ . I n t h l s case, we must a sk : "What is * h e r ? a b o u t t h e s:tua:ior. o f c h i l d r e n i n a f a m i l y t h e t g E r e r a t e s s u c h a h l g h l e v e l of ~ i o l e n c s ? ~ z n d "Row c a n c h l l d r e r r e s o l v e t h e i r d i 5 a g r e e 8 9 n t s w i t h c u t p h y s i c a l f i g h t s ? ' l O r t i l c h i l d r e n a r e s g u l p p e d v i t h t h e s k l l l s t a do t h a t , i t i s a s u r r e a l i s t i c . . f o r p a r e ~ t s t o i m p l c r e " d c c q t t i g h t " 3s ;r IS f o r Eaa:ly l i f e e d u c z t o r s t o i m p l o r e p a r e n t s r o t t o spank . C o ~ s ~ g u e n t l y :

P I 8. P r o v i d e paref:s a l d c h i l d r e n w i t h t o c h r l q u e s o t h e r t h e n f o r c e a n d c a e r c i a r E a r c c p l c g w i t h a n d r e s o l v i n g t h e i n e v i t l b l e conflicts of f e s i l y l i f e .

nany o b s r a c l f s b a r t h e way f c r i ap1ansn : ing PT 8, o n e of t h e most i n p o r t i c + . o o : which i s E i s c u a s e d i n s & c t i o r E o f t h i s c h a p t e r - - t h e f e i l u r e to r e c o g n i z e t h e i c c v i t a b i l i ' y o f i c t r a f a e i l y c e n f l i c t , a n d h e n c e t o t a k e sfeps f a r c o p i c g w:th c o n f l i c t n9nv:olant ly . E u t e v e n LE t h a t v e r s r o t a z a c t o r , what t e c h r i q u e s a r e a v a i l a b l e ? R l t h o u g h s t i l l i m a t t e r o f r e s e a r c h +Ed c o r t r c v - r s y , p r o m i s i n ? mc2t.sls f c r r e s o l v i n g p a r e n t - c h i l d a r d s i b l l n g - s i b l i ' g c o r f l i c : h a v r bee!! d e v e l o p e d o v e r t h e l a s t f e u y e a r s (8 lechman f: l a . , 19762, b: O ' D e l l , 1974; P a t t e r s o r p i 31.. 1 9 7 5 ) .

"~~3+c -Sensoz j I I I D e p i i v a t i o ~ . B a r r y A a r l o v o r c D e p ~ t o m i z e d t h e r e s u l l s of h i s c l a s s i c ~ x p e r i m e r ? ~ x i t h monkeys r s a r e d xr. iso1at:cn by s a y i n g t h a t mockeys d a p r i v e d o t warn s a c ~ a l c o n t a c t i n i n f a n c y z * . . . ~ o u l d r e t h e r f i g h t t h a n love. ' The s a n e i d e a h a s s u r f a c e d i c a rumbar o f different ways 11 t h e h 5 s t o r y of s o c i a l s c i e n c e : f o r example . l n t h e work O D - h e a u t h a r i t s r i a n p ? r s o n e l i C y o f F d o r z o gr a&. ( 1 9 5 0 ) . Par ' o f what E d o r c o ' s "P % = a l e n T rneasnres is t h e p r o p e n s i t y t o u s e p h y s i c a l n i c l s n c 4 f o r s o c i a l l y d e s i r a b l e ends . P e o p l e who g e t h i g h ''F % c + l e n S C O T ~ S , f 3 r f X a m p l t , f e z d t o f a ~ o r t h e d ? a t h p s n a l t y 2hd t o f e e l t h a t s e x c r i m i l a l s s h o u l d bs b a t h i m p r i s o c S d and ". ..publicly whipped, o r worse.8r l d o r n o $$ 81. f o u n d t h e t + ~ C S I s a n e p s o p l 3 a l s o r e c e i v e d r a l a t i v e l y i s s s l a v e a r d a f f e c t i o n f rom t h e i r p a r e n t s t h a n d i d t h o s e l c v cr t h e "P s c a l e . "

B l s t r e c ~ n t l y , P r s s c o t t (1975) h a s p c i n t a 8 t o n e u r o p h y s i o l o g i c a l and c r n s s - c u l ' u r a l z v i d e r : ~ ? s h o v i n g t h a t t h e more a p e r s o r i s d e p r i v e d c f a ' s o e a t c J l r . s c r y gratification," s u c h a s i r t i m e t s p h y s i c a l c o n t a c t , l o v e , and a f f e c t i o c , t h e g r e a t e r t h e l e v e l o f a g g r e s s i o n , F n c l u 3 i c g p h y s i c a l a g g r e s s i o r . For Example, a tabulation 3 f 2++a f o r 99 s o c l e t i e s r e v ~ a l e d t h s t t h i s o c i e t i e s t h a t do no2 p l o v l a e much p h y s i c a l a f f e c t l o r t o c h s i r c h i l d r e n a l s o t e n d t3 show

Ch.13. u i f e - B e a t i n g Page

a h i g h l e v e l o f v i o l e n c e be tween a d u l t s . S i r c s 3 l c v i n a a f f e c t i o n a t e c t l l d h o o d t e c d s t o i n o c u l a t ~ p e r s o c s s o c i e t i e s a g a i n s t v i o l e n c 4 , i t s ~ e n ~ l i k e l y t h a t t background would b e p a r t i c u l a r l y e f f l c i c i o u s a g a i v i o l e n c e i n + h e t a n i l y .

The p c l i c y i m p l i c a t l a n t h a t f a l l o w s f rom t h i s f i n d 15 n o t t h a t p a r e n t s " s h o u l d be" warm and a f f s c t i o n b e c a u s e by nov t h a t h a s PEcoae p a r t o f t h e s t a n d a r d Ameri c h i l d - r e e r i l g i d e o l c g y ( a s compared w i t h t h e " s c h o o l of h knccks" a n d t h e " d o n ' t s p o i l t h e c h i l d " c a ? c - p t i a n , Rat t .er . t h e p o l i c y i e p l l c a t i o r r s c o q n i r e s t h a t , d 6 6 p i t ~ i d e o l o g y o f wermth a r d a f f e c t i o c , m i l l i o n s of c h i l d r p n i r f a c t d e p r l o c a o f j u s t t h a t ( i d o r n o t 31.. 1950; Pee 1963 ; L e v i s . 1 9 7 1 ) . C o n s e q u e n t l y :

P I 9. s p o n s o r r e s e a r c h t o d e t e r m i n e t h s s o c i a l and p s y c h c l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s t h a t c a u s e soml p a r e n t s :o b e c o l d and d i s t a n t r s t h a r t h x n warm a n d l a v i r g . and t r a n s l a t e t h e r F s u l t s i n t o p rograms t o a s s i s t s u c h p a r e n t s .

TEE I N E V I T A B I L I T Y OF CONFLICT I N FABILIZS

Contlic: , i r t h e s e r s e of d i f f e r e r c ? s i r = b j = c t i v ~ ~ " i n t e r e s t s * D e t v s s p p e r s o n s and between g r o u p s . i s l e e r i t a b l e p a r t c f a l l human a s s o c i a t i o n ( C o s e r , 19: D i h r E ~ d o ~ f . 7959: Simmel. 79081. Some srcuos t e n d zn

g r o u p s , :be l e v e l o f c o n f l i c t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y h i < C h a p t e r 1 d e s c r i b e s same of t h e c h a r a c t s r i s t i c s o f :

f a m i l y t h a t g i v e r i s e t o i ts r y p i c s l l y h i g h 1evc . l c o n t l l c t .

T h e s e 51elET c h a r a c t ~ ~ i ~ t i c s of t h e f a m i l y a r e by means a c c n p l e t ~ l ist o f f a c t o r s t h a t p r o d u c e c o n f l i < R o ~ e v e r , t h e y s h o u l d b e s u f f i c i ~ n t t o i n d r c a t s t h a t : f a m i l y is t y p ~ c a l l y t h e l o c u s o f a h i g h l s v e l o f c o n f l i c t t h 9 5 a . s t i m e :hat i t :s t h e l o c u s a f a h i g h Lsv;l i c t s r p e r s o n a l s u p p o r t 3 r d l o v e . n o d e r r s o c i e t y d c e s 1 p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e e e c h a n l s m s f o r c o n v i 3 L e n t r e s o l u t i o n t h e s e c o n f l i c t s . F i r s t , t h e f i m i l y T s p z i v a c y and s o p a r a t 5 f rom c l o s e t i e s w i t h n e i g h b o r s and r e l a t i v e s c u t s i t r f rom t h e a s s z s t a c c = i n solving c o n f l i c f s t h s t s u c h g i n 5 c a n p ~ o v l d e . T h e r ? IS PO o n e t o t u r r . to f o r h51p. SBCO? t h i s same p r i v a c y and isola+.ian f r c s k i n a n d c e i q h b o r s s s r t h a t f e u o r c c a g e n t s of s 3 c i a l c o n t r o l e x i s t t o b l 3 c k i u s e o f p h y s i c a l f o r c e . c o n s e q u e r t l p :

Ch.13. u~te-Beat :vg Page 219

P I 10. Fedace t h e i a p e c t of government p r o g r a r s a n d r e g u l a t i o l s t h a t , d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r s c t l y , e n c o n r a g e g e o g r a p h i c mnhi l i 'y o r r e d u c a t i e s t o t h e e x t e n d e d f a m i l y .

T h x p c l i c y w i l l b e Even more d i f f i c u l t $3 i m p l s m e n t t h a n a+ny of t h e o f h c r s s u g g e s t e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r , t o t a n u n b s x of r 5 2 5 0 ~ ~ . F i r s t . t h e a r * a c d s c i e n c s o f " f z m i l y i m p a c t a n a l y s i s m is o n l y now b s g l n n i n g t o hs e x p l n r s d ( 8 i n n c s o t a F a m i l y S*uay c s n t e r , 1976). R s i a e f rom a few o b v i o u s p r o g r a m s ( s u c h a s t h o s e p o l i c i e s t h a t g i u = more e n c o u r 3 g e m e ~ t t o b u i l d i r g rev n e i g h b o r h o l d s t h a n r o p r e s e r v i n g ? h e q u a l i t y of e x i s t i c g n e i q h h o r h o o d s ) , s i m p l y i d e n t i t y l : y t h e r e l 5 v a n t p r o g r a m s and g o v e r n s e n t r e g u l a t i o n s w i l l be a s low, u n c e r t a i n p r o c e s s . Second, t h o s e p r 3 g r z c i t h a t a r e i d e ~ t l f i f a w i l l u s u a l l y b e s s r v i r g sons i m p o r t ? . p u r p o s e . C o r s e q u e n t l y , t h e p o l i c y v o u l d be n o t ~ e r r l y l a t t e r o f e n d i n g s o ~ e f h l n g , b u t even more a m a t t s r - ~

f i r d l l g a l t e r n a t i v e s t h a t do n o t p n c o o r a g a m o b i l i t y a n d * b ' r e d o c t i o n o f e a t s n d s d f a m i l y t i e s . F i n a l l y , t h e a i d a n ? s u p p o r t t h a t i n t i a a t e c o m m n n i t i e s aaa k i r p r o v i d s a r e no? a n Onmixed b l e s s i c g : t h e y c2r b e s t i f 1 i c . g s t t h s Sam- t i a p t h a t t h e y a re h e l p f u l .

We h a r e a l r e a d y s u g q ~ s ' e d :'a? 3ur c c c i l l i n g n r s s t o r e c o g x i z e t h e h i g h l e v e l nf c o s f l l c : i n f a m i l i e s i s i r s p l f a s o u r c e of ~ i o l ~ c c e . 95 long a s c c n f l l c t w i t h i n t h e f a m i l y i s s i e v e d a s u r o r q , a b n o r m a l , o r i l l e g i t i m a t e , p e o p l e w i l l b e r e l u c t a r t tc l e a r n t e c h n i q u e s f o r e n g a g i n g i r c o n f l i c t n o n v i o l e ~ t l p .

P I 11. P B C O ~ ~ ~ Z E i h P i n e ~ l t a b i l l t y and i e q i t i a z c y of c o n f l i c t w i t h i n :ha f a m i l y r n - h e r t h a n c o r s i d e r c o n f l i c ' a n a b n ~ r a a l dfvla t :cn.

Once t h e inevitability e n d l e g i t i m a c y o f c o n f l i c t w i t h i n f a m i l i e s i s r e c o g n i z e d , t h 9 way is open f o r t h e media. m a r r l e g e c o u n s e l o r s , c h u r c h e s , a n d hnna. s e r v i c e a g e n c i e s t o h e l p f a m i l i e s r i n d c o c s t r u c t i v e ways o f r e s o l v i r g c o n f l i c r ~ . Many of t h e me thods c i t e d i n t h e r e f s r s ~ c e ~ f o l l o w i r g P I 8 , a n d t h o s e d e s c r i b e d i n s e c t i 3 n s A a l d I, a r e d a s i g r e d t o do j u s t t h a t .

e n i m p o r t a n t aspec-f t h e s e me thods is t h a t thEy a r e i f i t s n e e d f o r normal f a r i l i e s ; t h e y make no a s s u m p * i o n s 2 b o u t p s y c h o p 8 t h c l n g y . I r s t e a d , t h e s e n e i h o d s a s sume :ha t t h e t a s i l y m m b e r s need t c l e a r n more e f f i c i e n t v s y s o f s o l v i n g i r t e r p e r s c r a l p r o b l e m s i n d p r o c a ? d t o t s a c b t h o s e t e c n n i q u e s b y r o v e l , n o n a o r a l l s t i c b e h a v i o r a l ml thods . They f o c u s on t e a c h i n g p e o p l e &p= t o s o l v e p rob lems . n o t o n !&t t h e s o l o t i o n t o t h e p rob lem is.

A l t h o u g h t h e i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f m a y i t a l c o a f l i c t s t a u l d b= r s c o q n i z f d , it i s a l s o i n p o r t a c t t o av3Fd t h e t r a p r e p r e s e n t ? d by o r e u i n g o f ?he ' e n c o u n t e r g r c u p ' a o o € B e r t , wh ich h a s i:s p a r a l l e l a n o l g a number ? f m a r r i a g e c o u r s ~ l o r s a n 3 w r i t e r s o f m a r i t a l a d v i c o books , s u c h a s Each and v y a s n ' s ihp I p s p t f : ==rap ('1968). Each and Wvlr-n u r g e t h e i r r e a d e r s t o d r o p + * o u t a o d ~ d ~ o t i o n s o f e t i q u e t t ? " a r d v e r t i l a t e t h e i r Enger . D u r i c g o c e g r o u p s s s s i o n , one 3f t h e a u t h o z s u r g e d t h e xnm=n p a r t i c i p a n t s , " D o n ' t be a f r a i d t o b e a r s a l s h r s u , z r e a l b i t c h ! Get r i d cf y c u r p e n t u p h o s r i l i t i e s ! T e l l *hem whore y o u ' r e r e a l l y i t! L e t i t b e t o t a l , v i c i o u s , e x a g g e r a t e d , hyperbo l? ! " (8ouard . 1970:54) .

l l t h o u g h Each a r d n y d e n 3 s book c o r t a i c s 3 s s e r t i 3 r s t o t h e c o c t r a r y . t h e o v e r a l l a e s s a g s o f t h e bock, as I re36 i t , urgES w i v e s t o do j u s t what t h e q u o t a t i o n s u g g s s t s . T h i s a d v i c e i s b a s e d c n a " c a t h a r s i s , " o r " v s n t i l i t i o n ' t h e c r y o f a g q r s s s i n n c o r t r o l . T h a t t h e a r r b n y i n s w i t h t h e a s s u m p t i o r t h a t a l l o f u s h a v a i n c u r n a t n r 4 a g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r t f n d e ~ c y t o w a r d a g g r e s s i o n t h a t s o n e h ~ v must f i n d e x p r e s s i o n . I f we a t t s n p t t o r e p r e s s + P i s d p e p h i o l o g i c a l l p b a s e d m o t i v a t i o r , o u r i n n a t e a g g r e s s i o n w i l l o n l y c a u s e a n 9 x p l o s i o n a t some l a t e r t i m s .

3 i t - - - u r ? + = i y r o r ~ t r r ? h;: .ir- 2 r - c ~ -: .:uc? ' ! V I C P , 21.?E? T C F T " : : : C B ? T"sC::3"\-t. I L Y )Ti-':" " C7:C1-:!1C r:o?r + o n n r n s - t = - b o r r v . 3 - c T U C ~ O I :- E $ C Y C 7t.e : = Y - Y S O : . & . . t h a t o p p o r t u r i t i r s t o o h s e r r e a g g r e s s i o n o r t o be a g g z , s s i v s t e n a t o p r o d u c e grea,f:z suhsequnr . t l e v e l s o f a g g r e s s i o n and v i c l e n c e ( s e r k o v i f z . 1973: EaKarson, 1970; S t e i n l s t z and S t r a n s . 1 9 7 4 ; S t r a u s , 197U). I n g e n e r s l , a g g r e s s i o n a g a i n s t a n o t h e r ( e i t h e r v e r b a l l y o r p h y s i c a l l y ) t e n d s I o (a) p r o d u c e c o u r t e r a g g r s s s i o r . (b) I m p s a s s g e t t i n g t c t h e r e a l p rob lem, a n d ( c ) 2 f i t d o e s s u c c f a d i n soue1ch i r .g t h e c t h r r p e f s o n , r e i P f o r c e s -he u s e if a g g r e s s i o n a s a mode o f : n t e r a c t l o n .

T h e r e is. h a v s v e r , a k s r n e l o f t r u t h u n d e r l y i n a 'hs ' l e t i t a 1 1 hang o u t " and " v e n t i l a t i o n " a p p r o a c b P s t o m a r r i a g e . The difference must b? p e r c s i v e d be tween a s s e r t i o n ( s ~ a n d i n g up f o r c n e ' s i n t s r 2 s t s ) and a g g r ? s s i o n ( a c t s c a r r i s d o u t w i t h t h e i c t e z f i a n o f h u r t i n g t t e o t h e r ] . A ~ s e r l i ~ e n E . 5 5 i s e s s e n t i a l : b u t o n e c a c De a s s e r t i v e v l t h o u t b e i l g a g g r e s s i ~ ~ ( a l t h o u g h a l w a y s w i t h t h e r i s k c f a g g r e s s i o n b e i n g i m p u t e d ) . F o r example , t h e c r i t i c a l f i r s t s t e p 5 o f ' g s t t i ~ g he lp , ' " c a n c e l i n g t h e h i t t i n g license," aca "makiT~g c lear t h a t a n e is p r e p a r e d t o 1 2 a V e , ' i r e a l l h i g h l y 2 5 S F T t i ~ 2 , h a t n o c a g g r e s s i v e zc's. Sscond . 2 5 ~ 5 r t i v e r ~ e s s is r e c ~ s s a r y if t h e r e i s t l be 2ny h ~ p e o f r e s o l ~ ~ n g t h e c o ~ t l i c t ~ v e r which t h e v i 3 l s n ~ ~ o c c u r s . I f c02 t l : c t a r i s e s o v e r t h e c h i l d r e n . ssx, noney, o r r u n n i n g t h e h o u s e h o l d , t h e n t h e s e i s s u e s must 5 0 f a c e d .

Ch.13. Wrfe -Bea t ing Pzge 221

P r o c e d u r e s f o r r a t r o n a l c o n f l i c t r e s c l u t i c f , o f t e r comblned w l t h s y s t e m s t c r r e v a r d l l g occurrences of d e s i r e d b e h a ~ i O T , a r e c e x t r e l c o n c e r n s c f t h o r e c e n t * ' m a r r i a g e e n c o u n t e r ' movement (Koch ar.d Kcch. 1976: n a c e 2r.d Eace, 1974) and o f behavioral^ t h ~ r a p i s t s llke PlFChnan st zL, (19762 , b ) . P a t t e r s o n ( 1 9 7 5 ) . a n d a nulnbfr of 0 - h e r s who a r e r ~ p r e s 2 n t ~ d i c t h e c h a p t e r s o t an i m p o r t a n t new b ~ o k o r 'TTpazi E l a x r a n s h i p s ( O l s o r . 1976 ; s e e a l s o J a c n b s c r a n d n a r t i r , 1 9 7 6 ) . O r e c a n s a y t h a t a p r i r c i p a l g o a l a f + h e s e a p p r o a c h e s t o " t r e a c l n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s " i s t h s i n p r o v e m i r t of i ~ t e r p e r s o ~ a l s k i l l s , i n c l n d i r g a s s ~ r t l v e n e s s , so t h l r t h e l e g i t i m a t e i L t s r F s * s 3f 111 p a r t i c s c a n be f u r t h e r e d . T h i s k i n d o t t h e r a p y s a y a l s o h a v e t h e z d v a n t s g e o f b e i n g l e s s t h r e a t e c l n g and more a t t z a c t i v e t o husbands . I f t h e y r c c o r a w i t h p r e v ~ l l l n g m a s c u l i n s r o l e mode l s , een a r e mare r e l ~ l c t a n t t h a ~ UOmer t o h e s h o v s r t h e i r c h i l a h o o l o r p r s s e n t e m o r l c n s 2 ~ 6 t h e i r p s y ~ h o l o g i ~ a l s t a t u s , a s r e q u i r e d i c t h e t r a d l t i o n i l ' i n s i g h t " t h e r a p y . They p re"2r t c 2 n s % i l s a c t i o n s 2nd r e s u l t s DOZE t h a n histo:? a l d p 2 r s o x i l 5 t y . and t h e s e a r e p r e c i s e l y t h e f o c i o f t h e l e v m a r r i a g e e l c o u n t o r , o a r r l a g e snrichrner.?, a n d m a r r i a g e c o u n s e l t o g a p p r o a c h s s .

P e r h a p s ;he mos t p e r v a s i v e s e t of f a c t o r s b r i n g i c g a b o u t w i f e - b e a t i c g a r e t h o s e c o c n p c t e d w i t h t h e s = x i s t s t r u c t u r e o f t h s f a m i l y a c d s o c i e t y . I n f a c t . t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x r e n t . * h e c u l t u r a l no rms a r d v a l u r s p e r m r t t i n g and s o m e t i m s s e n c o u r a g i n g 'usbard-CJ-wife v 1 0 1 e r c e r e t l ~ c t t h e hierarchical a n d male -dominar t + y p = o f SCCiEty r h z t c h a r a c t e ~ i ~ e s t h e w e s t e r n world . The i l g h t '0 u s e f o r c e e x i s t s , a s Goode (1971) co?.cludes, t o p 1 o v i 3 ~ t h e u l t i m a t e s u p p o r t f c r t h e e x i s r i r g povez s t r u c t u r e 2f t h e t a m i l y . i n c a s e t h o s o low i r t h e h i e r a r c h y r s f u s s t o a c c e p t * h e i r p l a c e 2nd r o l e s . Nine c t t h e s p e c i f i c u s y s i 2 which t h e m a l e - d o m i t a n t s t r u c t u r e o f t h e s o c i e t y and o f t h s f a m i l y c r e a t e 3 r d mi:nta:n a h i g h l e v e l of m a r i t a l v i o l s c c t were d e s c r i b e d i r C h a p t E r 6.

S i n c e many mer musr f a l l back o r t h e " u l t i m a t e ~ D S O U ~ C E ' of p h y s i c a l t l r c e t o a a i r i a i c t h e i r a u t h o r i t y ( s e e C h a p t s r s 1 0 and 12 and Goode, 1 9 7 1 ) . i t f c l l 3 w s t h a t a p c l i c y t h r t r e d u c e d t h i s peed would be h e l p f u l :

?I 12. E l i m i C a i E t h e h u s b a n d a s " h e l a o f :ha f a m i l y f s f rom i t s c o n t i n u i c g p r e s e n c e il t h a l a v , i r r e l t g i o l , i n a d m i c i s t r a t i v ~ p r c c P d a r e , a n d 3 5 a t a k e 3 - f o r - g r z n t e d aSpECt o f f a m i l y l i f e .

Ch. 13. H l f s - B e a t i n g Peg= 222

A l t h 3 u g h p r o g r e s s i s b e i n g made i n r e s p e c t t 5 t h e a c h i e v e m e n t o f husband-wi fe e q u e l i t y , t h e i d e a t h i t t h e husband 1s h e a d o t t h e f a m i l y r e m a i n s f i r m l y r o o t c d i n American c u l t u r e ( s e e t h e s u r v e y : s p o r t e d i r . Pxza_$p. 1971; a l s o ROlb a n d S t r a u s . 197u a n d t h e c o n c l u s i o n t o C h a p f p r 6 ) . I n U n i t e d S t a t e d g o v e r n s e n ? s t a l i s t i c s , t h e o n l y time a VomaP c a n h e c l a s s i f i e d a s t h e head o f a h o u s e h o l d i s when no h u s b a n d is p h y s i c a l l y p r e s e n t . No p r a v i s t o n i s made f o r l i s f i r g j o i r ~ t h e a d o f h o u s e h o l d . Only t h r o u g h t h c a c t i v a p u r s u i t o f t h e g o a l s o f t h e f n a i r i s t n l v e a e n t is s i g n i t i c a o r c h a n g e l l k e l y . n o r e o v e r , t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e f e m i n i s t movemePt g o e s w e l l beyond h u s b a n d - v r f e e q u a l i t y , a r d i t w i l l b e i m p o s s i b l e + o e l i m i n a t e s e x i s m :n t h e f a n i l y u r t i l i t i s a l s o e l i m i n a t e d i r t h e s o c i e t y a t l a r g e .

A l t h o u g h t h e e l i n i n a t i o r o f s e x i s m i n t h e f a m i l y i s a h i s t o r i c a l C h a r g e a t v a s t m a g n i t u d e , a s p e c t s o f s e x i s m a r e U l t h l n t h ? i m m e d i a t ~ c o n t r o l o t I n d i v i d u a l s . P o r example , b o t h tor h e r O W p r o t e c t i o n ar.d a s a contribution t o t h e o v e r a l l p o l i c y o b j e c t i v e , n o voaan s h ~ n l d E n t s r m a r r i a g e w i t h o u t i t b e i n g f i r m l y a n d pxg&lyit&p u n d e r s z o c d t h a f t h e h u s b a n d i s ~ o t t h e h e z d o f t h s f a m i l y . U n l ~ s s s t a t e d O t h s r ~ ~ s e . t h e i r p l i c l t m a r r i a g e c o n t r a c t i n c l u d e s t h e " s t a n d a r d w c l a u s e a b o u t ma le l e a d e r s h i p . C h i r g t n g f t i s c o r t r a c t a f t e r m a r r l a g e is roT c ~ ~ l y 6 i f f ; c u l t . b u t g i v e s r l s e t o f e f l i r g s c: h a v i n g b e e n m i s l e d o r c h s a t e d .

A l t h g u g h o b j e c t i o n s n a y h e made t o i n t r 3 d u c i n g t h e s e i d e a s i r j u n i c r a n d s e n l o r h i g h s c h o o l c l a s s e s on t h e f a m i l y ( a s l c d i c a t e d by r e c e n t c o n g r e s s i o n a l p r e s s u r e on t h e

n a t i o c a l S c l E n c e F o u L d a t i o x t h a t r s s o l t e d i n e n 3 i n g s u p p o r t f c r c u r r i c u l u m p r o j e c t s i c r r ? h r o p o l o g y and P s y c h l l o g y ) , nary l o c a l s c h o o l districts w i l l f i n d s u c h c o n t e n t a p p r o p r i a t a . Ir a d d l t l a n , t h e f e m i n i s t movement c a n C o n t i r u e t o c h a l l + a g e t h e i m p l i c i t s u p p o r t cf m a l e d o m i n a n t f a a l l y r e l a t i o n s i r E a g a z i n e s f o r young vonpn s u c b 25

sexQT,zser.. 9~&&, and GagogK.

E c o t o m i c C o n s t r a i n t s a n d D l s c r i m l c a t i o n

L+ck o f . ? C O ~ O E ? ~ C ~ l ? s r r a t i r s 8 t o d e p s c d e n c e 02 t h e husband is a n c t h e r ore o f t h e t h r e e a a i n f a c t o r s t h i t 6 e l l e s (1976) found a s s o c i e t e d v i t h b e a t e n wives ' r e m a i n i n g v i t h t h e l r h o s b ~ ~ d s . Thus. t o r womsn t o b e i n s p0s: t ion ir which t h e y c a n r e f u s e t o t o l e r a t a physical c o s r c i c n by t h e i r h u s b a n d s , c c c ~ p a t i o n a l a r d e c o n o m i c e q u a l i t y a r e a b s o l u t e l y e s s e n t 1 2 1 . C o n s e q u e n t l y , one o f t h e s o s t f u c d s a e n t a l p o l i c y l m p l l c a t i 3 n s is:

P I 13. E l i m i P a t E t h e p e r v a s i v e s y s t s m of s e x - t y p e d o c c u p a t i o n s i n which "womsn's 9cCUpatioT.S" t9r.d t c be p o o r l y p a i d . and t h e e q u a l l y p s r v a s l v e d i f f e r e n c e be tween t h e pay o t Een and womer i n t h e same o c c u p a t i o n .

~ u r d e r . ~ o f C h i l d C a r s

S ~ x n a l l y b a s e d d i v i s i o ~ of l a b o r t h a h a s i q n s c h i l d - r ~ a r i n g r s s p o r s i b i l t y t o th? w i f e , o c c u p a t i o n a l d i s c r l m i n a t l o n . l z c k c t c h i l d - c a r e f z c i l i t i ~ s , i c a d e q u a t e c h i l d s u p p o r t f rom e i t h e r t h e g c v e r n a e n t o r t h e f a t h e r - a l l c o e r c e women t o r e m a i n m a r r i e d e v e n when t h e v i c t i m s of v i 0 l t P C E . R b u s b a r d a o e s n o t n e e d t o f e a r t h a t i f he b e a t s h:s w i t s a r a t h ? u i f - l e z v ~ s , hs w i l l b e r s s p o r s i b l e f o r b o t h t h t c a r e o t t h e c h i l d a r d t h e need t o e a r n s u f f i c i e n t ir,came. so, 2 h u s h a i d c a r h i t ( acd o t h ? r v i s e o p p r e s s ) h i s wlf4 w i t h r e l a t i v e i m p n n i t y . Re c a n be r e a s 3 n a b l y c o n f i d s n + t h 2 i i f s h e d o e s l e a v e , he w i l l n o t h a v 4 t h e c h i l d r e n u c l e s s he i n s i s t s on i t ; c o u r t s a r e r e l u c t a c t t o award c h i l d r i n t o f a t h e r s i n a r y c i r c u a s t a n c s s . No shame i s i c v o l v e d f o r a r a t h e r who c l z i m s t h a t t h e c h i l d w i l l be b e s t o f f w i t h t h e mc?her, b u t f o r a mothez t o s a y + h e c h i l a i s h e ? - c r c f f w i t h t h e f a t h e r is c o t o n l y s h a n e f u l , h u t :n many c % s ? s v i l l c a u s e + h e c h i = t o b e i n s t i t u t i o c a l i z s d or p l a c e d i n a f ~ s t s r home. Child c a r e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s c n l y o n e of many e x a m p l e s o f SEX-typed r ~ l o s t h a t h i n d wossn t o v i o l e n t m a r r i a g e s . S h e r e f o ? f :

P I 14. Reduce nr e l l m i c a r e t h e s e x - t p p e l p a t t e r n o f f a s l l y r o l e r i s p o n s i b i l i t i e s .

E s i n t h e c a r e o f s e x u a l s t e r s c t y p i n g i r t h e p a i d l a b o r f o r c e , l n t e r e s t a r d a b i l i t y r a t h s r t h a n s e x need t o b e t h e p r i m a r y c r l * e r i a f o r who d o e s what. a o r e o v e r , t h i s i s a p o l i c y z m p l i c a ? i o n ' ha t , l i k e t h a t i n r e s p e c t t 3 p a i d employment , i s d s s i r a b l e r e g a r d l e s s o f i t s E f f e c t on w i f e - b e a t i n g . J u s t a s many ( b u t n o t a l l ) woman w i l l f i n d g r e a t e r t u l f i l l m e ~ t t h r o u g h e g u z l participation i c the p a i d 12bOr t o r c e , many ( h u t a g a i c n o t a l l ) non v i l l f i n d g r s a t e r f u l f i l l m e n t t h a n t h e y cow e a p s r i e n c e i n e q u a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n It t h e h c o s e h o l a l a b o r f o r c e . T h a t p o s s i b i l i t y i s now d e n i e d t o me2 b e c a u s e o f t h e shame a c t a c h e d t o men's s h o v i n g m a j o r i r t e r e s t i r h o u s e h o l a work a d c h i l d c a r s .

P I 1 4 i s a l o n g - r a n g e t y p e c f s o c i a l c h 3 1 9 ~ . 20d we n e e d n o t w a i t f o r it L O c n a e a b o u t . I n t h e meant ime. o t h e r s t e p s say b e t a k e r t o a i d vomex :rapped i n a r i o l s n t m a r r i a g e by t h e necessity c f a s s u n x n g r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r c h i l d c a r e i f t h e mar:lage b r e a k s up:

P I 15. E s t s b l i s h o r s u b s i d i z e a c o m p r e h e n s i v e ard hlgh q u a l i i y s y s t e m 3 f d a y - c a r e c e n t e r s £Or p r ~ S C h 0 O l c h i l d r e n .

E g a i l . t h l s p o l i c y is l o n g o v s z d u e i n i t s own r i g h t . c a t j u s t f o r i t s p o t e n t i a l i r p r e v e n t i n g w i f e - b e a t i n g . Such t a ~ i i i t i E ~ a r e n e e d e d by m i l l i o n s o f vomec who e r j o y f u l l y s s t l s t a c t o r y m a r r i a g e s .

T h e t h E E e BSpSCts Of t h 9 s f X i S T StrUC?UTe Of t h e s o c l e t y a r e l i s t e d below; t h e i : i m F l i c a t i o c s f o r w i f e - b o a t i n g Wers d e s c r i b e d i c C h a p t e r 6 a n d n e e d a j t b e r e p e a t e d h e r e .

myth o f t h e S i x g l e P a r e n t Bousoho ld

P r e e m i n e n c e o r Wlfe B o l e f o r Wonen

T h e s e a s p e c t s and t h e n a r y o t h e r ways i n which women a r e d i s a d v a n t a g e d ( a n d t t e r e f o r e l e s s a b l e t o 2nd a v i 3 l e n t m a r r i a g e ) s u g g e s t t h e t fu r .da rne l t e l c h a r g e s s h c u l d be made. P I 16 , 17, a n d 18 a r e x o t p o l i c y a n a l y s e s i n t h e s p e c i f i c s e n s e used by Wilsor. and t3cDorald ( 1 9 7 2 : l - 2 ) . bu t a r e g u i d e l i n e s t o r n e e d c d c h z c g e s i n p u b l i c l a w s and p r i v a t e p r a c t l c s s . The mcst i a p o r t a c t p o l l c y i m p l i c a t i o n of a l l t h o s e p u t f o r t h i r . t h i s c h a p t e r i s t h 3 t :

P I 16. P u l l s e x u a l e q u a l i t y is e s s f r t i a l f c r p r e v e n t i o n o f w i f e - b e a t i n g .

A t + h l s p o i ~ t we must make c l e a r a n i m p o r t a n t l i a i t i t l o n t o much c f wha t h a s be?n s a i d . S e x u a l e q u a l i t y i r ; t s s l f i s a l m o s r c e e t a i n l y gnf g o i n g t o er.8 c m f l i c t and v i o l ~ n c e be tween h u s b a r d r and wives . E q u a l i t y v i l l r e d u c s o r e l i m i n a t e =*+air, k l n a s of c a r f l i c t , b u t , a t t h e same t i m e . i t w i l l c r f a t a new c o n f l i c t s . I s s u e s t h a t a r e r a t now t h e s u b i J C t o f d l s a m e e m e r t i~ m i l l i o n 5 o f f a m i l i e s - - s u c h a s . ~~ ~ - ~~ 2~~ ~

who w i i l work t o r wages a n d who v i l l v o r k i n t h e h c a s ? , o r more s a e c i f i c i s s u e s . s u c h a s who v i l l do t h e l a u n a r v - - c a n n o l o n g e r b e d e t e r m i n e d by r e f e r r i n g t o t h e t r a d i ~ i o n a l p a t t e r n o t t a m i l y r o l e s . R a t h c r , t h e s e i s s u s s becOmE open g u " s t i c n ~ . O V 4 r which s e v e r e c o n f l i c t c a n a r i s e . It is by n o means i n c o r . c e i v a b l c t h a t nsif&x p a r t n e r w i l l Wact t o b e I n t h e p a i d l a b o r f o r c e , o r t h a t npzf,hg; v i l l want t o d~ th. l a u n d r y . C o n s e q u e c t l y , a r s d u c t i o n i n t h e l e v e l o f v l 3 l e r c e a l s o r e q u i r e s t h a ? c o u p l e s have i n t e r p i r s o n a l and c o n t l i c t - m a ~ e g e n e r t s k i l l s n e e d e d t o cope w i t h , a r d r e a l i z e t h e b e f i e f i t s o f , a l e s s r l g i d f a m i l y s y s t e a . M i l l i o n s o f p - o p l e l a c k t h e s e s k x l l s : a l m o s t a l l o f u s c a n r n p r o v e t h e n .

I n addition. I? would be s h c r t s i g h t e d . e v s n d s r g = r o u s , t o o v ~ r l o o k t h ~ cos;s o f f r eedom a r d f l e r i b i l i z y . P r ~ e d o m a r d f l ~ ~ i b l l l ? ~ i r . f a e i l y p z t t e r r s a n d s e x r o l e s remove sons of t h e f o u n d a t i o r s o f s t a b i l i t y and s e c u r i t y i n l i f e . Not eVarycCe f l n d s r h e b e r e f i t s w o r t h t h e s e :os?s. P r i c h Promm's (1941) c l a s s i c book gscg~l fre! E~e:ppg was c o ~ c e r n e d w i t h f a r more t h a n -he r e a s o n s t h i ? f a s c i s m had such wide s u p p o r t . A t + h e O t h e r end o f t h s con t inuum. t h e

Ch. 13. W ~ t e - B e a t i n g ?age 225

m l l l i o r s o f women c p p c s e d t o t h e E q u a l R i g h t s emccdmpct and t h e t e r n m i s t novenen: r e f l e c t the a n x i s t y t h a t mazy u c ~ s c f e e l o v e r t h e p o s s i b l e l o s s o f f a m i l i a r a n d s t a b l e g u i 3 e s t o l i t s . T b s r o t a r e :

P I 17. 36 t h e E O C ~ C < Y s l i m i n a t e s f i x e d s=x r o l e s , a l t e r t a t i v s s c u r c e s i f s t a b i l i t y an3 S F C U I I ~ Y i n s e l t - d e f i c i t i c n w i l l be need4a.

P a r t at t h e s e r e e d e d s o c i a l a n c h o r s w i l l c o a ? f rom occupational i d s c t i f i c a t i o ? . t h a t , i n ?he p a s t , 513.5 a i f f i c n l t o r i m p o s s i b l e f o r vomkn. Tts d i f f i c u l t y was c o t o n l y b e c a u s s 50 t e ~ wCmFn WET= i r s o c i a l l y v a l u e d 3 c c u p i t i o n a l x c l e s , bu t a l s o ~ ~ C Z U S P f o r a t o be h i g h l y i d m L i f i e d w i t h a n o c c u p a t i o n r e i s e d doob's a b o u t h e r f a m i l i a l commitment , h e r l o v e f o r h e r h u a b ~ n d %ad c h i l d r e l , a?d h e r f e m i n i n i t y . i i ouevcr , o c c u p a t i o n as 3 s s u r c e 3 5 i dec? : ty and s s l t - e s t e s u ! h a s i ts limits. Vas t numbers o f o c c u p a t i o n s a r e U n l i k e l y t c b e v a l u e d a s a msans o f e s t a b l i s h i n g a p 3 r s a f a 1 1 d e a . t i t y - - e i t h e r by men o r by vomen. F o r t u r a t e l y , o t h = r r o l e s a n d i d e n t i t i e s c+n g i v e l i f s n s e d e d s t r u c t n r e and s o c i a l integratiov--particularly r o l o r i n r e l s t i o c *n 'he community. s p e c i a l p n r p o s ~ g r c u p s , a r d t h = l e r g e r k i n group. The59 w i l l bE d iScns5Ed i ~ t E ; . SU? b ~ f 3 r 6 d o i n g t h a r , two f i n a l a s p e c t s o f s e x r o l e s - f ed t o be c o n s i d f r e d .

compulsive m a ~ c ~ 1 i C : t y " was d ? s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e r 6 . .? c o m p l s m e n t a r y " c o m p u l s i v e f e m i r i r i t y ' f a c t o r 3153 e x i s t s . a s r ? f l e c t e a i n B a r a b e l n o r g a r ' s Tpfal 8 9 " ~ ~ . t h e l s r g e s f s ~ l l l n g work of n o n - t i c t i o n i r 1973. I 5 r g a n l a y s g r e a t s t r e s s on u s i n g f s r n i n i n i t y t o c a c t r o l men. Bowever, t h e c o n c ~ p t i o n of women a s s u b o r d i n a t e acd c h i l d l i k ? t h a t u n d e r l i e s h e r v i e w of f e m i n i n i t y and h e r t a c t i c s f o r m a n i p u l a t i n g mar a l s o t r a c h ( p e r h a p s e v e n n o r 9 p c v s r f u l l y ) t h e c a t u r a l i a f c r i c r i t y o f uomen. Tbe book h s l p s t o m a i n t a r n t h e n e g a t i v e s e l f - i m a g e t h a t , d e s p i t e t h s w i l e s t a u g h t by n o r g a n , u n d e r c u t s :he a b i l i t ? o f vsnsn t o b- i r u l y e q u a l .

n a g a t l v e S s l f - I m a g e

S i c c s c o m p u l s i v e m + s c u l i n i t y a?d i t s a s s a c l z - e d r i o l e r c o and c o a p u l s i v e f e m i n i n i t y a c d i t s a s s 3 c i a t e d n e g a r z v e s e l f - i m i g e a r e p a t t e r c s qT3H11g Dot ot t h 9 d l f r e r e n i e x p e r i f n c e ~ c f mef a n d women f r o m s a z l y c h i l d h c o d on, p e r t i c u l a r l y in t h e way b o y s a n d g i r l s a r s s o c i a l i z e d f o r t h e i r ~ e s p e c t i v s s e x r o l e s , it fo110ws t h a t :

Ch. 13. V l f s - E s a t l n g P a q ~ 226

Male O:len+.ation o f t h e C r i m i n a l J u s t i c e syszem

Not o n l y i s much m a l r v i o l e n c e a g a i r s t w i v e s a t ' r i b u t a b l e ? o t h e s e x l e t o r g a n i z a t i o n of s o c i e t y , h u t t h e m a l e - c r i e n t e d o r g a r i z a t i o r . o f The c r i l i n a l j u s t i c s s y s t e m v 1 r t 3 e l l y q u a z a c t e e s t h a t f s v women w i l l be a b l e t o secure l e g a l r e l i e f ( F i e l d s . 1 9 7 8 ) .

B u t e v e n i f a woman g a r s t o Fami ly C o u r t , u n l e s s s h e h a s u n u s u a l u n d ~ r s t a n d i c g cf axd a b i l l i y L3 m e n i p u l a t e +ho Sys tem, t h e r e i s o f t e n a t h r e e - w e a k d e l a y b e f o r e h e r r = ? u 9 s t f o r 3 " p e a c e bord" o r ec Oforder of p z o t e c t i o n " comas b s f o r e t h e judge. Such o r d e r s i r e t h e r e f o r 9 of 10 g r e 3 t e r h e l p i r s e c n r i n g i m e e d i a t e p r a t e c t i o r f rom a l a t h ~ r z s s a 2 l t t h 3 n t h e p o l i c e o f f i c e r s d e s c r i b e d i n ChapLer 3. m e n ~ i t h o u t t h e s e d e l a y s , many voaan carcc+ s t t f n r i c o u r t b e c z u s a o f -ha l a c k o f c h i l d - c a r p a r r a n g e n s r c s d n r i i g t b ~ e l o n g h ? u r s of v a i t i r ~ g f o r a c a s a t o corns up, f r e q u e n t l y r e p e a t e d when t h e c a s e i s r e s c h e d u l e d .

C h a p t e r s 3 a r d 6 d e t a i l mary i m p e d i e s n t s t a s e c u r i n g l e g a l p r o * e c t i c n a g i i r s t e s s a u l t by a husband , i n c l u a i n g (a) l e g a l d e l a y s , especially i n o h t a i n i c g a " p e a c e bond" o r a n "ard?r o f p r o t e c ? i o n " ; (b) iminur i iy f r o m s u i t by o n e ' s s p o u s e ; (c) t h s r e q u i r s n e n t t h a t , d e s p i t e a b u r d i n t p h y s i c a l e ~ i d e n c ~ , t h e p o l i c e c t t i c e r must w i t n e s s t h e a t C a c k b e f o r e ar, a r r e s t c a n be made: ( 0 ) t h e f r e q u e n t f a i l u r e o f p o l i c e t o a r r e s t e r e 2 W ~ E P t h s y do w i t n e s s a n a s s s u l t : (E) t h s " c o a l i n q o u t " by p o l i c e , prosscn: ing a 5 t o r n e y s . and l o d g e s o f wives who a t t e m p t t o b r i n g c o m p l a i n t s : e n d [ f ) t h s r e f u s a l t o maka a n award b ~ p u b l i c c o n p e ~ s a t i o n r e v i e w b o a r d s (Even i r cases of p s r m a n p r t disability) if t h e i r j o r r "3.5 i n f l i c t e d by t h e hnsbard . A l l o f t h e s e f z c t 3 r s i n d i c a t e the nEed f o r t h n f o l l o w i n g p o l i c y :

P I 19. El:mixaLe f rom t h e c r i m i n a l j u s t i c s s y s t e m t h e i m p l i c i t t c l e r a t i o n of v i f e - b e a t i n g s h c v n i n s i a ' u t a r y an6 common l a w ; a-i'udes o f t b e p o l i c e . p f l s e ~ u t o r ~ , and i u d o e s : and cumbersome and i n s f f e c ? i v ?

Same movement i n t h e d i r c c t i o r o f P I 1 9 i s n c v t a k i n q plats. b u t i r 1s f a r f r o r a g e n e r a l t r e n a . B c h a r g s L r t h e 1 S g a l s y s t e m z e q u i r e s a p r i o r i t y a c t i v i t y by v s l l o z g + n l z e a f e m i n i s t g:oups. 8 s i n t h e "Now w i f e A s s a u l t Pr2gramn i c Enn B.rb31, f i i c h i g a n (FOLj ik , 1976; R e s n i k , 1976) o r i n t h e c c c a s l o t a l e n l i g h t e r e 6 p o l i c ~ d e p a r t a c n t t h a t r s c c g n i z e s t h e

Ch.13. Wife -Bea t ing P s g e 227

n e e d t o r r c r i e n t i t s mode o f c o p i c g v i i h ' f a m i l y d l s t u r b a r c e ' c a l l s (Bard ~2 81.. 1975) .

ECONONIC PROSTRBTION B N D V I O L E A C E

PmEriCan s o c i e t y , l i k s mos t soc ie : i e s , i s o n e i n which.

t rom e a r l y c h i l d h o o d on. p e o p l e l e a r n '3 T E S P O P ~ t o t r u s t r a t : o n a i d 5 t r e s s by a g g r e s s i o n . T h i s r ? S p o n s ? i s n o t inevitable b i o l o g i c a l l y

since ID a few s o c i e t i e s p e o p l e l e a r n t o . acd t y p i c a l l y do. r e s p o r d t o f r u s t r a t i o r in o t h e r ways. N = v ? r t h e l - s a .

a g g r e s s i v e r e s p o n s e 2s t y p i c a l o f t h i s r o c l s t y and i s 1 r k e I y t o r e a a i r s o ir t h e f o r e s e e a b l e futo:?. F o r + h i s r e a s o n , a n d because a p o l i c y dLrec:ed t o r s d u c i n g f r u s : r a t l o n would be d e s i r i b l e i n i rs own r i g h t , we s h o u l a gLvs h i g h p z i a r r t y t o e n a b l e a s m a y p s r s o n s a s p o s s i b l ~ t o a v o l d s l C u a t l o n s c f o x t r e m s f r u s t r a t i o n cE i m p o r t a n t l l f s g o a l s . T h i s p r o p o s a l is by 30 m f a r s t h a sams a s a % t e m F t i r g t o crea&.o e l i f e v i t h o u ? f r u s t r a t i o n . Such a l i f e , even i f i t were possible, would be empty, and w3uld p r o b a b l y b e a s o u r c e of v i o l e n c e i n r t s e l f ( s e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n 5 f t h e T l n c k s o r X O r a n g e w t h e o r y of v i o l e r c e i n G e l l e s and s t r a u s . 1 9 7 8 ) . Aouever . a m a j o r b l o c k a g e ot a c r i t i c a l l i f e g a a l i s q u i t e a n o t h e r th1r.g.

a+ny c r i t i c a l l i t e g c a l s a r e ( o r p e r h a p s s h o u l d be) beyond t h e r e a l m o r s o c i a l p o l i c y t o f a c i l i t a t e . But a g o a l on w h i c h t h c r e is h i g h c o c s e n s u s , 35 w e l l a s a h i g h possibility o f a ~ h i ~ ~ i r g c h a n g e , i s t h e p r o v i s i o r o f a m e a n i n g t o 1 s c c u p a t i o r a l r c l e and an a d e q u a t e l o v e 1 of i r c o m o f o r a l l f a a i l i e s .

i n r n d u s r r i s l s o c i e t i e s , t h o h u s b a c d ' s p o s i t i c r o f l e ~ d e r s h i p d e p s n d s cn t h o p r e s t i g e and e a r n i n g power 3 f h i s O c c u p e t i o n . C o n s e q u c n + l y , i t t h e husband is u n a e p l c y e d o r d o e s c o t e a r n 2n amour t c o n s i s t e n t w i t h o t h e r men i n r h e f a n l y v s n f t v o z k of a s s o c i a t e s , h i s l e a d s r s h i p p o s i t i s n i s n ~ d e r m i n ~ d . Da ta from a s r u d y by O'Brierr (1971) s h o v '.hat, when t h i s happens . h u s b a r d s t e c d -0 t r y t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r s u p e r i o r p o s i t i o n t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f p h y s i c a l f o r c - . Dat3 f rom my s t u d y of t h e p a r e r t s o f u n i v e r s i z y s t u d e o t s s h o v t h a t ihs p e r c e n t a g e o f h u s b a n d s r h o s t r u c k t h a i r w i s e s i n t h e l a s t y e a r r a r g e s f rom a l a w o f 9 a n d 7 p e r c e n t f o r ' hose whose U:VBS a r e a l m 0 5 t c o m p l e t e l y o r c o m p l e t e l y sa:isf:ed w i t h t h e L r f a m i l y income , op t o 16 a n d 1 8 p e r c e n t f o r t h o s e whose x i v e s a r e s l x g h t l y s a t i s f i e d o r n l t a t 311 s a t i s f i e d . T h e r e i s 2150 e ~ i d e l c e t h a t a s s e u l t s on w i v e s go up w i t h onemploymen: ( P a r a d e . 1971:13: S t r a u s , G e l l e s , and S t e i n n e t z , 1 9 7 9 ) .

I n d i s c u s s i n g t h e s e x i s t o r g a n i z a t i a n o f t h e f a a i l y a s a c a u s e o f u i f e - b e a t l n g , we p o i x t e d o n t t h a t if h u s b s r d s no l o n g e r had t h e b u r d e n o f b e i n g t h e "head o f t h ? f a m i l y " and t h e a 3 i n " b r e a d w i n n e r , " t h e y v o u l d no' ~ e ~ d t o r e s o r t t o ~ i c l e n c e t o m a i n t a i r t h a t p o s i t i o n i n s i t u a t i o n s where t h e w:fe is mare cornpeter;, e a r r s more, o r h a s a Nore p r e s t : g i o u s o c c u p a t i o n . The same r e a s o n i n g i p p l i e s , p i r h a p s e v e n nor6 s t r o n g l y , v h e r t h e husband i s unamployed. C l e a ~ l y , t h e n o s t f u r d a m ? n t a l c h a n g e n e e d e d i s male l i b e r a t i o n t rom t h e b c n d s of f r a d i t i o c e l s e x r o l e s . P t t h e sam5 time, ve c a n p u r s u e e p o l i c y t h a t , a s i d e from its i n t : ~ ? . s i c wor th . 15 l i k e l y t o T E ~ U C S w i f e - b e a t i r g . I t i s s t a r k i n its s i m p l i c i % y and p o w e r f u l i n i t s €ffE:t on human w e l f a r e :

P I 20. P u l l employment f o r a l l s e r and women i n t h e l + b o r f o r c e a t wage l e v e l s c o n s i s t s n r w:th t h e s t a n d a r d s of t t e s o c i e t y , a n d s g u a r a n t e e d incorns f o r t h o s e o?.ab19 t o work.

h s l d ~ f r o m i t s impac' nr u i f s - b e a t i n g , i r . a v o i d i n g m a or t h e mos t s e v e r e f r u s t r a t i o c s t h s L a,ps:soo c a n e x p a r L a n c e I n e n r n d u s t r l a l s o c i e t y e n d i n b y p a s s r n g i s s u e s o f power w i t h i n t h e f a m i l y , f u l l e m p l o y e e n t e x e r t s a p o w e r f u l e f f e c t a n s s l i - e s t e e m . Kap lan (1975) h a s shown t h a t t h e l n u ? r a n a d o l e s c e n t ' s s e l f - e s t e e m , t h e g r e a t e r t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f h i s b e i n g v i o l e n t ; K a p l a n ' s d a t a s u g g e s t t h a t b o p s 1 3 w i n s e l f - e s t e e m 59ek t o aChlEVe r ~ c o g n i t i o n f rom o t h e r s t h z o n g h r i a l e a c e . T h i s b s h a v l o r , s f c o u r s e , is t i e d t o the o q u a t i o n o f m a s c u 1 : ~ i t y w i t h a g g r e s s l v e n s s s . C o n s e q u a r t l y , when r e c o g r i t i o n t h r o u g h a c h i e v e m e c t i r s c h o o l . s p o r t s , 3r a n o c c u p a t i o n i s l i c k i r g , s a l e s car and do d e m o n s t r a t e t h e i r "manhoodv t h r o u g h u i o l e r c s . Again, t h e more f u n d a e ~ n t a l p o l i c y a b j s c t l v s is t o c h e n g e t h e d e f i n i t i o n cf n a s c u l i r i t y . But a s Long a s ;ha t d e f i n i t i o c c o n t i n u e s t o b e a p a r t o f o u r c u l r u r e , f u l l employmPnt c a n h e l p a v o i d i n v o k r n g t h i s a s p e c t o f "eachood" t h r o u g h p r o v i d i n g m e a n i n g f u l employment as a b a s 1 5 f O T S S l r - 8 S t e e l .

B more r a d i c a l a p p r o z c h t o t h i s r e l a t i o c s h i p b s t v e e n e c o n o m i c f r u s t r a t i o n a n d v i f e - b e a t i n g f c c u s e s on what Cr i t i c s of Americen s c c i s t y see a s t h e i n h u e e n o c c u p a f i o n a l and economic sys tem. Such c z i t r c s a r ? n o t opposed to f u l l e n p l o y m e n t , b u t t h e y d o o p p o s e t h e s c o r o s i c and s o c i a l sys.e.2 t h a t j u d g e s humai w o r t h by ~ a r c i n g s a n d c o m p e t i t i v e c c c u p a t l o ~ a l a c h l e ~ ~ m e ~ t . 8 5 l o n g as s u c h a s y s t p m pTeV3.115, t h e b u l k o f t h e p o p u l a r i o n i s d e o i e d a!? a d s g u a t e l e v e l o f s e l t - e s t . s e m b e c a u s e o n l y + m i r o r i t y , by d e f i n i t i o n . c a n be i t t h e t o p i n o c c u p a + i o r a l p r e s t i g e a n a incorn-. I? a d d i t l o r , t h e s t r i v i r g t o g e t t o t h e t o p p u s h e s t h e more humac v a l u s s '0 s u b c r d i n 3 r e p o s i t i o n . T i e s J E f r i e r d a h i p , k i n , a n d community. f o r example , a r e r e g u l a r l y sacrifices i n moving t o g e t a b e t t e r j c h o r a c c r p t i n g a p romot ion . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e f o l l o u l n g p o l i c y is proposed :

ch. 1 3 . R i f e - B e a t i n g Pag? 2 2 9

P I 2 1 . Reduce t h e e x t e n t t o which s c c i ? t y e v a l u a t e s p e c p l s o r t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r e c c n o n i c a c h i e v e m e r e s and r e d v c n t h i o c c u p a t i o n + l and economic c o m p e t i t i o n ' h i t t h i s e c t a i l s .

The i m p l i c a t i c n of P I 21 is 33: t h e end t 3 a l l c o m p e t i t i o n . C o a p e t i t i o r c a n be p l s a s u r a b l e , if on? c a n r b n o = e tha a r e n a of c c a o p t i t i o n and i f t h e r e i s a r t = a s a c a b l e -- ~- - ~~. ~ ~ -- c h a l c e o f v i n l i r g . B a t h e r , t h e p o l i c y s u g g s s t s t h e n e e d t o e n d ;he f o r c e d a n d ( f o r most o f t h e p a p o l s t i c n ) ro-win c o m p e t i t i o n t h a t now c h a r a c t e r i z e s o u r 3 c c u p + t i o n a l - s c 3 n o m i c

SUnillRY A N D CORCLUSIONS

P h y s i c a l v i o l e n c s b e t v e e r hushand and w i f e 1s a c9mnor b u t C D ~ a n i n e v i t a b l e p a r t o f human na'orp. O c l y i? r a r e i 1 5 5 a n c = s is i t ?.P OUZgrOYth o f p ~ t h n 1 3 g i c a l B Z l E a q g r e s s i u e i e s s , o r of f e n a l e masochism. P a r h e = , t h e t y p i c a l p a t t e r n o f hushand-wi fe o i o l e n c e , and i t s e x t r e m e Fn t h e form of ' w i f e - b s a t i n g . " is l a r g e l y a r p f l e c t i o n 3f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s o c i s t y , i t s f a m i l y s y s t e m , a r d i t s t y p l c g o f s e x r o l e s z n d male / fena lG p e r n o n a l i r y l r a i t s . C 3 r . s e g u s r t l y . t h e f o c u s o f t h i s c h a p + e r h a s been r o d e d u c e from t h e s e s o c i a l f a c t o r s ? h e p o l i c i e s t h a t , i f a d o p t a a , would r e d u c e t h e l e v e l o f ~ l f ~ - b ~ a < i r . g . 11 a l l , 21 d i f f e r e n t p o l i c y i m p l i c a t i o n s were o u t l i r s d a n d a r s summarized i n T a b l e 1 .

T a b l e 1 . Summary o f P o l i c y i rnp1ica: iors f o r P r e u s r t i o n D e r i v e d f r o m l n a l y s i s o f S i r s o c i a l S t r u c t u r a l C a u s a l F a c t o r s

F a c t o r I. CULTUPRL BORflS PEPUIT A N D LSGITINIZS WIFE-BELTING ------ 1 . s a k e t h e p u b l i c a u a r e 9 f t h i s l a r g e l y u n p e r c e i v e d c o r n . 2 . Redef;ne t h 9 m a r i t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p a s o r 5 i n which

use o f p h y s i c a l f o r c e is as u n a c c s p t a b l e a s it i s b e t v s e r o n e s e l f and t h o s e w i t h whom o r e works, b 9 v l s . o r p l a y s t e n r i a .

F a c t o r IE. WIPE-BEBTIAG REFLECTS SOCIETlL VIOLSVCE

EEdaCe t o t h o naxlnum e x t e n t p l s s i h l s t h e u s e o f phys:cal f o r c s a s a n i n s t r u m e n t o f g o v e r n P e n t .

L i n l t v i o l e n c e i n t h e mass media t o i s much 3s i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h p ~ e s ~ r v i ~ g f r s e d o m of o x p r e s s i a ? a n d a r t i s t i c i x t e g r i t y .

E n a c t s t r i n g e n t gun c o n % r o l l e g i s l a t i o n , p a r t i c o l a r l y r ~ s t ~ ~ c t i n g hand gons, b u t a l s o r e q u i r i n g t h a t a l l g u n s be k e p t l o c k e d a r d unloadwd.

Ch. 1 3 . Wife-Baa t lng p a g e 230

F a c t o r ZIJ. THE PBCILY I S TAE PRIMABY SETTING IA WHICR ------ VIOLENCE I S LEBRNED

6 . G r a d u a l l y s l i m i n a t e p h y s i c a l pun i shment e s a mc le o f c h i l d r e a r i n g .

7. EncCUZage p a r e n t s t o c o n t r o l a c t s o f p h y s F c a l f o r c e be tween t h e i : c h i l d r e r a n d t o a v o i d p x p l i c h t l y o r impl i c : t ly d e t i n i n g s u c h a c t s a s p s r e i s s i b l e .

8. P r o v i d e p a r e n t s a n d c h i l d r e n w i t h t s c h n i q u e s o t h e r t h a n t o r c n and c o e r c i o n f o r c o p i n g w i t h a z d r e s o l v i n g t h e i n e v l t a h l ~ c o n f l i c t s a f f a a i l p l i f s .

9. S p o n s o r r s ~ e a r c b t a d e t s r m i n e t h ? s c c i a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l c ~ n d l t i o n s t h a t c a u s e some p a r e c t s t o b e c o l d a n d d i s t a n t r a t h e r t h a n warm a2d l 3 v i n q . +I& t r a n s l a t e t h e r e s u l t s i n t o p r o g r a m s :o a s s r s c s u c h p a r e n t s .

&r;er 21. THE INEVITABILITY OF CONPLICT I F TE9 FRflILY

10. Reduce t h e i m p a c t o f government p r o a r a m s e n d r e g u l a t i o n s t h a t , d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r s c L l y , a n c 3 c r i g e g e o g r a p h i c m o b i l i t y o r r e d u c e t i e s t o t h e e x t e n d e d Fami ly .

11. ReCOgniZE t h e l r . e v i t a b i l i t y o f c o n f l i c t w i t h i n t h e f a m i l y r a t h e r 'heo c o r s i d e r c m f l i c t a r a b c c r m a l deviation.

F a c t o r 1. SEXUALLY STSREOTYPFD POLES R N D SEIISil i N I R E PRnILY PND TRE SOCIETY.

I l i a i P E t e t h e husband a s 'head o f t h e f a m i l y " f r o e its co"tinUFPq p r e s e n c e i~ t h e law. i n r e l i g i o c . i n a d m i n i s t r a t r v e p r o c e d u r e , and a s a ' s k s l - f o r - g r e o f e d a s p e c t of f a m i l y l i f s .

E l i m i n a t e t h e p e r v a s i v e s y s t e m o f s e x - t y p a d o c c u p a t i o n s i n whlch "women's o c c u p a t i o n s " 'end t o be p o o r l y p a i d . a n d t h e e q u a l l y pETV351Pf d i f f e r e n c e be tween t h e pay o f men a n d woeen i n t h e same o c c u p a t i o n .

Reduce o r e l i m i n a t e t h e s e x - t y p e d p a t t e r n o f f a m i l y role r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s .

Esfab1:sh o r s u b s i d i z e a c o m p r e b e n s i v s end h i g h q u a l i t y s y s t e m o f d a y - c a r e c e - t e r s f o r p r a s c h o o l c h i l d r ? n .

~ u l l s e x u a l e q u a l i t y is e s s e n t i a l f o r p r e v e n t i o n o f u ~ t e - b e a t i r g .

A S t h e S O C ~ E ~ ~ ~ l i m i ~ a t e s f l x 7 d s e x - r o l e s . ~ l t e r n 3 r i v ~ s o u r c e s of s t a b i l i t y a n d s e c u r i t y i n s s l f - d e f i c i t i o n "ill b e needed .

P a r e n t - c h L l d i n t e r a c t i o n , p a r c n t a l e x p e c t a t i o n s , a n 6 a l l o t h f r a s p e c t s of s o c i a l i z a t i o n s h o u l d n o t b e diffe:ent:ared a c c o r d i l g t o t h e S E X o f t h e c h i l S .

E l i m i n a t e f r o e t h a c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s y s t e m t h e i m p l i c i t t o l e r a t i o n o f w i f e - b e a + i n g shown i n s t a t u t o r y and common l aw; t h e a t t i t u d e s o f t h e p o l i c e , p r o s e c u t . o r s , a n d j u d g e s ; 2nd c u m b e r s c n e a n d i n ~ f f e c t i s e proc4dure .s t h a + make e v e n t h e a v a i l a b l e l e g a l r e m e d i e s and

p r o t e c t i o n i n e f f e c t i v e .

PPCDR !I. PRDSTRATIORS BUILT I N T O TEE ECONDBIC S Y S I P E --- 20- F e l l employment f o r a l l men a n d women i n t h s l s b o r

rorce a+ wage l e v e l s c o n s i s t e n t v i z h t h e s t a n d a r d s o f t h e s o c i e t y , and a g u a r a c t e e d income f o r t h o s ~ u n a h l e t c work.

21. Beduce t h e e x t e n t t o which s o c i e t y e v a l u e t e s p e o p l e on t h e h a s i s o f t h e i r economic a c h i e v e m i n t s , ana r e d u c s t h e O c c u p a t i o n a l a c d e c c n o s i c c o a p e t i t i 3 n t h % t t h i s e n t a i l s .

E l t h o u g h t h e p r i m a r y f o c u s c f t h e c h i p t e r uss on p c l i c l e s t h a t w i l l Eexez w i f e - b e e t i n g , *.he d e s p e r a t e i m s a d l a t e s z t u a t i c n o f m i l l i o n s of w i v e s must a l s o b e a d d r e s s e d . C o n s e q u e C t l y , t h e l a s t i h i r d nf t b * l o r o a r p c y r frcm which t h i s c h a ? t e r was e x c ? r p t = d ( s t r a u s , 1977) i s d e v o t e d t o s t e p s t h a t i n d i v i d u a l w i v e s m s z r i e d t o a n a s s a u l t i v e husband c a n t a k e , a n d t o a c t i o n s f s a i F i s t and community g r o u p s , p o l i c e . e n d human s e r v i c e a g e a c l ? ~ c a n t a k e . t o c o p s v i x h tte i m m e d i a t e problem.

Chang ing a p h e r o n e n e r a s d e e p l y %bedded i n t h e s a c i a l s y s t e m a s w i f e - b e a t i n g is a v a s t u n d e r t a k i n g . S s many a c t i m s a r e n e e d e d t h a t o n e a l m o s t d o e s c o t know v h c r e to s t a r t . Ir f a c t , a r e a l i s t i c z p p r o a c h r e c o g n i z e s t h a t t h e r e is n o o n e p l a c e t o s t a r t . R a t h e r , a b r o a d p u b l i z a w a r e n e s s a ~ d c o m n i t m ~ n t t o c h a n g e is n e c e s s a r y . s o t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s and g r o u p s i n a l l s p h e r e s o f l i f e c a n a t t e n d t c c h a n g e s i n e a c h a f t h e s e s p h e r e s . For example , c h a n g e i n t h e l e g a l and l a w e ~ f o r ~ e m e n t s y s t e m w i l l c o t i n i t s e l f end v i f e - b s a ' i r g . Rut, :he p o l i c e , l a w y e r s , j u d g e s , a n d l e g i s l a t o r s c a n a c t t o r e m o v ~ some o t t h e a a l y b a r r l e r s t h a t now p r s v e n t vaasn from ~ C c ~ i v i n g l e g a l p r o t e c t i o n f r o m b e a t i n g s . Thus, i n most stat"^, u ~ l e s s t h e a s s a i l a n t USES a weapon, t h e p o l i c e c i n r a t make a n a r r e s t , e v e n i f t h e r i f e i s o b v i o u s l y i n j u r e d a n d t h e h u s b a n d makes n c a t t e m p t t o d e c y h e r c h a r g e s . (She c a l , however , make a " c i t i z e P q s a r r e s t " a n d i c s i s t t h a t t h e p o l i c e h e l p h e r - - p r o v i d e d s h e h a s s u f f i c i s r ? p r e s e r c e of mind, s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e . a r d d e t e r m i n a t i m . acd some p l s c e t o h i d e when t h e husband i s z e l e a s e d f r n n j a i l a n h o u r o r two l a t e r ! . ) The l aw r e g u l a t i n g t h e e v i d e n c e n e e d e d t c mske a n a r x e s t f 3 r w i f e - b e a t i n g can be c h a n g e d , j u s t a s l a v s r e g a r d i n g t h s e v i d e n c e n e e d e d f o r a r a p e c o n r i c t i o n h a v n r e c e n t l y changed . S i r n i l e r l y , p u t t i n g a h u s b a l d i n j a i l deprives t h e w i f e of h e r a e a c s o f s u p p o r t : t h i s E 3 c t i s o f t e n p o i n t e d o u t t o women a n d i s one r e a s o n s3 few S r o P r e l y b e a t s n w i v e s p r e s s Chargss . BOW EVE^, i C SO.€ states, 3

p r i . 5 3 ~ 8 1 c a n be r e l e a s e d f o r employment d u r i n g work ing h o u r s , and s o c h l a v s c o u l d be e n a c t e d i n o t h e r s t a t e s if t h e s o c i s t y were t z u l y d e t e r m i n e d t o e n d v i f e - b s 2 t i n g .

Ch.13. Wife-Beat ing P39e 232

T h i s f i r a l c h a p t e r h a s a t t e m p t e d t o t r a c e c u t t h e p o l i c y i m p l i c a t i o n s o f o n 1 knowledge of one a s p e c t o f f a m i l y Vio lence : u l f e - b e a t i n g . . There i s good r i a s J n f o r t h e e m p h a s i s a n v i f e - b e a t i n g . Womer a r e under g r e a t e r r i s k t h a n men of s e r i o u s i n j u r y from p h y s i c a l a t t a c k , and t h e y h a r e few alternatives f o r p u t t i n g up wi th b e a t i n g s by t h e i r husbands. I n t h i s a r d i r p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s we p n i n t e d o u t a v a r i e t y of s o c i a l and economic c o c s t r a i n t s t h a t l o c k vomer i n t o m a r r i a g e t o a s u c h g r e a t n r e x t e n t t h a n men. I n s h o r t , a s s l t e a i n C h a p t e r 2, women a r e v i c t i m i z e 3 by v i o l e c c e i n t h e f a m i l y t o a much g r e a t e r E x t s n t t h a n a r e husbands , and s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e b e t h ~ f o c u s of t h e most i n m e d i a t e r s e e d i a l

embedded i n t h e v e r y s t r u c t u r e o f s0c:ety acd t h e f a m i l y sys tem i t s e l f . The s o l u t i o n t o w i f e - b s a t i n g , l i k e o t h e r f o r m s of i n t r a f a m i l y v i o l e n c e , l i e s i n t h e complex i n t e r p l a y of c u l t u r a l and e o c l a l o r g + r i z a t i o r a l f s c t c r s s u r r x n 3 i n g f a m l l y l i f e .

NOTES

*Revised v e r s i o n of p a r t o f " A S o c i o l o g i c a l P e r s p a c t i v e and Trea tment of U i t e - E e a t i n g . ' R e p r i n t e d wi th p e r n i s s i c n from B s r i a Roy, (€d.) B a t t e r e d women. New Fork: Van Nostrand-Reinhold, 1977. T h i s p a p e r was f i r s t p r e s e n t e d a t t h e 1977 a n n u a l m e e t i n g of t h e American P s y c h i a t r i c A s s o c i a t i o n .

I am g r a t e f u l +o n a r i a Roy and tl P r o f e s s o r s R i c h s r d J. Gel195 and Boward n. S h a p i r o , and J e a n Giles-Sims f o r comm2ntS a n d criticisms of t h e f i r s t d r a f t .

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Indexes

Author Index

Abbort. S., 186" Adorno, T. W., 217, 218 Aldous, J., 178 Allen, C. hl., 16,19,77,87,137,156,171,

188 Altrochi, 1.. 141 Aniiiews, F. zW., 237 Antell, M., 4 7 Applry, ,\I. H. , 9 6 Archer. D., 57. 213 Ardrey, R., 111

Bach, G. R., 20, 112 , 174n, 185 , 186-87% 220

Bachman. J. G., 215 B a h ~ S. J., 186n. 191. 204,205 Balswick, J . O., 180

Bard, M., 50n, 226-27 Baii, P. B., 8 8 Bawwitz, H., 95 Bcll. N. W.. 192 Beilak, L.. 47 Bern, D. J., 38 Bern. S. L., 38 Benedici, R., 41

Berger, P., 9 Berger, A. A., 182 Brrkowitz. L.. 220 Be ins~r in . P. S.. 77, 78 Berry, W. A., 247 Bertelheim, R., 52, 60, 66n, 106. 112 Bickman, L., 48 Blau, P.. 4, 174". 193 Blechman. 6:. A,, 217. 221 Blood, K. 0.. 9, 129, 166, 177, 178, 179,

183, 186". 189, 192, 193, 204. 206 Blumberg, M.. 103 Blurnenthal. M., 213 Bohannan, P.. 40 Boigorta, E. F., 237 Boti, F.. 128 Bowerman.C. E., 186n, 191. 204. 235 Bower . N., 4 8 Brim. 0. G. Jr . , 174" Brown, B. W., 19. 21, 77, 171, 172, 181,

1 8 2 . 1 8 8 Brown, K. C., 145 Brownmiller, S.. 93 Buckley, W.. 174n Bulcioft, K., 32, 49, 191-92 Burgers, A. W., 8 8 Buric, 0 , 186"

Author Index

Burke. R. J., 178 Burr, W. R., 181 Buss, A. H., 138

Calonico, j . M.. 191 Calverr, R., 13 Cameron. P., 145 Camphell, J. S., 103-4 Carillo-Beron. C., 72, 73, 74 Carroll, J., 14, 137 Cenieis, R., 186n Chadiha. L. B., 237 Cohcn, P. S., 65n Cole, G. A,, 237 Conger, R. E.. 247 Cooper. D., 139 Cooie. A., 45 Coaer, L. A,, 8, 20. 79, 116-19 passim,

122-27 passim, 129, 130-31, 133, 137, 183,218

Cotrrell, L. S.. 181 Cromwcll, R. E.. 192 Croog, S . H., 104 Cuhei, J . F., 9, 21, 127, 128 Cuifis, I.. A, , 40

Dahrendorf, R., 20, 170, 218 Dashefsky, A,, 77, 78 Davis. A. I.. 88 Davis, K. E.. 138. 147-48. 151 Drasy, L. C.. 253 Deniin, N. K.. 139-40 Diuon. W. J., 62 Dohienwend, R. P., 95 Dolizrd, J. C . , 111, 112 Durkhrim, E., 57

Edelheitz, H., 46 Emhree, j . F.. 41 Epsiein, S . , 141 Eiikson, I<.. 57 Erlangei, H. W., 81n Eron, L. D., 244 Errioni, A , 21 5

Fairchild. R.. 237 Fairingcon, K., 7-8. 111. 116 Fennell, N.. 71 Fernandez-Marina. R.. 72, 73, 74

Feiracuti, F., 8, 107. 137 Ferreira, A. J.. 11, 48 Feshbach. S.. 52, 112 Field. li. F.. 4546 Field, M , PI., 4546 Fields, M. D.. 226 Foss, J . E.. 16, 17, 20, 21,22n, 116, 143 Fotjik, K. M., 226 Fox, G. L,, 189 Francke, L. B.. 92 French,J.R.P.,74,186,192-93 Prenkel-Brunswik. D. J., 235 Freud, S.. 52 Fromm, E , 224 Fursrenburg, F. F. Jr., 53

Gagnon, J. H., 35, 38, 53, 216 Gaitnei, R., 57, 213, 235 Gecas, V.,62, 186". 191, 204, 235 Geis. E., 46 Geiies, K. 1.. 3, 7, 8. 13, 14, 15, 22n, 25,

31, 33, 36n, 40, 43.45, 55,61,63,66n, 88,90,103,107-8, 110. 112, 113. 116, 153-54. 173. 208, 214. 215,216, 222. 227

Gerhner. G., 214 Gianopulos. A.. 180 Gii, D. G., 103, 107, 109, 189 Glazer-Malbin, N., 180 Goldfarh, 180 Goode, W. J.. 9. 13, 17, 87, 90. 105, 106,

137, 171,183, 189, 213, 221 Goodsiadr, B., 205 Gordon. W. 11.. 77, 78 Graham, 1.4. D.. 52, 53, 57 Grehlei, L., 81" Green, A. W., 183 Grinker. K. K.. 95 Gross, I.., 214 G u i i , ' r . R.. 52, 53, 57 Gurmacher, M., 14 Guzman. R. C.. 241

Halsdord, M. 1.. 236 Hamblin, R. L.. 179 Hanson, L. R.. 150 Harlow, H., 217 Haroff. P., 9, 21, 127, 128 Hawkea, G. R.. 74, 76

Author Index

Mundy, D , 243 Murphey, H. S., 253

Niebuhr, R.. 11 Nye. F. I., 180, 235

O'Brien, I. E., 9 , 19, 109, 137, 227 O'Dell, S., 217 Olson, D. H. L., 192, 221. 236 Oppong, C., 186" Owens, D.M., 14, 35, 76, 93

Palmer, S., 52, 55, 99, 113 Parade M a p i n e , 227 Parkin, P., 54 Parnas, R. I., 43, 45 Parsons, T., 70, 87-88, 180, 205-6 Parterson. G. R., 217, 221 Peek, C. W., 180. 235 Penilosa. P.. 72. 73 Pineo. A. C.. 9 Pines, A., 92, 1 7 8 Plarr, M., 9 Pogrebin, L. C.. 47 Pollock, C. B., 107 Prescotr, J. W., 217 Purney, S. W., 186"

Rabunsky, C., 192 Radloff, R.. 243 Rahe. R. H., 96 Ramirez, M., 72, 73 Rsusch. H. L.. 174" Raven, B , H., 74, 18611 189, 192-93 Reid, J. B., 247 Reinhold. R., 9 2 Reiss, A. J. Jr., 149 Reinik, M., 226 Richmond, M. L., 186" Robercs, S. V., 6 2 Rodman, 14.. 87, 171, 189-90 Rodr ipe& A , 186" Rogers, M. F.. 171, 189 Rosrnihal. A. M., 4 8 ROSS, D., 180 Ross. S.. 180 Roy, M., 232" Rueger. R.. 182 Ryan, B. F., 41

Ryder. R. G.. 4 8

Safilios-Rothrchild, C.. 174". 178, 179. 186". 192

Sanford, N., 235 Scanzoni, J . H., 119, 120, 174% 186%

190, 204 Schoinagel. C. Y., 236 Schulz. D., 63 Schwarrr, C. G., 253 Scofch. N. A., 95 Scott, ,M. B.. 140 Scott, R. A.. 95, 96, 97, 98, 100, 101-2,

1 0 8 , 1 1 1 Seidcnbrrg, R., 99 Selye, H.. 95 Shapiio, H., 77, 78 Shaver, K. G., 138 Shearer. L.. 42 Shils, E. A,, 70 Shorr. 1.. 57 Shosrrom, E. L., 20 Simme1.G.. 9, 17, 21, 118, 170, 218 Simon, W., 35, 38, 53, 216 Singer, R. D., 52 Sipcs, R. G., 52 Skinner, B. F.. 125 Skolnick, A, , 9, 116, 127, 204, 235 Skolnick, J. 1-1.. 204, 235 Smith, R., 251 Spiegel. J. P.. 95 Spiey, J., 17, 20, 21, 116, 119, 128, 143,

145, 157-58, 170, 174". 175". 183 Srapp, J . , 92, 178 Siaik, R , 13. 40. 47 Steele. B. F.. 107 Srrinmerz, S. K., 3, 8, 11, 31, 34, 36n, 40,

41. 55. 63, 64, 66n, 93, 105, 106. 107, 111.112.116.124,207.215,220,227

Siraus, M. A., 3, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18. 19. 20, 22n, 25, 31. 32, 33, 34, 35, 36". 40, 41. 43, 48.49. 50". 52, 53, 55, 61, 63, 64. 6611, 76, 77, 87, 91, 93, 105-8, passim, 110-13pasrim. 116,124, 131,134n,135n.137,153-54,156,171, 177, 179. 186.87". 188. 189. 191-92, 204, 206,207, 208,213-16parsim, 220, 2 2 2 , 2 2 7 , 2 3 1

Sirodrbeck. V. L., 77, 78

Author Index

Surgeon General's Scirntific Advisory' Cornmiriee on Television and Social Behavior. 214

Swain, M. A,, 247

Tallman, I., 192 Tanay, C.. 1 4 'Taylor, M., 74. 76 Taylor, S. P., 141 Tedeschi, J. T., 137, 138, 145, 150 Thibaut, I. W.. 118, 138 Thomas, D. L., 191 Trenr. R. D.. 240 Tiurnbull, R., 96, 235 Truningei, E., 44, 45, 46, 89, 93 Turk, J. L.. 192 Turner, A. I., 236 Turner, R., 139-40. 141

Underwood, B. J.. 125

Van den Brighe, P. L., 205

Walder, 1.. O., 244 Walster. E. , 151 Walters, R. H.. 107. 111, 235 Weber, M., 6 0 Weir, T.. 178 Wcitzman. L. I., 178

Wellei, R. H., 18611 Welsh, R. S., 15 Wesfley. W. A,. 149 Whire, L. A,, 69 Whitehurst, R. N., 91, 109, 133, 177. 180,

182-83 Whiting. B. B.. 93 Williams. D. B.. 46 Williams, R. M., 5 Wiilmott, P., 190 Wilson. L. R.. 211, 224 Winter. W. D.. 4 8 Wolfe. D. M., 9. 129, 166, 177. 178 , 183,

186n. 189 ,192 . 193, 204, 206 Wdff, H. G.. 95. 97, 101 Wolfgang, M. E., 8, 32, 40, 69, 71, 107,

137 ,183 Wyden, P., 20, 112, 174% 185, 186-87%

220, 235

Yaffc, J. , 77, 78 Yarrow, M. R., 152 Yinger. J. M., 71 Ylio, K. A,, 31 Young, M., 190. 236

Zccevic. A.. 186" Zub, G. H., 79

Subject Index

Absolure Resource Index, 193 Aegrcssive person, cultural meaning of. Absolute resources, 196. 198, 201 Acccpinnce: and rule violations, 143. in

intimate rclurionrhips, 144 Achievement: and conflicr. 58, 125; and

women, 89; orienration. 188: and aggression, 206": and manhood. 228; m d human worth. 228, 229, 231

Adolercenrr, as source of dara, 191 Adultery, 145 Adults: in children's books, 62 ; as aggres-

sois, 63; as vicrims, 6 3 Affection: decline of in marriage, 9 ; and

violence, 217, 218 Affecrive invrsrmenr, in iniimate groups,

118, 119. 120. 122, 134" Age differences, related to violence. 34 Aggression, 23, 111, 124, 130, 134n, 137,

153.54": wives subjecr of, 7 ; in family. 7, 41; in male delinquents, 1 5 ; learned. 1 0 ; against women, 88; female, 88; male, 88: as normal, 111: in conflicis, 125; resolution, 131; disguised, 137; imputation of, 151; crearive, 204: and weakness. 206n; results of, 220. paiho- logical. 229

Aggressive drive rheaiies, 111

.. 151

Aging, and family iifc cycle, 1 7 Alcohol, 141, 171 Anger: holding in, 1 4 ; venting of. 220 Antagonisric behavior, 123, 129-33 Anricipatory socialirarion. 181 Assertiveness 100, 111-12, 150, 220 Attiibuiion iheory. 138-39. 147-48. 150 Auihoritarian personality, 217 Authoriraiianism, 73. 76, 81". 149 Avoidance: t o prevent violence, 115: and

contlicr, 122-25, 129, 144; definition of. 126; as behavioral outcome, 126-29

Balance of power: in family, 156, 193:and violence, 196. 200. 201, 202

Bartered-wife shelters, 91 Behavioral therapists, 221 Blue-collar families, 183 Boredom: and screw, 99: and violence, 113 Boys, and sexism. 181

Cniifornia Penal Code, 47 California "wife-beaiing" statute. 43-44 Canon Law, 71 Capital punishment, see Death pcnalry

Subject Index

Catharsis as legirimizer of violence, 112, 204, 220

Causal theories, in family violence research, 7

Child abuse, 8. 14. 103. 109. 216 Child care: and violence, 179; rcrponsihility

for, 223; facilities. 223 Child rearing: norms in eihnic groups. 73:

responsibility for. 88. 181; and physical punishment. 216,217.230; ideology of, 218; programsfor. 218

Child support, 223 Childhood experiences of violence. 93" Children: control of, 41; awareness of

physical aggression, 49: as aggressors. 63; as nonvoiuniary family members, 119: andworking women, 162: respon- sibiiiry for. 168; sr source of data, 191

Childrcn's litcratuir: violence in, 11, 51-67 Claiming behavior, in iniimaie relation-

ships, 149 Clockwork Oianee rheorv ofviolence. 113.

227 Companionship: decline of in marriage. 9 ;

and equaliry. 183 Comparison Level, 118 Competition, and human worth, 229 Conflict: in faniily, 10, 49, 218-21;avoid-

ance of, 20; suppression of, 20; and violence, 20, 116, 134; as inevitable, 20, 133, 218, 219,220, 230;ashealthy. 21; and intimacy, 21;in Jewish families, 79; resolution of, 115. 127; expressive, 123-26; realistic, 123: insrrumenral, 123-26. 129-33

Conflict approach, 170, 171, 173, 174n, 175n

Conflicr of inrerest, 16, 94. 116. 117, 123, 124. 127, 129-30. 133, 157

Conflict Tacrics Scales, 25, 192 Coping: with conflict. 49; with s t i e s 101

through violence. 107 Criminal justice system: artituder toward

family violence. 43.46-47, 211-12.231: f d u r r to act, 44, 45: male orientation of, 90. 226, 230

Cultural-consistency theory af violence, 69-73: and Menican-American families, 73-77; and Jewish-American fmdier . 77-79

Cultural norms: definition of, 5-6; and family behavior, 6 ; legitimizing violence, 7, 12, 35. 38. 41. 68, 84; and myth of nonviolence. 11; de fact", 35; de j w e , 35; and power, 178: and wife- beating, 229

Cultural valucr, in interpreting violence, 1 1 7 L..

Culture: definition of, 5; and family life. 6 ; as a system, 69

Day-care cenrers, 223, 230 Death penalty,60-61, 213, 217 Decision making: in family. 110, 193; by

woman. 159; and employment of wife, 179; sharingof. 183

Decision Power Index. 192, 193 Deference rules, 140 Demands: and stress. 98. 99, 101, 113; in-

soluble, 109 Dcmranor rules. 140 De~endency, in inrimsie relacionships,

119, 120 Divorce, 30, 89, 159, 185 Dominance, re? Female dominance, Male

dominance Dominant-submissive relationship. 179 Drugs: cure for violence. 94; and rule vio-

lstions. 141

Economic difficulry, and violence, 64,227- 3 1

Economic resources, 193, 199 Education: and dominance. 182; as re-

source, 190 Employmmr. and self-esteem, 228. 231 Encounter groups, 220 Equal Righis Amendment, 91 ,225 Equditariunism: in marriage. 18. 19-20.

156, 172, 177, 181, 183; in ethnic groups, 74, 79; and violence, 86-87.90, 91, 183-85; and frusriation, 109; a d intimacy, 149, 172; and conflici, 176; occupational and economic, 179, 222, 224. 228. 230: and males. 181, 182; re- jecrion of, 182; class differences in norms, 190-91

Frcope from Freedom, 224 Ethnic groups: values and norms of. 14,

69, 70, 73: violence in, 14, 71, 80

Subject Index

Erhnogiaphies, of Americnnmarriages, 157 Exchangr model of marriage (Scanzoni),

1 7 0 --- Exchange theory. 205" Expressive violcncc: ZZn, 108. 111-12,

113; in children's lirerutuie, 53; in fiction. 58; in middle class, 204: in mass media, 214

Exrended family: and nuclear family, 18: conflici in, 135"; srability of, 219. 225

Family: and aggression, 7; and stress, 8. 11. 33. 103, 104, 107; stiucrural features of, 8 , 85, 115, 136;supportin, 11, 18, 218; involuntary membership in, 17. 120: relationships sndconflict,49,115, 156:values,73;functionsof, 104;uiban. 110; as 'dehumanizing" agent. 139: politics, 139, 173, 174% 175n; private nature of, 152; and children. 16243; and power, 201; as training ground for violence, 215-18

Family impact analysis. 219 Family life: complexity of. 10, 22; ideali-

raiion of, 11; characteristics of, 41 Faihei: dominance of. 68: relarions wirh

chiidren. 73. 74, 75. See also Ilusbnnd Fcmalc aggressors, in children's books, 62 Female dominance. 157 Female-centcied family, 77 I'emininiry: compulsive. 225; and employ-

menr, 225 Feminisc movcmenr, see Women's move-

mrnf Fiction, and violence, 57-58, 63 Final Say Power Index, 193 Frustration: reduction of, 108, 227: and

m e s s . 108. 109;andviolence. 109,112; causes of, 110-1 1 ; and aggression, 227

Frusrration-aggresrion theory, 111, 116

General m e s s model. 95, 105, 108, 111, 112,113, 114

Goal attsinmenc, 109, 180, 181, 185, 189

Goal bloclage. in children's books, 5940 Goal-direcred rule violaiions, 145 Goals: and violence, 105; in conflict, 125

Guns, and domestic violence, 25, 214-15, 229

Happiness, and marital stability. 9 Head of household: male as, 86, 156, 177,

179: rrsponsibilities of. 168: changes in. 221, 222, 228. 230

Hedonistic iclrvance. 151-52 High resource group, 200 Hitring license norm, 212. 220 Homicide, 8, 11, 1415 , 40,45,48, 55, 213 liosriiity: and inrimate ielariunships, 9.16,

116, 118, 128; production of, 20, 129, 130;suppression of, 20, 116, 118, 119- 22, 126-27. 133; and conflicr of inter- est, 117. 118. 133; subjecrive, 117. 129: expression of. 124, 125; outcome of, 127: reduction of. 128; and expressive conflict, 130

Household rasks, 148: and violence, 179; distribution of, 223, 224

Housewife, 181: power in home, 167 Husband: and power, 8-9: and faiher role.

53; and violence, 200, 202, 203, 208" Husband bearing, 31-33

Identiry: in inrimace relationships, 140, 143. 149; rhreatmed, 144; and rule violsrions, 146; support of, 146: an ro- cia1 phenomenon, 154n; and srabiiiry. 225

Illegirimare strategy: in intimarr relationships, 128; in conflicrs of inrciesi. 131; in conflicr siiuations, 133

Income. and family violmce. 227. 231 individualism, 188: and achievement, 53:

and violence. 87: protection of, 139; in U.S.. 199

Indusiriaiized nations, and violence. 52 Instrummtal behavior, 139 Instrumental conflict: in inrimsie groups.

122; defined, 123, 124-25; consequences of. 124: intent in, 125; in conflicrs of inrerest, 131; effeciiveness of, 131; and resolution, 131: as result of hosri- liiy, 133; leading ro aggression, 134

lnstrumenral dependence, on family, 120 lnstiumenral inverrmmrs: and horriliiy,

Subject Index

119; in family, 120; in i n r ima repups , 122

lnsrrumenral strategy, 125 Instrumental violmce, 2211, 107, 111-12:

in children's liieruruir. 53, 64; in fiction. 58; and srress. 113; andclass, 203, 204. 205; in mass media, 214

Inreni, 143, 14748: of violmce, 136,137, 138. 141, 150, 153; of aggression. 141

Inrimacy, 110, 115, 117. 118: in family, 9, 10. 128, 136; and identity. 1 7 ~ 1 8 , 146-47; and authoriry, 73;and conflict. 116. 126. 183, 185, 218: and aggression. 129, 152

Intimate Enemy, The, 220 lniimaie groups: paradoxical struciuie of,

116, 122. 133: dissolurionof, 122.129: and expressive conflicr. 130; and conflicts of inteiesi, 133; and violence, 137.172

Intimate relationships: knowledge of inti- mazes, 129, 148; rules of, 13940, 149; maintenance of. 141; and rule violations, 144. 145. 146; and threat per- ception, 147; andatrriburion, 147.151; and equaiiiarianiun, 172, 183, 186

Invasion of privacy, 24 irony: of family violence, 10-11, 21-22,

85: and egalitarian family sysrcms. 87

Jewish-American families, violence in, 77- 79, 80

Juvenile delinquency, 15, 165

Law, see Criminal justice system Leadership norms, in American sociery,

198 Lcadrrahip role: of husband, 199, 227;

and physical foicc. 227 Literature: and violence, 11, 214: reflect-

ing cultural norms. 42; influencing sociery. 52, 53

Living iogerher, and violence. 31 Love: in family structure, l o , 11, 24, 34.

41. 218: and use of violence, 14, 24, 34, 42, 217, 218, 230:sndaurhoriraiivn personality, 217 '

Macho image, in working class, 204

,Male chauvinism, 165 Malc dominance, 92, 172, 173, 180, 188:

and conflicr, 16; in tiansirion, 19; when male is threaiened, 19; and violence. 19, 36, 77, 86, 87. 161-62, 165, 166, 169, 186, 200, 202, 203, 221; and physical force, 30, 91, 189, 202: in Mexican-American fmiilies. 68, 74; rhrough insrirurional aiiangemcnrs, 86; in urban society, 171; and conflicr. 176, 177, 179-80; failuietoacraiii, 182: and equalirarianism, 185: social class, 190, 203, 204, 205; resisiance to, 201. See airn Women, suboidinaiion of

Male power, and violence, 183, 200. 202 ~Mariiage: and happiness. 9 ; as long-term

,,relationship. 17; counseling, 43, 220, 221; srudies of. 47; and encounter movrmenr, 221; contract, 222

Marriage license, as hirring license, 13, 39- 50, 63. 211-12

Masculiniry, 32, 87-88, 156, 205,221, 228: compulsive, 930, 180, 182, 185, 225

Masochism. 229 Mass media and carhaisis rheory, 52; vio-

lence in, 52, 214, 215, 229; and sen roles, 181-82

Mcdiaror. See Third parry arbitraiion Mexicani\merican college scudenrs, sur-

veyed, 74-75 Mexican-American familicr: male domi-

iinncs in, 68, 73: violence in, 73-77, 80. 81n

Middle-class norms. andviolence. 190. 191, 196, 200, 201, 203, 204, 205

Miliraiy violence. 213 Money: as resource, 166. 172; and marital

role, 169; and power, 169, 178; and male dominance, 182

Moniicys, and violence. 217 Moihei: iolc of and work, 163; idmtifica-

cion wich, Z80 Motion pictures: and nonviolence myth of

family, 11; and violence, 214 Murder. see Homicide Myih: of family nonviolence, 11, 41, 49.

63. 64, 65; of violence as socially worthy. 63; of single-parent household, 89

Subject Index

Nonconscious ideology, 38 Nonrealistic conflict, 123 Nonviolence of family, see Myrh NOW Wife Assault Program, 226-27 Nuclear family: violence in, 13, 17; insta-

bility a€, 17; compared with extended family. 18; srrainson, 21 1

Occupational groups, classification of, 207% 208"

Occupacional discrirninarion, 88, 222,223, 230

Occupaiional idenfificarion, 225, 231 Old, dominance by, 73 Oprimum stress level, 8. 99

Parent-child violence. 13, 47, 63 Parenrhoad: by-product of, 165-66; rc-

sponsr ro, 174" Passive aggression. 137 Passive-cangeniul marriage, 21. 127 Percepiion: and stress, 96: of aggression,

137: of violence, 141, 151 Personality involvement: and conflict of

inceiest, 117; and hostiliiy. 118; in in- c h a f e irlarionships, 118, 127, 129, 134n; and rcplacemenr of group members. 119; and expressive conflict, 130

Personaliry rraits: and poivet, 193; by sex, 229

Physical affection, 217-18 Physical punishment: ro conrrol children,

13; consequences o f , 34; role-modeling function of, 34, 40, 49, 215-16, 230; and husband-wife violence, 35; Irgiri- miring violence, 35. 40; in Tepozilan, 70; in Mexican-American families. 73; andsrress 103:elirninarionof. 216,217

Physical srrmph: and husb:banil braring, 32; and injury, 33; and m d r dominance, 182-83

Physical Violence lndrx. 25 Police, see Criminal jusi icr Power: struggles. 29. 160, 165, 166-67:

division of, 87. 166. 201; claims on, 123. 176; in marriage, 177: souicrsof, 177. 178: and rrnploymenr of wife, 179; definition of. 186n;nnd resources and violence, 190-209

Pregnancy: and violence. 33, 172; and se,

roles, 165, 170;response to, 165, 174" Piivacy: related to violence, 18 : in family

218 Pueiio-Rican families, power in, 74

Race: and artirudes of authorities. 43: anc violence in children's books, 61

Rnpr: wirhin marriage, 47; number in U.S., 55; and power, 88: reduction of, 93"

Rarionsl problem solving. 77 Relationd complacence. in intimate rela-

rionships. 149, 150 Relsiional rules: interpretarion of. 139:

violarion of, 140-50:ininrimarcgroups, 140-54

Relative Power lndrx, 193, 194 Rrlarivc Resource Index, 193 Relativr resources: and power. 196; and

violence. 198, 201 Release mechanism. 104. 111 Religious beliefs, and children. 163 Resolution: and srraregy choicc, 131; and

conflicr. 219, 221 Resouice theory: and violence. 105, 106,

196; of power, 116. 178,189:tojusrify dominance, 166

Resources: and male suprrioriry. 87; and physical force, 87: and strms, 105, 114; and subjecrive hostility, 118; claims over. 123: of wife, 156. 179, 198, 201, 202; definirion of, 178. 205n; m d power and violence, 190-209; measures of, 193;of husband. 198

Response capabilities ro mess, 97.99, 100, 104-5, 106, 110, 113

Responsibility, and aurhority, 169 Retsliarion, 143, 144 Rcriicmenr, 17 Retiibucion. 143 Reward power, 192 Roles: scx-typed, 16 , 223, 224, 225, 228,

229. 230; and violence, 34. 221: in tiansiiion, 76-77, 181; in mairi%ge, 87, 165,181; conflicrs in. 104: and respon- sibiliry, 168; clarity of, 180, 181, 182, 185; adoprion of, 181

Romantic love, 120 Rulc violations: accidenral, 14041 : ai-

Subject Index

riagc, 9; violencc used ro enforce. 59: contradictory, 123.

Verbal aggression. 135n. 137. 187n. 220 Verbal conflicr. 185 Verbal expression. 79 Victimizntion: of children. 93n:ofwomen.

20, 33.41 Vioiencr, family: incidence of, 4 ; and psy- . .

chopathology, 4, 8, 13 , 152, 211; as socially learned and patreined bchsvior, 4, 11, 14, 38, 107, 215;prcvalenccof. 8; measurement of, 8, 25, 27, 191;un- derreporting of, 8 , 30, 32, 191: Irgiii- mate, 13, 22% 25, 38, 39, 41, 53, 58, 106-7; parent-child, 13, 47. 63; ikgit i- mate, 14. 22". 53; iime factor, relared to, 15, 18; definirion of. 22n, 124; "deserved," 24; normal. 24. 30, 43, 173; imiracion of, 32; jusiification of, 35; arrests and, 44-45, 212: rolemodrls for, 49, 213, 230; and sporis, 52; fictional, and social control of deviance, 57-61; sibling, 63, 216, 217; imirarion of, 71; as last resort, 77: peiperuation of, 80, 81"; curing of, 94; prcdisposi- iion to, 103; as response to srrers, 105: alrrrnarives ro, 106. 115; social psychological analysis of, 114, 137. 151; as subtype of aggression, 130; atrribution of. 134". 136. 137, 138-39. 141-50; accidcnral, 137, 138; and rule violations. 144; and marital politics, 157-75; and resources and power, 190-209; governmcnrai, 213-14: and peers, 216- 17; avoidance of, 223; unrmployrnenr and, 227, 228

Violence. gcnrial, in US.. 55 Violence index, 49

Voluntary iclationshipn, 119, 170

War: and children's literamre, 57; and violence, 64, 213-14: sloiies, 66"

Wife: role, 89; stlying home, 166; as vic- tim, 171; as dominant, 171-72, 173; economic dependence of, 176, 222, 228; and power, 198-99; and violence, 200. 201-2. 208n: resources of, 200, 202

Wife, employment of, 92, 150, 156, 159, 172. 176. 178-79, 223. 224.225, 228, 230: and male dominance, 19. 179-80; consequences of , 176. 177; and violence, 179, 180; and resources, 185

Wife-bearing: as accrpiabie, 23, 24, 71; definition of, 24; index of, 25, 27: ex-

tent of. 27-31; causes of. 33-36; prevention of, 35, 212-13, 231. 232; and sexual inequaliry, 86; as reflection of societal violence, 213-15; sex role and sexism, 221; toleration of, 226; risks of, 232

Wirhdrawal, red Avoiiiancc Women: subordination of. 41. 165; as ag-

gressors, 62; in violent acts, 66": in ,Mexican-American culrurc. 74; negn- rive self-images of. 89; as children, 89- 90, 224, 225; righrs of, 92; and suc- cess, 92; and power, 199

Women's movement. 181, 222: and wifr- bearing. 24; goal of reducing violence, 90-91; conrriburions of, 91; men's reactions to, 178; resistance ro. 225

Work-cthic, 66" Working class, 190-91, 194, 196. 200-5

passim Working wife, See Wife, rmploymenr of

About the Authors

CRAIG 8. ILLEN 1s ZP I n s t z n c t o z i n S o c i 3 L J g y a ? 1 0 x 2 S t a t e U n i 7 e r s i C y . A B t25 d o n e z e s e a r c h on f s a i l y z P t e r v a c t i O n t e c h n i q o e s , p a z e n t a l d i s c i p l i n e 328 1 3 c a s o f C o n t r o l i P c h i l d r e n , and c h i l d r s n q s o c d e l i n g o f c a r t c o o c h a r a c t e r s . C n r r e n t l y , h? is s t u d y i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s among measures o f c o n j o g a l power t o dere=m:ne i f i n d e x e s b a s e d 3 n c o n ? e s t o d p a v e r are more s e n s i t i v s i n d i c a t o r s 3 f t h e m a z i t e l power b a l a n c e t h a n i n d e x e s b a s e d on u n c o r t e s t e 3 p o v s r . 9 s 15 t h e au'hor o f "Role S p e c i a l i z a t i o l and L o c u s of C o n t r ~ l , " P r E s B n t e d a t t h e T h i r d Ancoa l P a m i l p R e s e l r c h C o r f e r e n c e , Br igham Young U n i v e r s i t y . 1974.

BRUCE Y. BRORR is h s s i s t 3 1 t PTO~SSSO? Of S O ~ i 0 1 0 3 Y a t X i l k e s C o l l e g e i n w i l k e s - B a r r e , P e n r s y l v a c i a . Ee h a s d o n e T E S O ~ T C ~ on h i s t o r i c a l a ? + l y s i s of t h e f a m i l y , f e m i l y m e a s u r e s e n t t e c h n i q u e s . and discipline of c h i l d r e c . 9 e i s C O Y & l i n g a s t n d y o f how f a m i l y l i f e h a s b e e n d e p i c t e d ir m a g i z i n c a d v e r t i s i n g s i c c e 1920, which e a p h a s i z s s b o t h historical and l i f e c y c l e c h a n g e s i n f a m i l y c o m p a n i o n s h i p +nd i r t i m a c y . B e i s t h e a u t h o r o f "Tha Cimngicg B o l e 3: Zhe na19 m a r r i a g e P a r t n e r a s D ~ p i c t e d i n t h s 2 0 t h c e z t o r y r a r r i a g e a + r u a l n (New York s t a t e S o c i ~ l o g i c s l R s s o c i i t i o n , 1 9 7 3 ) ; " E d n c a t i o n , Employment, a n d P r e s c r i p t i o r s f o r M a r i t 2 1 D ~ c 1 s i o n - i 3 e k i x g : 1900-1974" ( 8 m s r i c a o S o c i o l o g i c e l n s s o c i a t i o n . 1 9 7 7 ) : " n a g a z i o e A d v e r t i s i n g : Its Use i~ t h e e x s t o r i c a l s t n d y o f t h e P s m i l y " ( P e n n s y l v a o i a S o c i o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y . 1 9 7 9 ) : "Wife -Enp loysen t an6 t h e Emergence of Equa1l:arzan E a r i t 2 1 P o l e P resc r :p t i cns : 1900-1974" (zsgm& Of C o m ~ a r a t i v e Fzmi lv S t c d l s , S p r i r q 1 9 7 8 ) ; and " P a r e n t ' s D i s c x p l i n e o f C h i l d r e n i n P o b l i c P l a c e s u ( E a _ ~ ~ & ~ c o o r t i n a t a r , J u l y 1 9 7 9 ) - H e i s c o - a u t h o r , w i t h Burray A . s t r a o s , o f SG:&V ngaggrsgn: TPchnQggs ( u n i v e r s i t y o f M i n n e s o t a r z r s s , 1 9 7 8 ) ; a n d v i t h J o s e p h A . P z n z a n a r o . o f "Compulsory P r e - K a r i t a l E d u c a t i o o ? " ( R i l k s s C o l l e g e Q u a r t e r l y , summer 1979) .

JOSEPH CARROLL i s a r P s s i s t a r t P r o f e s s o ; i n S o c i c l o g y a t Colby-Sawyer C o l l e g e i r N e w LorAon, A n v Aaapsb.irn. Pe h a s d o n e r e s e a r c h on t h e i c t e r o s n e r a ~ i o n a l t r a n s m i s a ~ n n o f f a a i l y v i o l e n c e , and c l i a a + a l o g i c a l f a c t c r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a g g r e s s i o n . He i s now d o i n g a s t u d y o f c a u s e s o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s t r e s s a n d f a m i l y p r o b l e m s t h a t emphasizes t h e e f f e c t o f v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f i n t s g r a t i 5 n i n t o one .5 community. Ee is t h e a u t h o r o f "The I n t e r g e n e r e t i o n a l T r a n s m i s s i o n c f F a m i l y V i o l e n c e : The Long-term E f f e c t s o f A g g r e s s i v e Behav io r . " 1977) . a n d t h e " E f f e c t o f C l i m a t e on Homic ide a n d S u i c i d e : E u a i d i t y , R e a t , a n d Cold" (Annual m e e t l n g o f t h e S o c i e t y f o r t h e S t u d y o f S o c i a l P r o b l e m s , 1 9 7 7 ) .

K E I T H PBRRLNGTOB i s a memher o f t h e Depar tmen t o f S o c i o l o g y a n d A n t h r o p o l o g y a t whitman C o l l e g e . R i s r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t s i n c l u d e t h e c a u s e s and c o n s e q u e n c ? s o f s o c i a l S t r e s s , l a b e l i n g and d e v i a n c e , and v i o l s n t b e h a v i o r . Re i s t h e a u t h o r o r c o - a u t h o r o f 'The S c h e d u l i n g o f P e r s o n a l C r i s e s : S e a s o n a l Changes i n t h e P a c e o f S o c i a l I c t i v i t i e s a n d A e l p - s e e k i n g a t m e n t a l B e a l t h C l i n i c s w ( p r e s e n t e d s t t h e a n n u a l m P e t i n g o f t h e S o c i e t y f o r t h e S t u d y o f S o c i a l P rob lems , New York C i t y . Augus t 1 9 7 6 ) . '?Family V i o l e l c e and Househo ld D e n s i t y : Does t h e Crowded Home Breed A g g r e s s i o n ? " ( p r e s e n t e d a t t h e a c n u a l m e e t i n g o f t h e S o c i e t y f o r t h e S t u d y o f S o c l a l P rob lems . C h i c a g o , S e p r e n h e r 1 9 7 7 ) . and " In S e a r c h o f t h e n i s s l n g C o n c e p t u a l F ramevork i n F a m i l y S o c i o l o g y : The S o c i a l C o n f l i c t Frameworkm ( p f e s e r t 3 d a t t h j a n n u a l m a e t i n g of t h e N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l on P a e r l y R s l a t i o n s , S a n Diego , O c t o b e r 1 9 7 7 ) . He i s c u r r e n t l y d o i c g a m a c r o s c o p i c a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e p a c e o f s o c i a l l i f e a n d t h e i r e f f e c t s .

JOYCE E. POSS is a n A s s i s t a n t P r o f e s s o r i n S c c i o 1 3 g y a t Sangamon s t a t e S t a t e u n i v e r s i t y i n s p r i n g f i e l a , I l l i n s i s . S h e h a s d o n e r e s e a r c h on s e x r o l e s + r d m e n c l l h e a l t h , t h e i m p a c t of women's S t u d i e s c o u r s e s on a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d women's r o l e s , and community p e r c e p t i o n s of h o s p i t a l S e r v i c e s . C u r r e n t l y s h e i s d o i n g a s t u d y o f t h e t y p e s o f power a s s e r t i o n s u s e d by h u s b a n d s a n d w i v e s , u h i c h e m p h a s i z e s r e l a t i o n s h i p s between s t r u c t u r a l and p r o c e s s u a l a s p e c t s o f power. She i s t h e a u t h o r of "Sex D i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e Use oi m e n t a l P e a l t h C l i n i c s : R e a l I l l n e s s o r P a t i e n t Behav io r?" ( S o c i e t y f o r t h e S t u d y o f S o c i a l P r o b l e m s C c n u a l a e e t i n g . 1974) ; a n d c o - a u t h o r o f "Review Essay: "=pop C o r . s t r u c t I o n a n d t h e S g o i p g y gg t h e Pami lx . by Nes l?y R.

o f t h e ' E i s s i n g ' C o n c e p t u a l Framework i n F a m i l y S o c i o l o g y : The S o c i a l C o n f l i c t Framework" Annual m e e t i n g o f t h e

GERRLD T. EOTRLIRG is an I n s t r u c t o r i n SOCiOlOgy a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f v c r n o n t . R i s r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t s i n c l u d e Fami ly V i o l e n c e . U e n t a l H e a l t h and t h e Family. and Sex R o l e s and H e a l t h Behavior . Ee is a member of t h e e d i t o r i a l board

He is t h e a u t h o r of "Family V u l n e r a b i l i t y t o St igma a s a F a c t o r ir. Aelp-Seeking Behavior" ( S o c i e t y f o r t h e S t u a y o f s o c l a l Prob lems m e e t i n g s 1975) , " F a c i l i t a t i n g Tio l€nce : Why I n t i m a t e s A t t r i b u t e R g g r e s s i o n n ( p r e s e n t e d a t t h e R a t i o n a l C o u n c i l 02 Family R e l a t i o n s m e e t i n g s 1975) . " S o c i a l C l a s s and Value O r i e n t a t i o n i n t h e Phase Bovement o f F a e l l i e s Through t h e R e n t a l R e a l t h System" ( S o c i e t y f o r t h e S tudy of s o c i a l Prob lems meet ing 1 9 7 6 ) . "Sex D i f f e r e n c e s i n ~ e l p - S e e k i n g Behavior" ( S o c i e t y f o r %he S t u a y of s o c i a l problem^ m e e t i n g 1978, w i t h Saundra A t w e l l and J o y c e 2. Poss) , a n d " 'dolescent L i f e Changes and I l l n e s s : A compar i son of T h r e e n o d e l s ' ( E a s t e r n S o c i ~ l o g i c a l S ~ c i a t y m e e t i n g s 1978. t o b e p u b l l s h e d hy t h e J o u r n a l of Youth Adolescence , 1978).

BARTAA D. B U G G I N S i s a n I n s t r u c t o r a t Union C o l l e g e i n t h e Department cf Socio logy . She r e c e n t l y s p e n t two y e a r s a s a Y i s i t i 3 q P r o f e s s o r i~ t h ~ Department of S J c i o l o g y a t t h e U n i v e r s i d a d e F e d e r a l d e Pernambuco. B r a z i l . The V i s i t l C g P r O t e S ~ o r s h i p was funded by t h e F l e t c h e r School o f Law and Diplomacy, T u f t s U r i v e r s i t y , and t h ? Ford Foundat ion. The t i t l e o f h e r d i s s e r t a t i o n is " P u n i s h a e n t w i t h o u t Crime: Deviaccr , S o c i a l Change and S o c i a l C o n t r o l i n Pernambuco, B r a z i l , 1860-1922." She i s t h e c o - a u t h o r ( w i t h S c o t t G. HcNall) of " G u e r i l l a Warfare: 4 P r s l i m i n a r y s t u d y of P r e d i s p o s i n g and P r e c i p i t a t i n g F a c t c r s , " and of a p a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e 1977 E a s t e r n S o c i ~ l o g i c a l s o c i e t y m e e t i n g on "The R e l a t i o r s h i p between S o c i a l 3na P o l i t i c a l Conditions and H i s t o r i c 6 l T r e n d s i n D e v i a n t Behav:or i n R e c i f e , B r a z i l . "

RALPH LaROSSB is an l s s i s t a n t P r o f e s s o r of S o c i o l o g y a t G e o r g l a S t a t e u n i v e r s i t y i n h t l a n t a . Re h a s done r e s e % r c h on t h e p s y c h o - s o c i a l a s p e c t s of m a r r i a g e a n d f i r s t p regnancy

a n d i s c u r r e n t l y i n v c l v e d i n t w o p r o j e c t s : a p a r t i c i p a c t o b s e r v a t i o n s t u d y o f t h e a g i n g p r o c e s s and i n i n - d e p r h i r ~ i e r v i e u s t u d v of t n o t z a n s i t i o n t o p a r e n t h o o d . He i s t h e

8URRP.Y A. STBAUS h a s b e e c P r o f e s s o r of S o c i o l o g y a t ?he U n l v s r s i t y o f Nsu Rampsh i re s i n c e 1968. Ee is t h f a u L h o r o f a b o u t 80 a r t i c l e s i n t h e s o c i o l o g y o f t h e f a m i l y , v i o l e n c e . s o u t h Asia . r u r a l s o c i o l o g y , and r e s e a r c h methods: and t h s f o 1 1 0 ~ l n 9 books: S o c i o l o q i c a l h n a l ~ s i s : An E ~ p i r i c a l ~ ~ ~ r a a c h - Through ~ e p l i c e t i o c (1968); F a m i l y 8 e a s " r e m e n t Techniques (1969. r e v i s e d e d i L i o r , 1977) ; Fami ly B n a l y a i s : R e a d i n q s a c d R e p l i c a t i c n s of S e l e c t e d S t u d i e s (1969) : F a m l l y P rob lem S o l v i n q (1971) : e n d V i o l e r c e i n t h e F a m i l y ( 1 9 7 9 ) . He was A s s i s t a n t E d i t c r o f S o c i o l o g i c a l L b n t r a c t s +nd f o u n d i n g e d i t o r of t h e j o u r n a l T e a c h i n g S o c i 3 l o g y . s t r a u s was p r e s i d e n t o f t h e N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l on F a m i l y Relations, v i c a - p r e s i d e r t of t h e rasterr S o c i o l s g i c a l S o c i e t y , and member c f t h e C o u n c i l o f t h e E n e r i c a n R s s o c i a t i o z to= t t e F d o a ~ c e m e l t o f S c i e r c e . Ee was r e c e n t l y g i v e n t h e E. V. B u r g e s s award f o r c u t s t a n d i r g c s c t r i b u t i o n s t o r e s e a r c h on t h e f a m i l y . T o g e t h s r w i t h B i c h a r a G e l l e s and S u z a n n e S t e i n m e t z , he i s t h e a u t h o r o f 3 book 3n PiPLgaCP LC *&g &AgrLc&Q Ej~iLy b a s e d o r d a t a f rom :he ca+.ionslly r e p r e s e n t s t i s e s a m p l e of 2 ,143 f a m i l i e s a c s c r i b s a io t h e a r t i c l e i n t h l s i s s u e .

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