The Social Animal (P104S) Week 4sites.uci.edu/socialanimalwinter2015/files/2015/01/... · The Social Animal (P104S) Week 4 W4.2 . ... • One’s identity in a social situation 3

The Social Animal (P104S) Week 4

W4.2

Announcements

• Midterm exam in class next week – 6:30-8:00pm here in this room (90-min) – 50-60 multiple choice questions + 5-8 short

answers – Examinable materials: lecture content, i-Clicker

questions and class activities, assigned textbook chapters

– Responsible for textbook chapters: • 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, Social Psychology in Action 1 (Making a

Difference with Social Psychology), and Social Psychology in Action 2 (Social Psychology and Health)

W4.3

Announcements • Things to bring to the midterm exam

– Purchase and bring scantron (Form F-158; 50 questions on each side)

– Bring pencil for scantron – Student ID (will be checked during the exam)

• More exam-related announcements… – At the end of today’s class we will look at some

practice questions – TA Joseph will be holding additional pre-exam

office hours: Thurs Jan 29th 10am-11:59am (4319 SBSG)

– After the exam we will have a lecture on Attitudes (Chapter 7)

W4.4

Announcements

• i-Clicker points – Last week is a test run for identifying problematic i-

Clickers – This week and onwards points will count towards

final grade

• Check updated syllabus on course website – Topics that we’ll be covering after the midterm

exam have been moved around – Among other changes, TAs will be guest lecturers

on February 9th (I will be out of town)

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Chapter 5: The Self

Week 4

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A Demonstration… • What comes to mind when you think about

yourself? • On a sheet of paper, write down 20 statements

that best define who you are, in the form of:

I am a _____________________.

• What is on your list? – Likely includes past behavior, hobbies, personality

characteristics, membership in groups, etc. – This list reflects your self-concept

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What is Self-Concept?

• A mental representation that captures our own views and beliefs about ourselves – Generated by viewing yourself as an “object” to

be captured and understood by your mind – Synonymous with self-schema

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The Jamesian Theory of Self

The self can be viewed in two ways: • An object of thought

(the known) – “me” self: the empirical

self • The subject of

thought (the knower) – “I” self: the pure ego

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William James (1842-1910)


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• The “me” self contains 3 dimensions: 1. The “material” self

• Objects that belong to us or that we belong to • E.g., the body, family, clothes

2. The “social” self

• One’s identity in a social situation

3. The “spiritual” • One’s true defining self; relatively concrete and permanent • Understanding the “spiritual” self is more important than the

needs of the other selves


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• The “I” self… – The soul, the mind – Everything that one is conscious of at any time – Arises from the stream of consciousness

• “I am the same self that I was yesterday” – Not a substance and thus cannot be studied by

science

Is the Sense of Self Uniquely Human?

• Gallup (1970): The Mirror Self-Recognition Test

http://youtu.be/vJFo3trMuD8

W4.12

http://youtu.be/vJFo3trMuD8


• Gallup (1970): The Mirror Self-Recognition Test (con’t) – Presented chimpanzees and other species of

monkeys with mirrors – After a 10-day acquaintance period, a bright

red, odorless dye was placed on their forehead (under anesthesia)

– How would the primates behave? – DV: Did the primates show mark-directed

behavior?

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W4.14

– Conclusions: • Chimpanzees showed evidence of self-

recognition and, by extension, sense of self • Monkeys, in contrast, did not • Sense of self is not uniquely human

– Results: • Chimpanzees touched the mark on their

foreheads, using the mirror to guide their hands • Monkeys showed little or no mark-directed

behavior

• Gallup (1970): The Mirror Self-Recognition Test (con’t)

The Development of the Sense of Self

W4.15

• Self-recognition is not present at birth – Research with infants indicate that human

children pass the test between the ages of 1.5-2 years old

http://youtu.be/M2I0kwSua44

http://youtu.be/M2I0kwSua44

Modern Views of the Self

• Proposes that the self consists of 4 related components: 1. Self-knowledge (the focus of this class section) 2. Self-control 3. Impression management 4. Self-esteem

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What is Self-Knowledge?

• Your response to the question: “Who am I?”

• The knowledge of one’s self and one’s properties

• Our beliefs about who we are and the way in which we formulate and organize this information

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A Demonstration… • You were asked to write down 20 statements that

best define who you are, in the form of: I am a _____________________.

• Now categorize these statements into:

1. Individual: characteristics, such as traits and abilities (e.g., “I am intelligent”, “I am tall”, “I am friendly”, “I am optimistic”)

2. Relational: social relationships, roles, group memberships (e.g., “I am African American”, “I am a sister”, “I am Stephanie’s partner”)

• Count the number of statements that you generated in each category

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A Demonstration…

Females only: How many of your statements were

‘individual’ in nature? • ‘A’ = 0-5 • ‘B’ = 5-10 • ‘C’ = 10-15 • ‘D’ = 15-20

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A Demonstration…

Males only: How many of your statements were


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A Demonstration…

Asian Americans only: How many of your statements were


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A Demonstration…

Caucasian Americans only: How many of your statements were


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A Demonstration…

People who grew up in a relatively rural area only:

How many of your statements were ‘individual’ in nature?

• ‘A’ = 0-5 • ‘B’ = 5-10 • ‘C’ = 10-15 • ‘D’ = 15-20

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A Demonstration…

People who grew up in an urban area only: How many of your statements were


W4.24

Self-Construals • Kuhn & McPartland (1954): The Twenty

Statements Test – A direct measure of an individual’s self-knowledge – Open-ended responses are content-coded according

to dimensions that correspond to: • Independent self-construal (individual)

– Traits and abilities (e.g., I am… intelligent, tall, friendly, optimistic)

• Interdependent self-construal (relational) – Social relationships, roles, group memberships (e.g., I am…

African American, a sister, Stephanie’s partner) – More statements in each respective category

indicate a higher score on that dimension

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Self-Construals

W4.26 Adapted from Markus & Kitayama (1991)

• Independent construal – Defining oneself in

terms of one’s own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions

– Not defining oneself in terms of the thoughts, feelings, and actions of other people

– More characteristic of Western cultures

Self-Construals

W4.27 Adapted from Markus & Kitayama (1991)

• Interdependent construal – Defining oneself in terms

of one’s relationships to other people

– Recognizing that one’s own behavior is often determined by the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others

– More characteristic of Eastern cultures

A Demonstration…

What would you say if asked: What is the relationship between attitudes

and behaviors?

• ‘A’ = Attitudes determine behaviors • ‘B’ = Behaviors determine attitudes

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A Demonstration…

• Which of the following statements most accurately describes the causal relationship between attitudes and behaviors?

• ‘A’ = My attitudes always determine my behaviors • ‘B’ = My behaviors always determine my attitudes • ‘C’ = My attitudes can sometimes determine my behaviors • ‘D’ = My behaviors can sometimes determine my attitudes • ‘E’ = C and D

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A Demonstration…

What would you say if asked: What is the relationship between attitudes

and behaviors?

• ‘A’ = Attitudes determine behaviors • ‘B’ = Behaviors determine attitudes

The influence of behaviors on attitude formation

is often underestimated W4.30

A Demonstration…

• Which of the following statements most accurately describes the causal relationship between attitudes and behaviors?

• ‘A’ = My attitudes always determine my behaviors • ‘B’ = My behaviors always determine my attitudes • ‘C’ = My attitudes can sometimes determine my behaviors • ‘D’ = My behaviors can sometimes determine my attitudes • ‘E’ = C and D

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Self-Perception Theory • Bem (1972) proposes that when attitudes

and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs – A counterintuitive account of attitude formation – Attitudes are not always induced from directly

accessing relevant cognitions and emotions

W4.32 Behavior informs attitudes

Self-Perception Theory

• Two central claims: 1. People come to know their

own attitudes, beliefs, and other internal states via inference from their own behavior and the surrounding circumstances

2. When internal cues are weak, the individual is in the same position as an outside observer in her reliance on external cues of behavior

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• Chaiken & Baldwin (1981) – In class, 99 students first completed a survey that

assessed their affective attitude towards being an environmentalist (i.e., how favorable or unfavorable)

• Students were ranked in terms of their favorable attitude – Then they rated the importance and value of being

an environmentalist (i.e., how important or unimportant)

• Students were ranked in terms of their perception of value – Calculated the absolute difference between each

student’s standing in the two rankings to create two groups…

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Self-Perception Theory • Chaiken & Baldwin (1981; con’t)

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Ranking on the perceived importance of environmentalism

Low (e.g., rank 98)

High (e.g., rank 2)

Ranking on affective attitude towards environmentalism

Low (e.g., rank

98)

Low discrepancy

High discrepancy

High (e.g., rank

2)

High discrepancy

Low discrepancy

People with strong &

consistent attitudes

People with strong & consistent attitudes People with weak &

inconsistent attitudes

People with weak &

inconsistent attitudes


• Chaiken & Baldwin (1981; con’t) – Two weeks later, students were exposed to an

experimental manipulation – 2 Conditions (IV): Made either past pro- or

anti-environment behavior salient • Pro-environment condition: “I occasionally pick up

other persons’ garbage and take it to the trash can”, “I occasionally carpool rather than drive separately”

• Anti-environment condition: “I frequently pick up other person’s garbage and take it to the trash can”, “I frequently carpool rather than drive separately”

W2.36


• Chaiken & Baldwin (1981; con’t) – Did making salient past pro-environment or anti-

environment behavior influence attitudes towards environmentalism?

– DV: Rated items that assess… • The extent to which they considered themselves to be

environmentalists (self-perception) • Their favorability (vs. unfavorability) towards being

an environmentalist (favorability) • The perceived value of environmentalism (value)

W2.37


• Chaiken & Baldwin (1981; con’t) – Results:

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People with strong & consistent attitudes

People with weak & inconsistent attitudes

Pro-environment

salient

Anti-environment

salient

Pro-environment

salient

Anti-environment

salient Self-perception 9.00 9.68 11.33 8.25 Favorability 29.13 28.72 31.25 26.38 Value 11.73 11.00 12.17 10.62

Non-significant difference between values in these two columns

Values are significantly higher among people with pro-environment salience


• Chaiken & Baldwin (1981; con’t) – Conclusions: – People who initially had weak and inconsistent

attitudes and for whom pro-environmentalism was made salient rated themselves as more pro-environmental and developed more positive attitudes towards pro-environmentalism

– Supports self-perception theory

W2.39

A Demonstration… • Would you work harder if your salary was

doubled? • ‘A’ = I’ll work harder • ‘B’ = I’ll work less hard

• If, a few months after the raise, your salary was

lowered back to what it was before the raise, how hard would you work compared to before the raise?

• ‘A’ = I’ll work harder than before the raise • ‘B’ = I’ll work equally hard as before the raise • ‘C’ = I’ll work less hard than before the raise

W4.40

Overjustification Effect

• When an external (extrinsic) incentive decreases or leads to the underestimation of a person’s intrinsic motivation to perform a task

W4.41

Overjustification Effect • Lepper, Greene, & Nisbett (1976)

– “Some new math games” were introduced to 4th and 5th graders in school

– In the next days, the math games were available for children to play with on their own during a 1-hour period each day

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– Three phases of observation: 1. Baseline phase (13 days): Unstructured play time

(no reward) 2. Reward phase (13days): Children were instructed:

– “You may play with any game you want to. Starting today, you will get 1 math level’s credit for every 3 hours you play with [a game].” Certificates and trophies were later presented to children in award assemblies

3. Withdrawal phase (13 days): The reward program was removed, but the math games were still available for children to play with if they chose to

The Overjustification Effect

W4.43

• Lepper, Greene, & Nisbett (1976; con’t) – What effects did the reward program and its

withdrawal have on the amount of time children spent playing the math games?

– DV: Time spent by each child play math games (in minutes)


W4.44

• Lepper, Greene, & Nisbett (1976; con’t)

Adapted from Lepper et al. (1976)


W4.45

• Lepper, Greene, & Nisbett (1976; con’t) – Conclusions: – The rewards had lowered children's intrinsic interest

in the games – Consistent with self-perception theory: Children

“watched” themselves, and inferred that they weren’t very intrinsically interested in the math games after all

– Rewards shift focus to external rewards rather than internal enjoyment of the activity


W4.46

• How can we preserve intrinsic interest? – Rewards will undermine interest only if interest

was initially high – Rewards will undermine interest if they are

substantial – Performance-contingent rewards (vs. task-

contingent rewards) are less damaging to intrinsic interest

Summary: The Self • William James’ theory of self proposes that the self

can be divided into two primary components: the “me” self and the “I” self

• Sense of self is not unique to humans, nor is it present at birth (instead emerging between ages 1.5-2 years)

• The content of the self, or self-knowledge, is influenced by a variety of factors, including culture (e.g., East vs. West), gender norms, local culture (e.g., urban city vs. rural town) – The dichotomy of independent vs. interdependent view of

self is among the most widely used distinctions for organizing differences between people

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Summary: The Self (con’t)

• One under-recognized yet fundamental way in which self-knowledge and attitudes develop and change is via self-perception – People form attitudes and opinions just form

observing their own external behavior, like a third-party observer would

– This process gives rise to diverse psychological phenomena, including the overjustification effect

W4.48

Chapter 6: The Need to Justify our Actions

Week 4

W4.49

A Demonstration… Your parents' 25th wedding anniversary is soon approaching. When your father asks you to help him choose a piece of jewelry for your mother's gift, you agree. He suggests browsing some Internet sites to avoid the hassle of running from store to store. While looking at a site containing a large selection of rings, bracelets, earrings, and necklaces, you and your father quickly find an expensive bracelet that, you both agree, your mother would love. You write down the toll-free telephone number displayed on the website and your father calls the company to order the piece. As your father speaks to the jewelry company's customer service representative, you are amazed to hear him provide a Post Office Box address and a phony name and credit card number. You ask him about it. He hesitates and then informs you that he really does have a Post Office Box and a credit card under a false identity. When he receives the gift, he explains, he will cancel both and never pay the bill. Because he uses a take name, the jewelry company will have no way of finding him. You ask your father if he has done this before and he replies, "Once or twice." Although you know that your parents have had financial trouble lately, you didn't realize that your father had to steal! Three weeks later, you see the joy on your father's face as your mother kisses him and thanks him for the beautiful gift.

W4.50

The Fox and the Grapes

W4.51

Any fool can despise what s/he

cannot get. -- Aesop

Cognitive Dissonance • Mental stress or discomfort

experienced by an individual who performs an action that runs counter to one’s customary (typically positive) conception of oneself – Holding contradictory beliefs,

ideas, or values – Or confronted by new

information that conflicts with existing internal states

W4.52

Leon Festinger (1919-1989)

Cognitive Dissonance • Principle of cognitive

consistency – People seek consistency in

our beliefs and attitudes in any situation where two cognitions are inconsistent

– The need for consistency is a powerful motivator that gives rise to irrational and sometimes maladaptive behavior

W4.53

Leon Festinger (1919-1989)

When Prophecy Fails • The Seekers believed

that extraterrestrial beings will rescue them before the cataclysm struck

• But… – The extraterrestrials

never arrived – Instead of becoming

disillusioned and quitting the group, the Seekers rationalized the event and their beliefs

– Their beliefs and commitments intensified

W4.54

Dorothy Martin (Marian Keech)

Three Ways to Reduce Dissonance

• Change behavior • Justify behavior by changing one of the

dissonant cognitions to restore consonance

• Justify behavior by adding new cognitions

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Three Ways to Reduce Dissonance

W4.56

Cognitive Dissonance • Festinger & Carlsmith (1959)

– Participants ostensibly took part in an experiment involving turning wood pegs repetitively for 1 hour (a very tedious motor task)

– Told that another co-experimenter had failed to show up for the next participants

– Offered a small salary to tell the next participant that the task is enjoyable and interesting

– After accepting money, participant then lied to the next participant how enjoyable the task had been

– 3 conditions (IV): Salary was $1, $20, or control (co-experimenter showed up, no money)

– DV: Rated “Were the tasks interesting and enjoyable?” on a scale ranging from -5 (extremely dull) to +5 (extremely interesting and enjoyable)

W4.57

Cognitive Dissonance

• Festinger & Carlsmith (1959) – Results:

W4.58


• Egan, Santos, & Bloom (2007): Child study (con’t) – Participants were 4-year-old children – Indicated their preference for different stickers

using a 6-level smiley-face rating scale

– Experimenter identified 3 stickers for which the child had equal liking, and labeled them: A, B, or C

W4.59

1 6

Liking:


• Egan, Santos, & Bloom (2007): Child study (con’t) – 2 conditions (IV):

• Choice: “Now, you get to choose a sticker [A or B] to take home.” Next, child was given a choice between the unchosen alternative and C (i.e., the novel yet equally preferred alternative)

• No-choice: “Now, I’m going to give you a sticker [A or B] to take home.” Then, child was given a choice between the unchosen alternative and C. In this condition, the child did not make an initial choice between A and B

W4.60

Cognitive Dissonance • Egan, Santos, & Bloom (2007): Capuchin study

– Participants were capuchin monkeys – Assessed their preference for M&M’s by timing how

long they took to retrieve individual M&M’s from a testing chamber

– Experimenter identified 3 colors of M&M’s that were equally preferred by each monkey, and labeled these colors: A, B, or C

W4.61

Cognitive Dissonance • Egan, Santos, & Bloom (2007): Capuchin study (con’t)

– 2 conditions (IV): • Choice: Each monkey was first presented with a choice

between two M&M colors (A or B) on separate trays. Then, a choice was made between the unchosen option and C, the novel yet equally preferred color

• No-choice: Monkey had no choice between the two initially presented options (A or B), which was instead decided by the experimenter. Then, the monkey was given a choice between the unchosen alternative and C

W4.62

Cognitive Dissonance • Egan, Santos, & Bloom (2007):

– Did the children and monkeys engage in cognitive-dissonance reduction, by changing their attitude?

– If they experienced dissonance in choosing one equally preferred item over the other (e.g., sticker B over A; M&M B over A), then they would change their attitude towards the unchosen item, liking it less because of their decision

– Subsequently, when they had a choice between it and another (originally equally preferred) option, they would choose the unchosen item less

– This effect should be unique to the choice condition, because in the no-choice condition, subjects were not given a choice between A & B (experimenter decided), and thus no dissonance was elicited, and by extension, no reduced liking of the un-received item

W4.63


• Egan, Santos, & Bloom (2007): Results

W4.64

Significant difference between the average % of choice in these

two conditions

Significant difference between the average % of choice in these

two conditions

Redu

ced

Liki

ng o

f the

U

ncho

sen/

Un-

Rece

ived

Opt

ion


• Egan, Santos, & Bloom (2007) – Conclusions: – Children and non-human primates shift their

attitudes to fall in line with their decisions – They changed their current preferences to fit with

their past decisions, in an attempt to justify their actions

– Results suggest that the cognitive processes that give rise to cognitive dissonance might be mechanistically simple and derive from evolutionarily ancient systems

W4.65

Summary: The Need to Justify our Actions

• People experience an overwhelming need to justify their actions

• The cognitive dissonance theory proposes that most people need to see themselves as intelligent, sensible, and decent being

• Dissonance elicits discomfort and tension, which can be restored via: – Changing behavior, changing cognitions, or rationalizing

our behavior (even at the expense of rational thinking)

W4.66

A Few Sample Midterm Questions

W4.67

How to Prepare for the Midterm Exam?

• Digest lecture slides and notes – This includes videos, activities, etc. – Lecture material supplement but do not replace or

cover all of the examinable textbook content • Read and understand assigned the assigned

chapters – Lots of important material not covered in lecture

due to time • Do practice questions at the end of every

chapter in the textbook

W4.68

Sample Midterm Question

1. What year was William James born?

A. 1945 B. 1977 C. 1842 D. 1910 E. None of the above

W4.69

A joke! You are not expected to know dates!

Sample Midterm Question 2. In a study of self-fulfilling prophecies, Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) found that some students did better than others. Which of the following explanations best account for their findings?

A. The researchers chose students who performed better on a pre-test

B. The researchers verbally convinced these students to try harder

C. The teachers paid more attention to these students D. These students’ parents helped more with their

homework E. B and C

W4.70

Sample Midterm Questions 3. Which of the following is most true about differences or similarities in beliefs about the self?

A. Taller people are more likely to believe in independence, shorter people are more likely to believe in interdependence

B. Women are more likely to believe in independence, men are more likely to believe in interdependence

C. People from Eastern cultures are more likely to believe in independence, people from Western cultures are more likely to believe in interdependence

D. People from Western cultures are more likely to believe in independence, people from Eastern cultures are more likely to believe in interdependence

W4.71

Sample Midterm Questions 4. Which of the following is NOT a perfect example of cognitive dissonance? A. As a child you had your heart set on becoming a pilot. Unfortunately,

you have uncorrectable poor vision, and cannot become a pilot. Afterwards, you decide that you wouldn’t be able to handle the stress of being a pilot

B. After purchasing a new computer, you notice that it is slower than you expected. You are not happy with your purchase, and tell your friends not to buy the same computer

C. Your favorite sports team wins the championship, but your car window was broken by fans celebrating. You find that the next year you don’t support your team as much

D. You make a New Year’s resolution to go to the gym three times per week, but have been traveling for work regularly so could only go twice per week. You remind yourself that it’s not how often you go that matters, it’s how intense your workouts are

E. B and D

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To-Do List for Next Week…

• Bring scantron & pencil • Study for the midterm exam (February 2nd) • Check updated syllabus • Prepare for next lecture after the midterm

– Read Chapter 7 (Attitudes)

W4.73

Documents

The Social Animal (P104S) Week 4sites.uci.edu/socialanimalwinter2015/files/2015/01/... · The Social Animal (P104S) Week 4 W4.2 . ... • One’s identity in a social situation 3